CHAPTER FOUR

EARTHWORK AND QUANTITIES

Introduction
The term earthwork is applied to that portion of highway construction, which is
required to convert the rights of way from the natural condition and configuration
to the section and grades prescribed in the geometric design. It includes
 Clearing
 Grubbing - clear off roots
 Excavation of drainage channels & trenches
 Excavation of structures
 Borrows
 Haul & Overhaul
 Grading
 Preparation of Side Slopes
 Reconditioning of roadway
 Other operations for preparing the sub grade for highway or runway
pavement construction.
The quantity and Cost are calculated in m3 either in its original form or by
allowing for shrinkage and swell. The rate of payment generally includes full
compensation for excavation, formation of embankment, preparing of side slopes,
disposal or borrowing with in the free-haul distance, and the preparation and
completion of the sub grade and the shoulders.
Classification of excavated materials
Usually excavated materials are classified in to three categories:
1) Solid Rock: hard rock and boulders; Volume > 1m3; can be best if it is
removed by blasting
2) Loose Rock: detached masses or rock – 0.025<V<1m3; could easily be
removed
3) Common/Ordinary Excavation: all others< 1m3.
Shrinkage and swell factors
The processes of excavation breaks up earth and make it occupy more space
afterwards. This increase in volume is called Swelling. (E.g., excavated rock
occupies a larger volume in fill)
After placing the excavated earth in a fill and compacting, volume will become less
than the original. Difference between original volume in cut and final volume in fill
is termed as Shrinkage
Shrinkage depends on the material’s characteristics, moisture content; climatic
conditions; and method of placing.

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 Table showing shrinkage of compacted fills .

Material % of shrinkage
Light excavated soil 10 – 20%
(on ordinary ground)
Light excavated soil 20 – 40%
(on swampy ground)
Heavy Excavated soil Up to 10%
Excavated Rock (Swell) 5 – 25%

Amount of excavation required to make a given fill may be arrived at by:

Shrinkage: multiply the fill quantity by 1+ %sh
Swelling: divide the fill quantity by 1 + %sw

Road Bed Sections

A highway sub-grade is usually formed with the travel lanes, shoulders and a
trench section upon which the pavement will be constructed, the finished surface
being crowned to facilitate drainage
 Ditches are provided on embankment sections to transfer water down the fill
slopes into pipes or paved gutters to protect the embankment against erosion.
 On curves of 5o or sharper sub grade is banked and widened. Width of
roadbed in cut is wider than on fills to allow for side-ditches.
 Sometimes ditches are provided depending on the drainage condition of the
site.

cut
fill

cutand
fill

Fig. Typical sections of cut fill and cut & fill

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 The slope of the side slope depends on the angle of repose of the material.

Material Ht. of Side Slope Back Slope

Slope
Cut Fill
Soil 0–1 1:4 1:4
1–2 1:3 1:3
Over 2 1:2 1:2

Rock Any ht. See standard details

Black Cotton 0 – 2 - 1:6
Soil Over 2 1:4

Earthwork quantities
For calculating the quantity of earthwork, the areas of cross-sections and the
distance between them must be known.
From the data supplied by x-section note and the design of vertical alignment, the
area of the x- section may be calculated. If the ground is levelled, simple geometry
may be applied to calculate the area of the x-section. For irregular grounds, there
are two general methods used.
1) The graphical or planimeter method.
2) The coordinate or other approximate method.
Area by coordinate method
With the coordinate of all the corners of an x-section known, the end area may be
computed by means of coordinate method. The point of intersection of the centre
of formation of the road is used as the origin .the cuts above the formation are
retained as plus and those below as minus. The distances to the right are positive
and those to the left are negative.
Simple rule. Arrange the coordinates in ccw in the form of fractions, the initial
fraction repeated to give a closed boundary.
y1 y 2 y3 y1
   ...  Then multiply along the marked diagonals and add the
x1 x 2 x3 x1
products all positive, multiply along unmarked diagonals and add the products all
negative and add the products all negative. The difference gives the double area.
Trapezoidal rule.

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 sd sd

1 d 1
s s
b
Cut

b
s
d 1

sd sd
Fill
A  bd  sd 2

Area of cut and fill section

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 b/2
L
C 1 in n

1 h2
A2
s1 d s2
1 A1 c
h1

d1 d2
A1=Area in cut
A2=Area in fill
When c is to the right of the point of zero fill
(b  2nd ) 2 (b  2nd ) 2
A1  and A2 
8(n  s1 ) 8(n  s2 )

When c is to the left of the point of zero fill

(b  2nd ) 2 (b  2nd ) 2
A1  and A2 
8(n  s1 ) 8(n  s2 )

Area of irregular section

Assumes the boundaries could be approximated by a straight line, if the interval L
between offset measurements is very small
(Trapezoidal rule)
L L L
O1 A1 A2 A3 An On+1

