16 REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS A refrigeration system lowers the temperature of the fluid being cooled below that possible when using air for water at ambient conditions. A typical building air conditioner cools air to a temperature of 10-15°C. At the other end of the scale is the liquefaction of helium at -268°C. The temperature produced depends on the goal of the exercise. If the goal is to produce marketable liquids, basic economics controls the temperature specified, If it is to meet a hydrocarbon dew point, that specification sets forth the required temperature, Several basic processes will be discussed herein. 1, Absorption refrigeration 3. Expansion across a turbine 2. Compression refrigeration 4, Expansion across a valve AMMONIA ABSORPTION SYSTEM Figure 16.1 shows a flowsheet for a refrigeration system utilizing using two concentrations of ammo- nia-water solutions. ‘The basic driving force is the heat input to the generator. Ammonia vapor is stripped from the water solutions in the rectifier or stripper. This ammonia vapor is condensed and passes through a receiver, a heat exchanger (optional) and across an expansion valve into the evaporator or chiller. Here it vaporizes while cooling the fluid to be chilled. ie varon i veo i eae sa wen Wiste—“foem ve cra STG AGUA song sa We Aa aun re Figure 16.1 Flow Sheet of an Ammonia Absorption System CHAPTER 16 239REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS ‘The ammonia vapor from the evaporator is absorbed in a weak ammonia-water solution. ‘The result is a strong solution. The ammonia is removed from this strong solution in the generator to begin its cycle all over again. Circulation of the strong solution is usually performed with vertical multi-stage pumps. One can write selected energy balances around this system to determine loading at various points. The starting point is the evaporator. First, determine the total H required to chill the fluid to its desired tempera- ture. This is the heat load in the evaporator. ‘The heat absorbed by the ammonia per unit mass is governed by evaporator pressure or temperature, ‘The AH is the enthalpy of a saturated ammonia vapor at evaporator conditions minus the enthalpy of the entering ammonia, which should be a saturated or subcooled liquid. ‘A series of such balances, and an overall balance, enable one to determine sizes and energy loads of each component part. Table 16.1 summarizes the typical loadings for the ammonia system in Figure 16.1.6!) TABLE 16.1 Utilities Requirements for Ammonia Absorption System Evap. temp. °F 20 | ‘Steam pressure, psia 52 | 1031 ‘Steam sat. temp, “F (or waste heat exit temp.) ais | 330 Generator heat required Bruimin/TR su ‘Steam rate, bd /TR 341 ‘Water rate thru cond, d& absorber, gpm/TR 85°F on 105°F off 35 GGeneratr's steam sat. emp. ‘F, exit temp. Steam pressure, sia GGenerstorhest required Beuimin/TR ‘Steam rate, Ib /TR ‘Water required thr cond. & sbsorber, spavTR 87°F on 105°F off Evap. temp. °F F -30_| 3s ‘Steam pressure, kPa 601.0 | 734.1 ‘Steam sat. temp, °C (or waste beat exit emp.) 1589 | 167 Generator heat required KIn/TR sz | on Steam rate, kgVTR : 159 | 180 ‘Water ate thru cond. & abtor- er, yTR 29°C on, 41°C off, 128 | at Generators steam sat. temp. °C, exit em, wos | no | us | 120 | ‘Steam pressure, kPa 1206 | 14227 | 1686 | 198.7 Genertor heat required Kim/TR s00 | a | a1 | 903 Steam rate, kgIvTR aia | 226 | 241 | 257 ‘Water requited thru cond, & absorber, m’/ivTR 31°C on, 41°C off, 240 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULES Pl aah eee eee eed etd ttl Peete eeeCOMPRESSION REFRIGERATION ‘The heat for the generator may be obtained from any one of four sources: (1) low pressure steam, (2) fired heater, (3) a hot process stream and (4) waste heat. Since heat loads are large, the availability of (3) or (4) increases the economic attractiveness of this system. ‘Water cooling is shown for the condenser and absorber but air cooling may be used. As with all refrigeration systems, the higher the cooling temperatures the greater will be the net energy load. Evaporator temperatures down to about ~S0°C [-S8°F] are practical. Units have been designed with capacities to about 35 MW [10 000 tons of refrigeration (TR)]. The unit is simple and has few moving parts to maintain. Ammonia solutions are not difficult to handle metallurgically. A major psychological problem is ammonia smell. In a confined space this can be a nuisance. How- ever, the pungent odor is a safety item that immediately confirms leaks. Ammonia systems are generally competitive with compression systems in initial cost. Operating cost comparisons are dependent on the source of heat and the cost of cooling. If the economics are competitive, they are a viable altemative to compression systems for producing refrigeration. COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION Figure 16.2 shows the simplest compression refrigeration system. Saturated liquid at Point A expands across a valve (isenthalpically). On expansion some vaporization occurs. The mixture of refrigerant vapor and liquid enters the chiller at 3-6°C (5-10°F] lower than temperature to which the process stream is to be cooled. The liquid vaporizes. Leaving at Point C is a saturated vapor at the P and T of the chiller. This vapor is compressed and then enters the condenser as a supetheated vapor. COMPRESSOR CHILLER 1 ~ B [ expansion PA oe WIE CONDENSER IRSESESSEI| AcouMULaTor Figure 16.2 Flow Sheet of a Simple Refrigeration System ‘The refrigerant must leave the condenser as a saturated liquid or slightly subcooled. Nothing happens in the accumulator. It merely serves as a reservoir for refrigerant as levels vary in the chiller(s) and con- denser. Figure 16.3 is a more complex cycle composed of the same type of equipment. Assuming two stages of compression, a second expansion valve and a separator are added. This system will require less power per unit of heat load in the chiller. The reason? Part of the circulation rate is only compressed through one stage and the refrigerant entering the chiller contains less vapor. The vapor passing through the chiller does virtu- ally no cooling, even though it contributes to compression cost. CHAPTER 16 2atREFRIGERATION SYSTEMS 1ST COMPRESSION 2ND COMPRESSION ‘Stage ‘STAGE _ Process sKEAN See) ayomen i f CoS expansion EXPANSION, (CONDENSER cu X oa eee susan ane {(EOONOMIZER) ‘ACCUMULATOR Figure 16.3 Flow Sheet of a Refrigeration System with an Economizer The separator could be called an economizer, a word that applies to any device ~ usually a heat exchanger ~ that reduces net