Case application in mining panel

The solid deformation and fluid flow problems can be solved by using the finite element method (FEM)
using governing equations for a dualporosity poro-mechanical model found in Zhang (2002) and Zhang
and Roegiers (2005). Introducing stress-permeability into the finite element model, permeability variations
induced by stress changes can be obtained. A case example is given below to examine permeability
changes due to mining. When mining near aquifers, it is of critical importance to determine the changes of
permeability due to mining (Zhang and Shen 2004).

The coal mine considered here is located in the Yanzhou coalfield, Eastern China. The average mining
depth is 305 m and the extraction thickness of the pertinent coal seam is 5 m. A water-bearing sand lies
75 m above the coal horizon, and the thickness of the sand layer is 30 m (Zhang et al. 2001, Zhang and
Wang 2006). Figure 8.13 shows the finite element model and mesh of a section perpendicular to the
mining direction. In this model, a half of the mining panel is considered due to geometric symmetry.
The generalized plane strain model is adopted since the mining direction of the panel is much longer than
the direction of the panel width. The model is laterally confined and impermeable. The bottom of the
model is considered as a rigid and impermeable boundary. The strata gravity with average unit specific
weight of J = 23 kPa/m (or 2.3 sg) is considered as the far-field stress acting on the panel. The far-field
stresses and pore pressure are respectively: V v = 7.0 MPa, V H = V h =3.8 MPa, pw= 3.0 MPa. The
main parameters of these strata are listed in Table 8.2. In the table most rock parameters are based on
laboratory experiments. However, the parameters for the sand aquifer and the mined area are simply
estimated. The fracture spacing is assumed to be 1 m for all layers.
Figure 8.14 shows the FEM calculated contours of the permeability variations (permeability ratios of post-
to pre-mining) in the vertical direction. In this figure, the mining width of the panel is 90 m, and the vertical
axis is the central line of the panel. It can be seen that permeability increases in the strata around and
beyond the mined area and decreases in some areas near the unmined coal seam. The maximum
magnitude of increased permeability lies in the immediate roof and floor of the mined seam of the panel
center. However, the maximum height of increased permeability zone appears in the strata over the
unmined coal pillar.
Figure 8.15 presents the contours of permeability variations in the horizontal direction. The permeability
variations are very different from the vertical one shown in Fig. 8.14, due to the different stress
distributions between the vertical and horizontal directions. The height of the increased permeability zone
in the horizontal direction is higher than that in the vertical direction. Furthermore, there are larger
magnitudes of permeability changes in the horizontal direction (refer to Figs. 8.14 and 8.15).
It can also be seen that the maximum increased permeability zone occurs over the mining panel center
for the horizontal permeability, while it occurs over the coal abutment of the mining panel in case of the
vertical permeability. This implies that even if an aquifer is not exactly over the mining panel, water
intrusion may still take place. Figure 8.16 gives the field observed results for a long-wall mining face in
similar geologic conditions as the numerical model. In order to measure permeability changes due to
mining in the overburden strata, observation boreholes were drilled pre- and post-mining. The flowrates or
drilling fluid circulation changes along the borehole during drilling were measured and well logs were run
(Liu 1999). It can be seen from Fig. 8.16 that the observed increased permeability has a similar shape as
the one predicted in Fig. 8.14.
Parametric analyses using a finite element model are conducted to study the influences of thickness of
extraction, mining width (L in Fig. 8.17), and depth of mining on permeability in the surrounding strata of
the coal seam. The straight lines in Fig. 8.17 show that the permeability height increases with mining
width and thickness of extraction. Figure 8.17 also compares the FEM results of increased permeability
height in the overburden strata with field observed data and empirical formula (Liu et al. 1981). In the
observed data, lift mining methods were used for mining thick coal seams found in China. It can be seen
that the FEM results are coherent both in magnitude and in trend.
Figure 8.18 presents the increased permeability in the overburden strata with mining depth. Field
observed height of strata with increased permeability, the FEM calculated result, and the one given by
Alejano et al (1999) are compared in Fig. 8.18. The figure shows that as the depth of mining increases,
the calculated height of the increased permeability zone decreases, which is coherent with the results
given by Alejano et al. (1999). Compared to the observed results from Liu et al. (1981), again coherence
is found in magnitude.
Form

