Advanced Metal Cutting Technology (MAT-514) – 2013E.C –Y.

Advanced Metal Cutting Technology

Unit - Two
Mechanics of the cutting Process

2.1 Introduction

The forces generated in metal cutting operations have long interested engineers.
These forces determine machine power requirements and bearing loads; cause deflections
of the part, tool, or machine structure; and supply energy to the machining system, which
may result in excessive cutting temperatures or unstable vibrations. Measured cutting
forces are also sometimes used to compare the machinability of materials, especially in
cases in which tool life tests cannot be performed due to time constraints or limited
material supplies. Cutting force measurements are also used for sensor-based control and
monitoring of the cutting process for tool wear and failure.

2.2 The concept of Cutting tool Mechanics

During metal cutting, the metal is severely compressed in the area in front of the
cutting tool. This causes high temperature shear and plastic flow if the metal is ductile.
When the stress in the workpiece just ahead of the cutting tool reaches a value exceeding
the ultimate strength of the metal, particles will shear to form a chip element, which
moves up along the face of the work. The outward or shearing movement of each
successive element is arrested by work hardening and the movement transferred to the
next element. The process is repetitive and a continuous chip is formed. The plane along
which the element shears, is called shear plane.

The factors that influence the cutting process are outlined in Table 2.1. The major
independent variables in the cutting process are as follows: (a) tool material and coatings;
(b) tool shape, surface finish, and sharpness; (c) work-piece material and condition; (d)
cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut; (e) cutting fluids; (f) characteristics of the machine
tool; and (g) work holding and fixturing.

Dependent variables in cutting are those that are influenced by changes in the
independent variables listed above, and include: (a) type of chip produced, (b) force and
energy dissipated during cutting, (c) temperature rise in the work-piece, the tool, and the

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chip, (d) tool wear and failure, and (e) surface finish and surface integrity of the work-
piece.

Table 2.1 Factors Influencing Machining Operations

Parameter Influence and interrelationship

Cutting speed, depth of Forces, power , temperature rise, tool life, type of chip,
cut, feed, cutting fluids surface finish and integrity
Tool angles As above; influence on chip flow direction; resistance to tool
wear and chipping
Continuous chip Good surface finish; steady cutting forces; undesirable,
especially in automated machinery
Built-up edge chip Poor surface finish and integrity; if thin and stable, edge can
protect tool surfaces
Desirable for ease of chip disposal; fluctuating cutting
Discontinuous chip
forces; can affect surface finish and cause vibration and
chatter
Influences tool life, particularly crater wear and dimensional
Temperature rise
accuracy of work-piece; may cause thermal damage to work-
piece surface
Tool wear Influences surface finish and integrity, dimensional accuracy,
temperature rise, forces and power
Machinability Related to tool life, surface finish, forces and power , and
type of chip
When unacceptable conditions result from machining operations, the manufacturing
engineer must ask questions to determine the cause of the problems.

a) If for example the surface finish of the work-piece being cut is poor and unacceptable,
which of the independent variables should be changed first, and to what extent the
angle of the tool if so should it be increased or decreased.
b) If the cutting tool wears rapidly and becomes dull, should the cutting speed, the depth
of cut or the tool material be changed.
c) If the work-piece becomes very hot, and

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d) If the tool and the machine begin to vibrate and chatter, what should be done to
eliminate or reduce vibrations?

In order to understand these phenomena (the basic metal cutting process) and respond to
the question posed, let’s first study the mechanics of chip formation, a subject that has
been studied extensively since the early 1940s. Several models of the cutting mechanism
with varying degrees of complexity have been proposed. This text will discuss only on
theory the simple model shown in Fig. 2.1a by M.E. Merchant which is sufficient for our
purposes. This model is known as orthogonal cutting, because it is two dimensional and
the forces involved (as we later show) are perpendicular to each other. The cutting tool
has a rake angle of α (positive, as shown in the figure) and a relief or clearance angle.

Figure 2.1 Schematic illustration of a two-dimensional cutting process, also called

orthogonal cutting: (a) Orthogonal cutting with a well-defined shear plane, also known
as the M.E. Merchant model. Note that the tool shape, the depth of cut, to, and the cutting
speed, V, are all independent variables. (b) Orthogonal cutting without a well-defined
shear plane.

Microscopic examination of chips obtained in actual machining operations have revealed

that they are produced by shearing (as modeled in Fig. 2.2a)—similar to the movement
in a deck of cards sliding against each other. Shearing takes place in a shear zone
(usually along a well-defined plane referred to as the shear plane) at an angle ϕ (called
the shear angle). Below the shear plane, the work-piece remains undeformed; above it,
the chip that is already formed moves up the rake face of the tool. The dimension d in the

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figure is highly exaggerated to show the mechanism involved. In reality, this dimension
is only on the order of 10-2 to 10-3 mm (10-3 to 10-4in).