utility consumption. A separator-choke combination can be provided between each stage of separation, regardless of the number of stages. ‘One also can add a heat exchanger in the suction line to the compressor to exchange heat between the vapor from the chiller and the liquid to the choke preceding the chiller. This exchanger also could be called an economizer. Calculation of a Simple System There are several discrete steps in the sizing of the system shown in Figure 16.2. These are summa- rized below: 1, Determination of refrigerant circulation rate - ‘The balance at right is around the chiller and ex- —c pansion valve. At Point A the refrigerant is a satu- rated liquid (or very close to it). At Point C it is a \ saturated vapor. Qc is the heat load determined by a, ‘ } specifications on the stream being cooled. —————— ] If one writes an energy balance around the system, Qc+ maha = mche. But my = mg = m, s0 tt: m = Qolthe=ha) (16.1) Metric English Where: Qc = chiller heat load dikg Buu hhg = saturated vapor enthalpy idikg Bub hq = saturated liquid enthalpy dike Bru/lb m = cireulation rate kgls Tbe 2 Determination of Comptessor Power - ‘This is done by any appropriate method outlined in . aA Chapter 15. One will calculate theoretical (isen- 7 tropic) work and use an efficiency to find actual } work, The circulation rate from Step (1) is used, See se o w 242, VOLUME THE EQUIPMENT MODULESCOMPRESSION REFRIGERATION 3. Determination of Condenser Heat Load (Qj) - There are two ways to do this. Knowing Qc and & W, you can write an overall balance as shown in / AY _b Figure 16.2 to find Qu. If you are performing the calculation manually and wish an independent check of the previous work, cae write the balance shown at right. Qu = m (ha ~hp) (16.2) ‘The Q, found from Equation 16.2 will be negative. This merely signifies that heat is leaving the system. The value found from the overall balance will not check the condenser balance exactly because only part of the compressor inefficiency shows up in the refrigeration system. For practical purposes, the differ- ence is trivial Determination of the Enthalpies ‘The calculation requires one to find the enthalpy per unit mass at Points A,B and C. This can be done from a computer routine. Convenient tables and figures are available for all of the common commercial refrigerants. Appendix B at the end of this volume contains data on substances used as refrigerants. Appen- dix 16A at the end of this chapter contains pressure-enthalpy (P-H) figures for propane and Refrigerant 22 (a Freon) as well as vapor pressure and physical property information on all common refrigerants. The P-H diagram is very convenient for solving the energy balance for a simple system, 8 ‘The left-hand figure is a representation of the P-H diagrams in Appendix 16A. The refrigerant is all liquid to the left of the saturated liquid curve; it is two-phase inside the saturation curve and all vapor to the right of the saturated vapor curve. The lines of constant temperature are horizontal between the saturated ‘vapor and liquid curves and then rise almost vertically in the liquid section. ‘The calculation process starts by choosing the temperature of Point A. Will water, air or some other stream be used for condensation of the refrigerant? What temperature can we realistically achieve in the condenser? That is Point A. It is on the liquid saturation curve, since it leaves the condenser as a liquid. ‘What is the temperature at Points B and C? Normally, it will be 3-6°C less than the minimum desired temperature for the fluid being cooled. This approach fixes the location of Point C. It is on the saturated ‘vapor curve, since it is in equilibrium with the liquid in the chiller (evaporator). The expansion across the choke from Point A is an isenthalpic process; a vertical line on a P-H diagram. Draw-a vertical line from A to B, the pressure of Point C, and then go horizontally to C. One can read the Ah required for Equation 16.1 CHAPTER 16 43REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS ‘The theoretical compression is isentropic. Starting at Point C, parallel the constant entropy lines until you intersect the pressure line of Point A. This is theoretical Point D. Wiheor = (tm) (hp ~ be) Equation 16.2 for condenser heat load is found from the Ah between Points D and A. For a commercially pure refrigerant, use of a P-H diagram or a corresponding table is as reliable as any method. The economizer system shown in Figure 16.3 can be calculated in the same manner, ‘The P-H diagram is shown at left. Point E is at fa pressure that allows the compression ratio to be the same in each stage of compression. Expansion from A. to Eis isenthalpic. The vapor formed goes to the sec- ‘ond stage of compression as a saturated vapor. The saturated liquid leaving the separator is expanded isen- thalpically to pressure B. Notice that the Ah available from B to C for this system is larger than for the sim- ple system. Calculation of Economizer Systems Determination of circulation rate, work and Qy for the system in Figure 16.3 follows the same pattern as for the simplest system. The first step is the same in principle. Now, however, the enthalpy of the refrigerant entering the choke is determined by compressor interstage pressure and not by condenser pressure. With this change in hha, Equation 16.1 may be solved for "mp," the circulation rate to the chiller (and the amount of gas to be compressed through Stage 1 of the compressor). 4 What is the circulation rate through the con- denser? Itis"m," where m= my + my, If you write the balance shown at left, mh = mh, +myhy Since m = my + my, one can take m = 1.0 and then ™ define x and y as the relative amounts of liquid and tae vapor, respectively, from the separator. Then, hy=h h=xh+(-xhy or x (16.3) hy—h, ‘The three enthalpies can be obtained, which enables one to solve for "x," and then "y." Knowing these relative quantities and m,, m and my may be calculated. In the compressor work calculation, one finds the work in the first stage (for flow rate "m,") and adds it to second stage work (for flow rate "m") to find total work. The resultant temperature of the gases after they mix in the tee between stages may be found by a balance around that tee. In most cases, the temperature effect here is negligible. ‘The condenser heat load is found as before. 