Volume 6, Issue 6, June – 2021 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology

ISSN No:-2456-2165

Graph Convolutional Networks:

Adaptations and Applications
Sai Annanya Sree Vedala Pavan Kumar Dharmoju Rida Malik Mubeen
Computer Science and Engineering Electrical and Electronics Computer Science and Engineering
Chaitanya Bharathi Institute of Engineering MJCET
Technology Chaitanya Bharathi Institute of Hyderabad, India
Hyderabad, India Technology
Hyderabad, India

Abstract:- Graph Convolutional Networks, Graph entire graph can be covered. It is observed that the results
Conventional Networks are a generalised version of obtained from a 2 to 3 layered Graph convolutional network
Convolutional Neural Networks. They are an extension of are quite optimal. The problem of increasing the number of
the generic convolutional operation and have the ability layers is the decrease in the performance of the network. This
to deal with non-Euclidean types of data and can easily is one of the issues that will be addressed in the latter part of
work with nodes and graphs to get features to learn and this paper.
train the networks. They have evolved over time and have
been applied to various domains. The techniques have II. UNDERSTANDING GCNS
improved and the performance of the Graph
Convolutional Networks has been a great tool in the A. The concept of Convolutional Neural Networks
domain of research. In this study, we present the Convolutional Neural Network [1] is similar to
transformations and improvements of Graph traditional Artificial Neural Networks where they are
Convolutional Networks and analyse the variation of the composed of neurons that tend to self-optimize through a
contrast between the traditional convolutional neural process of self-learning. Every neuron will still receive input
network and the graph neural network. The different and perform an operation which is the very basis of ANNs.
applications have been discussed, adaptations have been Throughout the process, that is, from the input raw image
highlighted along with the limitations. vectors, reaching the final output of the class score, the whole
network would still show a single perceptive score function
Keywords:- Graph Convolutional Network. which is the weight. The final concluding layer will contain
loss functions associated with the classes, and further, all of
I. INTRODUCTION the regular tips and tricks built for a traditional ANN will still
apply. The major notable difference between Convolutional
Graph convolutional network [7] is a type of neural Neural Networks [16] and traditional ANNs is that
network that has a powerful architecture for machine learning Convolutional Neural Networks are majorly used in scenarios
on graphs. They are a variant of graph neural networks that involving images. This tends to allow us to encode features
can deal with the non-regularity of data structures. They which are image-specific into the architecture so that it helps
consist of operations of multiplying input neurons with make the network more suited for image-focused tasks like
weights. This is the same as the convolutions operations in pattern recognition within images. This is done while further
the convolution layers that present in Convolution neural reducing the parameters required to set up the model to not
networks. The set of weights are called filters and these make the entire process extremely expensive, both in terms of
filters act as sliding windows across the images and enable time and space complexities which is one of the largest
the neural network to learn features. Graph convolutional limitations of traditional forms of ANN i.e., that they tend to
networks are an extension of Convolutional Neural Networks struggle with the computational complexity required to
where the Convolutional Neural Networks are great at compute image data. The basic architecture of a
computer vision tasks and ability to train deep neural Convolutional Neural Network can be broken down into the
networks but fall short in their efficiency when it comes to following:
variation in the order of the data. While on the other hand, ● The Input layer: It will hold the pixel values of the input
Graph convolutional networks have the ability to work with image.
the unordered data and can work directly on graphs and deal ● The Convolutional Layer: This will determine the output
with structural information. One great advantage of using of neurons that are connected to the regions which are
Graph convolutional networks is that it solves the problem of local to the input through the calculation of the scalar
node classification. Each node provides feature information product of their weights with the region connected to the
from all neighbours and the aggregate value from the features input volume. This aims to apply an elementwise
is fed into a neural network. They use both node features and activation function like the sigmoid to the output of the
structures for the learning and the training. These number of activation which is produced by the previous layer.
hops can be decided as to how fast the information from the

