SHRI RAM ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY (Mechanical Engineering Deptt.

UNIT -1 MATERIALS
A Materials or Engineering Materials are the stuff, of which something is made.
For the proper design of engineering components, the design engineer must have the good knowledge of the
materials and their properties. There is a wide variety of materials available which have shown their potential in
various engineering fields ranging from aerospace to house hold applications. The materials are usually selected after
considering their characteristics, specific application areas, advantages and limitations. The challenge for designers is
to select an optimal material suitable for the specific design requirements. From the wide range of metals and non-
metals which are available, the design engineer makes of the choice of the material based on Fabrication, Service and
Economic aspects.
Fabrication aspects means that the material should be able to get shape (casting, forging, machining, etc.)
and joined (welding, soldering, etc.) easily.
Service aspects means that the material selected for the purpose must be stand up to service demand, eg.,
proper strength, wear resistance, corrosion resistance, etc.
Economic aspects mean that the engineering part should be made with minimum overall cost. Overall cost
means cost of product and cost of technique to convert a finish product.

CLASSIFICATION OF ENGG. MATERIAL

A wide variety of materials are available to engineers to design and manufacture of different object. To
understand the basic behaviour/properties of materials, they are classified into different groups. The materials falling
in one group have similar properties and behaviour.

Engineering Materials

Metallic Non-Metallic

Ferrous Non-
Ferrous
Organic Inorganic

Cast Alluminium
Iron Steel
Copper
Plastics Ceramics
Lead
Grey Magnesium Rubber Cement
White Mild Nickel Leather Glass
Malleable High carbon Tin Wood
Nodular High Speed Zinc

PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Mechanical Properties – It related to the ability of the material to carry loads and its behavior in given service
conditions.
A) STRENGTH – It means resistance offered by the material when the external force is applied.
The strength of metal is its ability to withstand various forces to which it is subjected to during a test or in service.
Strength may be tensile or compressive, it depend on the type of load.
B) STRESS – It is the internal reactive resistance of material per unit area against the action of the applied force. The
internal reactive resistance is equal and opposite to applied force.
Stress = Applied load / area of cross-section
Unit is N/m2
C) STIFFNESS – It is define as the ability of the material to resist the elastic deformation under the action of external
force. Stiffness = Load / Deflection
Unit is N/m
D) ELASTICITY – It is ability of material regains its original shape after deformation when the load is removed.
This spring back property is know as Elasticity.
OR
The elasticity of the material is its ability to undergo temporary deformation without rupture or failure when subjected
to external load.
E) PLASTICITY – The plasticity of the material is its ability to undergo permanent deformation without rupture or
failure when subjected to external load. or also define as the property of the materials which retains the deformation
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 SHRI RAM ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY (Mechanical Engineering Deptt.)

permanently under load. The ductility is the property of material, which allows bending, elongationand change of
cross section of metals under the action of external load. E.g. Mild steel, copper, etc.
This properties used in Forming, Shaping and Extruding operation.
F) DUCTILITY – It is amount of plastic deformation of a material without failure when material subjected to tensile
loading.
OR
It is the ability of the metal to Elongation before rapture taken place.
Due to this property wire are made by drawing operation.
G) MALLEABILITY –It is amount of plastic deformation of a material without failure when material subjected to
comperessive loading.
OR
It is property of material may be hammered of or rolled into thin sheet without failure.
H) BRITTLENESS – When a body break easily under the application of load without showing elongation. This
property of the material is know as brittleness. Eg. Glass, Cast iron etc.
I) HARDNESS – Hardness is the resistance offered by a material to wear, scratching, machining and penetration.
The hardness of a material depends upon the type of bonding forces between atoms, ions.
Hardness is the property of a material that enables it to resist plastic deformation, usually by penetration.
However, the term hardness may also refer to resistance to bending, scratching, abrasion or cutting.
J) TOUGHNESS - Maximum energy which material can be absorb during plastic deformation up to fracture.
Toughness is the strength with which the material opposes repture.
Toughness depends both on strength and ducility, and is measured by impact tests.
K) RESILIENCE – It is the capacity of a material to absorb energy within elastic limits and that enable the material
to bear shock and vibrations. This store energy is given off on the removal of load.
L) FATIGUE – Material subjected to fluctuating or reapeating or cyclic loading (i.e., alternating tensile and
compressive stresses), it tent to develop a characteristic behaviour which is different from that under steady loads.
M) CREEP – It is the slow plastic deformation of metals under constant load at high temperature for a long period of
time.
The time-dependent elongation occurring under load is known as CREEP.
Creep is specially taken care of while designing IC Engine, Boilers, etc.

2. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES – Physical properties are characteristics of a material that are determined by nature.
Important Physical properties include colour, density, composition, structure etc.
3. ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES – It is ability to permit or resist the flow of electricity. Important Electrical
properties include Resistivity, conductivity, dielectric strength, temperature coefficient of resistance, etc.
4. CHEMICAL PROPERTIESS – The chemical properties describe the combining tendencies, corrosion
characteristics, reactivity, solubility, etc.
5. MANUFACTURING PROPERTIES – a) Castability
b) Machinability
c) Weldability
STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
STRESS – The resistance offered by the material under the application of load, this resistive force per unit area is
known as stress.
Stress = Applied load / area of cross-section  F
2 2
Unit is N/mm , N/m = 1 Pascal A
STRAIN – It is ratio of change in length to the original length.
OR The dimensional change is known as strain.

Unit is mm/mm or m/m and dimensionless   L1 L L
HOOKE’S LAW: - This linear relation between elongation and the
axial force causing was first noticed by Sir Robert Hooke in 1678 and is called Hooke’s Law that within the
proportional limit, the stress is directly proportional to strain.
stress
Stress = Strain × Constant of proportionality   E: E 
Or strain
Where, the constant of proportionality E is called Young’s modulus or modulus of elasticity.
Unit is N/m2, Pa.
Stress – strain curve is a graphical plot of stress- versus strain. These quantities are experimentally obtained
by subjecting a metallic bar of uniform cross- section to gradually increasing tensile load till failure of the bar occurs.
The test is conducted in a tensile testing machine.
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 SHRI RAM ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY (Mechanical Engineering Deptt.)

Stress is calculated by dividing the load by original cross-sectional area of the test specimen.
Strain is calculated by dividing the extension of a given length by the original length.
Stress plots as Y-axis and strain as X-axis on a graph taking in suitable scale.

Figure shows the typical behavior of stress – strain curve

for mild steel (Low carbon steel, Ductile Material) specimen and
its salient feature are:
1. Proportional limit – Stress is a linear function of strain and the
material obeys Hook’s law. This proportionality extends upto point
A and this point is called proportional limit or limit of
proportionality.
2. Elastic limit – Beyond proportional limit, stress and strain depart
from straight line relationship. The material however, remains elastic
upto state point B. Stress at B is called the elastic limit stress; this
represents the maximum unit stress to which a material can be
subjected and is still able to return to its original form upon removal
of load.
3. Yield strength – It indicates resistance to permanent deformation
produced by loading. The yield strength is the stress at which a
material exhibits a specified limiting permanent set.
4. Yield point – The yield point is the stress at which there first
point occurs a marked increase in strain without an increase in stress.
The behavior of the material is inelastic and the onset of plastic
deformation is called yielding of material. The point C is called the
Upper yield point and point D is the Lower yield point.
5. Ultimate strength (Maximum or tensile strength) – It is defined
as the maximum value of stress in the plastic region that the metal
can sustain without failure. It is calculated by dividing the maximum
load carried by the specimen during a tension test by the original cross- sectional area of the specimen.
Strain from D to E is about 100 times than that of the portion from 0 to D. Point E represents the maximum ordinate of
the curve and the stress at this point is known as ultimate stress
6. Breaking strength – The point F is referred to as the fracture or breaking point and the corresponding stress is
called the breaking stress.
For Mild steel, the test piece breaks making a cup and cone type fracture.

