LANGUAGE AND

LEARNING
WHAT IS LANGUAGE?
§ It is a vehicle for communication.
§ Linguists define language as a system of systems.
§ There is a kind of pattern which governs the whole operation/function of language
as people use for purposes. This system works with various tools like sounds,
structure of words, patterns.
LANGUAGE AND LEARNING
§ Language and learning are intertwined.
§ Language is a tool for communication.
§ Humans have an innate language faculty.
§ Language is the carrier of content to be delivered and learnt.
§ First language becomes the basis of learning second language.
§ We make deliberate attempts to learn second language.
LAC AND ITS IMPLEMENTATION
§ It attained importance with the spread of foreign language education because of
world war II and because of the post colonial mindset.
§ Language across curriculum as a concept and philosophy as a concept and
philosophy for education originated in UK in 1970s with a report named- A
Language for Life or Bullock Report.
§ A decade before Bullock report, people in India was pondering over whatever
mattered in terms of education and Kothari commission came into action.
§ This commission addressed the three-language formula where language was
recognized and seen as an instrument for educational advancement of learning as
well as promoting national integration.
GOALS OF LAC
§ It aims at supports learners language development in all domains of language use
and each activity inside and outside the classroom in the school
§ It recognizes the essential role of language and language skills in the process of
learning content subjects like science, social science and Math.
§ It facilitates the connection between languages and their function in process of
learning the content subjects.
§ Influence teaching-learning in the classroom.
THREE LANGUAGE FORMULA
ACCORDING TO NEP 2020
§ - As a medium of instruction: Wherever possible, the medium of instruction until at
least Grade 5, but preferably till Grade 8 and beyond it will be the home
language/mother-tongue/local language/regional language. 
§ - The three-language formula will continue to be implemented to promote
multilingualism as well as promote national unity.
§ - NEP states that there will be greater flexibility in the three-language formula. But
no language will be imposed on any State. 
§ - To learn three languages will be the choice of States, regions, and students
themselves, as long as at least two of the three languages are native to India. 
§ According to the HRD Ministry of Education, the three-language formula will
continue to be implemented in schools "with greater flexibility" but "no language
will be imposed on any state." 
THREE LANGUAGE FORMULA
§ The first recommendation for a three-language policy was made by the University
Education Commission in 1948–49, which did not find the requirement to study
three languages to be an extravagance, citing the precedents of other multilingual
nations such as Belgium and Switzerland. While accepting that Modern
Standard Hindi was itself a minority language, and had no superiority over others
such as Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, Marathi, Bengali, Punjabi, Malayalam,
and Gujarati all of which had a longer history and greater body of literature, the
commission still foresaw Hindi as eventually replacing English as the means by
which every Indian state may participate in the Federal functions.
LANGUAGE LEARNING AND
MULTILINGUALISM IN CLASSROOM
§ SOCIAL MULTILINGUALISM AND OFFICAL MULTILINGUALISM
§ Indian classrooms are multi-lingual in nature.
§ There are learners from different language backgrounds.
§ Three-language formula
§ “ language across the curriculum is both a concept and a policy”- Volmer (2006)

§ Do you think that children can learn language while learning the content subject
like science, Mathematics, History and so on. If yes. How?
ACADEMIC LANGUAGE
§ Main components of academic language:

§ Vocabulary
§ Syntax
§ Language function and
§ Discourse
VOCABULARY
§ Vocabulary refers to students’ understanding of oral and print words and includes
conceptual knowledge.
§ In the early 20th century, John Dewey (1910) had stated that vocabulary is critically
important because a word is an instrument for thinking about the meanings which
it expresses.
§ Vocabulary instruction in school is neither frequent nor systematic. Many words
are unfamiliar to most students as they contain ideas necessary for a new topic.
§ These are subject specific words that label content discipline concepts, subjects
and topics. They are not very frequently used and are learnt when a specific need
arises such as learning ‘fulcrum’ or ‘pulley’ during a Physics lesson will come
across many new and unfamiliar words.
SYNTAX(STRUCTURE OF SENTENCE)
§ The word ‘syntax’ refers to the set of rules and principles that govern the
structuring of a sentence or a phrase in a language.
§ Different words, if not put in an order, can create confusion or make meaning
ambiguous.
§ Syntax is how different parts of speech are put together to convey a complete
thought.
§ To convey meaning is one of the main functions of syntax. It involves the ordering
of words to say what is meant to be said.
LANGUAGE FUNCTION
§ Language is used in a variety of purposes-both informal and formal.
§ The purposes for which we use language to communicate is called language function,
we use language to accomplish something in formal or informal settings, for social or
academic purposes.
§ Academic language function is the function through which students can express their
developing understanding of the newly learned content. While using language for a
specific purpose or function, learners also use grammatical structures and vocabulary.
§ Making the learners understand the language from the language functions perspective
makes it easy for them to identify the language demands associated with specific
academic tasks like comparing and contrasting, describing and sequencing, etc. If the
learner learns how to use the language function comparing for instance, she can apply
that skill to a range of contexts across different content areas.
§ She can compare events, ideas, phenomenon, objects in Science, Mathematics, Social
Science, Literature, etc. With increase in competence in language functions, the learner
can gradually use complex sentence structure.
DISCOURSE (VOCABULARY, SYNTAX, LANGUAGE
FUNCTION)
§ Discourse refers to how members of a subject area speak and write about their
content area.
§ Discourse is putting words and sentences together to clearly communicate
complex ideas.
§ It contains several elements such as structure and organisation, manner of
speaking, complexibility, intelligibility and audience.
§ Discourse can be understood as a process of communication. It is communication
but it is a specific style of communication which is used mostly in the world of
academics.
§ Textbooks, research articles, dissertations, science journals, logs, etc., are
examples of different types of discourse.
LANGUAGE AS THE FOUNDATION FOR
LEARNING
§ For teachers to incorporate the goal of making their students acquire proficiency in reading and
writing the language of Science, Mathematics or Social Science, it is important that they have an
understanding of the various forms of literacy attainment.
§ Shanahan and Shanahan (2008) work is important in this regard .
§ They examine how literacy development progresses in three stages:
§ basic literacy, (decoding and knowledge of words that appear frequently in all reading tasks)
§ intermediate literacy, (common word meanings, basic fluency)and
§ disciplinary literacy (literacy skills in specific disciplines: history, science, mathematics,
literature, etc). The third stage of literacy called disciplinary literacy is where the skills are not
formally taught but are difficult to learn because the nature of discipline specific texts becomes
difficult and abstract. These three stages can be presented graphically in the form of a pyramid.
§ Although these stages do not develop in a linear fashion, it is important to master each of these
stages to acquire proficiency in reading. Proficiency is acquired in each stage when readers
repeatedly draw on their previous understandings of supporting comprehension for reading new
texts.
HOW CAN MULTILINGUALISM BE USED AS
A RESOURCE IN A CLASSROOM?
§ English- poem ‘Soap’ – understanding translation
§ Science- commonly used jargons in place of very technical aspects of the subjects
to make the understanding better.
§ Physics- Explanation with different examples from day to day life and from our
environment.
§ English-making understanding easy for language acquisition. Word meaning.
§ Biology- identification of species and understanding technical aspects.
§ Home science- cooking as one aspect of this subject.
§ History- study about festivals and cultures; sharing of experiences in classroom
involves a multi-lingual aspect.
LANGUAGE AND LEARNING:
RESPONSIBILITY OF A SUBJECT TEACHER?
§ The National Curriculum Framework 2005 (NCERT, India) highlights the role of
language in learning:
‘Language – as a constellation of skills ...cuts across school subjects and disciplines.
Speech and listening, reading and writing are all generalized skills, and children’s
mastery over them becomes the key factor affecting success at school. In many
situations, all of these skills need to be used together. This is why it is important to view
language education as everybody’s concern at school and not as a responsibility of the
language teacher alone.’
§   Meaning focussed input – learning through listening and reading;
§   Meaning focussed output – learning through speaking and writing;
§   Language focussed output-learning through deliberate attention to language
features; and
§   Fluency development –learning through working with known materials across the
four skills at a higher than usual level of performance. (Paul Nation)
HOW CAN SUBJECT TEACHERS SCAFFOLD
LANGUAGE LEARNING?
§ Develop in students competency and skills required for comprehending,
identifying, selecting and integrating information.
§ Focus on subject-specific vocabulary
§ Highlight the underlying conceptual framework :
§ Analysing subject specific word formation
§ Develop an ability to focus on the structure of texts: Chronological/sequential,
Cause and effect, Problem/solution, compare/contrast, descriptions
§ Discussing, explaining, questioning and using talk and writing to tussle with ideas
are all means of achieving better understanding of a subject.
COMPLEMENTARITY OF LANGUAGE SKILLS AND
SUBJECT KNOWLEDGE OF TEACHERS
§ The skill of explanation
§ Breaking down concepts
§ Discussion and reading
THINK TANK
§ How does language skills of a teacher effect the learning in a classroom?
ACTIVITY – SUBMISSION DATE 15
MARCH,21
§ Create a lesson plan for your subject to explain a concept to students. The lesson plan must
include:
1. objective of the lesson
2. Mind map/ concept map –how can it be incorporated
3. plan for explanation of the concept.
4. teaching strategies
5. teaching techniques

§ Meaning focussed input – learning through listening and reading;