244 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULESCOMPRESSION REFRIGERATION If one places a heat exchanger to exchange heat as shown, an extra balance is needed. The cold vapor will subcool the satu- rated liquid from A and there will be less vaporization upon ex- pansion across the valve. However, the gas will go to the compressor at a higher temperature and lower pressure. Is the investment worthwhile? Only a calculation will tell. One might add the heat exchanger shown to the system in Figure 16.3. Calculation of Chiller Load (Qc) The refrigeration load must be calculated from the specifications on the system in’which the chiller is placed, Figure 16.4 shows a simple system using glycol injection to inhibit hydrate formation. Le Auxiliary Glycol Injection Equipment Gas 10 Gas Heat Exchanger Chiller Separator {Glycol Flood Drum Giycol Regenerator Glycol Pump mmpopE Figure 16.4 Schematic View of a Compression Refrigeration System Using Glycol Injection ‘The first step in the design is to fix the temperature (T3) in the low temperature separator (LTS). The pressure in the LTS must be high enough above the specified sales pressure to allow for pressure drop in the HEX and lines, The minimum temperature coming to the HEX is fixed by the economics of precooling the feed stream. The maximum sales gas temperature is usually fixed by contract and is seldom allowed to exceed 50°C [122°F]. Consequently, the heat load between P,, T; and P3, T, is fixed by these considerations. The problem revolves around the distribution of this load between the HEX and the refrigerated chiller. For this calculation, it is convenient to assume a 34 kPa [5 psi] drop in each heat exchanger. The following general procedure is suggested if the HEX and chiller are to be sized as part of the exercise. 1. Determine the amount and composition of vapor and liquid at Ty, Py and T3, P3, (Don’t forget the water and glycol.) 2. Calculate the total AH between points 1 and 3 (Hy and Hs). 3. Calculate the cooling capacity for the sales gas in the gas-to-gas exchanger (Hg — Hy), Ts should be fixed at (Tj ~ 5°C) or the contractual maximum temperature, whichever is lower. 4, Calculate the chiller duty, Qo, by difference Qe = (Hy — Hy) - (Hy — He) CHAPTER 16 248REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS 5. Perform a series of flashes on the feed stream at temperatures and pressures between points 1 and 3. Plot AH versus T. Using Ts, Hy and Tg, Hg plot AH versus T for the residue gas. O ® T ) o-~2 [— Que to as8 —+—Q ont} AH ‘This graph is used to determine the temperatures necessary for sizing heat exchangers. It may be generated by hand using the procedure outline previously or developed by computer simulation. The cold liquid from the LTS is also available for cooling service since usually it must be heated before entering the fractionation system. Although not shown in Figure 14.7, it may be used for cooling the feed or for any other cooling function within the system. If this liquid is not heated, a cold-feed stabilizer of the type discussed in Chapter 17 might be specified, Specification of Liquid Separation Temperature The desired temperature of the gas-liquid stream leaving the chiller must be determined by the strategy governing the system. If hydrocarbon dew point control is primary and liquid recovery secondary, this tem- perature should be about 3-5°C [5-9°F] below the temperature required to achieve the specified dewpoint. ‘This required temperature may be significantly colder than the specified dewpoint if the gas is processed at high pressure. If liquid recovery is the primary function of the unit, what products are salable? ‘The basic strategy is to condense the least amount of nonsalable components (usually methane or ethane) compatible with the economics. Anything condensed, like methane, that must be revaporized and maybe recompressed, adds to the operating costs without contributing to liquid revenue. For a given set of specifications, one should investigate a series of LTS separator pressures and tem- peratures. The pressure for maximum liquid recovery is between 3.0-4.0 MPa [435-580 psia], if propanes plus are the salable product. As the pressure increases, condensation of methane increases. However, 3.0-4.0 MPa [435-580 psia] may not be the optimum pressure economically because of system logistics. The opti mum pressure must minimize total system cost, not merely that of the refrigeration system alone. As a general rule, separation is carried out at necessary sales gas pressure to eliminate recompression. For the usual pressures chosen, what is a reasonable temperature? As noted before, this depends on the products desired. If the liquid product is to be stable at atmospheric pressure and sold as “crude oil," a ‘common optimum separation temperature is 0-5°C (32-40°F]. When propane is the lightest salable liquid, the temperature may be ~40 to -18°C [-40°F to O°F]. This temperature depends on the recovery desired and whether absorption or adsorption is combined with refrigeration, Below about -40°C [40°F] you get into the cryogenic range for ethane recovery. Choice of temperature (and pressure) is a critical specification. Do not choose arbitrarily? Calculate the economics for a series of conditions and choose the optimum one. 246 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULESCOMPRESSION REFRIGERATION Choice of Refrigerant ‘The ideal refrigerant is nontoxic, noncorrosive, has PVT and physical properties compatible with the system needs, and has a high latent heat of vaporization. Any material could be used as a reftigerant. The practical choice reduces to one which has desirable physical properties and will vaporize and condense at reasonable pressures, at the temperature levels desired. The usual choice is propane, ammonia, R-12 or R-22 at chiller temperatures above about 40°C. At cryogenic conditions, ethylene and methane might be used. In general, the lower practical limit of any refrigerant is its atmospheric pressure boiling point. It is desirable to carry some positive pressure on the chiller to obtain better efficiency in the compressor, reduce equipment size and avoid air induction into the system. Table 16.2 furnishes an excellent comparison of the common refrigerants. Consider, for example, a unit where the evaporator (chiller) operates at -18°C [0°F] and the condenser at 35°C [95°F]. Ammonia requires the lowest mass circulation rate, but propylene and propane have slightly lower horsepower require- ‘ments. This table also illustrates the effect of condensing temperatures on horsepower and circulation needs. Raising the condensing temperature 17°C [31°F] increases horsepower requirements about 60% for propane and 43% for ammonia, There are two morals ~ (1) use the lowest temperature possible for condensing to ‘minimize cost; and (2) if higher condensing temperatures