Data Communication (18CS46)

MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS

• Data communication is defined as exchange of data between 2 devices over a

transmission-medium.
• A communication-system is made up of
→ hardware (physical equipment) and
→ software (programs)
• For data-communication, the communicating-devices must be part of a communication
system.
The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental
characteristics:
1. Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received
by the intended device or user and only by that device or user.
2. Accuracy: The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are
useless. In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are
produced, in the same order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind
of delivery is called real-time transmission.
4. Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the
delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent
every 30 ms. If some of the packets arrive with 30-ms delay and others with 40-ms delay, an
uneven quality in the video is the result.

1.1.1 Components of Communication System

The data communications system has five components (Figure 1.1):

1) Message
2) Sender
3) Receiver
4) Transmission-Medium
5) Protocol

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1. Message:
• Message is the information (or data) to be communicated.
• Message may consist of
→ number/text
→ Picture
→ audio/video
2. Sender:
• Sender is the device that sends the data-message.
• Sender can be
→ computer
→ mobile phone
3. Receiver:
• Receiver is the device that receives the message.
• Receiver can be
→ computer and mobile phones
4. Transmission Medium:
• Transmission-medium is physical path by which a message travels from sender to
receiver.
• Transmission-medium can be wired or wireless.
Examples of wiredmedium:
→ twisted-pair wire (used in landline telephone)
→coaxial cable (used in cable TV network)
→ fiber-optic cable
Examples of wireless medium:
→ radio waves
→ microwaves
→ infrared waves (ex: operating TV using remote control)

5. Protocol:
• A protocol is a set of rules that govern data-communications. In other words, a
protocol represents an agreement between the communicating-devices. Without a
protocol, 2 devices may be connected but not communicating.

1.1.2 Data Representation

Five different forms of information:

1. Text: Text is represented as a bit-pattern. (Bit-pattern sequence of bits: 0s or 1s).

Different sets of bit-patterns are used to represent symbols (or characters). Each set is called
a code. The process of representing symbols is called encoding. Popular encoding
system: ASCII, Unicode.
2. Number: Number is also represented as a bit-pattern. ASCII is not used to represent
number. Instead, number is directly converted to binary-form.

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3. Image: Image is also represented as a bit-pattern. An image is divided into a matrix of
pixels (picture-elements). A pixel is the smallest element of an image (Pixel Small dot). The
size of an image depends upon number of pixels (also called resolution).
For example: An image can be divided into 1000 pixels or 10,000 pixels.
• Two types of images:
Black and White Image:
If an image is black and white, each pixel can be represented by a value either 0 or 1.
For example: Chessboard
Color Image: There are many methods to represent color images.
RGB is one of the methods to represent color images.
RGB is called so called ‘.’ each color is combination of 3 colors: red, green and blue.

4. Audio: Audio is a representation of sound. By nature, audio is different from text,

numbers, or images. Audio is continuous, not discrete.

5. Video: Video is a representation of movie. Video can either

→ be produced as a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or
→ be a combination of images arranged to convey the idea of motion.

1.1.3 Data Flow

Three ways of data-flow between 2 devices (Figure 1.2):
▪ Simplex
▪ Half-duplex
▪ Full-duplex

Simplex:

• In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only

one of the two devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive.

• Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices. The keyboard
can only introduce input, the monitor can only accept output.

• The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one
direction.
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Half Duplex:
• In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same
time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive and vice versa.
• In a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by
whichever of the two devices is transmitting at the time.
• Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half-duplex systems. The half-
duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both
directions at the same time, the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each
direction.
Full Duplex:

• In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations can transmit and receive
simultaneously.
• In full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link with
signals going in the other direction.
• This sharing can occur in two ways: Either the link must contain two physically
separate transmission paths, one for sending and the other for receiving, or the
capacity of the channel is divided between signals traveling in both directions.
• One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network. When
two people are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the
same time.
• The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all
the time. The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two
directions.

1.2 NETWORKS

• A network is defined as a set of devices interconnected by communication-links.

• A device can be a host (or an end system) such as a large computer, desktop, laptop,
workstation, cellular phone, or security system. Computers may connect to each other by
either wired or wireless media.
• A connecting device such as a router which connects the network to other networks.
• A switch which connects devices together,
• A modem (modulator-demodulator) which changes the form of data. These devices in a
network are connected using wired or wireless transmission media such as cable or air.
• The best-known computer network is the Internet.

1.2.1 Network Criteria

A network must meet following 3 criteria’s:

1. Performance:
Performance can be measured using i) Transit-time or ii) Response-time.
➢ Transit Time is defined as time taken to travel a message from one device to another.

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➢ Response Time is defined as the time elapsed between enquiry and response.
The network-performance depends on following factors:
I. Number of users
II. Type of transmission-medium
III. Efficiency of software

Performance is evaluated by 2 networking-metrics: i) throughput and ii) delay.

Good performance can be obtained by achieving higher throughput and smaller delay
times
2. Reliability:
In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the frequency of
failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network’s robustness in a
catastrophe.
3. Security:
Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data
from damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from
breaches and data losses.

1.2.2 Physical Structures

Type of Connection
Two types of connections
1. Point-to-Point:
• Only two devices are connected by a dedicated-link (Figure 1.3a). Entire-
capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
• For example: Point-to-Point connection b/w remote-control & TV for changing the
channels.
2. Multipoint (Multi-Drop)
Three or more devices share a single link. The capacity of the channel is shared,
either spatially or temporally (Figure 1.3b).
i) If link is used simultaneously by many devices, then it is spatially shared connection.
ii) If user takes turns while using the link, then it is time shared (temporal) connection.

Physical Topology
• The physical-topology defines how devices are connected to make a network.
• Two or more devices connect to a link, two or more links form a topology.

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• The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the
links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another.
There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring.
Bus Topology

• All the devices are connected to the single cable called bus (Figure 1.4).
• Every device communicates with the other device through this bus.
• A data from the source is broadcasted to all devices connected to the bus.
• Only the intended-receiver, whose physical-address matches, accepts the data.

• Devices are connected to the bus by drop-lines and taps.

• A drop-line is a connection running between the device and the bus.
• A tap is a connector that links to the bus or
• Advantages:
1) Easy installation.
2) Cable required is the least compared to mesh/star topologies.
3) Redundancy is eliminated.
4) Costs less (Compared to mesh/star topologies).
5) Mostly used in small networks. Good for LAN.
• Disadvantages:
1) Difficult to detect and troubleshoot fault.
2) Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality.
3) A fault/break in the cable stops all transmission.
4) There is a limit on
❖ Cable length
❖ Number of nodes that can be connected.
5) Security is very low because all the devices receive the data sent from the source.
Star Topology

• All the devices are connected to a central controller called a hub (Figure 1.5).
• There exists a dedicated point-to-point link between a device and a hub.
• The devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a mesh topology, a star
topology does not allow direct traffic between devices.
• The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to another, it sends

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the data to the controller, which then relays the data to the other connected device.

• Advantages:
1. Less expensive: Each device needs only one link & one I/O port to connect it to any
devices.
2. Easy installation & reconfiguration: Nodes can be added/removed w/o affecting the
network.
3. Robustness: If one link fails, it does not affect the entire system.
4. Easy to detect and troubleshoot fault.
5. Centralized management: The hub manages and controls the whole network.
• Disadvantages:
1. Single point of failure: If the hub goes down, the whole network is dead.
2. Cable length required is the more compared to bus/ring topologies.
3. Number of nodes in network depends on capacity of hub.
Ring Topology
• Each device is connected to the next, forming a ring (figure 1.6).
• There are only two neighbors for each device.
• Data travels around the network in one direction till the destination is reached.
• Sending and receiving of data takes place by the help of token.
• Each device has a repeater.
• A repeater
→ receives a signal on transmission-medium and
→ regenerates and passes the signal to next device.

• Advantages:
1) Easy installation and reconfiguration.
To add/delete a device, requires changing only 2 connections.