Q. A rod 150 cm long and of diameter 2 cm is subjected to an axial tensile load 20 KN. If the modulus of
elasticity of the material of the rod is 2 × 105 N/mm2. Determine stress, strain and elongation of the rod.
Ans- σ = 63.662 N/mm2. ε = 0.000318, Δl = 0.0477 cm.

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 SHRI RAM ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY (Mechanical Engineering Deptt.)

USEFUL ENGINEERING MATERIALS

PIG IRON
G Iron produced in a blast furnace, is the first product in the process of converting iron ore into useful metal. Pig iron
is the raw material for all ferrous products.
S.No Elements % by weight
Composition of PIG IRON 1 Carbon 3 to 4
Effect of Impurities on Iron 2 Manganese 0.1 to 1
1. Sulphur –High sulphur content causes brittleness, reduce fluidity
during pouring, increase shrinkage, and reduce strength 3 Silicon 1 to 3
Its percentage should be keep below 0.1%. 4 Sulphur Upto 1
2. Carbon -Increase hardening & strength but decrease ductility. 5 Phosphorus 0.3 to 1.7
 Increase carbon makes the iron hard and brittle. 6 Iron Balance
 Increase fluidity of metal & decrease melting point.
Normally carbon contains 2 to 4%.
3. Phosphorus – It reduce melting point and increase fluidity, shrinkage gets reduced
Normally contains 0.03 to 2%.
4. Manganese – Harden the iron by increasing the solubility of carbon in iron, it makes wear resistant.
Normally contains upto 1%.
5. Silicon – It present in small proportions, it makes the iron soft and increase fluidity, but it present in high
proportions, it makes the iron brittle and more resistant to acid.
Normally contains 1.5 to 3%.

CAST IRON: - The product of the blast furnace i.e. Pig iron is unsuitable for casting as it contains impurities in high
percentage. To render it suitable for desired purpose it is refined in the furnace known as cupola. The refined product
is termed as cast iron. It has a wide range of properties because small percentage variations of its composition cause
considerable change.
Carbon contain above 2% are called Cast Iron
S.No Elements % by weight
Composition of CAST IRON
1 Carbon 2 to 6.67
Properties of Cast Iron 2 Manganese 0.1 to 0.3
 Cheap material 3 Silicon 0.5 to 1
 Hard and Brittle
 Good fluidity and casting characteristics. 4 Sulphur 0.06 to 0.12
 High compressive strength. 5 Phosphorus 0.1 to 0.3
 Good machinability 6 Iron Balance
 High resistant to wear
 High corrosion resistance
Uses – Machine tool bed, frames, pulley, pipe fitting and valve body, piston and piston rings, cylinder block, clutch
plate, brake shoes of I.C. Engine.

CLASSIFICATION OF CAST IRON

1. GREY CAST IRON – It has Carbon present in graphite form and it is gray in colour, therefore it is known as Grey
cast iron. It is an ideal material for foundary work.
Graphite is softer and easily machinable. Graphite gives a grey shade to the fractured surface of cast iron. It is ideal
material for foundary work.
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 SHRI RAM ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY (Mechanical Engineering Deptt.)

Composition of GREY CAST IRON S.No Elements % by weight

PROPERTIES –
 It possesses lowest melting point. 1 Carbon 2.5 to 3.8
 It has low tensile strength. 2 Manganese 0.4 to 1
 It has good compressive strength and wears resistance. 3 Silicon 1.1 to 2.8
 It possesses machinability better.
4 Sulphur 0.1
 It has a very good characteristic of self-lubrication
property. 5 Phosphorus 0.15
 It possesses high fluidity & it can be cast complex shape. 6 Iron Balance
 It good corrosion resistant due to presence of silicon.
 It has low ductility & low impact strength.
USES –
 Machine tool structures
 Frames for electric motor
 Cylinder blocks and head for I.C. Engine.
 Household appliances.
 Gear, flywheel.
 Gas or water pipes for underground purpose.
2. WHITE CAST IRON
Cast iron which has all the carbon in the form of iron carbide (Cementite Fe3C) is called white cast iron. It is produced
by rapid cooling of molten metal.
Cementite is extremely hard and difficult to machining. Cementite S.No Elements % by weight
gives a shiny light colour surface to the fractured surface of cast iron.
Composition of WHITE CAST IRON 1 Carbon 1.7 to 3.6
PROPERTIES – 2 Manganese 0.1 to 0.4
 Hard, brittle and cannot be machined. 3 Silicon 0.85 to 1.2
 Highly resistance to wear. 4 Sulphur 0.12 to 0.35
 Tensile strength is good. 5 Phosphorus 0.05 to 0.2
 It has poor fluidity.
6 Iron Balance
 Non-machinable.
USES –
 Used for parts subjected to excessive wear, e.g. Railway brake block, rim of car wheel, roll of rolling mills.
 Used for making malleable castings.