are required, ammonia might be preferable to pro- pane, Ammonia is seldom chosen because of emotional reactions to its odor. However, it is easy to handle in ordinary steel equipment containing no copper and brass and is really less dangerous than propane because of its pungent odor. No dangerous accumulation can build up unnoticed. Propane is by far the most popular refrigerant in the gas processing applications. It is readily available (often manufactured on-site), inexpensive and has a "good" vapor pressure curve. It is flammable but this is not a significant problem if proper consideration is given to the design and operation of the facility. Freons are widely used as commercial refrigerants. They are non-toxic and nonflammable, CFC (Chlorofluorocarbon) refrigerants like R-11 and R-12 are being phased out due to environmental problems. HCFC refrigerants (Chlorofluorocarbons containing at least one hydrogen) are currently considered environ- mentally acceptable. R-22 is the most popular although other HCFC’s are being developed as replacements for R-11 and R-12. Freons are expensive and system losses can represent a significant operating cost. They are also difficult to ship to remote locations in large quantities. Certain freons will form hydrates so it is, necessary to Keep the system dry. Compressor choice is linked to refrigerant choice as well as other considerations. Where weight and size are particularly important, a centrifugal or a screw compressor may be used. A reciprocating compressor is an excellent alternative for accessible land locations. The choice will depend on total power requirements, ‘Regardless of the choice, the controls must accommodate frequent, and sudden, load changes. As gas stream flow rate and/or composition changes, so will refrigerant circulation rate. Thus, some form of speed control is often desirable. In many cases, electric motors make an ideal driver when compressor specifica~ tions are compatible with motor characteristics. Effect of Temperature on Cost Figure 16.5 shows the approximate relative effect of temperature on compression reftigeration cost. It emphasizes the previous statement that one should use the highest temperature compatible with the goals of the installation. I keep emphasizing this because: too many persons buy a “standard” unit without much thought about the temperature level needed. This may be a waste of money. ‘The inset to Figure 16.5 shows the refrigerant often used at various temperature levels. ‘The tempera- ture levels are approximate. Actually, the refrigerant used at a given level depends on economics, which will vary in different circumstances. CHAPTER 16 247SHINGOW LINAWdINOT FHL *Z AINTOA TABLE 16.2 Comparison of Common Refrigerants “ 958 | 126 mm | mat wi | 176 e7_| 105 18 268 216 12 a8 210 331 163 168 “2 265 400 320 202 331 482 386 246 kPa:_Ammonia 1357, Propylene 1461; Propane 1220; Freon 12 kg efrigrant per ‘minute per ton of, refrigeration 0200 | 0.199 830 | osi2 053 | 0.830 205 | 2.00 0.197 0.798 0.307 1.96 0.196 0.740 0.799 191 0.195 a6 ons 1.87 0.193 0733 0.736 1.84 ‘Brake horsepower per ton of refrigeration 20 | 2761 20 | 235 261 | 232 286 | 247 2.08 2.06 2.03, 178 174 Ls 1.83 130 146 149 135 1.26 120 1247 1.30 Kilowatt per to of refrigeration 209 | 1.80 zor | 17 199 | urs 23 | 184 155 134 1st 1. 133 130 13 137 112 108 uu 116 0940 0.895 092s 0970 in kPa: _Ammonia 2088; Propylene 2164; Propane 1782; Freon 12 keg refrigerant per minute per ton of, refrigeration o2i7 | ois 103 | 101 107 | 106 2a1_| 2.40 0213 0.980 101 233 oan 0987 0.980 20 0210 0934 0953 221 0200 0912 092s 2s Brake horsepower per ton of refiigration sar | 333 au | 3.66 405 | 359 4is_| 367 292 333 254 29 281 278 219 241 243 241 190 208, 207 201 Kilowatt per ton of, refrigeration es | 248 300 | 273 2.68 274 189 208 210 207 16 1.80 1st 1.80 142 1st 154 154 SIWALSAS NOLLVATORITTL91 WALAVHO ore TABLE 16.2(a) ‘Comparison of Common Refrigerants Evaporator Temy 5 10 o 10 13 | 237 sai | 390 ass | 33 1s3_| 192 304 480 381 2a 385 464 ws ‘Ammonia 197; Propyl lene 212: Propane 177 Pounds of refrigerant per minote per ton of refrigeration ase | 435 19 | 176 ass | 178 4a_| 432 4 Lm 14 42 9 169 im 43, a4 1.63 1.63 395 (CFM of efigerant per minute per ton of refrigeration 64s | 5.0 sas | 474 129 | s79 ws_| asz 3.96 aa an 679 33 au 387 347 4a 208 22 259 363 [Brake horsepower per ton of eeigeration 2a | 208 23s | 206 a2 | 203 2ar_| a4 178 1m 175 1.83 130 146 149 ss 2 120 Lae 130 hus 1.00 Lo 1.06 ‘Ammonia 303; Propyl lene 314; Propane 250; Freon 12 184 Pounds of refeigerant per minute per ton of refrigeration ana | 460) 22 | 216 229 | 22 s28__| su 466 aut 216 5.00 463 2.06 487 460 201 208 135 AST 197 199 404 ‘CFM of refrigerant et ton of refrigeration 697 | 540 585 720 104 426 an 54 805 an 308 379 sai 219 2.60 3d 425 [Bake horsepower per ton of refrigeration 292 323 320 254 279 281 278 1.90 208 207 200 1.63 NOLLVUTORITTA NOISSTAAIVODREFRIGERATION SYSTEMS 100 10,000 ‘TEMPERATURE, OF 0 100 200 =300 +400 500 5,000 1,000 500 100 50 RELATIVE COST OF REFRIGERATION (COOLING WATER = 1.0) 10 Temperature Refrigerant Anbient Cooling Water =40°C Propane q 101 Ethylene 157 Methane 7196 Nitrogen 251 Hydrogen 268 Helium a) 100 150 +200 =250 TEMPERATURE - °¢ Figure 16.5 Relative Cost of Refrigeration Compared to the Cost of Cooling with Water at Ambient Conditions 250 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULESCOMPRESSION REFRIGERATION Cascade Refrigeration ‘When refrigeration must be provided at very low temperatures < -40°C [-40°F], cascade refrigeration systems are sometimes used. Cascade systems employ m several levels. A propane cascade system is shown below. jore than on refrigerant and provide refrigeration at Ls ure = | rs "sai e “ews Courtesy ors Daabook In this system, reftigeration is provided at five levels PC [44°F] 20°C [4°F] 40°C [40°F] 61°C [-18°F] 84°C [-120°F] The propane at ~40°C is used to condense the ethane refrigerant. All of the heat picked up in the process is ultimately rejected to the cooling water at the propane condenser. A hypothetical cooling curve for the process fluid has been devel- oped to show the amounts and levels of refrigera- tion, Hii Temperature, °F 3304080 , MMBtu/hr 70 CHAPTER 16 281SP ete ett eee eee ere ee 1 et tt tet tet REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS Cascade refrigeration systems are not common in gas processing. Low level refrigeration is typically provided using expansion or mixed refrigerants. Mixed Refrigerants An alternative to cascade refrigeration is to use a mixed refrigerant. Mixed refrigerants are a mixture of two or more