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2) Fault isolation is simplified.

If one device does not receive a signal within a specified period, it can
issue an alarm. The alarm alerts the network-operator to the problem and
its location.
3) Congestion reduced: Because all the traffic flows in only one direction.
• Disadvantages:
1) Unidirectional traffic.
2) A fault in the ring/device stops all transmission.
The above 2 drawbacks can be overcome by using dual ring.
3) There is a limit on
i) Cable length &
ii) Number of nodes that can be connected.
4) Slower: Each data must pass through all the devices between source and
destination.
Mesh Topology
• All the devices are connected to each other (Figure 1.7).
• There exists a dedicated point-to-point link between all devices.
• There are n(n-1) physical channels to link n devices.
• Every device not only sends its own data but also relays data from other nodes.
• For ‘n’ nodes,
→ there are n(n-1) physical-links
→ there are n(n-1)/2 duplex-mode links
• Every device must have (n-1) I/O ports to be connected to the other (n-1) devices.

•Advantages:
1) Congestion reduced: Each connection can carry its own data load.
2) Robustness: If one link fails, it does not affect the entire system.
3) Security: When a data travels on a dedicated-line, only intended-receiver can see
the data.
4) Easy fault identification & fault isolation: Traffic can be re-routed to avoid
problematic links.
• Disadvantages:
1) Difficult installation and reconfiguration.

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2) Bulk of wiring occupies more space than available space.

3) Very expensive: as there are many redundant connections.
4) Not mostly used in computer networks. It is commonly used in wireless networks.

1.3 Network Types

• Two popular types of networks:
1) LAN (Local Area Network) and
2) WAN (Wide Area Network)

Local Area Network

• LAN is used to connect computers in a single office, building or campus (Figure 1.8).
• LAN is usually privately owned network.
• A LAN can be simple or complex.
➢ Simple: LAN may contain 2 PCs and a printer.
➢ Complex: LAN can extend throughout a company.
• Each host in a LAN has an address that uniquely defines the host in the LAN.
• A packet sent by a host to another host carries both source host’s and destination host’s
addresses.
• LANs use a smart connecting switch.
• The switch is able to recognize the destination address of the packet and guide the packet to
its destination.
• The switch reduces the traffic in the LAN and allows more than one pair to communicate
with each other at the same time.
• Advantages:
1) Resource Sharing: Computer resources like printers and hard disks can be
shared by all devices on the network.
2) Expansion: LANs are connected to WANs to create communication at a
wider level.

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Wide Area Network

• WAN is used to connect computers anywhere in the world.
• WAN can cover larger geographical area. It can cover cities, countries and even
continents.
• WAN interconnects connecting devices such as switches, routers, or modems.
• Normally, WAN is created and run by communication companies (Ex: BSNL, Airtel)
leased by an organization that uses it.
• A WAN can be of 2 types:
i) Point-to-Point WAN: A point-to-point WAN is a network that connects two
communicating devices through a transmission media.

ii) Switched WAN: A switched WAN is a network with more than two ends. The
switched WAN can be the backbones that connect the Internet. A switched WAN is
a combination of several point-to-point WANs that are connected by switches.

Internetwork
• When two or more networks are connected, they make an internetwork, or
internet.
• Assume that an organization has two offices,
i) First office is on the east coast &
ii) Second office is on the west coast.

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• Each office has a LAN that allows all employees in the office to communicate with
each other. To allow communication between employees at different offices,
the management leases a point-to-point dedicated WAN from a ISP and
connects the two LANs. The company has an internetwork, or a private
internet, Communication between offices is now possible. Figure 1.11
shows the internet.

• When a host in the west coast office sends a message to another host in the same
office, the router blocks the message, but the switch directs the message to the
destination.
• On the other hand, when a host on the west coast sends a message to a host on the
east coast, router R1 routes the packet to router R2, and the packet reaches the
destination.

LAN vs. WAN

Parameters LAN WAN

Expands to Local Area Network Wide Area Network
Meaning LAN is used to connect computers WAN is used to connect
in a single office, building or computers in a large geographical

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campus area such as countries

Ownership of Private Private or public

network
Range Small: up to 10 km Large: Beyond 100 km
Speed High: Typically 10, 100 and Low: Typically 1.5 Mbps
1000 Mbps
Propagation Delay Short Long
Cost Low High
Congestion Less More
Design and Easy Difficult
maintenance
Fault Tolerance More Tolerant Less Tolerant
Media used Twisted pair Optical fiber or radio waves
Used for College, Hospital Internet
Interconnects LAN interconnects hosts WAN interconnects connecting
devices such as switches, routers,
or modems

1.3.3 Switching
• An internet is a switched network in which a switch connects at least two links together.
• A switch needs to forward data from a network to another network when required.

Two types of switched networks are 1) circuit-switched and 2) packet-switched networks.

i) Circuit Switched Network:
• A dedicated connection, called a circuit, is always available between the two end
systems.
• Theswitch can only make it active or inactive.

• In Figure 1.13, the four telephones at each side are connected to a switch. The switch
connects a telephone set at one side to a telephone set at the other side. The thick line
connecting two switches is a high-capacity communication line that can handle four

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voice communications at the same time; the capacity can be shared between all pairs
of telephone sets. The switches used in this example have forwarding tasks but no
storing capability
• The switch is used for only forwarding.
Advantage: A circuit-switched network is efficient only when it is working at
its full capacity.
Disadvantage: Most of the time, the network is inefficient because it is working at
partial capacity.

ii) Packet Switched Network

• In a computer network, the communication between the 2 ends is done in blocks
of data called packets.
• The switch is used for both storing and forwarding because a packet is an independent
entity that can be stored and sent later.
• As shown in Figure 1.14, the 4 computers at each side are connected to a router.

• A router has a queue that can store and forward the packet. The high-capacity line
has twice the capacity of the low-capacity line.

• If only 2 computers (one at each site) need to communicate with each other,
there is no waiting for the packets.

• However, if packets arrive at one router when high-capacity line is at its full
capacity, the packets should be stored and forwarded.
Advantages: A packet-switched network is more efficient than a circuit switched
network.
Disadvantage: The packets may encounter some delays.

1.3.4 The Internet Today

• Two or more networks that can communicate with each other is called the Internet
and is composed of thousands of interconnected networks.
• Internet is made up of (Figure 1.15)
1) Backbones
2) Provider networks and
3) Customer networks

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❖ Backbones
Backbones are large networks owned by communication companies such as
BSNL and Airtel. The backbone networks are connected through switching
systems, called peering points.
❖ Provider Networks
Provider networks use the services of the backbones for a fee.
Provider networks are connected to backbones and sometimes to other provider
networks.
❖ Customer Networks
Customer networks actually use the services provided by the Internet.
Customer networks pay fees to provider networks for receiving services.
• Backbones and provider networks are also called Internet Service Providers (ISPs).
• The backbones are often referred to as international ISPs.
• The provider networks are often referred to as national or regional ISPs.

1.3.5 Accessing the Internet

• The Internet today is an internetwork that allows any user to become part of it.
• However, the user needs to be physically connected to an ISP.
• The physical connection is normally done through a point-to-point WAN.
Using Telephone Networks
Most residences have telephone service, which means they are connected to a
telephone network. Telephone networks have already connected themselves to the
Internet. Thus, residences can connect to the Internet using a point-to-point WAN.

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This can be done in two ways:

➢ Dial-up service: The first solution is to add to the telephone line a modem that
converts data to voice. The software installed on the computer dials the ISP and
imitates making a telephone connection.
➢ Disadvantages:
▪ The dial-up service is very slow.
▪ When line is used for Internet connection, it cannot be used for voice connection.
▪ It is only useful for small residences.

DSL Service
The advent of the Internet, some telephone companies have upgraded their telephone lines to
provide higher speed Internet services to residences or small businesses. The DSL service
also allows the line to be used simultaneously for voice and data communication.