3. MALLEABLE CAST IRON

It can be obtained by long time annealing heat treatment process of casting made of White cast iron.
Composition of MALLEABLE CAST IRON
PROPERTIES –
 It possesses high yield strength. S.No Elements % by weight
 It can be hammered and rolled to different shapes. 1 Carbon 2 to 3
 It is soft, tough and easily machined.
2 Manganese 0.2 to 0.6
 It has good wear resistance and vibration damping capacity.
 It is strong and tougher. 3 Silicon 0.6 to 1.3
USES – 4 Sulphur 0.1
 Differential and steering gear housing. 5 Phosphorus 0.15
 Rail road.
 Tractor spring. 6 Iron Balance
 Washing machine parts.
 Break pedals
4. MOTTLED CAST IRON
Cast iron which has all the carbon in the form of graphite and iron carbide has mixed in equal ratio is called as mottled
cast iron.
In which the outer layers have the structure of hard and the core, that of soft.
Composition of Mottled CAST IRON
Iron – 93.5% , Graphite – 1.75% , Carbide – 1.75%, Remainder impurities.
PROPERTIES –
 It has high toughness, Fluidity is good, Hard and brittle, Bear shock and vibration.
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 SHRI RAM ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY (Mechanical Engineering Deptt.)

USES –
 Used for man hole cover and pipes.
 Used for making fire plug.

5. NODULAR CAST IRON/ Ductile Cast Iron

The nodular cast iron has graphite precipitated not in the form of flakes but in the form of rounded particle which are
called nodules or spheriods.
It also knows as ductile cast iron and spheroidal cast iron.
Composition of NODULAR CAST IRON
PROPERTIES – S.No Elements % by weight
 It possesses excellent castability and wear resistance.
1 Carbon 3.2 to 4.2
 Fluidity is good.
2 Manganese 0.3 to 0.8
 It possesses very good machinability.
3 Silicon 1.1 to 3.5
 Bear shock and vibration.
USES – 4 Sulphur 0.2
 Power transmission equipment. 5 Phosphorus 0.08
 Internal combustion engine. 6 Iron Balance
 Pumps and compressors, Steel mill rolls.

SUMMERISED OF COMPOSITION
Carbon % Manganese % Silicon % Sulphur % Phosphorus %
Element
By Wt. By Wt. By Wt. By Wt. By Wt.
Pig Iron 3 to 4 0.1 to 1 1 to 3 Upto 1 0.3 to 1.7
Cast Iron 2 to 6.67 0.1 to 0.3 0.5 to 1 0.06 to 0.12 0.1 to 0.3
Grey C.I. 2.5 to 3.8 0.4 to 1 1.1 to 2.8 0.1 0.15
White C.I. 3.5 0.1 to 0.4 0.85 to 1.2 0.12 to 0.35 0.05 to 0.2
Malleable C.I. 2 to 3 0.2 to 0.6 0.6 to 1.3 0.1 0.15
Nodular C.I. 3.2 to 4.2 0.3 to 0.8 1.1 to 3.5 0.2 0.08
Wrought Iron 0.02 to 0.03 0 to 0.02 0.02 to 0.1 0.008 to 0.02 0.05 to 0.25

WROUGHT IRON:- It is the purest iron which contains at least 99.5% iron. It is obtained by eliminating most of the
carbon and impurities
C = 0.02%, Si = 0.13%, Mn = 0.03%, P = 0.1%, S = 0.02%
Properties of wrought iron-
It is tough, malleable and ductile material. It can withstand impact and sudden loads. It is corrosion resistant and can
be welded and forged.
Uses – It is used for production of part requiring resistance to rusting eg.- wire rope, crane hook, chains, water and
steam pipe etc.