§   Meaning focussed output – learning through speaking and writing;
§   Language focussed output-learning through deliberate attention to language features; and
§   Fluency development –learning through working with known materials across the four skills
at a higher than usual level of performance. (Paul Nation)
TRANS LANGUAGING
§ Translanguaging’ is a relatively new term for an age-old practice – that of switching
between the languages one knows in order to maximise communicative potential.
Translanguaging is flexible multilingualism.
§ Whether it involves combining elements from different languages in the same
utterance (‘codeswitching’) or alternating between languages in different parts of a
task, it is a natural means of employing one’s linguistic resources to their greatest effect.
§ In the classroom, translanguaging may involve:
§   translating between languages
§   comparing and being playful with different languages
§   mixing words and expressions from different languages in the same spoken or
written utterance
§   using the home language in one part of an activity and the school language in
another part.
ACTIVITIES TO DEVELOP LANGUAGE ACROSS
THE CURRICULUM
§ Providing Rich and Varied Language Experiences
§ Teaching Individual Words - Fostering Word Consciousness , Morphemes -
Prefixes, Roots, Suffixes
CLASSROOM DISCOURSE
§ Learning in a classroom is possible if there is a dialogue and discussion.
§ classroom discourse needs to be understood to promote learning in the classroom.
§ Language learning happens as a result of the reactions amongst the teachers and the
learners.
§ Five factors crucial to classroom discourse are:
§ These five factors are: All wright & Bailey (1991)

- Who gets to speak? (participants’ turn distribution)

- What do they talk about? (topic)
- What does each participant do with the various opportunities to speak? (task)
- What sort of atmosphere is created? (tone)
- What accent, dialect or language is used? (code)
§ In order to facilitate language learning, classroom interaction needs to be understood and
optimized. Moreover, the quality of interaction is largely determined by teachers during
their face-to-face communication with the learners.
§ Any second language lesson can be viewed as a dynamic and complex series of
interrelated contexts, in which interaction is central to teaching and learning.
§ Van Lier (1988) identifies four types of second language (L2) classroom interaction:
§ Type 1: The first, which he calls ‘less topic- orientation, less activity- orientation’, is
typical of everyday conversation. Thus, it is the least structured, allowing the most
freedom for self- expression.
§ Type 2: Second is ‘more topic- orientation, less activity- orientation’ which is typical of
the type of interaction that occurs when information is provided in instructions or a
lecture. The interaction is one- way and involves little space for exchange of ideas or
opinions.
§ Type 3: The third category, ‘more topic- orientation, more activity orientation,’ occurs
when information has to be exchanged following specific and predetermined lines, as
in an interview, joke or story.
§ Type 4: The final category, ‘less topic- orientation, more activity- orientation’ is typified
by substitution drills, pair work and activities that have very specific procedures.
STRUCTURE OF CLASSROOM DISCOURSE
§ In most classrooms teachers control both the topic of conversation and turn-taking.
§ Learners take cues from the teacher through whom they direct most of their
responses.
§ For example, in a second language classroom the teacher is often considered to be
the main point of reference and he/she controls most of the patterns of
communication primarily through the ways in which the teacher restrict or allow
learners’ interaction, take control of the topic and facilitate or hinder learning
opportunities.
§ The underlying structure of second language classrooms typically represent
sequences of discourse ‘moves’ IR (E/F), where I is teacher initiation, R is learner
response and E/F is an optional evaluation or feedback by the teacher (Sinclair
and Coulthard, 1975). In later versions of the model, F became follow- up.
§ Teacher-response- Feedback
CLASSROOM DISCOURSE –IRF SEQUENCE:
WHY IS IT DOMINANT?
§ Musumeci (1996) discusses four reasons for the dominance of the IRF sequence in
our classrooms:
§ Teachers’ and students’ expectations consider question and answer routines as
appropriate classroom behaviour. This is how conversation, in a classroom, is
characterized.
§ Teachers feel the need to make learners ‘feel good’. The feedback given by a
teacher to a student is important and necessary.
§ The system of power relations in most classes means that it is the teacher who has
more of the ‘floor’ owing to asymmetrical roles.
§ Finally, the time constraints facing teachers make them believe that question and
answer routines are the most effective means of advancing the classroom
discourse.
FEATURES OF CLASSROOM DISCOURSE
§ Elicitation techniques- Elicitation is a technique by which the teacher gets the
learners to give information rather than giving it to them.
a) Display questions: A display question is one to which the teacher already knows
the answer. In most cases, the learner too knows that the teacher knows the answer
but she answers it to satisfy the teacher.
b)Referential questions: They often require thought and effort.
c)Closed questions: has a single, correct answer.
d)Open ended questions
e) Factual questions
f) Why-questions
PEDAGOGY GOALS AND QUESTION TYPE
FEATURES OF CLASSROOM DISCOURSE
§ Wait Time - The time that the teacher gives to the students to think and frame an
answer is called wait time. Studies have shown that students are often given insufficient
time to process a teacher’s question before answering it. This often results in responses
that are far from complete and more often without adequate thought.
§ Specifically, increase in wait time results in an increase in:
  the average length of student responses
  the number of speculative responses
  student-initiated questions
  student-student interaction
  statements and responses based on inference
  interactional space that enables turn-taking to be slowed down
  thinking or rehearsal time
FEATURES OF CLASSROOM DISCOURSE
§ Teacher Echo- Teacher echo refers to the repetition of utterances in the class by
the teacher. When a teacher repeats his/her previous utterance or a learner’s
contribution it is called teacher echo.
§ Teacher echo may have several functions:
§   amplifying a learner’s contribution for the rest of the class

§   confirming correctness

§   acknowledging the relevance of an utterance