components. ‘The light components lower the evaporation temperature and the heavier com- ponents allow condensation at ambient temperatures. The evaporation process takes place over a temperature range rather than at a constant temperature as with pure component refrigerants. This is illustrated in the P-H diagram below for a mixed refrigerant. The mixed refrigerant is blended so that its evaporation curve matches the cooling curve for the proc- ess fluid. Heat transfer occurs in a countercurrent exchanger, probably aluminum plate-fin, rather than a kettle-type chiller. Mixed refrigerants have the advantage of better thermal efficiency, because refrigeration is always being provided at the warmest possible temperature. ‘The amount of equipment is also reduced compared to a cascade system. Disadvantages include a ‘more complex design and the tendency for the heavier components to concentrate in the chiller unless the refrigerant is totally vaporized, The use of mixed refrigerants is very common in low temperature gas proc- cessing today and is standard practice in large LNG plants. EXPANSION TURBINE REFRIGERATION This has become a popular unit because of low relative cost and simplicity. The final temperature achieved at the outlet depends on the pressure ratio, the amount of liquid produced and the amount of actual work removed. In most cases to date, the maximum possible AT has been achieved, since cryogenic recovery ‘was the goal — from ethane recovery through total liquefaction. Actually, expanders offer applications at higher temperatures than the minimum achievable. If only propanes plus are to be recovered, there is no need to go to -70°C, even though one can achieve it. Excess methane and ethane are produced, which must be revaporized and maybe recompressed. It may be more economical to use the expander work output to produce electricity in some cases than for recompression. Expanders have become very popular for hydrocarbon dewpoint control where outlet temperatures are fre- quently greater than -30°C [-22°F]. 252 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULES:NE EXPANSION TURBINE REFRIGERATION One alternative is to send only part of the stream across the expander; the rest can be expanded across ‘a valve. These parallel streams can then be commingled prior to separation. ‘The proportion of gas through ‘each parallel line can be controlled to produce the desired outlet temperature. For an expander, Wace = (B) (mn) (ha = Bye (16.4) Where: E ficiency (isentropic), expressed as a fraction m = mass flow rate The first step is to find theoretical work by one of the methods of Chapter 15. The value of hy is found by trial-and-error by assuming a temperature so that 5) = sz, This involves assumption of the theoreti- cal Tp, running a flash and proceeding until the entropy check is obtained. ‘The true outlet temperature will be higher than the above theoretical temperature because actual work output is less than theoretical work output. (hy —Byace = (E) (ha ~ By eveor (16.5) So, Wace = m (h2— hae (16.6) ‘The efficiency may be estimated from Figure 16.8, but 80% is a good planning number. ‘The procedure for refrigeration is the same as the outlined above (and in Chapter 15), Once actual work has been found, one knows actual Ah. Since hj can be calculated from inlet composition, P) and Ty, hy can be calculated. By trial-and-error one finds T that corresponds to P, and the hy for the two-phase mixture leaving the expander. ‘As part of the process calculation, one will know (or spec- ify) P}, Pz, T, the inlet volumetric flow rate (qi), and composi- i 2 tion. The general process is trial-and-error because enthalpy and eta P entropy are explicit in T and P. The process is as follows: 1. From Pj and Tj, calculate hy and sy. 2. Assume a value of T. 3, Runa flash calculation at the assumed T and known P» to establish if liquid is formed. 4, Calculate h and sp, (If the outlet is two-phase, these will be total stream values as shown in Chapter 8.) 5. If 52 from (4) equals s}, you have assumed the right temperature. If not, repeat Steps 2-4 until s 6. Once s9 = 5}, hy ~ hy = Ah for the isentropic process. 7. Calculate Ah (actual): Abc = (E)(Abiheo.) 8. Calculate actual power output using standard techniques discussed earlier for compressors. This procedure is straight forward if one has a value for E, the isentropic efficiency. This will be discussed in a later section. Since the above calculation process begins with the guess of a temperature, what represents a good first guess? Equation 16.7 may provide a good guessing value, even though it is based on ideal gases and assumes no liquid formation. CHAPTER 16 253REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS Trp, | T%=T)+T, (#7) - |e (16.7) Where: absolute temperature in consistent units P= absolute pressure in consistent units k= 1)/k isentropic efficiency If one has an enthalpy diagram of the fluid involved that includes P, T, and s, one can follow a constant entropy line to do the same thing Expander Performance ‘There are four basic types of expanders as shown in Figure 16.6. The impulse type is where all of the pressure drop occurs in the nozzles. In the reaction type, up to 50% of the drop occurs in the blades. The axial type is a series of blades while the radial type is more nearly a wheel. worms vous <= 0 L = euaoes Reactic Impulse . et 4 rt. Radial Flow Outward Axial Flow Radial Flow Inward Figure 16.6 General Types of Expansion Turbines ‘There are many factors affecting choice. Is liquid condensed in the expander? Liquid possesses dy- namic force that can damage the rotating element severely. More rugged construction is necessary with liquid present and it should be discharged without direct impingement on rotating elements. It is undesirable to have liquid or solids in the inlet stream. ‘The question of liquid formation is an important one. Some talk about a certain percentage of liquid “in the turbine.” There is good reason to believe that a kind of nonequilibrium process occurs in the turbine proper at high flow rates. An equilibrium gas-liquid mixture only occurs in the outlet. So ... it is feasible to believe that most of the liquid forms just downstream of the wheel and does not interact with the wheel proper, Initially, we can expect any liquid formed to be of submicron size. Although I cannot prove the above, there is much indirect evidence to support it. Many of our expand- ers in low temperature service are of the single-stage, radial inflow type. They are producing liquid in virtually all cases. If there were much liquid within the turbine wheel proper, the