Some materials (notably cast irons at low speeds) do not shear along a well-defined plane
but instead shear in a zone, as shown in Fig. 2.1b. Shearing in such a volume is not in
itself objectionable, but it can lead to surface defects in the work-piece.

Figure 2.2 (a) Schematic illustration of the basic mechanism of chip formation by
shearing. (b) Velocity diagram showing angular relationships among the three speeds in
the cutting zone.

Cutting Ratio: - It can be seen that the chip thickness, tc, can be determined from the
depth of cut, to, the rake angle, α , and the shear angle, ϕ. The ratio of to/ tc is known as
the cutting ratio (or chip-thickness ratio), r, which can be expressed as:\

------------ 2.1a

and ------------ 2.1b

Because the chip thickness is always greater than the depth of cut, the value of r is always
less than unity. The reciprocal of r is known as the chip-compression ratio or chip-
compression factor and is a measure of how thick the chip has become compared with the
depth of cut; hence, the chip-compression ratio always is greater than unity. The depth of
cut also is referred to as the un-deformed chip thickness, as may be visualized by
reviewing Fig. 2.1.

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The cutting ratio is an important and useful parameter for evaluating cutting conditions.
Since the un-deformed chip thickness, to, is a machine setting and is therefore known, the
cutting ratio can be calculated easily by measuring the chip thickness with a micrometer.
With the rake angle also known for a particular cutting operation (it is a function of the
tool and work-piece geometry in use), Eq. (2.1) allows calculation of the shear angle.

Shear Strain; Referring now to Fig. 2.2a, we can see that the shear strain, that the
material undergoes, can be expressed as:

or ------------ 2.2

Note that large shear strains are associated with low shear angles or with low or negative
rake angles. In other words, the dimension d = OC in Fig. 2.2a is very small. Thus, the
rate at which shearing takes place is high.

The shear angle has great significance in the mechanics of cutting operations. It
influences force and power requirements, chip thickness, and temperature. Consequently,
much attention has been focused on determining the relationships among shear angle,
cutting process variables, and work-piece material properties. One of the earliest analyses
was based on the assumption that the shear angle adjusts itself to minimize the cutting
force or that the shear plane is a plane of maximum shear stress.

Relation between different tool velocities

According to Figure 2.1 that (since the chip thickness is greater than the depth of cut) the
velocity of the chip, Vc , has to be lower than the cutting speed, V. Since mass continuity
has to be maintained,

Based on mass continuity: or Vc = Vr.

Hence, ----------------------- 2.3

A velocity diagram also can be constructed, as shown in Fig. 2.2b, in which, from
trigonometric relationships, we obtain the equation.

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----------------------- 2.4a

Where Vs is the velocity at which shearing takes place in the shear plane. Note also that

----------------------- 2.4b

Example 2.1; - In a machining operation that approximates orthogonal cutting, the

cutting tool has a rake angle =10o. The chip thickness before the cut to = 0.50 mm and the
chip thickness after the cut tc = 1.125 mm. Calculate the shear plane angle and the shear
strain in the operation.

Solution: The chip thickness ratio can be determined from Eq. (2.1b):

The shear plane angle is given by Eq. (2.1a):

Finally, the shear strain is calculated from Eq. (2.2):

2.3 Cutting Conditions of a machining process

Relative motion is required between the tool and work to perform a machining
operation. The primary motion is accomplished at a certain cutting speed v. In addition,
the tool must be moved laterally across the work. This is a much slower motion, called
the feed f. The remaining dimension of the cut is the penetration of the cutting tool below
the original work surface, called the depth of cut d. collectively; speed, feed, and depth of
cut are called the cutting conditions. They form the three dimensions of the machining
process, and for certain operations (e.g., most single-point tool operations) they can be
used to calculate the material removal rate for the process:

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RMR = v . f . d

Where RMR = material removal rate, mm3/s (in3/min); v = cutting speed, m/s (ft/min),
which must be converted to mm/s (in/min); f = feed, mm (in); and d = depth of cut, mm
(in).

Figure 2.3 Cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut for a turning operation.

A cutting fluid is often applied to the machining operation to cool and lubricate the
cutting tool. Determining whether a cutting fluid should be used, and, if so, choosing the
proper cutting fluid, is usually included within the scope of cutting conditions.

