SHAHRUL KADRI BIN AYOP ©Tuesday, October 27, 2020 for SFT3023

TOPIC 1 PERIODIC MOTION

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the topic, you will be able to

1. describe oscillations in terms of amplitude, period, frequency, and angular frequency.
2. do calculations with simple harmonic motion.
3. use energy concepts to analyse simple harmonic motion.
4. analyse the motions of a simple pendulum.
5. analyse damped motion.
6. explain the cause and effect of resonance.

TABLE OF CONTENT

LO1 to describe oscillations in terms of amplitude, period, frequency, and angular frequency 2

LO2 to do calculations with simple harmonic motion. 5

Circular Motion and Simple Harmonic Motion. 7
The relation between T, k and m. 10
Equations of SHM by differentiation 11

LO3 to use energy concepts to analyse simple harmonic motion. 13

LO4 to analyse the motions of a simple pendulum. 16

LO5 to analyse damped motion. 20

LO6 to explain the cause and effect of resonance. 24

Important Formula and Physics 27

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LO1 to describe oscillations in terms of amplitude, period, frequency, and

angular frequency
https://www.compadre.org/physlets/

(III Waves/ Chapter 16/ToC/Illustration 16.2/Animation 2)

We will consider two oscillation systems. (1) Mass-spring system (2) Simple Pendulum
Sketch both systems. Label important components and their properties

Mass-spring system Simple Pendulum

Suppose that we have a mass-spring system described as the following 𝑥(𝑡) graph.

Figure 1
Differentiate between

a) period and frequency.

b) amplitude and equilibrium point.

Based on the graph in Figure 1, locate the points of

a) equilibrium.
b) minimum and maximum displacements.
c) minimum and maximum velocities.

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Suppose we have a simple pendulum system described as the following 𝑥(𝑡) graph.

Figure 2
Differentiate between

a) period and frequency.

b) amplitude and equilibrium point.

In the graph of Figure 2, locate the points of

a) the equilibrium point.

b) minimum and maximum displacement.
c) minimum and maximum velocities.

Another useful quantity is the angular frequency, which we will go deeper in the next session.

Angular frequency is defined as 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓.

It is a measure of angular change in a second. Guess, what is the unit?

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Exercise 1

1.

Figure 3
Based on the graph in Figure 3, the ball is instantaneously at the equilibrium point, calculate
period, frequency and angular frequency.

2. The displacement of an oscillating object as a function of time is shown in Figure 4. What are
(a) the period; (b) the amplitude; (c) the frequency; (d) the angular frequency of this motion?
(16s, 10.0 cm, 0.0625 Hz, 0.39 rad/s)

Figure 4

RECOMMENDED EXERCISE IN UNIVERSITY PHYSICS 14.1 to 14.5

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LO2 to do calculations with simple harmonic motion.

https://www.compadre.org/physlets/

(III Waves/ Chapter 16/ToC/Illustration 16.2/Animation 2)

For a simple oscillation/vibration system, a restoring force always acts to the equilibrium point.

Figure 5
Restoring force is the force which acts on the mass to return it to the equilibrium point.

Identify the restoring force in Figure 5 for both the mass-spring system and the simple
pendulum.
Is the force always changing with displacement?
At what point on the pendulum path and 𝑥(𝑡) graph is the restoring force maximum? Minimum?
Zero? Change direction?

A motion where restoring force is proportional to the negative displacement is called simple
harmonic motion (SHM). Why negative?

Write down the expression mathematically.

Equation 1

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The relation can be transformed into a mathematical equation where proportionality constant 𝑘
is inserted.

Equation 2
This is the Hooke’s Law where 𝑘 is a spring constant. Therefore, the SHM fulfil the law.

The object undergoing SHM is called a simple harmonic oscillator (SHO). Not all oscillator is a
SHO because the motion condition for SHO is ________________________

The velocity of the mass in SHO always changes in every displacement. We say that the
instantaneous velocity changes as a function of displacement 𝑣(𝑥) , as well as time 𝑣(𝑡).
Thus, the mass has a changing instantaneous acceleration.
The instantaneous acceleration will be just identified as just an acceleration only in this text.