denser liquid would be 234 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULESPOEL eee Tt tee Ee OL EXPANSION TURBINE REFRIGERATION centrifuged outward, which would lead to lower efficiencies than we note because of flow distortions. Also, wheel erosion could be significant. How much liquid can be handled? Some claim that the exit gas can contain up to 20% liquid. This can only be determined by experience. Certainly 10% is being accommodated and 20% is not unreasonable. Figure 16.7 shows a cross-section of an expander directly driving a centrifugal compressor, one way to Toad it. ‘VARIBLE LOW CONTROL = [IPANOER DISCHARGE COMPRESSOR ET Came] Courtesy Rotoflow Corp. Figure 16.7 Efficiency of Expansion Turbines as a Function of Specific Speed Estimation of Expander Efficiency ‘The best way to estimate efficiency is from actual performance data. It is difficult to correlate efficiency data because many factors affect actual performance. As with rotating compressors, normal manufacturing tolerances can affect performance measurably. Erosion can alter the shape of a wheel and thus efficiency. The presence of liquids likewise may have a dramatic effect. For all of these reasons, there may be a significant error in the estimated efficiency. In correlating efficiency data, one may use the basic similarity parameters governing all turbomachin- ery. It appears that correlation of E versus specific speed (N,) is realistic. Figure 16.8 shows such a correla tion based on data from several sources, including Reference 16.2. CHAPTER 16 255ee REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS Full Admission Axial Turbine Isentropic Efficiency, E Specific Speed, Ny Figure 16.8 Efficiency of Expansion Turbines as a Function of Specific Speed Specific speed is one of the criteria for determining performance. It was discussed previously in the centrifugal pump section. The basic equation for expanders is: N@* 8 yan ass Where: = shaft speed = isentropic Ah turbine exhaust volume conversion factor pe kz i Itis apparent from Figure 16.8 that specific speed should be above 70 to achieve maximum efficiency. For a radial inflow turbine, the optimum E is for a specific speed between 70 and 100. However, this is not always possible because of the limitation in sizes of expanders available and other parameters which affect performance. Figure 16.8 is for expanders where the amount of liquid formed is minimal. How much does liquid affect efficiency? This depends on where, and how, it was formed. I have seen data on steam turbines where predicted efficiency was about double actual efficiency when too much liquid was formed in an axial turbine. In the early planning stages, flow rates and gas compositions are rather inexact. Potential errors in both indirectly affect predicted efficiency. Some use a planning efficiency about 10% lower than that pre- dicted by a correlation like Figure 16.7. I prefer a simulation calculation that recognizes the uncertainty and uses several values of E, to see what effect it has on those parts of the system depending on turbine perform- ance. Obviously, E affects outlet temperature, gas-liquid ratio and the composition of both fluids which, in tum, affects all downstream equipment. 1 believe that picking one "magic" number is unrealistic. 256 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULESVALVE EXPANSION REFRIGERATION Other Performance Criteria In addition to specific speed there are other parameters affecting expander performance. Specific di- ameter is one of these, defined by the equation =) ayiany)% itt @ ae English ‘Where: d = turbine diameter m ft ‘Ah = isentropic Ah Khe Bru/lb q = turbine outlet volume m/s fP/sec A = conversion factor 31 778 The d, shown above is a dimensionless number and would be the same when using both metric and English units. This was done to facilitate use of existing relationships between d, and N,. For natural gas processing the specific diameter should be approximately 1.2 to 1.4 to achieve maximum efficiency. This is a useful number for estimating impeller size and shaft speed. Another parameter is the relative Mach number, which is simply the ratio of velocity at turbine dis- charge conditions to the speed of sound at the same conditions. Sometimes this ratio is replaced by the ratio PyPp. The fourth parameter is a Reynolds number defined by the equation Und H (16.10) Where: Uz = tip speed d = wheel diameter = kinematic viscosity Any consistent set of units that makes Re dimensionless may be used. ‘The problem of the machinery specialist is to choose a machine that fits the system data supplied. Of these parameters, specific speed is the basic parameter of mutual concern between the various specialists involved. VALVE EXPANSION REFRIGERATION This is a relatively simple system used in production systems where a pressure drop is available and very low temperatures are not required. Figure 16.9 shows two versions of what are commonly called LTS or LTX systems. PRESSURE DROP ACROSS VALVE Pressure drop across a valve (choke) is an isenthalpic process, as noted previously. If no liquid forms, the following equation applies: [.(8v 1 ITrer| 7¥t L Passat | oT =|— 1 u (er, en (16. CHAPTER 16 257nnn I OEE REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS SALES GAS \seranaron covgengare gy PRESSURE waTeR TO ‘waste Figure 16.9 _ Two Types of LTS Systems Used in Production The symbol "}" is known as the Joule-Thomson coefficient. It is positive or negative, depending on the relative size of the two terms in the numerator. (35), is negative H a ar Curve A below shows a case where the instantaneous slope is greater than the average slope. There- fore, the gas will cool on expansion. The curve C gas is just the opposite and will heat on expansion. Curve B is for an ideal gas, which will not change temperature on expansion. Many gases exhibit a characteristic wherein the slope of the V-T curve changes sign. The temperature at which the slope changes sign (jt = 0) is known as the inversion temperature. The right-hand plot above shows inversion temperature versus pressure. The shape shown is general for all actual gases. Outside the ‘curve, the gas represented would heat upon expansion. Inside, it cools on expansion. 