The selection of cutting speed and feed is based on the following parameters:- Work-
piece material, Tool Material, Tool geometry and dimensions, Size of chip cross-section,
Types of finish desired, Rigidity of the machine, and Types of coolant used.

2.4 Types of metal Cutting

As the cutting tool engages the work-piece, the material directly ahead of the
tool is sheared and deformed under tremendous pressure. The deformed material
then seeks to relieve its stressed condition by fracturing and flowing into the space above
the tool in the form of a chip.

The two basic methods of metal cutting using a single point tool are the orthogonal (2 D)
and oblique (3D). Orthogonal cutting takes place when the cutting face of the tool is
90 degree to the line of action of the tool. If the cutting face is inclined at an angle less
than 90 degree to the line of action of the tool, the cutting action is known as oblique.

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Orthogonal Cutting: Oblique Cutting:

The cutting edge of the tool The cutting edge of the tool remains inclined at an
remains normal to the direction acute angle to the direction of tool feed or work
of tool feed or work feed. feed.
The direction of the chip flow The direction of the chip flow velocity is at an
velocity is normal to the cutting angle with the normal to the cutting edge of the
edge of the tool. tool. The angle is known as chip flow angle.
Here only two components of Here three components of forces are acting:
forces are acting: Cutting Force Cutting Force, Radial force and Thrust Force or
and Thrust Force. So the metal feed force. So the metal cutting may be considered
cutting may be considered as a as a three dimensional cutting.
two dimensional cutting. The cutting edge being oblique, the shear
For example: Operations: Lathe force acts on a larger area and thus tool life is
cut-off operation, grooving, increased.
parting, slotting, pipe cutting, In actual machining, Turning, Milling, grinding,
etc. drilling etc.

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2.5 Types of Chips Produced in Metal Cutting

Different types of chips of various shape, size, color etc. are produced by
machining depending upon:

Type of cut, i.e., continuous (turning, boring etc.) or intermittent cut (milling).
Work material (brittle or ductile etc.).
Cutting tool geometry (rake, cutting angles etc.).
Levels of the cutting velocity and feed (low, medium or high).
Cutting fluid (type of fluid and method of application).

The types of metal chips commonly observed in practice are shown in Fig. 2.4. The four
main types are as follows:

Figure 2.4 Four types of chip formation in metal cutting: (a) discontinuous, (b)
continuous, (c) continuous with built-up edge, (d) segmented.

Discontinuous chip; When relatively brittle materials (e.g., cast irons) are machined at
low cutting speeds, the chips often form into separate segments (sometimes the segments
are loosely attached). This tends to impart an irregular texture to the machined surface.
High tool–chip friction and large feed and depth of cut promote the formation of this chip
type.

Continuous chip; When ductile work materials are cut at high speeds and relatively small
feeds and depths, long continuous chips are formed. A good surface finish typically
results when this chip type is formed. A sharp cutting edge on the tool and low tool–chip
friction encourage the formation of continuous chips. Long, continuous chips (as in
turning) can cause problems with regard to chip disposal and/or tangling about the tool.
To solve these problems, turning tools are often equipped with chip breakers.

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Continuous chip with built-up edge; When machining ductile materials at low-to-
medium cutting speeds, friction between tool and chip tends to cause portions of the work
material to adhere to the rake face of the tool near the cutting edge. This formation is
called a built-up edge (BUE). The formation of a BUE is cyclical; it forms and grows,
then becomes unstable and breaks off. Much of the detached BUE is carried away with
the chip, sometimes taking portions of the tool rake face with it, which reduces the life of
the cutting tool. Portions of the detached BUE that are not carried off with the chip
become imbedded in the newly created work surface, causing the surface to become
rough.

Segmented chips; These chips are semi-continuous in the sense that they possess a saw-
tooth appearance that is produced by a cyclical chip formation of alternating high shear
strain followed by low shear strain. This fourth type of chip is most closely associated
with certain difficult-to-machine metals such as titanium alloys, nickel-base super alloys,
and austenitic stainless steels when they are machined at higher cutting speeds. However,
the phenomenon is also found with more common work metals (e.g., steels) when they
are cut at high speeds.

2.6 Forces and stresses in metal cutting

In orthogonal cutting the cutting edge of the tool is perpendicular to the direction
of cutting speed. See figure

Shear plane; The work material deforms plastically ahead of cutting tool edge. It slides
on the rake face of tool and forms a chip. The region between the start of the chip and
undeformed (elastically deformed) worhpiece is called zone of plastic deformation.

The size of zone of plastic deforamtion depends upon cutting parameters. The size of this
zone decreses with the increase of cutting speed. In the analysis of thin zones, it is

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assumed that the work material shears across a plane and forms the chip. This plane is
called shear plane.