STEEL:- It is an alloy of iron, carbon and several other elements like, Manganese, silicon etc carbon contain up to
1.5% in combined form. It is manufactured by reducing the amount of impurity from Pig Iron in molten state. The
steel is called Plain carbon steel or carbon steel.
(Alloy of carbon and iron with carbon up to 2% are called steel but steels having more than 1.5% carbon are of no
practical utility since they become brittle.)
Steel are classified according to percentage of carbon content:
Low Carbon Steel (Mild Steel) –less than 0.3% carbon.
Medium Carbon Steel – 0.3 to 0.8% carbon.
High Carbon Steel – 0.8 to 1.5 % carbon

MILD STEEL:- It is an alloy of iron and carbon as main constituent. It has fibrous structure and thus can be forged
and welded. It can be permanently magnetized and rust rapidly. Mild steel are soft, ductile and easily machined.
Basically it is coded in number form i.e. 1015, 1020, 1025 & 1030. First two letter “10” means plain carbon steel &
last two letter means percentage of carbon 0.15%, 0.2% etc.

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 SHRI RAM ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY (Mechanical Engineering Deptt.)

Properties:-
1. It is soft, malleable, and very ductile. Its percentage elongation is as high as 40% for low carbon steel.
2. It has good tensile strength.
3. Due to low quantities of carbon its mechanical properties cannot be modified through heat treatment processes.
Uses:-
1. General purpose structural applications as rods, channel section. I-beams, angle section.
2. Making nuts, bolts, keys, rivets, screws etc.
STAINLESS STEEL:- It is define as a metal that resists corrosion and oxidation and does not easily develop strain.
Corrosion resistance is imparted by formation of a thin layer of chromium oxide on the outer surface of metal.

Composition- Minimum chromium content of 10% is required for the film’s formation & 18% is sufficient to resist
the most severe atmospheric corrosive condition.
According to structures obtained the stainless steel are subdivided into three groups.
Ferritic stainless steel – these contain a great amount of nickel 15% to 20% and about 0.1% carbon.
Martensitic stainless steel – these steel contain 11% to 14% chromium and about 0.35% carbon.
Austentic stainless steel – these steel contain 18% chromium & 8% nickel.

Properties
 These steel have great resistance to corrosion.
 They have great strength and toughness.
 These steel can be welded, forged, rolled & machined.
Application / Uses
Ferritic stainless steel is used in the manufacture of pipe in the chemical & food plant equipment. They are also used
in highly stressed machine part & manufacture of bars, sheets, strips, wire etc.
Martenisic stainless steel is used for making steam valve, turbine blade, shaft, gear, ball bearing, spring, surgical &
dental instrument.
Austentic stainless steel is used in the manufacture of pump sets, rail road, car frames, and screw nut. They are also
used in chemical plants, storage & transport tank for chemical industries.

HIGH SPEED STEEL: - It is a special alloy used for high speed cutting tools for high manufacturing rate. The main
features of high speed steel are its great hardness in the heat treated condition and its ability to resist its property at
high working temperature. Depending on the principal alloying element, the high speed steel are classified by:
 Tungsten high speed steel designed by T-series (T1, T2, T3 etc.). These steel contain high amount of tungsten
(18%), with chromium (4%) and vanadium (1-2%).
 Molybdenum steel designed by M-series (M1, M2, M3 etc.). The typical composition of these steel chromium
(4%), tungsten (1.5 to 6%), and molybdenum (5 to 8%).
The high speed steel are essentially used for making
 Drills, milling cutter, broach, punch, dies for forging, machine tools for cutting materials at high speed.

ALLOY Metals: - It is defined as elements other than carbon are added in sufficient amount to improvement the
property of material. The element are used separately or combination according to desired characteristic. Or we also
say that when certain special properties are desired some elements are added to the metals. The metals thus obtained
are called Alloy metal.