258 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULESPRESSURE PROP ACROSS VALVE Because of the location of the curve, hydrogen heats on expansion at normal pressures, whereas most light hydrocarbons cool. At very high pressures, of the order of 60 MPa [8700 psia], many naturally occur- ring hydrocarbon gases heat on expansion. Curves which show the temperature drop expected for a given pressure drop across a choke are only applicable if no liquid forms on such expansion. Liquid Condensation Across a Valve ‘Acctoss a valve the First Law of Thermodynam- ies reduces to hy = hp, No work is possible and the process is almost adiabatic. The amount of heat trans- fer across a valve body is poor, and the gas is in it for only a short time. The calculation is inherently trial- and-error. 1, Calculate the total enthalpy of the feed stream at P; and T). If it is a two-phase stream, the total enthalpy is found by adding that of the liquid and vapor phases. ‘Assume the unknown temperature Tp. ‘Make a flash calculation at P2 and Tp to find relative amount and analysis of each phase. Find the total enthalpy at Point Two from the above flash and the assumed Tp, If hy = hy, you assumed the right temperature. If not, repeats Steps 2-5 until the h's are equal, within the desired limits of accuracy. Since the above is very tedious, a reasonably good an- swer usually can be obtained by assuming two differ- ent temperatures and plotting them on the following type of figure. retro A straight Tine between the hy — hy, found for two assumed temperatures, are connected by a straight line, The intersection at hp ~ hy = 0 gives approximate true T. 7 For the systems shown in Figure 16.9, the inlet gas stream is cooled by the exit separated gas before going to the choke. All one knows are the inlet conditions and composition and the sales gas limitations. ‘These fix the pressure drop across the heat exchanger and choke in series. The drop across the former should not exceed 100 kPa. The following type of procedure is needed. 1, Assume temperature of gas downstream from HEX. Run flash calculation at this temperature and inlet pressure, minus 70 kPa {10 sia} Determine enthalpy of total stream at this point from composition in Step 2. Use the previous procedure for a choke to find the temperature in the low temperature separa- tor. Run flash at separator conditions. Find the enthalpy of the vapor leaving the separator. 7. The AH of the sales gas must equal the AH of the inlet gas across the gas-gas HEX. If this is not found to be true, Steps 1-6 must be repeated, 8, Once Step 7 is satisfied, the heat exchanger may be found by conventional heat transfer principles. Note: A flash calculation is needed on the inlet gas to the HEX if it is two-phase and composition and relative quantity of each phase is not known, rep CHAPTER 16 259REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS The above procedure illustrates the general conditions that must be satisfied for all systems where expansion across a valve is involved. Expansion across a valve may be the proper choice over an expander but the temperature drop is less and no useful work is produced. APPLICATIONS OF REFRIGERATION There are many ways in which refrigeration is applied. Figure 16.10 shows an application for refriger- ated propane storage. otigrnt condensarCompresarsecndstge Compressor sage Sa eG eh Ble 7 keamlaer rn & Fompyai age 1300 0/00 500 pig SEG Figure 16.10 Application of Compression Refrigeration to Propane Storage Figure 16.11 shows a flowsheet for a very simple reftigeration plant with a stabilizer used for a field installation, Note that a salt bath heater is used and to simplify the system there is no reflux on the stabilizer. pRooucT To STORAGE a co0uNs owes caste Suri REFRIGERATION] uur PRODUST ‘COOLER, STABILIZER GaLT BATH weATER Gurcou met LEAN GLYCOL Figure 16.11 Flow sheet for Simple Refrigeration Plant with Stabilizer 260 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULES EEL LEE eee tt tet ett ettAPPLICATIONS OF REFRIGERATION Figure 16.12 shows a typical turboexpander process used to process gas with a C+ content of 200-700 L/106std m° [1.5 to 5 gpm]. For leaner gas the process is essentially identical except the chiller is not required. Typical inlet pressures are 4000-8000 kPa, with expansion ratios of 3 to 4:1 across the turboexpan- der. Expander outlet temperatures vary with recovery objectives and inlet CO content but frequently range from -80 to -120°C [-112 to -184°F]. Recompressor Jo Cooler & Sales Separator Demethanizer Booster ‘Comprassor Dehydration To Engine Gov. Inlet Expander chiller Cold Reboiter pI LY product Pump Typical for 1.5 to 5 gpm of C3 Figure 16.12 Flow Sheet for Simple Expander Plant For deep ethane recovery (70%+) the inlet gas usually provides most, if not all, of the reboiler heat. Although not indicated in Figure 16.12, side reboilers are a standard design. These are used to control vapor loading in the demethanizer, prevent CO freezing and to optimize thermal efficiency of the heat exchanger train. The demethanizer column is frequently non-refluxed with a top tray feed. The top of the demethanizer acts as a low pressure separator to avoid cryogenic pumping of condensed hydrocarbons to the top of the tower. In older plants the heat exchangers are shell-and-tube design; however, in newer facilities plate-fin exchangers are very popular. The dehydration process is almost always molecular sieve, although some designs are based on glycol absorption plus methanol injection. The primary energy input to the facility is at the recompressor. Compression ratios at the booster compressor generally vary from 1.3 to 1.5. CHAPTER 16 261REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS Flow through the expander is controlled by a set of adjustable inlet guide vanes pictured below. These guide vanes are usually actuated by a pressure controller controlling either upstream or downstream pressure. Courtesy Rotflow Corp. Expander plants are probably the most common type of gas processing facility used today. They combine high recovery levels with low capital cost, simplicity and ease of operation. They are less attractive on very rich gas streams (e.g., low pressure solution gas) or where the light NGL produces, Cp and Cs, are not marketable. Figure 16.13 is for a plant using a gas turbine to drive a centrifugal propane compressor and an ac. generator in tandem. This unit provides all reftigeration, electricity, and instrument air needed. Waste heat from the turbine supplies most of the process energy. The plant feedstock is from off-shore, transported through a two-phase pipeline, The design inlet rte is 5.2 (E+06) std md with recovery of about 1190 mld of crude/condensate and 875 m°/d of light hydrocarbons. Refrigerated absorption oil is used to recover about ‘55% of the ethane and almost all of the propane and heavier. Refrigeration is to minus 40°C. Shown also in Figure 16.13 is a comparison of the scheme utilized with use of steam throughout for both power and process. The following equipment has been used: 1- 6900 kW site rated, single shaft, simple-cycle gas turbine (started by expanding gas through 900 KW turbine) 1 71500 000 ki waste heat unit, heating 240 000 kg oil per hour from 182-288°C. (Waste heat is supplemented by burners to heat the turbine exhaust from 427-540°C.) The overall thermal efficiency with supplemental firing is 63%. 