Recall from mechanics, what is the definition of the acceleration?

Equation 3 𝒂=

Now we are going to derive the relation between the acceleration and the displacement in
SHM.

Recall the equation for Newton’s Second Law.

Equation 4 𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 =

In SHM, the only acting force is the restoring force in Equation 2 and Equation 4 by eliminating
𝐹 to find the acceleration as a function of displacement.
Equation 5 𝒂(𝒙) =

Equation 5 is important later to connect spring constant with angular frequency.

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Circular Motion and Simple Harmonic Motion.

In this section, we are aiming to derive equations of SHM.

https://www.compadre.org/physlets/

(III Waves/ Chapter 16/ToC/Illustration 16.1)

Figure 6
Compare the SHM of the mass on spring (left) and the uniform circular motion of a point on the
turntable (middle) in Figure 6. What aspect of similarity that you can see? Compare the speed
of both moving points.

The time taken for one complete cycle for the mass-spring system is the same as the time
taken for one complete cycle for the turntable.

Their period is the same! Therefore, their frequency is the same too!

Let us look to the angular speed of the turntable.

The time taken for one complete cycle is T.

So, the angular speed is

Equation 6 𝝎= =
Therefore, the angular speed of the circular motion is equal to the angular frequency of the
oscillation motion.

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In this course, we will regularly use the term angular frequency, instead.

We can also see that the oscillation is the projection of the circular motion on an axis.
The projection of the object is analogous to the shadow on a plane.

So, we can analyse the oscillation using a circular motion.

Objective: To find the equation of displacement as a

function of time 𝑥(𝑡) for a simple harmonic motion
using uniform circular motion analysis.

Suppose at time 𝑡, the point in a circular motion is at Q

where is 𝜃 from the x-axis.

𝑨 is the displacement vector with magnitude 𝐴.

Thus, 𝐴 is the maximum displacement or the amplitude

of SHO.

The projection of 𝑨 along the x-axis is 𝑥(𝑡) of an SHO.

The 𝑥(𝑡) is

Objective: To find the equation of velocity along the x-

axis as a function of time, 𝑣$ (𝑡) for a simple harmonic
motion using uniform circular motion analysis.

Suppose at time 𝑡, the point in a circular motion is at Q

where is 𝜃 from 𝑥 -axis.

𝒗% is the tangential velocity vector of magnitude, 𝑣% .

Thus,𝑣% is the maximum speed of SHO, or simply

𝑣% = 𝑣&'$

The projection of 𝒗% along the g x-axis is 𝑣$ (𝑡) of an

SHO.

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The 𝑣$ (𝑡) is

Objective: To find the equation of acceleration along 𝑥

-axis as a function of time 𝑎$ (𝑡) for a simple harmonic
motion using uniform circular motion analysis.

Suppose at time 𝑡, the point in a circular motion is at Q

where is 𝜃 from 𝑥-axis.

𝒂% is the centripetal acceleration vector with

magnitude𝑎% .

Thus, 𝑎% is the maximum velocity of SHO, or simply

𝑎% = 𝑎&'$

The projection of 𝑎% along the x-axis is 𝑎$ (𝑡) of an

SHO.

The 𝑎$ (𝑡) is

(
From mechanics, we recall that 𝜔 =
)

Therefore, we can use 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡 in the above equations. 𝑥(𝑡) , 𝑣$ (𝑡) and 𝑎$ (𝑡).

Ok now let us summarise, from analysing above circular motion to get equations of SHM, we
got

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡

𝑣$ (𝑡) = −𝑣&'$ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

𝑎$ (𝑡) = −𝑎&'$ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡

For the above equations, sketch 𝑥(𝑡),𝑣$ (𝑡) and 𝑎$ (𝑡) for two cycles of oscillation.

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The relation between 𝑻, 𝒌 and 𝒎.

So far, we don’t have an equation that relates the period 𝑇, the spring constant 𝑘 and mass 𝑚.

Recall what is the relation between the centripetal acceleration 𝑎% and the tangential velocity
𝑣% of a circular motion with radius 𝑟 (based on the table above).

Note that, the radius of the circle equals the amplitude of SHO, 𝑟 = 𝐴.

Equation 7 𝒂𝑸 =
Recall what is the relation between the tangential velocity 𝑣% and angular speed 𝜔 of a circular
motion.

Equation 8 𝒗𝑸 =

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This can be replaced in 𝑣% for 𝑣% (𝑡).

Combine Equation 7 and Equation 8 to get a relation between the centripetal acceleration 𝑎%
and the angular speed 𝜔.

Equation 9 𝒂𝑸 =

Now, the acceleration of the SHO becomes 𝑎$ (𝑡) = −𝜔+ 𝐴cos𝜔𝑡.

Simplify to

Equation 10 𝒂𝒙 (𝒕) = −𝝎𝟐 𝒙(𝒕)

Compare Equation 10 with Equation 5 to get the relation between angular frequency 𝜔
(previously angular speed), the spring constant 𝑘 and the mass of the corresponding SHO 𝑚
by eliminating maximum acceleration.

Equation 11 𝝎=

Equations of SHM by differentiation

We can also derive equations of SHM by differentiation.

Take 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡.

For SHO velocity

𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
𝑣$ (𝑡) = =
𝑑𝑡

For SHO acceleration

𝑑𝑣$ (𝑡)
𝑎$ (𝑡) = =
𝑑𝑡

From the above, we got

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𝑎&'$ =

To summarise

Equation 12 𝒙(𝒕) =

Equation 13 𝒗𝒙 (𝒕) =

Equation 14 𝒂𝒙 (𝒕) =

CAUTION! You must understand the way equations are derived not the exact equation. Every
SHO will have a different form of 𝑥(𝑡) other than cosine function.

Exercise 2
The temporal displacement of a mass-spring system is described the following equation 𝑥(𝑡) =
2.0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2.5𝜋𝑡 where 𝑥, 𝑡 are measured in m and s respectively. The mass is 200 g.

a) Determine the amplitude, the angular frequency, the frequency and the period.
b) Write down the expression for 𝑣(t) and 𝑎(t).
c) Determine the maximum velocity and maximum acceleration.
d) Sketch the value-labelled graphs for two complete oscillations of 𝑥(t), 𝑣(𝑡) and 𝑎(𝑡).
e) Calculate the spring constant in the system.

(a) 2.0 cm, 2.5𝜋, 1.25 Hz, 0.8 s (b) 𝑣(𝑡) = −5.0𝜋 sin 2.5𝜋𝑡 , 𝑎(𝑡) = −12.5𝜋 ! cos 2.5𝜋𝑡 (c) 5.0𝜋m/s, 12.5𝜋 ! m/s2 (d)- (e) 12.3 N/m

RECOMMENDED EXERCISE 14.6 to 14.18 (exclude 14.11)

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LO3 to use energy concepts to analyse simple harmonic motion.

https://www.compadre.org/physlets/

(III Waves/ Chapter 16/ToC/Illustration 16.3)

Suppose an SHM of a mass-spring system is described by

Equation 15 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕

Write down again its 𝑣$ (𝑡):

Recall the general formula for kinetic energy and elastic potential energy.

Equation 16 𝑲=
Equation 17 𝑼=
The total mechanical energy in the SHO is

Equation 18 𝑬=𝑲+𝑼=

The total mechanical energy is conserved, ideally.

We will derive the total mechanical energy independent of velocity.

Substitute Equation 12 and Equation 13 into Equation 18 and solve for 𝐸.

Equation 19

Now we will derive 𝑣$ at specific position 𝑥, 𝑣$ (𝑥).

CAUTION! Differentiate between 𝑣$ (𝑥) and 𝑣$ (𝑡).

Equate the right side of Equation 18 and Equation 19, and solve for 𝑣$ (𝑥).

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Equation 20

Let us sketch 𝐾(𝑡), 𝑈(𝑡) and 𝐸(𝑡) on the same graph for two cycles of oscillation,
with the condition 𝑥(0) = 𝐴.

Let us sketch 𝐾(𝑥), 𝑈(𝑥) and 𝐸(𝑥) on the same graph for two cycles of oscillation, with the
condition 𝑥(0) = 𝐴

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Exercise 3
A 0.150 kg toy is undergoing SHM on the end of horizontal spring with a force constant 𝑘 = 300
N/m. When the object is 0.0120 m from its equilibrium position, it is observed to have a speed
of 0.300 m/s.

(a) What are

i) the total energy of the object at any point of its motion;
ii) the amplitude of the motion;
iii) the maximum speed attained by the object during its motion;
iv) the elastic potential and kinetic energies at 0.006 m from its equilibrium position;
v) the frequency of oscillation.
(0.028 J, 0.014 m, 0.611 m/s, 0.0054 J & 0.0226 J, 7.1Hz Hz)

(b) Sketch a labelled graph of energy versus displacement on the same graph for
i) 𝐸(𝑥),
ii) 𝐾(𝑥) and
iii) 𝑈(𝑥).

(c) At what displacement will the toy have the same amount of kinetic and potential
energy?
(0.0137 m)
RECOMMENDED EXERCISE 14.22 to 14.34

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LO4 to analyse the motions of a simple pendulum.

In a simple pendulum, the following conditions are assumed.
The string has negligible mass.
The string is non-stretchable.
The oscillation arc is so small 𝜃 < 0.17 𝑟𝑎𝑑 or 𝜃 < 10° .

Figure 7
Indicate the restoring force by an arrow in Figure 7.
The pendulum oscillates along arc 𝑥.
Using the knowledge of circle, 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜃, express 𝑥, 𝐿 and 𝜃 in the similar form.

Equation 21
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III Waves/ Chapter 16/ToC/Illustration 16.2/Animation 2

The restoring force on the bob is always directed to the equilibrium point.

Recall that for the pendulum to be an SHM, the restoring force must be proportional to 𝑥 or 𝜃.

Let us find the expression for the force and displacement of a simple pendulum.
Before we proceed, sketch a labelled free body diagram of the simple pendulum in Figure 7.

Free body diagram Resolve the weight into its component.

Recognise which arrow (or weight component) representing the restoring force.

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Equation 22 𝑭 = −𝑾𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = −𝒎𝒈𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽

From this, we see that the restoring force is proportional to 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃, not 𝜃! Therefore, the simple
pendulum is not an SHO.
However, for small 𝜃, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 and the arc 𝑥 is assumed linear. So we can simplify to

Equation 23 𝑭 = −𝒎𝒈𝜽
Substitute Equation 21 into

Equation 23 for 𝜃.

Equation 24
Now, for small displacement, the simple pendulum is an SHO.
How small is small? Let us calculate.
Write in 4 significant figures.
Set your calculator in mode radian.
𝜃 in ° 𝜃 in rad 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
2 0.03491 0.03490 (0.03%)
4 0.06981 0.06976 (0.07%)
6 0.1047 0.1045 (0.19%)
8 0.1396 0.1392 (0.29%)
10 0.1745 0.1736 (0.51%)
12 0.2094 0.2079 (0.72%)
45 0.7854 0.7071 (10%)

As the angle gets larger, the approximation fails.

We will derive the equation of angular frequency for the simple pendulum.
Look back the angular frequency 𝜔 in Equation 11.
The equation is not suitable for a simple pendulum since the pendulum does not have spring
constant 𝑘.
However, the equivalent force constant 𝑘 (same symbol) can be deduced by the following
analysis.
Comparing

Equation 23 with Hooke’s Law equation to get force constant 𝑘 of a simple pendulum.

Equation 25 𝒌=

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Substitute 𝑘 into Equation 11

Equation 26
From the last equation, we see that the angular frequency of a simple pendulum uses a
different equation than a mass-spring system.

Therefore, the frequency and period of a simple pendulum depend on 𝐿 and 𝑔 only. In
contrast, for a mass-spring system depend on 𝑘 and 𝑚.

Exercise 4

1. Find the period and frequency of a simple pendulum 1.000 m long on earth where g =
9.800 m/s+ . The gravity on the moon is 1/6 from that on the earth. To maintain the same
oscillation period, determine the length of the pendulum. (1/6 m)

2. When a body oscillating on a horizontal spring passes through its equilibrium position, its
acceleration is zero. When the bob of a simple oscillating pendulum passes through its
equilibrium position, is its acceleration zero?

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RECOMMENDED EXERCISE 14.45 to 14.49

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LO5 to analyse damped motion.

https://www.compadre.org/physlets/

III Waves/ Chapter 16/ToC/Illustration 16.4

Dissipative forces exist in real-world systems.

These forces cause a loss of energy from an oscillation system.
Therefore, the amplitude of oscillation decays and the period changes.
The decrease in the oscillation amplitude is called damping.
An oscillation with damping is called damped oscillation.

Consider an SHO with different strength of damping.

List out similarities and differences between each motion.
Simple harmonic motion

Underdamped motion

Critically damped motion

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Overdamped motion

Table 1

Let us consider an SHM in a viscous fluid such as shock absorber in vehicles which
experience drag force depending on velocity. The drag force experienced by the SHO is

Equation 27 𝒇 = −𝒃𝒗
Notice that the force resists the motion and proportional the velocity.
𝒃 is called a damping constant.
We attempt to get the equation of motion x(t)which canan describe our damping observation.

Consider a mass-spring system (Figure 8). Suppose the mass is released at x(0) = 𝐴.
Draw a force diagram for the mass considering drag force Equation 27.

-A xo A

Force diagram
Figure 8

Write the equation for the resultant force acting on the SHO.

Equation 28 𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑭 + 𝒇 =

Equate Equation 4 with Equation 28 leads to

−𝑘𝑥 − 𝑏𝑣 = 𝑚𝑎$
𝑑𝑥 𝑑+ 𝑥
−𝑘𝑥 − 𝑏 =𝑚 +
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

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𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝟐 𝒙
Equation 29 −𝒌𝒙 − 𝒃 𝒅𝒕 − 𝒎 𝒅𝒕𝟐 = 𝟎
This is called the second-order ordinary differential equation (ODE). It has a standard form of
solution which will not be discussed here.

Shortly, the solution is

Equation 30 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝑨(𝒕) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎′𝒕

Where the decaying amplitude

Equation 31
𝒃
𝑨(𝒕) = 𝑨B 𝒆C𝟐𝒎𝒕

Where the new angular frequency is

𝒌 𝒃𝟐
Equation 32 𝝎F = s𝒎 − 𝟒𝒎𝟐

Compare Equation 32 with Equation 11. What is the difference? When to use 𝜔 and 𝜔F ?

𝑥(𝑡) for SHM and damped oscillation differs in two ways.

1. Amplitude decays

Equation 30 consists of two terms: (exponentially decay amplitude) x (sinusoidal oscillation).

Sketch the graph of exponent, sin and their product graph versus time.

𝑦 = 𝐴B 𝑒 CI) 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔′ 𝑡 𝑦 = 𝐴B 𝑒 CI) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔′ 𝑡

The decaying amplitude depends on 𝑏 (damping constant). Consequently, the energy is lost,
the total mechanical energy no longer constant.

2. Angular frequency decrease

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By referring to Equation 32, 𝜔 decreases for bigger 𝑏. Consequently, the period becomes
longer. The SHO experiences difficulty (resistance) to oscillate.

If the drag force reaches a specific limit, called critical damping, the SHO no longer oscillate.
This occurs when the following condition is met.
𝒌 𝒃𝟐
Equation 33 − 𝟒𝒎𝟐 = 𝟎 or 𝒃 = 𝟐√𝒌𝒎
𝒎

If the frictional force is too large where 𝑏 > 2√𝑘𝑚, the motion is called ______________.
If the frictional force is small where 𝑏 < 2√𝑘𝑚, the motion is ________________.
If the frictional force is absence where 𝑏 = 0, the motion is called ___________________.

Return to Table 1 to match the damping condition with its corresponding 𝑥(𝑡).

Exercise 5
1. The following graph shows displacement versus time of three damped motions. Identify
the motion with underdamping, critical damping and overdamping conditions.

Figure 9

2. A 50.0 g hard-boiled egg moves on the end of a spring with a force consta
k = 25.0 N/m. Its initial displacement is 0.300 m. A damping force Fx = -bvx acts on the
egg, and the amplitude of the motion decreases to 0.100 m in 5.00 s. Calculate the
magnitude of the damping constant b.
(0.022 kg/s)

RECOMMENDED EXERCISE 14.58 to 14.64

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LO6 to explain the cause and effect of resonance.

https://www.compadre.org/physlets/

III Waves/ Chapter 16/ToC/Exploration 16.6

𝜔 is also known as the natural angular frequency.

It is a property of any oscillation system.
An underdamped oscillation dies out after several periods.
To sustain the oscillation, we can apply a time-varying force.
We call the force, the driving force 𝐹J .

The driving angular frequency is noted by 𝜔J .

The underdamped oscillation with the applied driving force is called forced oscillation or driven
oscillation.

The forced oscillation will oscillate at 𝜔J .

Therefore, you can set the angular frequency of any oscillation by forcing it to oscillate at the
driven angular frequency.
The response (oscillation amplitude) of a forced oscillation depends on 𝜔J .
We will not analyse the forced oscillation to get 𝑥(𝑡).

The response of the forced oscillation with driven force 𝐹(𝑡) = 𝐹&'$ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔J 𝑡 is given by
𝑭𝒎𝒂𝒙
Equation 34 𝑨=
LM𝒌C𝒎𝝎𝟐 O𝟐 P𝒃𝟐 𝝎𝟐
𝒅 𝒅

Q&'( S)
The graph of the respons R
versus S
is shown in Figure 10.

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Figure 10

From Figure 10, analyse the following features.

1. Recognise response curves of varying damping constant.
2. At what condition amplitude peak occurred? The occurrence of amplitude peak or the
enhancement of oscillation amplitude is called resonance, when the driving force is closed to
the natural frequency 𝜔J = 𝜔′.
R
3. From Equation 34, 𝐴 gets maximum when 𝑘 − 𝑚𝜔J+ = 0 where 𝜔J = s .
&

This is where 𝜔J = 𝜔.

4. At resonance, if damping constant is much smaller, the response is so high and narrow.
What is the physical consequence of this phenomena?

5. For 𝜔J = 0 and 𝑏 = 0, determine 𝐴.

We see that upon and beyond resonance, the response is getting weaker.

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SHAHRUL KADRI BIN AYOP ©Tuesday, October 27, 2020 for SFT3023

Exercise 6

1. When driven at a frequency near its natural frequency, an oscillator with minimal
damping has a much greater response than the same oscillator with more damping.
When driven at a frequency
that is much higher or lower than the natural frequency,
which oscillator will have a greater response:

(i) the one with minimal damping or (ii) the one with more damping?

2. In forced vibration, what are the effects of the damping constant upon the oscillation
response?

3. What is resonance? State the condition for resonance to occur?

4. A sinusoidally varying driving force is applied to a damped harmonic oscillator.

i) What are the units of the damping constant 𝑏?

ii) Show that the quantity √𝑘𝑚 has the same unit as 𝑏.

iii) In terms of 𝐹&'$ and 𝑘 when, what is the amplitude for 𝜔J = y𝑘/𝑚 when

(a) 𝑏 = 0.2√𝑘𝑚.
(b) 𝑏 = 0.4√𝑘𝑚.

Q& Q&
[5 , 2.5 ,]
R R

RECOMMENDED EXERCISE 14.63 and 14.64

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SHAHRUL KADRI BIN AYOP ©Tuesday, October 27, 2020 for SFT3023

Definition
Amplitude:

Period:

Frequency:

Important Formula and Physics

List out formulas which you think is useful for you.

Draw a concept map which relates all the physics of oscillation that you have learned so far.

To help you understand,

Step 1: List concept and physical quantities you have learned

Step 2: Find a similarity between them

Step 3: Find the difference between them

Step 4: Find a connection between them

RECOMMENDED MORE EXERCISES 14.68, 14.84, 14.88

Fuh! Now, we are ready for the next Chapter.

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