Purpose of alloying:
 To improve elasticity.
 To improve machineability.
 To improve wear resistance.
 To improve ductility.
 To improve hardness, toughness and tensile strength.
 To improve case hardening properties.
 To improve corrosion and fatigue resistance.
 To improve cutting ability.
 To improve electrical properties.
 To improve high and low temp. stability.
 To improve grain size.
 To retain physical properties at high temperature.

Prepare By – Rohit Kumar Sahu (Asst. Prof. M.E. SRIT) JANJUNE-2015 Materials (Unit - I) | 7
 SHRI RAM ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY (Mechanical Engineering Deptt.)

THE EFFECT OF ALLOWING ELEMENTS

Increases toughness,
machinability better when 0.25 to 2 % is added
NICKEL (Ni)
0.5% of Ni is good for part subjected to impact loading.
Improve electrical properties.
High amount of Ni help improve the corrosion resistance.
Properties stainless properties of stainless steel.
CHROMIUM (Cr)
Used widely in tool steels.
It improve hardness and wear.
It improve wear resistance
MOLYBDENUM It help to retaining strength at high temp.
(Mo) Makes steel tough at various hardness levels.
Makes steel fine grained.
Makes high speed tool steel, carburising steel, and heat resisting steel.
TUNGSTAN (W) Retention of hardness and toughness at high temp.
Used in tools, dies, valve etc.
VANADIUM (V) 1. It possesses highest hardness and wear resistance.
2. It improves fatigue resistance.
TITANIUM (Ti) Prevent formation of austenite in high chromium steel
COBOLT (Co) Improve wear resistance.
Improve mechanical properties
COPPER (Cu) Atmospheric corrosion resistance of steel is increase by addition of 0.1 to 0.6% copper
ALUMINIUM (Al) It improves hardness.
0.01 to 0.06% Al added during solidification produces fine grained steel casting.
BORON (B) Very small % (0.001 to 0.005) of B is effective in increasing hardness.
LEAD (Pb) Less than 0.35% Pb improves machinability.
SILICON (Si) It improves toughness.

SUMMARISED
Hardenability – Si, Mn, Ni, Cr, Mo, B, W.
Toughness – Si, Ni.
High temp Resistance – Cr, Mo, W.
Corrosion resistance – Cr, Mo, W.
Wear resistance – Cr, Mo, W.
High temp impact strength – Ni.
Atmospheric corrosion resistance – Cu.
Machinability – S, P, Pb.
Fatigue strength – V
Surface hardening – Al.

IRON-CARBON EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM

Iron is an element of great importance to
engineering industry. Carbon is added into iron in various
percentages to produce number of alloys such as mild steel,
stainless steel, various form of cast iron etc. When a metal or
alloy solidifies from liquid state on cooling, the grain
formation takes place. We shall first discuss the phase
transformation occurring at different temperatures in iron
carbon system.

ALLOTROPIC FORM OF IRON:

Iron is a soft and ductile allotropic (i.e. property of
elements of existing in more than one form) metal having its
melting point as 1539 oC.
When the liquid iron is cooled, pure iron exists in three
allotropic forms as δ (delta), γ (gamma), and α (alpha) which
as shown in fig.
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 SHRI RAM ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY (Mechanical Engineering Deptt.)

1. Freezing of liquid iron starts at 1539 oC and the temperature remains constant till the time entire liquid iron
solidifies and it is changed to δ –iron having body centered cubic (B.C.C.) structure.
2. When temp. falls to 1404 oC, further cooling takes place at constant temp. and another phase transformation take
place till the entire δ –iron is changed to face centered cubic (F.C.C.) structure called γ –iron. It remains stable upto
910 oC.
3. On cooling at constant temp. of 910 oC, γ -iron change to α –Iron of B.C.C. structure. It is stable upto 723 oC.
4. On further cooling at constant temp. of 723 oC, it change into α –iron of B.C.C. Structure having the magnetic
properties. Below 723 oC upto room temp. the iron remain highly magnetic.

Constituents of Iron and Carbon:

Ferrite- It is the solid solution of iron and carbon (below 910 oC). It also known as α-iron. In ferrite, maximum
solubility of carbon is up to 0.02% at 723 oC. In the FCC lattice of ferrite, carbon atom is located at the centre of a
face of the cube. It is soft, ductile and highly magnetic.
Austenite- It is the solid solution of iron and carbon in  -iron. The maximum solubility of carbon in  -Iron is 2.41%
at 1130 oC. In austenite, the carbon atom is located at the centre of the BCC structure.
Cementite- It is chemical compound of iron and carbon, called iron carbide (Fe3C). Its carbon content is 6.67%. It is
very hard and brittle.
Pearlite - It is the mixture of ferrite and cementite. It contains 0.8% carbon and is formed at 723o C.
Ledeburite- It is the mixture of austenite and cementite. It contains 4.3% carbon. It is formed about 1130 C.

Iron - Carbon diagram shows range of temp. and compositions within which the various phase change are
stable and also the boundaries at which the phase change occur. This diagram is a graphic representation of the effect
of temp and composition upto the phases present in an iron alloy.
In this diagram, the carbon composition is plotted along the horizontal axis and temperature along the vertical axis.
These diagrams indicate the phase change that occurs during heating and cooling and nature and amount of the
structure components that exist at any temp.
Following are the important points:
1. Point A represents the melting point of pure iron at 1539 oC.
2. Point D represents the melting point of iron carbide (Fe3C) or cementite at 1550 oC.
3. All alloys represented in the temp range above line ABCD are completely liquid state. The curve ABCD is known
as Liquidus line. All alloys undergo completely solidification at temp level represented by the line HJECF which is
called the Solidus line.
4. All alloy irrespective of their composition in temp. range above the curve ABCD are liquid state.
5. When the temp of liquid falls along the curve ABC, austenite crystals separate from liquid metal and the cementite
crystals form the curve CD.
6. HFB represents the peritectic reaction in which the austenite that is solid solution of carbon in δ –iron are formed
along the line AB.
7. The transformation of alloys from its liquid state to a temp. just below the 1130 oC is called primary transformation.
8. The iron carbon alloys upto 2% are known as steel and its two range are:
Hypo-eutechtoid (Carbon = 0 to 0.8%).
Hyper –eutechtoid (Carbon = 0.8 to 2%).
9. The iron-carbon alloys with carbon above 2% are known as cast iron and it two range are:
Hypo-eutectic (carbon = 2 to 4.3%).
Hyper-eutectic (carbon = 4.3 to 6.67%).

The important phase transformation taking place at different temp. and with iron carbon alloys as different
composition are:
Peritectic reaction (Point J)- It is the reaction that occurs during the solidification of some alloys where the liquid
phase react with a solid phase to give a solid phase of different structure.
When iron is molted state and б (delta)-iron in solid
o
phase at 1492 oC give rise to austenite having 0.18% carbon.
1492 C
Delta iron + liquid Austenite
Eutectic Reaction (Point C) – It a eutectic reaction when a liquid solution of fixed composition, solidifies at a
constant temp. form a mix of two or more solid phases without an intermediate pasty stage.
When liquid alloy containing 4.3% carbon cools at 1130 oC to a two phase solid that is Ledeburite (Austenite +
Cementite). 1130 oC
Liquid Alloy (4.3 % C) Austenite + Cementite

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 SHRI RAM ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY (Mechanical Engineering Deptt.)

Eutectoid Reaction (Point S) – It is an isothermal reaction in which a solid phase is converted into two or more
mixed solids.
When solid austenite containing 0.8% carbon is cooled at 723 oC and it decomposed into ferrite and Cementite that is
Pearlite.
S o lid  a u s te n ite 0 .8 % C     F e r r i t e  C e m e n t i t e
723C

This diagram helps to control the processes of solidification,

crystallization, grain growth, separation of phase and structural change taking
place in forging, heat treatment, welding, casting and other mechanical
operation.

MATEERIAL TESTING
PURPOSE
1. To determine numerical value of fundamental mechanical properties for different material.
2. To determine suitability of a material for a particular application.
3. To determine the surface defect in raw materials or processed parts.
4. To check chemical composition.