O2 On
O3

A  A1  A2  ...  An
A  L / 2O1  On 1  2(O2  O3  ...  On )

Simpson’s rule
Assumes, instead, that the boundaries consist of a series of parabolic arcs
For this rule to apply, N must be an odd number

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 L L L
O1 A1 A2 A3 An On+1

O2 On
O3

A1  A2  L / 3(O1  4O2  O3 )
A3  A4  L / 3(O3  4O4  O5 )
A  L / 3(O1  ON  4 even offsets  2 remaining odd offsets)
Average end area method
Volume of a right prism equals the average area multiplied by the length
Used if there are two end areas

A1  A2
V12  L
2

Where, A1 and A2 are end areas

L= length between the end areas

Pyramid method
Used when there is only one end area between the stations
Volume by pyramid formula is computed by:

V12 = AL/3

Where, A = end area

L = length between the end areas

Mass haul diagram

Is a continuous curve showing the accumulated algebraic sum of the cuts (+ve)
and fills (-ve) from some initial station to any succeeding station
Ordinates of the mass curve are plotted with reference to a horizontal scale of
distances
It is convenient to tabulate the cumulative sum of cuts and fills at a station before
drawing a Mass diagram
Mass haul diagram-drawing procedures
1) Calculate areas at cross-sections
2) Calculate the volume of fill and cut; cut is +ve and fill –ve.
3) Correct the volume calculated by shrinkage and swell factors
4) Tabulate the corrected aggregate volume

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 5) Plot the mass haul diagram
(scale: 1:2000 H and 1:500 or 1:1000 (cm:m3)V)
6) Join points by a straight line or curves
7)
Stations Individual Bulking/ Corr. Indiv. Aggregate
volume Shrinkage volumes Vol.
Cut Fill factors Cut Fill

Characteristics of Mass-haul Diagram

 A mass diagram is a graphical representation of the amount of earthwork and
embankment involved in a project and the manner in which the earth is to be
moved. Its horizontal or x-axis represents distance and is usually expressed in
meters or stations. It is drawn to the same horizontal scale as the profile. The
vertical or y-axis represents the cumulative quantity of earthwork in cubic
meters. The quantity of excavation on the mass diagram is considered positive,
and embankment as negative. Preliminary to drawing the mass curve, it is
convenient to tabulate the cumulative volumes of cuts and fills at each station.
 The mass diagram allows a highway engineer to determine direction of haul and
the quantity of earth taken from or hauled to any location. It shows “balance
points”, the stations between which the volume of excavation (after adjustment
for “shrinkage” or “swell”) and embankment are equal.

Figure. Profile and mass diagram. AC = free-haul distance; HJ – AC = overhaul

distance; BB = free-haul volume; A’A = C’C = overhaul volume; OD = length of
balance.

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A study of the mass diagram (or curve) shown in figure above will verify the
following statements:
 The ordinate at any point on the mass curve represents the cumulative
volume to that point on the profile.
 Within the limits of a single cut, the curve rises from left to right; within the
limits of a single fill, it falls from left to right.
 Sections where the volume changes from cut to fill correspond to a maximum;
sections where the volume changes from fill to cut correspond to a minimum.
Evidently the maximum and minimum points on the diagram occur at, or
near, grade points on the profile.
 Any horizontal line, as AC, cutting off a loop of the mass curve, intersects the
curve at two points between which the cut is equal to the fill (adjusted for
shrinkage). Such a line is called a balance line.
 The loops convex upward indicate that the haul from cut to fill is to be in one
direction (to the right in this case); loops concave upward indicate a reverse
direction of haul.
 The final point on a mass diagram for a given project gives the overall net
amount of earthwork for the entire project. This amount, if positive, would
indicate a surplus of excavation material and a need to waste that quantity of
material. If the final point on the mass diagram is a negative amount, it
indicates a net shortage of earthwork for the project and a need to borrow
that quantity of earthwork material.

Determination Of Overhaul From The Mass Diagram: One of the important

uses of the mass diagram, aside from balancing cuts and fills and indicating the
most advantageous distribution of the same, is to establish definitely the overhaul
distance and the portion of the total volume which is to be regarded as hauled
beyond the specified free-haul limit.

Referring to figure above, proceed as follows:

 Assuming the free-haul distance to be 150m, find by trial a horizontal line

intersecting the curve at points A and C, such that AC = 150m. Then the
material above line AC will be hauled at no extra cost. The amount of this
material is given by the ordinate from line AC to point B and is a measure of
the volume in cut from a to b, which makes the fill from b to c.

 Consider now the volume above the balance line OD. A study of the mass
curve and the corresponding profile shows that the cut from o to b will make
the fill from b to d. But since part of this solidity, the part above the balance
line AC, is included in the free-haul limit, the other part between lines OD

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 and AC – which is measured by the ordinate A’A – is subject to overhaul
unless wastage and borrow take place. That is, some or all of the volume from
o to a may be “overhauled” to make the fill from c to d.

 The average length of haul of the solidity from o to a to make the fill from c to
d is the distance between the centers of gravity of cut o to a and fill c to d. The
gravity lines are found as follows: Bisect AA’ at M and draw a horizontal line
intersecting the mass curve at H and J. These points H and J are assumed to
be vertically below the desired centers of gravity. Therefore the average haul is
given by the length of line HJ, and the overhaul is this distance HJ less the
free haul distance AC. The overhaul distance (in stations) multiplied by the
net volume gives the station-volumes of overhaul.

 It should be note that the foregoing graphical method of determining the

center of gravity of the masses in cut and fill is inaccurate when there is
abruptness in the mass curve. In such cases, a more accurate method is to
divide the volume in parts and take moments about a vertical line of reference
just as is done in finding the center of gravity of a system of forces.

 The mass diagram may be used to indicate the most economical procedure for
disposing of excavated material, what part of it should be moved forward or
backward, and whether borrowing and wasting are advisable. Thus if the
balance line OD is continued horizontally to point X, it will be seen that the
cuts and fills from o to f are balanced, but the solidity represented by the
ordinate at G is excess cut (from f to g) which may be carried forward,
backward, or wasted. If the project ends at point g or if there are no fills
immediately ahead, then this excavated material should be carried backward
to help make the fill from b to c (it being downhill and within the free-haul
limit), while an equivalent amount of volume from the cut o to a would be
wasted, thus reducing the station-volume of overhaul.
Distribution Analysis of Earthwork Terminologies
1) Haul Distance: distance from point of excavation to point where the
material is to be tipped
2) Average Haul Distance is the distance from the centre of gravity of the
excavation to the centre of gravity of the tip
3) Free-haul Distance: is the distance (usually specified in the contract) over
which a charge is paid only for the volume of earth excavated and not for its
movement (300m). Free-haul is part of the haul, which is contained within the
free haul distance.
4) Over-haul Distance: is the distance in excess of the free-haul distance, over
which it is necessary to transport material. An extra charge will be paid for
transport. Over-haul is part of the haul which remains after the free haul has
been removed.

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 5) Haul: is the sum of the product of each volume of material and the distance
through which it is moved. On the mass-haul diagram, it is the area
contained b/n the curve and the balance line
6) Waste: is the volume surplus or unsuitable material, which must be
exported from a section of the site.
7) Borrow: is the volume of material which must be imported in t a section of
the site due to deficiency of suitable material
Limit of Economical Haul
When there are long hauls, it may be more economical to waste and borrow
materials rather than pay for the cost of overhauling. Equating the cost of
excavation plus overhaul to the cost of excavation from both the roadway and
borrow pit, one can estimate the limit of economic haul for making the
embankment. Thus,
Let: Ce=cost of excavation per unit volume (including free haul)
Cb=cost to excavate borrow pit (including free haul)
Coh=cost of overhaul per m3m
Le=Economical Length of over-haul
Cost to excavate 1m3 of material from cut and move to fill:
=Ce+CohLe (1)
Cost of excavate from cut, waste, borrow and place 1m3 material in fill
= Cb+Ce (2)
Equating (1) & (2): Ce+CohLe= Cb+Ce  Le=Cb /Coh
Therefore, ELH = Le+FH distance
Where : ELH = Economic limit haul
Le = Cb /Coh
FH distance = free haul distance

Example
For the tabulated volume of cut and fill data given below:
1) draw the mass-haul diagram, and
2) estimate the total cost of excavating and moving earth
If, the cost of excavation is 6birr/m3, cost of borrow is 6 birr/m3, cost of overhaul
is 12birr/station-m3, and the free haul distance is 1.1km. Use a shrinkage factor
of 0.9.

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 Indiv. Volume Bulking/ Corr. Indiv. Agg. Vol.
Sta *103 m3 Shrinkage Volumes
km+m factors *103 m3
Cut Fill Cut Fill
0+000
2.00 - 0.9 1.80 1.80
0+100
1.2 - 0.9 1.08 2.88
0+200
0.8 - 0.9 0.72 3.60
0+300
0.15 - 0.9 0.14 3.74
0+400
- 0.65 0.65 3.09
0+500
- 1.50 1.50 1.59
0+600
- 2.00 2.00 - 0.41
0+700
- 1.80 1.80 - 2.21
0+800
- 1.60 1.60 - 3.81
0+900
2.00 - 0.9 1.80 - 2.01
1+000
1.80 - 0.9 1.62 0.39
1+100
1.60 - 0.9 1.44 1.05
1+200
- 1.00 1.00 0.05
1+300
- 1.00 1.00 - 0.95
1+400
3.00 - 0.9 2.70 1.75
1+500
1.00 - 0.9 0.90 2.65
1+600

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