Using Cable Networks

More and more residents over the last two decades have begun using cable TV services
instead of antennas to receive TV broadcasting. A residence or a small business can be
connected to the Internet by using the internet service. It provides a higher speed connection,
but the speed varies depending on the number of neighbors that use the same cable.

Using Wireless Networks

A household or a small business can use a combination of wireless and wired connections to
access the Internet. With the growing wireless WAN access, a household or a small business
can be connected to the Internet through a wireless WAN.

Direct Connection to the Internet

A large organization or a large corporation can itself become a local ISP and be connected to
the Internet. This can be done if the organization or the corporation leases a high-speed WAN
from a carrier provider and connects itself to a regional ISP.

1.4 INTERNET HISTORY

1.4.1 Early History

❖ There were some communication networks, such as telegraph and telephone

networks, before 1960. These networks were suitable for constant-rate
communication at that time, which means that after a connection was made between
two users, the encoded message (telegraphy) or voice (telephony) could be
exchanged.
❖ A computer network, on the other hand, should be able to handle bursty data, which
means data received at variable rates at different times. The world needed to wait for
the packet-switched network to be invented.

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Birth of Packet-Switched Networks: The theory of packet switching for bursty traffic was
first presented by Leonard Kleinrock in 1961 at MIT. At the same time, two other
researchers, Paul Baran at Rand Institute and Donald Davies at National Physical Laboratory
in England, published some papers about packet-switched networks.

ARPANET:
❖ In the mid-1960s, mainframe computers in research organizations were stand-alone
devices. Computers from different manufacturers were unable to communicate with
one another. The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in the Department of
Defense (DOD) was interested in finding a way to connect computers so that the
researchers they funded could share their findings, thereby reducing costs and
eliminating duplication of effort.
❖ In 1967, at an Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) meeting, ARPA
presented its ideas for the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network
(ARPANET), a small network of connected computers.
❖ The idea was that each host computer (not necessarily from the same manufacturer)
would be attached to a specialized computer, called an interface message processor
(IMP). The IMPs, in turn, would be connected to each other. Each IMP had to be able
to communicate with other IMPs as well as with its own attached host.
❖ By 1969, ARPANET was a reality. Four nodes, at the University of California at Los
Angeles (UCLA), the University of California at Santa Barbara (UCSB), Stanford
Research Institute (SRI), and the University of Utah, were connected via the IMPs to
form a network. Software called the Network Control Protocol (NCP) provided
communication between the hosts.

1.4.2 Birth of the Internet:

❖ In 1972, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn, both of whom were part of the core ARPANET
group, collaborated on what they called the Internetting Project. They wanted to link
dissimilar networks so that a host on one network could communicate with a host on
another. Cerf and Kahn devised the idea of a device called a gateway to serve as the
intermediary hardware to transfer data from one network to another.

TCP/IP
❖ Cerf and Kahn’s landmark 1973 paper outlined the protocols to achieve end-toend
delivery of data. This was a new version of NCP. This paper on transmission control
protocol (TCP) included concepts such as encapsulation, the datagram, and the
functions of a gateway. A radical idea was the transfer of responsibility for error
correction from the IMP to the host machine. This ARPA Internet now became the
focus of the communication effort. Around this time, responsibility for the
ARPANET was handed over to the Defense Communication Agency (DCA).
❖ In October 1977, an internet consisting of three different networks (ARPANET,
packet radio, and packet satellite) was successfully demonstrated. Communication

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between networks was now possible. Shortly thereafter, authorities made a decision
to split TCP into two protocols: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet
Protocol (IP). IP would handle datagram routing while TCP would be responsible for
higher level functions such as segmentation, reassembly, and error detection. The new
combination became known as TCP/IP.
❖ In 1981, under a Defence Department contract, UC Berkeley modified the UNIX
operating system to include TCP/IP. This inclusion of network software along with a
popular operating system did much for the popularity of internetworking. The open
(nonmanufacturer-specific) implementation of the Berkeley UNIX gave every
manufacturer a working code base on which they could build their products.
❖ In 1983, authorities abolished the original ARPANET protocols, and TCP/IP became
the official protocol for the ARPANET. Those who wanted to use the Internet to
access a computer on a different network had to be running TCP/IP.

MILNET
❖ In 1983, ARPANET split into two networks: Military Network (MILNET) for
military users and ARPANET for nonmilitary users.

CSNET
❖ Another milestone in Internet history was the creation of CSNET in 1981. Computer
Science Network (CSNET) was a network sponsored by the National Science
Foundation (NSF). The network was conceived by universities that were ineligible to
join ARPANET due to an absence of ties to the Department of Defense.
❖ CSNET was a less expensive network; there were no redundant links and the
transmission rate was slower. By the mid-1980s, most U.S. universities with
computer science departments were part of CSNET. Other institutions and companies
were also forming their own networks and using TCP/IP to interconnect. The term
Internet, originally associated with government funded connected networks, now
referred to the connected networks using TCP/IP protocols.

NSFNET
❖ With the success of CSNET, the NSF in 1986 sponsored the National Science
Foundation Network (NSFNET), a backbone that connected five supercomputer
centers located throughout the United States.
❖ In 1990, ARPANET was officially retired and replaced by NSFNET. In 1995,
NSFNET reverted back to its original concept of a research network.

ANSNET
❖ In 1991, the U.S. government decided that NSFNET was not capable of supporting
the rapidly increasing Internet traffic. Three companies, IBM, Merit, and Verizon,
filled the void by forming a nonprofit organization called Advanced Network &
Services (ANS) to build a new, high-speed Internet backbone called Advanced
Network Services Network (ANSNET).

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1.4.3 Internet Today:

The Internet today is a set of pier networks that provide services to the whole world. What
has made the Internet so popular is the invention of new applications.
World Wide Web:
The 1990s saw the explosion of Internet applications due to the emergence of the World
Wide Web (WWW). The Web was invented at CERN by Tim Berners-Lee. This invention
has added the commercial applications to the Internet.
Multimedia:
Recent developments in the multimedia applications such as voice over IP (telephony), video
over IP (Skype), view sharing (YouTube), and television over IP (PPLive) has increased the
number of users and the amount of time each user spends on the network.
Peer-to-Peer Applications:
Peer-to-peer networking is also a new area of communication with a lot of potential.

1.5 STANDARDS AND ADMINISTRATION

1.5.1 Internet Standards
• An Internet standard is a thoroughly tested specification useful to those who work with the
Internet.
• The Internet standard is a formalized-regulation that must be followed.
• There is a strict procedure by which a specification attains Internet standard status.
• A specification begins as an Internet draft.
• An Internet draft is a working document with no official status and a 6-month lifetime.
• Upon recommendation from the Internet authorities, a draft may be published as a RFC.
• Each RFC is edited, assigned a number, and made available to all interested parties.

RFCs go through maturity levels and are categorized according to their

requirement level.
Maturity Levels
• An RFC, during its lifetime, falls into one of 6 maturity levels (Figure 1.16):

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Proposed Standard: A proposed standard is a specification that is stable, well understood,

and of sufficient interest to the Internet community. At this level, the specification is usually
tested and implemented by several different groups.

Draft Standard: A proposed standard is elevated to draft standard status after at least two
successful independent and interoperable implementations. Barring difficulties, a draft
standard, with modifications if specific problems are encountered, normally becomes an
Internet standard.
Internet Standard: A draft standard reaches Internet standard status after demonstrations of
successful implementation.

Historic: The historic RFCs are significant from a historical perspective. They either have
been superseded by later specifications or have never passed the necessary maturity levels to
become an Internet standard.
Experimental: An RFC classified as experimental describes work related to an experimental
situation that does not affect the operation of the Internet. Such an RFC should not be
implemented in any functional Internet service.

Informational: An RFC classified as informational contains general, historical, or tutorial

information related to the Internet. It is usually written by someone in a non-Internet
organization, such as a vendor.