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 SHRI RAM ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY (Mechanical Engineering Deptt.)

CLASSIFICATION
NON –DESTRUCTIVE TEST – For this testing a component does not break & so even after being tested it can be
used. E.g. – X- ray radiography, ultrasonic testing.
DESTRUCTIVE TEST- For this testing a component or specimen breaks & no longer useful for further use.
E.g. Tensile test, Impact test.
IMPORTANT MECHANICAL TEST
For mechanical test we are getting following information:
1. TENSILE TEST – Tensile strength, yield point, elastic limit, young modulus etc.
2. IMPACT TEST – Toughness of a material under shock loading condition.
3. HARDNESS TEST – Wear resistance, cutting ability
4. Fatigue test – Behaviour of material under repetitions of applied load.
5. CREEP TEST- Behaviour of a material under a steady load for a long period of time.

1. TENSILE TEST -
The tensile test for
determining the
ultimate tensile
strength, percentage
elongation and
percentage reducing in
the area of a given
specimen conducted
on a universal testing
machine (UTM). This
hydraulically operated
machine essentially
consists of two main
units namely the
loading unit and the
control panel.
The control
panel is located on the
right and comprises an
oil sump, a pump run
by electric motor, load
dial indicator and control buttons. The
right side control button operates the
flow control valve while the left one
regulates the return valve. The rate of
load can be adjusted by the flow control
valve.
The loading unit, located on the
left, has upper, middle and lower cross
head/ jaws. The control panel and
loading unit are connected by pipe
through which oil flows under pressure.
For tension test, the specimen is
placed/gripped between upper and
middle crosshead and for compression
test, the specimen is placed on the
bottom and middle crosshead.

2. IMPACT TEST – The impact test is done to test the toughness of a material. Toughness is the properties which
enable the material to be twist bend or starched under a high stress (Impact load) before failure.
Toughness takes into account both the strength and ductility of the material. It indicate amount of energy that a unit
volume of the material could absorb after being stressed upto the point of fracture. It is expressed in Nm (Newton-
meter).

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 SHRI RAM ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY (Mechanical Engineering Deptt.)

3. HARDNESS – It is the property of a material that resists penetration under pressure, scratching by a sharp point and
abrasion when metallic surface is rubbed against another.
The hardness of a material is generally determined by measuring its resistance to indentation. The indenter is usually a
ball, cone or pyramid of a material much harder than the specimen. Following test is performed.
Test IDENTER LOAD TEST PIECE FORMULA
Brinell Steel Ball 300 N for steel Thickness is not
hardness Dia 5mm 100 N for less than 8 times
test for copper, copper the depth of
10mm for 50 N for indentation
steel aluminum

Rockwell Diamond Minor – 100N Thickness is not

hardness cone with Major – 900 to less than 6mm
test 120O 1400 N

Vickers Diamond 100 N Thickness not

hardness pyramid less than 4mm
test with 136O

4. FATIGUE TEST - The S-N diagram plots

nominal stress amplitude S versus cycles to
failure N. fatigue limit or endurance limit
which represents a stress level below which
the material does not fail and can be cycled
infinitely. If the applied stress level is below
the endurance limit of the material, the
structure is said to have an infinite life.

5. CREEP TEST - Deformation that occurs

over a period of time when a material is
subjected to constant stress at constant
temperature.
Data obtained in a creep test usually is
presented as a plot of creep vs. time with
stress and temperature constant. Slope of the
curve is creep rate and end point of the curve
is time for rupture. As indicated in the
accompanying diagram, the creep of a
material can be divided into three stages. First
stage, or primary creep, starts at a rapid rate
and slows with time. Second stage
(secondary) creep has a relatively uniform
rate. Third stage (tertiary) creep has an
accelerating creep rate and terminates by
failure of material at time for rupture.

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 SHRI RAM ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY (Mechanical Engineering Deptt.)

HARDNESS TESTING MACHINE

(Rockwell Testing Machine) IMPACT TESTING MACHINE
(IZOD AND CHARPY TEST)

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