Shear plane angle; The angle between the cutting velocity vector and shear plane is
called angle of shear plane ϕ. The chip is formed by plastic deformation of work material
and material flow is continuous.

Figure 2.5 Shear plane angle

From the equation of continuity,

t.b.v = tc .bc .vc ------------------ -- (1)

Where, t = depth of cut, b = width of cut, v = cutting velocity, tc = chip thickness, bc =

width of chip, vc = chip velocity.

In most cutting processes, b ≈ bc

⸫ t.v = tc .vc -------------------- (2)

The chip thickness ratio,

-------------------- (3)

Where, L = uncut chip length, Lc = length of chip formed.

From figure 2.5, the length of shear plane,

-------------------- (4)

Where, α = rake angle of tool.

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-------------------- (5)

-------------------- (6)

The shear angle ϕ can be experimentally found out from rt and rake angle α.

A pipe of ductile material is turned with the help of tool with side rake angle (condition
for orthogonal cutting). Measure L and Lc and calculate rt. measure rake angle α. The
tool should have only back rake angle and size zero rake angle for orthogonal cutting.

Example 2.2. The end of the a pipe was orthogonally cut with a tool of 200 rake angle.
The chip length was measured as 85mm whereas uncut length was 202mm. determine
shear plane angle and chip thickness if depth of cut was 0.5 mm.

Solutin: Assume, the chip width bc = width of uncut chip, b

Chip length Lc = 85mm, Length of uncut chip L = 202mm

⸫ Chip thickness ratio rt = Lc /L =85/202 = 0.42

Now, tan

0.42 cos 20
tan
1 0.42 sin 20

⸫ Shear plane angle, ϕ = 27.40

Chip thickness, tc = t/rt =0.5/0.42 =1.19mm Ans.

Cutting Forces in Orthogonal Cutting

In orthogonal cutting the resultant force Ȓ applied by the tool to the chip lies in a plane
normal to the tool cutting edge. This can be determined experimentally by measuring its
orthogonal components in the direction of cutting (known as cutting force Fh) and other

normal to the direction of cutting (known as thrust force Fv) with the help of
dynamometers. The magnitude of resultant force may be found out as follows

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! "

The component of R in the direction of width b is zero.

Fig. 2.6 Orthogonal component of cutting force

The geometrical relationships of components of resultant force in other directions can be
found out with the help of Fig. 2.7 which shows the following angles and directions.
Shear plane angle = ϕ
Angle of friction = β
Tool rake angle = α
The following pairs of components are shown in selected directions.
1. Fh = Horizontal force component along cutting velocity vector.
FV = Vertical force component normal to cutting velocity vector.
2. Fs = Force component parallel to shear plane (AC)
Fp = Force component normal to shear plane (AC)
3. Ft = Force component parallel to tool rake face.
Fn = Force component normal to tool rake face.

Fig. 2.7 Cutting forces

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⸫ # ! "

# $ ! %

# & ! '

If average coefficient of friction between the chip and tool isµ

-
⸫ ( )*+ , - -------------------------- (1)
.

67
Also /01 23 45 ------------------------- (2)
68

Equations (1) and (2) can be used to find friction angle β.

Expressing different force components in term of R, ϕ, β and α,
Fs = R cos (ϕ + β – α)
Fp = R sin (ϕ + β – α)
Fh = R cos (β – α)
Fv = R sin (β – α)
Fn = R cos β
Ft = R sin β
Theory of Ernst and Merchant

Merchant’s model for orthogonal cutting is based on the assumption that shear plane
angle ϕ should minimize the work done during cutting.
Following assumptions are made
1. The tool edge is sharp.
2. The shear plane is thin.
3. The deformation is in two dimensions only.
4. The normal and shear stresses are distributed uniformly on the shear plane.
5. The work material is rigid and perfectly plastic.
From the above Fig. 2.7, following relations were obtained:
Fh = R cos (β – α)
Fs = R cos (ϕ + β – α)
Let yield stress of material in shear = k
Fs = Area X k
&9:
= (AC) X b X k $;'∅
=

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The energy consumption during machining

Pm = Fh . v
Assume that ϕ and β are not functions of cutting velocity v.

Differentiating equation (1) with respect to ϕ and putting equal to zero for minimization
of Fh.

Example 2.3 Determine the shear plane angle, cutting force component and resultant
force on the tool for orthogonal cutting of a material with yield stress of 250 N/mm2.
Following are the machining parameters.
Tool rake angle = 15°
Uncut chip thickness = 0.25 mm
Chip width = 2 mm
Chip thickness ratio = 0.46
Angle of friction = 40°

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Solution:

⸫ Shear force along the shear plane

The resultant force on the cutting tool

The cutting force component,

cos 2,
, >5
= 426.3 cos (400 -150) = 426.3 cos 250
= 393.85 N Ans.