Requirement Levels

• RFCs are classified into 5 requirement levels:

❖ Required: An RFC is labeled required if it must be implemented by all Internet
systems to achieve minimum conformance. For example, IP and ICMP are required
protocols.
❖ Recommended: An RFC labeled recommended is not required for minimum
conformance; it is recommended because of its usefulness. For example, FTP and
TELNET are recommended protocols.
❖ Elective: An RFC labeled elective is not required and not recommended. However, a
system can use it for its own benefit.
❖ Limited Use: An RFC labeled limited use should be used only in limited situations.
Most of the experimental RFCs fall under the category.
❖ Not Recommended: An RFC labeled not recommended is inappropriate for general
use. Normally a historic (deprecated) RFC may fall under the category.

1.5.2 Internet Administration

ISOC
• The Internet Society (ISOC) is an international, nonprofit organization formed in
1992 to provide support for the Internet standards process.
• ISOC accomplishes through maintaining and supporting other Internet administrative

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bodies such as IAB, IETF, IRTF, and IANA. ISOC also promotes research and other
scholarly activities relating to the Internet.

IAB
• The Internet Architecture Board (IAB) is the technical advisor to the ISOC.
• Two main purposes of IAB:
i) To oversee the continuing development of the TCP/IP Protocol Suite
ii) To serve in a technical advisory capacity to research members of the Internet
community.
• Another responsibility of the IAB is the editorial management of the RFCs.
• IAB is also the external liaison between the Internet and other standards organizations and
forums.

IAB has 2 primary components: i) IETF and ii) IRTF

IETF
• The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) is a forum of working groups managed
by the Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG).
• IETF is responsible for identifying operational problems and proposing solutions to
these problems. IETF also develops and reviews specifications intended as Internet
standards.
• The working groups are collected into areas, and each area concentrates on a specific
topic. Currently nine areas have been defined.
• The areas include applications, protocols, routing, network management next
generation (IPng), and security.
IRTF
• The Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) is a forum of working groups managed by
the Internet Research Steering Group (IRSG).
• IRTF focuses on long-term research topics related to Internet protocols, applications,
architecture, and technology.

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NETWORK MODELS

2.1 PROTOCOL LAYERING

• A protocol defines the rules that both the sender and receiver and all intermediate
devices need to follow to be able to communicate effectively.
• When communication is simple, may need only one simple protocol.
• When communication is complex, need to divide the task b/w different layers into
protocol at each layer, or protocol layering.

2.1.1 Scenarios:
❖ First Scenarios
• In the first scenario, communication is so simple that it can occur in only one layer (Figure
2.1).
• Assume Maria and Ann are neighbors with a lot of common ideas. Communication
between Maria and Ann takes place in one layer, face to face, in the same language.

❖ Second Scenario
• Maria and Ann communicate using regular mail through the post office (Figure 2.2).
• However, they do not want their ideas to be revealed by other people if the letters are
intercepted.
• They agree on an encryption/decryption technique.
• The sender of the letter encrypts it to make it unreadable by an intruder; the receiver
of the letter decrypts it to get the original letter.

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Protocol Layering
• Protocol layering enables us to divide a complex task into several smaller and simpler
tasks. Modularity means independent layers.
• A layer (module) can be defined as a black box with inputs and outputs, without
concern about how inputs are changed to outputs.
• If two machines provide the same outputs when given the same inputs, they can replace
each other.
• Advantages:
1) It allows us to separate the services from the implementation.
2) There are intermediate systems that need only some layers, but not all layers.
• Disadvantage:
1) Having a single layer makes the job easier. There is no need for each layer
to provide a service to the upper layer and give service to the lower layer.

2.1.2 Principles of Protocol Layering

1) First Principle
• The first principle dictates that, if want bidirectional communication, we need to
make each layer so that it is able to perform two opposite tasks, one in each direction.
• For example, the third layer task is to listen (in one direction) and talk (in the other
direction).
• The second layer needs to be able to encrypt and decrypt. The first layer needs to send
and receive mail.
2) Second Principle
• The second principle that we need to follow in protocol layering is that the two
objects under each layer at both sites should be identical.
• For example, the object under layer 3 at both sites should be a plaintext letter. The
object under layer 2 at both sites should be a cipher text letter. The object under layer
1 at both sites should be a piece of mail.

2.1.3 Logical Connections

Layer-to-Layer communication (Figure 2.3).
• There is a logical connection at each layer through which 2 end systems can send the
object created from that layer.

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2.2 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

• TCP/IP is a protocol-suite used in the Internet today.
• Protocol-suite refers a set of protocols organized in different layers.
• It is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, each of which
provides a specific functionality.
• The term hierarchical means that each upper level protocol is supported by the services
provided by one or more lower level protocols.
• The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as four software layers built upon the
hardware.

2.2.1 Layered Architecture

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite are involved in communication between two
hosts, assume that it’s used to suite in a small internet made up of three LANs (links),
each with a link-layer switch and are connected by one router, as shown in Figure 2.5.

• Let us assume that computer A communicates with computer B (Figure 2.4).

• As the Figure 2.5 shows, we have five communicating devices:

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1) Source host (computer A) 2) Link-layer switch in link 1

3) Router 4) Link-layer switch in link 2
5) Destination host (computer B).
• Each device is involved with a set of layers depending on the role of the device in the
internet.
• The two hosts are involved in all five layers.
• Source host
→ creates a message in the application layer and
→ sends the message down the layers so that it is physically sent to the destination
host.
• Destination host
→ receives the message at the physical layer and
→ then deliver the message through the other layers to the application layer.
• The router is involved in only three layers, there is no transport or application layer.
• A router is involved in n combinations of link and physical layers.
where n = number of links the router is connected to.
• The reason is that each link may use its own data-link or physical protocol.
• A link-layer switch is involved only in two layers: i) data-link and ii) physical.

2.2.2 Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite

• As shown in the figure 2.6, the duty of the application, transport, and network layers is
end-to-end.
• However, the duty of the data-link and physical layers is hop-to-hop. A hop is a host or
router.
• The domain of duty of the top three layers is the internet, and the domain of duty of the
two lower layers is the link.
• In top 3 layers, the data unit (packets) should not be changed by any router or link-layer
switch.
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• In bottom 2 layers, the data unit is changed only by the routers, not by the link-layer
switches.

• Identical objects exist between two hops. Because router may fragment the packet at the
network layer and send more packets than received (Figure 2.7).
• The link between two hops does not change the object.

2.2.3 Description of Each Layer

Physical Layer
• The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits in a frame across the
link.
• The physical layer is the lowest level in the TCP/IP protocol suite, the communication
between two devices at the physical layer is still a logical communication because there is
another, hidden layer, the transmission media, under the physical layer. Two devices are
connected by a transmission medium (cable or air).
• The transmission medium does not carry bits, it carries electrical or optical signals.
• The physical layer
→ receives bits from the data-link layer and
→ sends through the transmission media, but the logical unit between two physical
layers in two devices is a bit.
• There are several protocols that transform a bit to a signal.