Present Perfect Simple Present Perfect Progressive

irregular verbs: form of 'have' + 3rd column of form of 'have' + been + verb + ing
irregular verbs  

Example: Example:
I / you / we / they have spoken I / you / we / they have been speaking
he / she / it has spoken he / she / it has been speaking

regular verbs: form of 'have' + infinitive + ed

Example:
I / you / we / they have worked
he / she / it has worked

Exceptions

Exceptions when adding 'ed' : Exceptions when adding 'ing' :

 when the final letter is e, only add d  silent e is dropped. (but: does not apply for -ee)

Example: Example: come - coming

love - loved aber: agree - agreeing

 after a short, stressed vowel, the final  after a short, stressed vowel, the final consonant is
consonant is doubled doubled
Example: Example: sit - sitting
admit - admitted
 after a vowel, the final consonant l is doubled in
 final l is always doubled in British English
British English (but not in American English).
(not in American English)
Example: travel - travelling
Example:
travel - travelled  final ie becomes y.
 after a consonant, final y becomes i (but: Example: lie - lying
not after a vowel)

Example:
worry - worried
but: play - played

See also explanations on Present Perfect Simple and Present Perfect Progressive

 Use
Both tenses are used to express that an action began in the past and is still going on or
has just finished. In many cases, both forms are correct, but there is often a difference
in meaning: We use the Present Perfect Simple mainly to express that an action is
completed or to emphasise the result. We use the Present Perfect Progressive to
emphasise the duration or continuous course of an action.

Result or duration?

Do you want to express what has happened so far or how long an action has been
going on yet?

Present Perfect Simple Present Perfect Progressive

Duration (how long)

Result (what / how much / how often)
I have been writing for an hour.
I have written 5 letters. / I have been to London twice.

Certain verbs

The following verbs are usually only used in Present Perfect Simple (not in the
progressive form).

 state: be, have (for possession only)

Example: We have been on holiday for two weeks.

 senses: feel, hear, see, smell, taste, touch

Example: He has touched the painting.

 brain work: believe, know, think, understand

Example: I have known him for 3 years.

Emphasis on completion or duration?

Do you want to emphasise the completion of an action or its continuous course (how
has somebody spent his time)?

Present Perfect Simple Present Perfect Progressive

Emphasis on duration
Emphasis on completion
 I have been doing my homework. (Meaning: That's how I have
spent my time. It does not matter whether the homework is
I have done my homework. (Meaning:
completed now.)
My homework is completed now.)

Result or side effect?

Do you want to express that a completed action led to a desired result or that the action
had an unwanted side effect?

Present Perfect Simple Present Perfect Progressive

unwanted side effect

desired result
Why are you so wet? - I have been washing the car. (side effect: I became
I have washed the wet when I was washing the car. It does not matter whether the car is clean
car. (Result: The car is clean now.)
now.)

Time + negation: last time or beginning of an action?

In negative sentences: Do you want to express how much time has past since the last
time the action took place or since the beginning of the action?

Present Perfect Simple Present Perfect Progressive

since the last time since the beginning

I haven't played that game for I haven't been playing that game for an hour, only for 10
years. (Meaning: It's years ago that I last minutes. (Meaning: It's not even an hour ago that I started to
played that game.) play that game.)

Permanent or temporary?

If an action is still going on and we want to express that it is a permanent situation, we

would usually use the Present Perfect Simple. For temporary situations, we would
prefer the Present Perfect Progressive. This is not a rule, however, only a tendency.

Present Perfect Simple Present Perfect Progressive

 permanent temporary

James has lived in this town for 10 James has been living here for a year. (Meaning: This situation
years. (Meaning: He is a permanent is only temporary. Maybe he is an exchange student and only
resident of this town.) here for one or two years.)

Signal words

Present Perfect Simple Present Perfect Progressive

 how often  how long

 ... times  since
 for