1 ~ Seven impeller, horizontal split, cast steel case, centrifugal compressor rated at 4580 KW at 600 rpm. Suction and interstage pressure are 82, 210 and 520 kPa. Discharge is at 1610 kPa and 80°C. The economizer connections are between the third and fifth stages. Dry desiccant drying is used. Figure 16.14 shows one arrangement for recovering liquid from oil treater and stock tank vapors. 262 VOLUME ‘THE EQUIPMENT MODULESAPPLICATIONS OF REFRIGERATION Refrigerant loop—normal operating condition igen Original estimate cost summary, : cmsrig nc Two 2th acu amt neng ‘pean ‘ire lutte male veiemeet_ tee sea gr Teo Tg Bz eet na, ‘ein ‘ane 05 tum ters te S080 i ‘einer ‘gas 89 ioe SE aaa ioe 00 00 ew Eee ro Be colt rata iat anes aioe Sere pe ono 18000 ‘14009 Ths ral he exons of ad ui tute she fb pena pues bs i tate oi wen wi cy eh Mls SES SP a se ee sauciain Generation ve. purchased power (origina estate) (ee Meas Saeed pre 1 0007 = puucmnye Saar 2 Rite Se ermal tor amet Downtime comparison—gos turbine vs. two steam turbines (emiming mo los with o team bles) a SE RE Te " vam aa a, nbs somo sass team atin inna iment a Ripon ae gi Ge. 1B was Heme a ae eee ee, eee AS Sm REGS tee HBti Hoh ise ‘eternal epee yu eed)” — 000 ene up 27 an Coren, thon tn fre tt wo bx 2, dag tes eo al ee = eri il a lt tt ety one Samat get cen tie bas Sit SS Saou ey at en sere "nue bot, acon aie ee. Insel it in an "Sete tr a Pere, eeezwe, Een tne DEAR St spree rns owe sw Sr 8 ct Figure 16.13 Flow Sheet and Data for a Compression Refrigeration Plant(/°) CHAPTER 16 263REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS Methane and ethane wee, Selb hoa Spe agra Produc propane ond haaver Inlet gas flow rate: about 700 Msct/d Product: about 3000 US. gallons per day Glycol injection is used. Freon 502 is used as reftigerant. Figure 16.14 Refrigeration Plant for Recovering Liquid from Oil Treater and Tank Vapors REFERENCES 16.1 Briley, G. C., Hydr. Proc. (May 1976), p. 173. 16.2 Linhardt, H. D., LNG/Cryogenics (Feb. 1973), p. 7. 163 Bleakley, W. B., Oil Gas J. (April 3, 1967), p. 236. 164 Herrin, J.P., Ibid. Qune 20, 1966), p. 181. 165 Davis, C. D., Ibid. (Mar. 25, 1968), p. 132. 264 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULESAPPENDIX 16A PROPERTIES OF COMMON REFRIGERANTS (See also Appendix B at the back of this book.) CHAPTER 16 265REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS S: kJ/(kg*K) 800 900 1000 700 600 h, kJ/kg 500 400 —H Diagram for Propane 300 200 edW ‘aunsseig 266 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULES8: S: Btu/(Ibm-°R) 800 600 fF 500 z s é & § 2 z = | a 400 PROPERTIES OF COMMON REFRIGERANTS 0 0 60 50 40 30 esd ‘eanssoug 20 120 60 200 240 280 320 360 "400 Who h, Btu/Ibm 10. 80 CHAPTER 16 267REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS “ee men stg Sagan ay pe Sa Ze WexsBujoy soy uesBeI AdqeqUg-amssazg Solo Aes wea > eon! 5 Pm SYNSS3ud (esa) (wavma) Ad WHINS oz sat ost zt oor se os sz o se- t o on ov ov oo oot ooy oor 0001 SAS, oor 0002 o00z ‘G02 re ost 2b oot SL os sz ° s2- (waynig) Ad WHLINS BUNSS3ud (e1s¢) VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULES 268PROPERTIES OF COMMON REFRIGERANTS 00s osy oor ose O0E ose 002 ost oor os oO 00 90°0 800 +0: zo e 22 INVYADINSSY oO 4O SALLY3dOUd OINVNAGOWHSHL Tasianiun plojueg “Buvesuibug jeoueysew 10 weunedeq © 269, CHAPTER 16REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS PRESSURE ~ TEMPERATURE RELATIONSHIPS REFRIGERANTS TEMPERATURE -°CPROPERTIES OF-COMMON REFRIGERANTS phate eS oe SINVUSDIUITY 40 SdIHSNOLLVIRN TUNLVYFdWL-AUNSSIUd 2 CHAPTER 16REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS Comparative Data of Refrigerants Refrigerant Number (ARI Designation) Ful Fag, Ea Bua Fuld E500 (Chemical Formula CCL cou =| cHar | ccarcom | cur | 738% CCaF: 262% CHsCHF, Molecatar We 13738 12093 8548 18739 17093 99.29 Bolling pt. @ 101.3 kPa 234 298 408 476 36 333 Critical temperature, °C 1978 12 96 2141 1457 128 Ceiial Pressure, MPa 438 41 494 341 327 435, Specific heats Wke*C of liquid @ 30°C 0.920 0.983 1402 oan 0996 125s Cy of vapor @ 16°C, 101.3 kPa osu 0.623 04683 ons Cv of vapor @ 16°C, 101.3 kPa ose os31 0.607 oss Ratio CyCy = K (0°C, 101.3 kPa 16 118 112 109 113 Ratio of Specific heats ligui, 46°C | 208 Ls 214 1a 159 wn ‘vapor Cp 40°C sat. press. Odor ‘Same Same Same Same Same Viscosity Centpoise | Saurated iguid @ 35°C 0.3893, 0.2463 02283, oss 03420 02150 eae 0373 0.2395 02207 ose, 03272 0.2100 Vapor @ 101.3 KPa and °C o.o101 cous 0.0120 0.0007 oo108 and °C 0.0103 ous 00122 0.0008 0109 adie | aows | oor | oor | oo | oon ‘Thermal Condi” | Saorated iqid @ 35°C osm oxo | oss | ass | oan eave oa | oam | oms | os | om Vapor @ 1013 kPa and-I°C 0.028 0.029 0.037 0.003 0.035 and °C 0.029 0031 0.038 oom 0.036 od 10°C © kin kimtam?oc m2 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULESPROPERTIES OF COMMON REFRIGERANTS Comparative Data of Refrigerants Retin Naber (ARI Designation) a 50 T “Arsorope of Dicneot- (Chemist Nae “Taehortt focrometane Muoreebase od Difurethae Chemie Forma COFCO, TRIS CCF, 2628 CCH 9929 1857 280 ast maa 310 oe Moles e739 (as Const, R ST 825 Bolling pot tt sm uns ‘Prening pot t 1 atm at Cote empernse ata ea pesu(osia 4950 Specific eat of guid 0335 Speci et of vpon, Cp ‘OF a tn . om Specifies of vapor, Cy | ‘OF at | oust Rado GG, = K GOT wl 1 ‘Ratio of Specie Heats ‘igi, 105°F nm Vapor Cy, 40°F st pes ig heat, 1 psa LOSE 20 Saunton presse (pi) OOF * oor 2796 our os 2 10s 1619s Net efigeag effect Bra) "DIOS (oo sbcoaing) oe ‘Ce fine (6 Camo ese) So10sF a0 Sab of wate in fig elie Miciy wih ot Macibe “Toxic consertion 6 by vol) Above 2058 (ae ‘Wearsng properties Explosive range (by vol) Safty group, UL. Safer group, ASA BO.1 “oxic decomposition products Viscosity (ences) ‘Saute gud 33°F 1058 Vapor at stm 30°F OF sick “Themal conduc, Sued iid @ 95°) sr Vepocat lam 30 soe. igen, «0105°F oininten) ‘Teoreteal diplacenent, DIOS (fin) “Teoreeal hoseponer er on, “O10 ‘Coficien of perfrpance SO10SF (Ap pet ton (, *Datanotavailale or notapplicable in Bru fube fF CHAPTER 16 273REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS NOTES: 274 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULES