CHAPTER 4

Earth Work & Quantities

 Introduction
• Is the phase during a highways construction
when the right of way is converted from its
natural condition and configuration to the
section and the grades prescribed in the plans

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 Earth Work Includes
• Clearing
• Grubbing - clear off roots
• Excavation of drainage channels & trenches
• Excavation of structures
• Borrows
• Haul & Overhaul
• Grading
• Preparation of Side Slopes
• Reconditioning of roadway
• Other operations for preparing the subgrade for highway or
runway pavement construction (Highway Eng. II)
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 Earthwork Quantity
• Quantity and Cost are calculated in m3 either in its
original form or by allowing for shrinkage and swell
• The rate of payment generally includes full
compensation for excavation, formation of
embankment, preparing of side slopes, disposal or
borrowing with in the free-haul distance, and the
preparation and completion of the subgrade and the
shoulders
• For borrowing or disposal involving more than the
free haul distance

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Classification of Excavated Material
Usually the classification is into three categories:
1. Solid Rock: comprises hard rock in place and boulders that
can be removed only by the use of drilling and blasting
equipment.
hard rock and boulders; Volume > 1m3; best
removed by blasting
1. Loose Rock: usually refers to rock which can be removed
with pick and bar, although the use of power shovels or
blasting may be advantageous.
detached masses or rock – 0.025<V<1m3; could
easily be removed
3. Common/Ordinary Excavation: is largely earth, or
earth with detached boulders less than ½ cu yd. 5
 Shrinkage & Swell Factors
• When earth is excavated and hauled to form an
embankment, the freshly excavated material generally
increases in volume. However, during the process of
building the embankment it is compacted, so that the
final volume is less than when in its original condition.
This difference in volume is usually defined as
“shrinkage”. The amount of shrinkage varies with the soil
type and the depth of the fill.
• When rock is excavated and placed in the embankment,
the material will occupy a larger volume. This increase is
called “ swell”

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 CONT…
• Percent shrinkage = ( 1 – ( wt. bank
measure / wt. compacted ) ) *100
% sh. = ( 1 – (γB / γC) ) * 100
• Percent swell = ((wt. bank measure / wt.
loose measure) – 1) * 100
% sw. = ((γB / γL) - 1) * 100

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 Shrinkage of compacted fills
Material % of shrinkage
Light excavated soil 10 – 20%
(on ordinary ground)
Light excavated soil 20 – 40%
(on swampy ground)
Heavy Excavated soil Up to 10%
Excavated Rock (Swell) 5 – 25%

Amount of excavation required to make a given fill may be

arrived at by:
Shrinkage: multiply the fill quantity by 1+ %sh
Swelling: divide the fill quantity by 1 + %sw 8
 Road Bed Sections
• A highway sub-grade is usually formed with
shoulders and a trench section upon which the
pavement will be constructed, the finished
surface being crowned to facilitate drainage
• Ditches are provided on embankment sections
to transfer water down the fill slops into pipes or
paved gutters to protect the embankment
against erosion
• On curves of 5o or sharper subgrade is banked
and widened. Width of road bed in cut is wider
than on fills to allow for side-ditches.
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 Typical Sections

Fill

Cut

Cut & Fill

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Side slopes of X-sections

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 Areas of Cross-sections
• For the purpose of calculating the
quantity of earth work, the areas of
cross-sections and the distance between
them must be known
• Methods
– For regular/level ground  simple geometry
– For irregular ground, two methods
1. Graphical or planimeter method .
2. Coordinate or other approximate method

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 Area for Regular Ground
Area of a trapizod
sd sd

1 d 1
s s

2
A  bd  sd
b
Cut
b
s
d 1

sd sd
Fill
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 Area for (Regular) cut – fill sections
n
L
C 1 in
b/2
A1=Area in cut 1 h2
s1 A2
A2=Area in fill d s2
A1 c
h1 1

d1 d2
(b  2nd ) 2 (b  2nd ) 2
When c is to the right A1  and A2 
of the point of zero fill 8(n  s1 ) 8(n  s2 )
2 2
(b  2nd ) (b  2nd )
When c is to the left of A1  and A2 
the point of zero fill 8(n  s1 ) 8(n  s2 )
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 Area for Three-Level Section
With three readings taken directly from slope stake notes,
one at the center and one at each slope stake, the area of
cross section may be obtained.

A = ½ [d(x1 + x2) +
½ b(h1 + h2)]

A = ½ (h1x’’ + h2x’)

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 Area of irregular section
1. Trapezoidal Rule
Assumes the boundaries could be approximated by a
straight line, if the interval L between offset
measurements is very small
L L L
O1 A1 A2 A An On+1
3

O2 On
O3

A  A1  A2  ...  An
A  L / 2O1  On 1  2(O2  O3  ...  On )
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18
 Area of irregular section
2. Simpson’s Rule
Assumes, instead, that the boundaries consist of a series of parabolic
arcs
For this rule to apply, N must be an odd number

L L L
O1 A1 A2 A An On+1
3

O2 On
O3

A1  A2  L / 3(O1  4O2  O3 )
A3  A4  L / 3(O3  4O4  O5 )
A  L / 3(O1  ON  4 even offsets  2 remaining odd offsets )
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 Area by Coordinate Method
• With the coordinates of all the corners of a cross-section known, the
end area may be computed by means of the coordinate method
• Let the corners A, B, C, and D of the area ABCD be located by the
coordinates (x1,y1), (x2,y2), (x3,y3), and (x4,y4). Then the area is given
by the algebraic sum of four trapezoids. Thus,
Area = ABba + BCcb – ADda - DCcd
=1/2 [(y2 - y1)(x1 + x2) + (y3-y2)(x2 + x3) –
(y4 - y1 )(x1 + x4) - (y3 - y4)(x4 + x3)]

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 Computation of Volumes

Two methods will be discussed here:

1. Average End Area Method

2. Prismodal Formula

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 Average End Area Method

Volume of a right prism equals the average area

multiplied by the length
A1  A2
V12  l
2
V  l / 2[( A1  An )  2( A2  A3  ...  An  2  An 1 )]
In which: A1 and A2 = area of end sections (m2)
L = length of solid (m)
This formula is applied to areas of any shape, but the
results are slightly too large. The error is small if the
sections do not change rapidly.
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 Prismodal Formula
• A prismoid is a solid whose ends are parallel and whose
sides are plane or warped surfaces
• The Volume of a prismoid is: Vab  l 6 ( A1  4 Am  A2 )
V13  l 6 ( A1  4 A2  A3 )
V35  l 6 ( A3  4 A4  A5 )
 V15  l 6 ( A1  A5  2 A3  4( A2  A4 ))
 V  l 6 ( A1  AN  2(remaining odd areas )  4(even areas ))

• In which L is the distance between the two parallel bases A1 and A2

and Am is a section midway between the two end bases and parallel
to them. Am is not an average of A1 and A2, but each of its linear
dimensions is an average of the corresponding dimensions of A1
and A2.

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Since, Cp is negative it should be addedt o
the value of Ve then, Ve= 1390.125-(-
4.875)=1395 m3
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Problem#

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 Mass Diagram
• Is a continuous curve showing the accumulated
algebraic sum of the cuts (+ve) and fills (-ve)
from some initial station to any succeeding
station
• Ordinates of the mass curve are plotted with
reference to a horizontal scale of distances
• It is convenient to tabulate the cumulative sum
of cuts and fills at a station before drawing a
Mass diagram

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The mass haul diagram can be used
to determine:
 Proper distribution of excavated
material
 Amount and location of waste
 Amount and location of borrow
 Amount of overhaul in kilometer-cubic
meters
 Direction of haul.

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 Drawing a mass-haul diagram
Procedures
1. Calculate areas at cross-sections
2. Calculate the volume of fill and cut; cut is +ve and fill –ve.
3. Correct the volume calculated by shrinkage and swell
factors
4. Tabulate the corrected aggregate volume
5. Plot the mass haul diagram
(e.g. scale: 1:2000 H and 1:500 or 1:1000 (cm:m3)V)
6. Join points by a straight line or curves

Sta Individual Bulking/ Shrinkage Corr. Indiv. volumes Aggregate

volume factors Vol.
Cut Fill Cut Fill

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 Mass-Haul Diagram -
i.
Characteristics
The Ordinate at any point represents the cumulative material to
that point on the profile
ii. With in the limits of a single cut, the curve rises from left to right;
within the limits of a single fill, it falls from left to right
iii. Sections where the profile changes from cut to fill correspond to a
maximum (and the opposite for ch. from fill to cut). Evidently the
maximum and minimum points on the mass diagram occur at or
near grade points on the profile
iv. Any horizontal line cutting a loop of a mass curve, intersects the
curve at two points b/n which the cut is equal to the fill (adjusted
for shrinkage); such a line is called a BALANCE LINE
v. The loop convex upward indicates that the haul from cut to fill is
to be in one direction
vi. The final point on a mass diagram for a given project gives the
overall net amount of earthwork for the entire project. This
amount, if positive, would indicate a surplus of excavation
material and a need to waste that quantity of material. If the final
point on the mass diagram is a negative amount, it indicates a
net shortage of earthwork for the project and a need to borrow
that quantity of earthwork material.
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 Mass-haul Diagram - Example
Natural ground profile
m

h
i l Proposed grade line

j k
Aggregate volume (m3)

H J

K M
O Chainage (km+m)
L

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 Distribution Analysis of Earthwork
Terminologies
• Haul Distance: distance from point of excavation to point where the material is to
be tipped

• Average Haul Distance is the distance from the centre of gravity of the excavation
to the centre of gravity of the tip

• Free-haul Distance: is the distance (usually specified in the contract) over which a
charge is paid only for the volume of earth excavated and not for its movement
(300m). Free-haul is part of the haul which is contained within the free haul
distance.

• Over-haul Distance: is the distance in excess of the free-haul distance, over which
it is necessary to transport material. An extra charge will be paid for transport.
Over-haul is part of the haul which remains after the free haul has been removed.

• Haul: is the sum of the product of each volume of material and the distance
through which it is moved. On the mass-haul diagram, it is the area contained b/n
the curve and the balance line

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 Distribution Analysis of Earthwork
Terminologies (cont.)

• Waste: is the volume surplus or unsuitable material

which must be exported from a section of the site.

• Borrow: is the volume of material which must be

imported in t a section of the site due to deficiency of
suitable material

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 Haul and Overhaul
• In grading contracts for roads it is usually stipulated that the
contractor shall be paid a certain price per cubic meter for
excavating, hauling, and dumping the material, regardless of
distance hauled, provided it does not exceed a specified limit
called free haul. The free haul distance may be as low as
150m and as high as 900m or more.

• If there is an overhaul on some of the material, that is, if the

distance from excavation to embankment is beyond the free
haul limit, then an extra charge may be allowed.

• A mass diagram is helpful in determining the amount of

overhaul and the most economical distribution of the
excavated material.
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 Limit of Economical Haul
• When there are long hauls, it may be more
economical to waste and borrow materials rather than
pay for the cost of overhauling.

• Equating the cost of excavation plus overhaul to the

cost of excavation from both the roadway and borrow
pit, one can estimate the limit of economic haul for
making the embankment.

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Limit of Economical Haul (cont…)
Let: Ce=cost of excavation per unit volume (including free haul)
Cb=cost to excavate borrow pit (including free haul)
Coh=cost of overhaul per m3m
Le=Economical Length of over-haul
Cost to excavate 1m3 of material from cut and move to fill
=Ce+CohLe (1)
Cost of excavate from cut, waste, borrow and place 1m3 material
in fill = Cb+Ce (2)
Equating (1) & (2): Ce+CohLe= Cb+Ce  Le=Cb /Coh
Total Distance, D=Le+F
where: F=free haul distance
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 Example
If the cost of roadway excavation, Ce, is 800 cents/m3,
cost of borrow, Cb, is 700 cents/m3, and cost of
overhaul, Coh, is 12 birr/m3-station, what is the
economical length of overhaul? The free haul distance
is 1.5km and a station is 100m long.

Ans: Economic overhaul limit (L) = (cost of borrow/cost of

overhaul)=
Le=Cb /Coh
= (700/12) = 58m.
- Therefore, Limit of Economic Haul (L.E.H.) = Free haul
distance + Economic = (1500 + 58)
- Le =1558m
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 Example
For the tabulated volume of cut and fill data given
below:
1. draw the mass-haul diagram, and
2. estimate the total cost of excavating and moving
earth
if, the cost of excavation is 6birr/m3, cost of borrow is
6 birr/m3, cost of overhaul is 12birr/station-m3, and
the free haul distance is 1.1km. Use a shrinkage
factor of 0.9.

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 Example
Indiv. volume Bulking/ Shrinkage Corr. Indiv. Volumes Agg.
Sta 103 m3 factors 103 m3 Vol.
km+m Cut Fill Cut Fill

0+000
2.00 - 0.9 1.80 1.80
0+100
1.2 - 0.9 1.08 2.88
0+200
0.8 - 0.9 0.72 3.60
0+300
0.15 - 0.9 0.14 3.74
0+400
- 0.65 0.65 3.09
0+500
- 1.50 1.50 1.59
0+600
- 2.00 2.00 - 0.41
0+700
- 1.80 1.80 - 2.21
0+800
- 1.60 1.60 - 3.81
0+900
2.00 - 0.9 1.80 - 2.01
1+000
1.80 - 0.9 1.62 0.39
1+100
1.60 - 0.9 1.44 1.05
1+200
- 1.00 1.00 0.05
1+300
- 1.00 1.00 - 0.95
1+400
3.00 - 0.9 2.70 1.75
1+500
1.00 - 0.9 0.90 2.65
1+600
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The end
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