Example 2.4 Determine the shear plane angle, resultant force on the tool and cutting
force component for orthogonal cutting operation of a material with shear yield strength
of 200 N/mm2.. The machining data is as follows:

Uncut chip length = 100 mm

Length of cut length = 50 mm
Rake angle of tool = 10°
Width of cut = 1.5 mm
Uncut chip thickness = 0.2 mm
Coefficient of friction = 0.8
Solution: ratio rt = Lc/L = 50/100 = 0.5
Chip thickness ratio,

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.? @
tan @
.?

⸫ Shear plane angle, ϕ = 28.340

Shear force along shear plane

Resultant force on cutting tool,

Cutting force component, Fh = R cos (β – α) = 232 cos (38.660 – 100)

= 203.58 N Ans.

2.7 Temperatures in Cutting

As in all metalworking processes where plastic deformation is involved, the

energy dissipated in cutting nearly all of it (≈98%) is converted into heat that, in turn,
raises the temperature in the cutting zone. The remaining energy (≈2%) is retained as
elastic energy in the chip. Temperature rise is a very important factor in machining
because of its major adverse effects, such as the following:

Excessive temperature lowers the strength, hardness, stiffness, and wear resistance
of the cutting tool; tools also may soften and undergo plastic deformation; thus, tool
shape is altered.
Increased heat causes uneven dimensional changes in the part being machined,
making it difficult to control its dimensional accuracy and tolerances.
An excessive temperature rise can induce thermal damage and metallurgical
changes in the machined surface, adversely affecting its properties.
Produce hot chips that pose safety hazards to the machine operator.

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It can be seen that the main sources of heat in machining are: (a) the work done in
shearing in the primary shear zone, (b) energy dissipated as friction at the tool–chip
interface, and (c) heat generated as the tool rubs against the machined surface, especially
for dull or worn tools. Much effort has been expended in establishing relationships
among temperature and various material and process variables in cutting.

Figure 2.8 Typical temperature distributions in the cutting zone.

Note the severe temperature gradients within the tool and the chip, and that the
workpiece is relatively cool.

Analytical method derived by Nathan Cook from dimensional analysis using

experimental data for various work materials.

The equation can be used to predict the increase in temperature at the tool–chip interface
during machining:

0.4C F)
∆B 2 5 .HHH
DE G

Where, ∆B = mean temperature rise at the tool–chip interface, C0 (F0); U = specific

energy in the operation, N-m/mm3 or J/mm3 (in-lb/in3); v = cutting speed, m/s (in/sec); to
= chip thickness before the cut, m(in); DE = volumetric specific heat of the work material,
J/mm3-C (in-lb/in3-F); K = thermal diffusivity of the work material, m2/s (in2/sec).

Experimental methods can be used to measure temperatures in machining

• Most frequently used technique is the tool-chip thermocouple

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• Using this method, Ken Trigger determined the speed-temperature relationship

to be of the form:

T = K vm
Where T = measured tool-chip interface temperature, and v = cutting speed

Example 2.5 In an orthogonal cutting operation, the 0.250 in wide tool has a rake angle
of 50. The lathe is set so the chip thickness before the cut is 0.010 in. After the cut, the
deformed chip thickness is measured to be 0.027 in.

Calculate (a) the shear plane angle and (b) the shear strain for the operation.

Solution: (a) r = to/tc = 0.010/0.027 = 0.3701

ϕ = tan-1(0.3701 cos 5/ (1 - 0.3701 sin 5)) = tan-1(0.3813) = 20.90.

(b) Shear strain γ = cot 20.9 + tan (20.9 – 5) = 2.623 + 0.284 = 2.907

Example 2.6 For the specific energy U = 1:038 N-m/min3, calculate the increase in
temperature above ambient temperature of 200 C. Use the given data: v = 100m/min, t0 =
0.50mm. In addition, the volumetric specific heat for the work material = 3.0 (10-3)
J/mm3 -C, and thermal diffusivity = 50 (10-6) m2/s (or 50 mm2/s).

Solution: Cutting speed must be converted to mm/s: v = (100m/min) (103mm/m)/(60

s/min) =1667 mm/s. the temperature equation can now be used to compute the mean
temperature rise:
.I2 . HJ5 MMN2 .?5
∆B H. 2 K5 ℃2 ?
5 .HHH
= (138.4) (2.552) = 353℃

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