Data Link Layer

• Data-link-layer (DLL) is responsible for moving frames from one node to another node

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over a link.
• There may be several overlapping sets of links that a datagram can travel from the host to
the destination. The routers are responsible for choosing the best links.
• However, when the next link to travel is determined by the router, the data-link layer is
responsible for taking the datagram and moving it across the link.
• The link can be a wired LAN with a link-layer switch, a wireless LAN, a wired WAN, or
a wireless WAN.
• The data-link layer is responsible for moving the packet through the link. TCP/IP does
not define any specific protocol for the data-link layer. It supports all the standard and
proprietary protocols.
• Any protocol that can take the datagram and carry it through the link suffices for the
network layer.
• The data-link layer takes a datagram and encapsulates it in a packet called a frame. Each
link-layer protocol may provide a different service.
• Some link-layer protocols provide complete error detection and correction, some provide
only error correction.
Network Layer
• The network layer is responsible for creating a connection between the source computer
and the destination computer. The communication at the network layer is host-to-host.
• However, there can be several routers from the source to the destination; the routers in the
path are responsible for choosing the best route for each packet.
• Network layer is responsible for host-to-host communication and routing the packet
through possible routes.
• The separate network layer
1) The separation of different tasks between different layers.
2) The routers do not need the application and transport layers.
• TCP/IP model defines 5 protocols:
1) IP (Internetworking Protocol) 2) ARP (Address Resolution
Protocol)
3) ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) 4) IGMP (Internet Group
Message Protocol)
❖ IP
• The network layer in the Internet includes the main protocol, Internet Protocol (IP)
that defines the format of the packet, called a datagram at the network layer.
• IP also defines the format and the structure of addresses used in this layer. IP is also
responsible for routing a packet from its source to its destination, which is achieved
by each router forwarding the datagram to the next router in its path.
• IP is a connectionless protocol that provides no flow control, no error control, and no
congestion control services.
• The network layer also includes unicast (one-to-one) and multicast (one-to-many)
routing protocols.
• A routing protocol does not take part in routing (it is the responsibility of IP), but it

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creates forwarding tables for routers to help them in the routing process.
❖ ARP
• The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a protocol that helps IP to find the link-
layer address of a host or a router when its network-layer address is given.
• Physical address is the 48-bit address that is imprinted on the NIC or LAN
card.
• Internet address (IP address) is used to uniquely & universally identify a
device in the internet.
❖ ICMP
• The network layer also has some auxiliary protocols that help IP in its delivery and
routing tasks. The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) helps IP to report some
problems when routing a packet.
❖ IGMP
• The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is another protocol that helps IP in
multitasking. The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) helps IP to get the
network-layer address for a host.
Transport Layer
• The logical connection at the transport layer is also end-to-end. The transport layer at
the source host gets the message from the application layer, encapsulates it in a
transport layer packet and sends it, through the logical connection, to the transport
layer at the destination host.
• Transport layer is responsible for giving services to the application layer, to get a
message from an application program running on the source host and deliver it to the
corresponding application program on the destination host.
• In transport layer more than one protocol, means that each application program can
use the protocol that best matches its requirement.
• TCP/IP model defines 3 protocols: 1) TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
2) UDP (User Datagram Protocol) &
3) SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol)
1) TCP
• TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that first establishes a logical connection
between transport layers at two hosts before transferring data.
• It creates a logical pipe between two TCPs for transferring a stream of bytes.
• TCP provides
▪ flow control - matching the sending data rate of the source host with
the receiving data rate of the destination host to prevent overwhelming
the destination.
▪ Error control - to guarantee that the segments arrive at the destination
without error and resending the corrupted ones
▪ Congestion control - to reduce the loss of segments due to congestion
in the network.

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2) UDP
• UDP is a connectionless protocol that transmits user datagrams without first creating
a logical connection.
• In UDP, each user datagram is an independent entity without being related to the
previous or the next one.
• UDP is a simple protocol that does not provide flow, error, or congestion control.
• Its simplicity, which means small overhead, is attractive to an application program
that needs to send short messages and cannot afford the retransmission of the packets
involved in TCP, when a packet is corrupted or lost.
3) SCTP
• A new protocol, Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) is designed to
respond to new applications that are emerging in the multimedia.
Application Layer
• The logical connection between the two application layers is end to-end. The two
application layers exchange messages between each other as though there were a
bridge between the two layers.
• Communication at the application layer is between two processes, a process sends a
request to the other process and receives a response.
• Process-to-process communication is the duty of the application layer.
• The application layer in the Internet includes many predefined protocols, but a user
can also create a pair of processes to be run at the two hosts.
• TCP/IP model defines following protocols:
1. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) - is a vehicle for accessing the World Wide Web
(WWW).
2. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) - is the main protocol used in electronic mail
(e-mail) service.
3. File Transfer Protocol (FTP) - is used for transferring files from one host to another.
4. Terminal Network (TELNET) and Secure Shell (SSH) are used for accessing a site
remotely.
5. Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) - is used by an administrator to
manage the Internet at global and local levels.
6. Domain Name System (DNS) - is used by other protocols to find the network-layer
address of a computer.
7. Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) - is used to collect membership in a
group.

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2.2.4 Encapsulation and Decapsulation

A) Encapsulation at the Source Host

• At the source, only encapsulation.

1. At the application layer, the data to be exchanged is referred to as a message. A message
normally does not contain any header or trailer, but if it does then it is referred as the whole
message. The message is passed to the transport layer.
2. The transport layer takes the message as the payload, the load that the transport layer
should take care of. It adds the transport layer header to the payload, which contains the
identifiers of the source and destination application programs that want to communicate
plus some more information that is needed for the end-to end delivery of the message, such
as information needed for flow, error control, or congestion control. The result is the
transport-layer packet, which is called the segment and the user datagram. The transport
layer then passes the packet to the network layer.
3. The network layer takes the transport-layer packet as data or payload and adds its own
header to the payload. The header contains the addresses of the source and destination hosts
and some more information used for error checking of the header, fragmentation
information, and so on. The result is the network-layer packet, called a datagram. The
network layer then passes the packet to the data-link layer.
4. The data-link layer takes the network-layer packet as data or payload and adds its own
header, which contains the link-layer addresses of the host or the next hop (the router). The
result is the link-layer packet, which is called a frame. The frame is passed to the physical
layer for transmission.

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B) Decapsulation and Encapsulation at the Router

• At the router, we have both encapsulation & encapsulation and because the router is
connected to two or more links.
1. After the set of bits are delivered to the data-link layer, layer decapsulates the datagram
from the frame and passes it to the network layer.
2. The network layer only inspects the source and destination addresses in the datagram
header and consults its forwarding table to find the next hop to which the datagram is to
be delivered. The contents of the datagram should not be changed by the network layer in
the router unless there is a need to fragment the datagram if it is too big to be passed
through the next link. The datagram is then passed to the data-link layer of the next link.
3. The data-link layer of the next link encapsulates the datagram in a frame and passes it
to the physical layer for transmission.

C) Decapsulation at the Destination Host

1. At the destination host, each layer only decapsulates the packet received, removes the
payload, and delivers the payload to the next-higher layer protocol until the message
reaches the application layer.
2. It is necessary to say that decapsulation in the host involves error checking.

2.2.5 Addressing

• Any communication that involves two parties needs two addresses: source address
and destination address.
• Five pairs of addresses, one pair per layer but only four because the physical layer
does not need addresses; the unit of data exchange at the physical layer is a bit, which
definitely cannot have an address. Figure 2.9 shows the addressing at each layer.
1) At the application layer, normally use names to define
→ Site that provides services, such as vtunotesbysri.com, or
→ e-mail address, such as vtunotesbysree@gmail.com.
2) At the transport layer, addresses are called port numbers, and these define the
application-layer programs at the source and destination. Port numbers are local
addresses that distinguish between several programs running at the same time.
3) At the network-layer, the addresses are global, with the whole Internet as the
scope. A network-layer address uniquely defines the connection of a device to the
Internet.
4) The link-layer addresses, sometimes called MAC addresses, are locally defined
addresses, each of which defines a specific host or router in a network (LAN or
WAN).

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2.2.6 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

• Multiplexing means that a protocol at a layer can encapsulate a packet from several
next-higher layer protocols.
• demultiplexing means that a protocol can decapsulate and deliver a packet to several
next-higher layer protocols.
• Figure 2.10 shows the concept of multiplexing and demultiplexing at the three upper
layers. To be able to multiplex and demultiplex, a protocol needs to have a field in its
header to identify to which protocol the encapsulated packets belong.
1. At the transport layer, either UDP or TCP can accept a message from several
application-layer protocols.
2. At the network layer, IP can accept a segment from TCP or a user datagram from
UDP. IP can also accept a packet from other protocols such as ICMP, IGMP, and so
on.
3. At the data-link layer, a frame may carry the payload coming from IP or other
protocols such as ARP.

2.3 OSI MODEL

• OSI model was developed by ISO. (ISO is the organization, OSI is the model).
• Established in 1947, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is a

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multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards.

• An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.
• An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to
communicate regardless of their underlying architecture.
• The purpose is to show how to facilitate communication between different systems
without requiring changes to the logic of the underlying hardware and software.
• The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding and designing a network
architecture that is flexible, robust, and interoperable. The OSI model was intended to be
the basis for the creation of the protocols in the OSI stack.
• The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that allows
communication between all types of computer systems.
• It consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which defines a part of the
process of moving information across a network (see Figure 2.11)
1) Application Layer
2) Presentation Layer
3) Session Layer
4) Transport Layer
5) Network Layer
6) Data Link Layer
7) Physical Layer
• Each layer has specific duties to perform and has to co-operate with the layers above &
below it.

2.3.1 OSI vs. TCP/IP

• The application layer in the suite is usually considered to be the combination of three
layers in the OSI model, as shown in Figure 2.12.
• Two layers, session and presentation, are missing from the TCP/IP protocol suite. These
two layers were not added to the TCP/IP protocol suite after the publication of the
OSI model.

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• Two reasons are:

o TCP/IP has more than one transport-layer protocol. Some of the functionalities of the
session layer are available in some of the transport-layer protocols
o Second, the application layer is not only one piece of software. Many applications can
be developed at these layer. If some of the functionalities mentioned in the session
and presentation layers are needed for a particular application, they can be included in
the development of that piece of software.

2.3.2 Lack of OSI Model’s Success

• The OSI model appeared after the TCP/IP protocol suite.

• First, OSI was completed when TCP/IP was fully in place and a lot of time and
money had been spent on the suite; changing it would cost a lot.
• Second, some layers in the OSI model were never fully defined. For example,
although the services provided by the presentation and the session layers were listed
in the document, actual protocols for these two layers were not fully defined, nor were
they fully described, and the corresponding software was not fully developed.
• Third, when OSI was implemented by an organization in a different application, it did
not show a high enough level of performance to entice the Internet authority to switch
from the TCP/IP protocol suite to the OSI model.

LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL (Detailed OSI layers not in syllabus, it’s for
your reference)

Physical Layer
• Main Responsibility:
Physical-layer (PL) is responsible for movements of individual bits from one node to
another node.

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• Other responsibilities of Physical-layer (Figure 2.5):

1) Physical Characteristics of Interfaces and Medium
▪ PL defines the mechanical/electrical characteristics of the interface &
transmission-medium.
▪ i.e. Mechanical - cable, plugs, pins
Electrical - modulation, signal strength, voltage levels
▪ PL also defines the type of transmission-medium. (Wired or wireless).
2) Representation of Bits
▪ PL defines the type of encoding i.e. how 0s and 1s are
changedto signals.
▪ Data consists of a stream of bits: 0s or 1s.
▪ Bits must be encoded into signals for transmission.
3) Data Rate
▪ PL defines the transmission-rate.
▪ Transmission-rate refers to the number of bits sent per second.
4) Synchronization of Bits
▪ PL deals with the synchronization of the
transmitter and receiver.
▪ The sender and receiver are synchronized at
bit-level.
5) Line Configuration
▪ PL defines the nature of the connection.
i) In a point-to-point configuration, a dedicated-link is used to connect between 2
devices
ii) In a multipoint configuration, a shared-link is used to connect between 2 or
more devices.
6) Physical Topology
▪ PL defines the type of topology used for connecting the devices in the
network.
▪ Topologies can be mesh, star, ring or bus.
7) Transmission Mode
▪ PL defines the direction of data-transfer between 2 devices.

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i) Simplex: Only one device can send; the other device can only receive.
ii) Half-duplex: Two devices can send and receive, but not at
the same time.
iii) Full-duplex: Two devices can send and receive at the same
time.
Data Link Layer
• Main Responsibility:

Data-link-layer (DLL) is responsible for moving frames from one node to another
node.
• Other responsibilities of data-link-layer (Figure 2.6 & 2.7):
1) Framing
▪ DLL receives & divides the stream of bits from network-layer into
frames.
2) Physical-addressing
▪ DLL appends a header to the frame coming from the network-layer.
▪ Header contains the physical-address of sender & receiver of the
frame.
3) Flow Control
▪ DLL provides flow-control.
▪ Flow-control ensures that source sends the data at a speed at which destination can
receive it
▪ DL an overflow at the receiver-side, the data will be lost.
4) Error Control
▪ DLL provides error-control.
▪ Error-control is process of identification or correction of error occurred in the
transmitted data.
▪ Error-control uses mechanisms to
→ detect damaged-frames
→ retransmit lost-frames
→ recognize duplicate frames.
▪ Normally, error control information is present in the trailer of a
frame.

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5) Access Control
▪ DLL provides access-control.
▪ Access-control determines which device has right to send the data in
a multipoint connection.

Network Layer
• Main Responsibility:
Network-layer (NL) is responsible for source-to-destination delivery of a packet,
possibly across multiple-networks.
• Data-link-layer vs. Network-layer:
1) The data-link-layer ensures the delivery of the packet between 2 systems on the
same link.
2) The network-layer ensures that each packet gets from the source to the final
destination.
• If 2 systems are connected to the same link, there is no need for a network-layer.
However, if the 2 systems are attached to different links, there is often a need for the
network layer to accomplish source-to-destination delivery.

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• Other responsibilities of network-layer (Figure 2.8 & 2.9):

1) Logical Addressing
▪ NL appends a headerto thepacket comingfrom
thetransport-layer.
▪ Theheader contains the IP addresses of the sender
and receiver.
▪ An IP address is a universally unique address in
the network.
▪ NL uses IP address to recognize devices on
the network.
2) Routing
▪ NL provides routing of packets.
▪ Routing is the process of finding the best path from a source to a
destination.
▪ Routers/gateways are used for routing the packets to their final
destination.
▪ NL is concerned with circuit, message or packet switching.

Transport Layer
• Main Responsibility:
Transport-layer (TL) is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire
message.
• Process-to-process delivery means delivery from a specific process on one
computer to a specific process on the other computer.
• A process is an application program running on a host.
• Network-layer vs. Transport-layer:

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1) Network-layer ensures source-to-destination delivery of individual packets.

2) Transport-layer ensures that the whole message arrives in order

• Other responsibilities of transport-layer (Figure 2.10 & 2.11):

1) Service Point Addressing
▪ NL appends a header to the segments coming from the network-layer.
▪ Header contains the port-address of the sender and receiver.
▪ Network-layer vs. Transport-layer:
i) The network-layer gets each packet to the correct computer.
ii) The transport-layer gets the entire message to the correct process on that
computer.
2) Segmentation & Reassembly
▪ A message is divided into segments.
▪ Each segment contains asequence-number.
▪ At receiver, the sequence-numbers are used to
→ rearrange the segments in proper order
→ identify lost/duplicate segments

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3) Connection Control
▪ TL can be either i) connectionless or ii) connection-oriented.
i) In connectionless, TL
→ treats each segment as an independent packet and
→ delivers the segment to the transport-layer at the
destination-machine. ii) In connection-oriented, TL
→ first, makes a connection with the destination-machine.
→ then, delivers the packets to the destination-machine.
3) Flow Control & Error Control
▪ Like DLL, TL is responsible for flow-control & error-control.
However, flow-control & error-control are performed end-to-end rather than
node-to-node.
Session Layer
• Main Responsibility:
Session-layer (SL) establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction between
2 systems.
• Other responsibilities of session-layer (Figure 2.12):
1) Dialog Control
▪ SL allows 2 systems to start communication with each other in half-
duplex or full-duplex.
2) Synchronization

▪ SL allows a process to add checkpoints into stream of data.

▪ The checkpoint is a way of informing the status of the data transfer.
▪ example:
A checkpoint after first 500 bits of data will ensure that those 500 bits are not
sent again in case of retransmission at 650th bit. (Checkpoints
Synchronization Points)

Presentation Layer
• Main Responsibility:
Presentation-layer (PL) is concerned with syntax & semantics of the info. exchanged b/w
2 systems.

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• Other responsibilities of presentation-layer (Figure 2.13):

1) Translation
▪ PLtranslatesdatabetween
→ format the network requires and
→ format the computer understands.
▪ PL is responsible for interoperability between encoding methods as
different computers use different encoding-methods.
2) Encryption
▪ PL performs
→ encryption at the sender and
→ decryption at the receiver.
▪ Encryption means the sender transforms the original information to
another.
▪ Decryption means the receiver transforms the encrypted-message back to
its original form.
3) Compression
▪ PL carries out data compression to reduce the size of the data to be
transmitted.
▪ Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the
information.
▪ Data compression ensures faster data transfer.
▪ Data compression is important in transmitting multimedia such as
audio, video, etc.

Application Layer
• Main Responsibility: The application-layer (AL)
→ provides services to the user.
→ enables the user to access the network.

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• Other responsibilities of application-layer (Figure 2.14):

1) Mail Services
2) Directory Services
3) File Transfer, Access, and Management.

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INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL LAYER

3.1 DATA AND SIGNALS

3.1.1 Analog and Digital Data

To be transmitted, data must be transformed to electromagnetic-signals.
Data can be either analog or digital
1) Analog Data: The term analog data refers to information that is continuous, digital data
refers to information that has discrete states.
For example, Analog data, such as the sounds made by a human voice, take on continuous
values. When someone speaks, an analog wave is created in the air.
2) Digital data: The term analog data refers to information that is on discrete values.
For example, data are stored in computer memory in the form of 0s and 1s. They can be
converted to a digital signal or modulated into an analog signal for transmission across a
medium.

3.1.2 Analog and Digital Signals

• Signals can be either analog or digital (Figure 3.2).

1) Analog Signal has infinitely many levels of intensity over a period of time.
2) Digital Signal can have only a limited number of defined values.

3.1.3 Periodic and Non- periodic

• Both analog and digital signals can take one of two forms: periodic or nonperiodic.

• Periodic signal completes a pattern within a measurable time frame, called a period,
and repeats that pattern over subsequent identical periods. The completion of one
full pattern is called a cycle.

• Nonperiodic signal changes without exhibiting a pattern or cycle that repeats over
time.

• Both analog and digital signals can be periodic or nonperiodic.

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3.3 DIGITAL SIGNALS

• Information can also be represented by a digital signal.
• For example:
1 can be encoded as a positive voltage and a 0 as zero voltage. A digital signal
can have more than two levels. Figure 3.17 shows two signals, one with two levels
and the other with four, send 1 bit per level in part a of the figure and 2 bits per level
in part b of the figure.
• In general, if a signal has L levels, each level needs log2L bits, so log24 = 2 bits in
part b.

Example 1.1

3.3.1 Bit Rate

• Most digital signals are nonperiodic, and thus period and frequency are not appropriate
characteristics.
• Another term—bit rate (instead of frequency)—is used to describe digital signals.
• The bit rate is the number of bits sent in 1s.
• The bit rate is expressed in bits per second (bps).
• Figure 3.17 shows the bit rate for two signals.

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Example 1.2

Example 1.3

Example 1.4

3.3.2 Bit Length

The bit length is the distance one bit occupies on the transmission medium.

3.3.3 Digital Signal as a Composite Analog Signal

• A digital signal is a composite analog signal.
• A digital signal, in the time domain, comprises connected vertical and horizontal line
segments.
1) A vertical line in the time domain means a frequency of infinity (sudden change
in time);
2) A horizontal line in the time domain means a frequency of zero (no change in
time).

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• Fourier analysis can be used to decompose a digital signal.

1) If the digital signal is periodic, the decomposed signal has a frequency domain
representation with an infinite bandwidth and discrete frequencies (Figure 3.18a).
2) If the digital signal is non-periodic, the decomposed signal has a frequency
domain representation with an infinite bandwidth and continuous frequencies
(Figure 3.18b).

3.3.4 Transmission of Digital Signals

• Two methods for transmitting a digital signal:
1) Baseband transmission 2) Broadband transmission (using modulation).

❖ Baseband Transmission
• Baseband transmission means sending a digital signal over a channel without changing
the digital signal to an analog signal (Figure 3.19).

• Baseband transmission requires that we have a low-pass channel.

• Low-pass channel means a channel with a bandwidth that starts from zero.
• For example, we can have a dedicated medium with a bandwidth constituting only one
channel.

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•Two cases of a baseband communication:

• Case 1: Low-pass channel with a wide
bandwidth ( (Figure 3.20a)
• Case 2: Low-pass channel with a limited
bandwidth (Figure 3.20b)
Case 1: Low-Pass Channel with Wide Bandwidth
➢ To preserve the shape of a digital signal, need to send the entire
spectrum i.e. the continuous range of frequencies between zero and
infinity.
➢ This is possible when a dedicated medium with an infinite bandwidth
between the sender and receiver is obtained.
➢ A medium with a very wide bandwidth, 2 stations can communicate by
using digital signals with very good accuracy (Figure 3.21).
➢ Although the output signal is not an exact replica of the original signal,
the data can still be deduced from the received signal.

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Case 2: Low-Pass Channel with Limited Bandwidth

→ In a low-pass channel with limited bandwidth, we approximate the digital signal
with an analog signal. The level of approximation depends on the bandwidth
available.
A) Rough Approximation
▪ Assume that we have a digital signal of bit rate N (Figure 3.22).
▪ If we want to send analog signals to roughly simulate this signal, we need to consider
the worst case, a maximum number of changes in the digital signal.
▪ This happens when the signal carries the sequence 01010101… or 10101010 ..............
▪ To simulate these two cases, we need an analog signal of frequency f = N/2.
▪ Let 1 be the positive peak value and 0 be the negative peak value.
▪ We send 2 bits in each cycle; the frequency of the analog signal is one-half of the bit
rate, or N/2.
▪ This rough approximation is referred to as using the first harmonic (N/2) frequency.
The required bandwidth is

B) Better Approximation
▪ To make the shape of the analog signal look more like that of a digital signal, we need to
add more harmonics of the frequencies (Figure 3.23).
▪ We can increase the bandwidth to 3N/2, 5N/2, 7N/2, and so on.
▪ In baseband transmission, the required bandwidth is proportional to the bit rate; If we
need to send bits faster, we need more bandwidth.

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Example 1.5

Example 1.6

Broadband Transmission (Using Modulation)

• Broadband transmission or modulation means changing the digital signal to an
analog signal for transmission.
• Modulation allows us to use a bandpass channel (Figure 3.24).
• Bandpass channel means a channel with a bandwidth that does not start from zero.
• This type of channel is more available than a low-pass channel.

• If the available channel is a bandpass channel,

→ We cannot send the digital signal directly to the channel.
→ We need to convert the digital signal to an analog signal before transmission (Figure
3.25).
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3.4 TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT

• Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect.
• The imperfection causes signal-impairment.
• This means that signal at beginning of the medium is not the same as the signal at end of
medium.
• What is sent is not what is received.
• Three causes of impairment are (Figure 3.26):
1) Attenuation
2) Distortion &
3) Noise.

Attenuation
• Attenuation means a loss of energy.
• When a signal, simple or composite, travels through a medium, it loses some of its
energy in overcoming the resistance of the medium.
• As signal travels through the medium, its strength decreases as distance increases.
This is called attenuation (Figure 3.27).
• As the distance increases, attenuation also increases.
• For example:
Voice-data becomes weak over the distance & loses its contents beyond a certain
distance.

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• To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the signal.

Decibel
• The decibel (dB) measures the relative strengths of
→ 2 signals or
→ one signal at 2 different points.
The decibel is negative if signal is attenuated. The decibel is positive if a signal is amplified.

• Variables P1 and P2 are the powers of a signal at points 1 and 2, respectively.

• To show that a signal has lost or gained strength, engineers use the unit of decibel.

Example 1.7

Example 1.8

Example 1.9

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Example 1.10

Distortion
• Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape (Figure 3.29).
• Distortion can occur in a composite signal made of different frequencies.
• Different signal-components
→ have different propagation speed through a medium.
→ have different delays in arriving at the final destination.
• Differences in delay create a difference in phase if delay is not same as the period-
duration.
• Signal-components at the receiver have phases different from what they had at the sender.
• The shape of the composite signal is therefore not the same.

Noise
• Noise is defined as an unwanted data (Figure 3.30).
• In other words, noise is the external energy that corrupts a signal.
• Due to noise, it is difficult to retrieve the original data/information.
• Four types of noise:
i) Thermal Noise
It is random motion of electrons in wire which creates extra signal not
originally sent by transmitter.
ii) Induced Noise
Induced noise comes from sources such as motors & appliances. These

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devices act as a sending-antenna. The transmission-medium acts as the receiving-

antenna.
iii) Crosstalk
Crosstalk is the effect of one wire on the other.
One wire acts as a sending-antenna and the other as the
receiving-antenna.
iv) Impulse Noise
Impulse Noise is a spike that comes from power-lines,
lightning, and so on. (spike a signal with high energy
in a very short time)

Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)

• SNR is used to find the theoretical bit-rate limit.

• SNR is defined as

• SNR is actually the ratio of what is wanted (signal) to what is not wanted (noise).
• A high-SNR means the signal is less corrupted by noise.
• A low-SNR means the signal is more corrupted by noise.
• Because SNR is the ratio of 2 powers, it is often described in decibel units, SNR dB,
defined as

Example 1.11

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3.5 DATA RATE LIMITS

• Data-rate depends on 3 factors:
1) Bandwidth available
2) Level of the signals
3) Quality of channel (the level of noise)
• Two theoretical formulas can be used to calculate the data-rate:
1) Nyquist for a noiseless channel and
2) Shannon for a noisy channel.

3.5.1 Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate

For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit-rate formula defines the theoretical maximum bit-
rate

where bandwidth = bandwidth of the channel

L = number of signal-levels used to represent data
BitRate = bitrate of channel in bps
According to theformula,
¤ By increasing number of signal-levels, we can increase the bit-rate.
¤ Although the idea is theoretically correct, practically there is a limit.
¤ When we increase the number of signal-levels, we impose a burden
on the receiver. ¤ If no. of levels in a signal is 2, the receiver can easily
distinguish b/w 0 and 1.
¤ If no. of levels is 64, the receiver must be very sophisticated to
distinguish b/w 64 different levels.
¤ In other words, increasing the levels of a signal reduces the reliability of
the system.

Example 1.12

Example 1.13

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Example 1.14

3.5.2 Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity

In reality, we cannot have a noiseless channel; the channel is always noisy.

For a noisy channel, the Shannon capacity formula defines the theoretical maximum bit-
rate.
where bandwidth = bandwidth of channel in bps.
SNR = signal-to-noise ratio
Capacity = capacity of channel in bps.
This formula does not consider the no. of levels of signals being transmitted (as done
in the Nyquist bit rate).
This means that no matter how many levels we have, we cannot achieve a data-rate higher
than the capacity of the channel.
In other words, the formula defines a characteristic of the channel, not the method of
transmission.

Example 1.1.5

Example 1.16

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Example 1.17

3.6 PERFORMANCE

3.6.1 Bandwidth
• One characteristic that measures network-performance is bandwidth.
• Bandwidth of analog and digital signals is calculated in separate ways:
(1) Bandwidth in hertz
Bandwidth in hertz is the range of frequencies contained in a composite signal or the range of
frequencies a channel can pass.
For example, the bandwidth of a subscriber telephone line is 4 kHz.

In figure 3.13, the signal has a minimum frequency of F1 = 1000Hz and maximum frequency
of F2 = 5000Hz.
Hence, the bandwidth is given by F2 - F1= 5000 - 1000 = 4000 Hz
(2) Bandwidth in bits per sec
The term bandwidth can also refer to the number of bits per second that a channel, a link, or
even a network can transmit.
For example, the bandwidth of a Fast Ethernet network (or the links in this network) is a
maximum of 100 Mbps. This means that this network can send 100 Mbps.

Relationship between (1) and (2)

• There is an explicit relationship between the bandwidth in hertz and bandwidth in bits per
seconds.
• Basically, an increase in bandwidth in hertz means an increase in bandwidth in bits per
second.

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• The relationship depends on

→ Baseband transmission or
→ Transmission with modulation.

3.6.2 Throughput
• The throughput is a measure of how fast we can actually send data through a network.
• Although, bandwidth in bits per second and throughput seem the same, they are actually
different.
• A link may have a bandwidth of B bps, but we can only send T bps through this link
with T always less than B.
• In other words,
1) The bandwidth is a potential measurement of a link.
2) The throughput is an actual measurement of how fast we
can send data.
3) For example:
¤ We may have a link with a bandwidth of 1 Mbps, but the devices
connected to the end of the link may handle only 200 kbps.
¤ This means that we cannot send more than 200 kbps through this
link.
Example 1.18

3.6.3 Latency (Delay)

• The latency defines how long it takes for an entire message to completely arrive at the
destination from the time the first bit is sent out from the source.

1) Propagation Time
Propagation time is defined as the time required for a bit to travel from source to
destination.
The propagation time is calculated by dividing the distance by the propagation speed.

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• Propagation time is given by

Propagation speed of electromagnetic signals depends on
→ medium and
→ frequency of the signal.

Example 1.19

(2) Transmission Time

The time required for transmission of a message depends on
→ size of the message and
→ bandwidth of the channel.
The transmission time is given by

Example 1.20

Example 1.21

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(3) Queuing Time

• The third component in latency is the queuing time, the time needed for each
intermediate or end device to hold the message before it can be processed.
• The queuing time is not a fixed factor; it changes with the load imposed on the
network.
• When there is heavy traffic on the network, the queuing time increases. An
intermediate device, such as a router, queues they arrived messages and processes
them one by one. If there are many messages, each message will have to wait.

3.6.4 Bandwidth Delay Product

• Two performance-metrics of a link are 1) Bandwidth and 2) Delay
• The bandwidth-delay product is very important in data-communications.
• Let us elaborate on this issue, using 2 hypothetical cases as examples.
Case 1: The following figure shows case 1 (Figure 3.32).

Let us assume,
Bandwidth of the link = 1 bps and Delay of the link = 5s.
From the figure 3.32, bandwidth-delay product is 1 x 5 = 5. Thus, there can be maximum 5 bits
on the line. There can be no more than 5 bits at any time on the link.

Case 2: The following figure shows case 2 (Figure 3.33).

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Let us assume,
Bandwidth of the link = 4 bps and Delay of the link = 5s.
From the figure 3.33, bandwidth-delay product is 5 x 5 = 25. Thus, there can be
maximum 25 bits on the line. At each second, there are 5 bits on the line, thus
the duration of each bit is 0.20s.
• The above 2 cases show that the (bandwidth X delay) is the number of bits that can fill the
link.
• This measurement is important if we need to
→ send data in bursts and
→ wait for the acknowledgment of each burst.
• To use the maximum capability of the link
→ need to make the burst-size as (2 x bandwidth x delay).
→need to fill up the full-duplex channel (two directions).
• Amount (2x bandwidth x delay) is the number of bits that can be in transition at any time
(Fig 3.34).

3.6.5 Jitter
• Another performance issue that is related to delay is jitter.
• We can say that jitter is a problem
→ if different packets of data encounter different delays and
→ if the application using the data at the receiver site is time-sensitive (for ex:
audio/video).
• For example: If the delay for the first packet is 20 ms, for the second is 45 ms, and for the
third is 40 ms, then the real-time application that uses the packets suffer from jitter.

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