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Volume 6, Issue 6, June – 2021 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
● The Pooling Layer: This will perform down sampling the performance of the network. Graph Convolutional
throughout the spatial dimensionality of the input that is Networks having the semi supervised learning ability with
given, which further reduces the number of parameters normalised propagation leads to an improvement in the
within that activation which contributes to lesser efficiency in terms of the parameters and operations and
computation power. better prediction.
● The Fully-Connected Layers: These will finally perform
similar duties that are found in standard ANNs and they III. IMPROVEMENTS ON CONVENTIONAL
attempt to produce class scores from the aforementioned GRAPH CONVOLUTIONAL NETWORKS
activations.
One definite improvement [4] to Graph Convolutional
B. Graph Convolutional Network Networks would be to be able to make them go deeper than
Graph convolutional network is a type of neural network the standard three to four layers and still not face issues like
that has a powerful architecture for machine learning on the vanishing gradient problem. Drawing from Convolutional
graphs. They are a variant of graph neural networks that can Neural Networks, Graph Convolutional Networks aim to
deal with the non-regularity of data structures. They consist extract rich features at a vertex by cumulating features of
of operations of multiplying input neurons with weights. This vertices that are present in its neighbourhood. Most Graph
is the same as the convolutions operations in the convolution Convolutional Networks only update the vertex features at
layers that present in Convolution neural networks. The set of each iteration and tend to have fixed graph structures. Recent
weights are called filters and these filters act as sliding work shows that dynamic graph convolution[8] where the
windows across the images and enable the neural network to graph structure changes in each layer, can learn better graph
learn features. representations as compared to Graph Convolutional
Networks with a fixed graph structure. We see that the
Graph neural networks are a generalised version of the dynamically changing neighbours [5] in Graph
convolutional neural networks where the nodes are not Convolutional Networks helps mitigate the over-smoothing
ordered and the number of nodes connections vary. It problem. This also results in a comparatively larger receptive
operates on graphs with a matrix as the input. An input field in the case of Graph Convolutional Networks. The
feature matrix and a matrix representation of the graph improvement that is suggested is to recompute the edges
structure are both considered as input to the network. Graph between the vertices with the help of a Dilated k-NN function
Convolutional Networks are used for semi-supervised in the feature space of each layer to increase the receptive
learning and the main idea is to take the weighted average of field further. The following are three operations that can
all the neighbours nodes features and passing the resulting enable much deeper Graph Convolutional Networks to be
feature vectors through a neural network for training. The trained:
node level output produced is a feature matrix that can be
modelled by introducing pooling operations. The input A. Residual Connections
matrix is typically not normalised and the scale is changed The ResGraph Convolutional Network is proposed to
when any multiplication operation takes place. The matrix handle the vanishing gradient problem of Graph
needs to be normalised in order to deal with the problem. Convolutional Networks. The PlainGraph Convolutional
Network, which is the baseline model that consists of three
Graph Convolutional Networks are an extension of blocks: a PlainGraph Convolutional Network backbone
Convolutional Neural Networks where the Convolutional block, a fusion block, and an MLP [17] prediction block. The
Neural Networks are great at computer vision tasks and backbone stacks 28 EdgeConv layers with dynamic k-NN,
ability to train deep neural networks but fall short in their each of which is similar to the one used in DG Convolutional
efficiency when it comes to variation in the order of the data. Neural Network. There are no skip connections used here.
While on the other hand, Graph Convolutional Networks The ResGraph Convolutional Network is constructed by
have the ability to work with the unordered data and can adding a dynamic dilated k-NN and residual graph
work directly on graphs and deal with structural information. connections to the aforementioned PlainGraph Convolutional
As mentioned above, it solves the problem of node Network.
classification. Each node provides feature information from
all neighbours and the aggregate value from the features is B. Dense Connections
fed into a neural network. They use both node features and DenseNet was proposed to put to use the dense
structures for the learning and the training. Multiple layers connectivity among the layers of a neural network, which
are stacked on top of one another to get a deep network. The improves information flow in the network. This allows
output of the previous layer is considered as the input for the efficient reuse of features amongst the layers. The
next layer and so on and so forth. When the layers are DenseGraph Convolutional Network is proposed to handle
stacked, the process of gathering information is repeated and the vanishing gradient problem of Graph Convolutional
the number of layers is the maximum number of hops each Networks. The DenseGraph Convolutional Network is built
node can travel. This number of hops can be decided as to by adding dynamic dilated k-NN and dense graph
how fast the information from the entire graph can be connections to the PlainGraph Convolutional Network that
covered. It is observed that the results obtained from a 2 to 3 was previously written about.
layered Graph Convolutional Network are quite optimal. The
problem of increasing the number of layers is the decrease in

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Volume 6, Issue 6, June – 2021 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
C. Dilated Aggregations target performance. Node clustering and graph partitioning
The Dilated wavelet convolution is an algorithm that give priors on node features and graph structures; whereas
comes from the wavelet processing domain . Dilated graph completion with priors on both provides help to a
convolutions were introduced as an alternative to applying Graph Convolutional Network in context-based feature
consecutive pooling layers for dense prediction tasks in order representation. Third, multi-task self-supervision in
to mitigate spatial information loss caused by pooling adversarial training improves Graph Convolutional Networks
operations. The experiments demonstrate that aggregating robustness against various graph attacks. Node clustering, as
multi-scale contextual information using dilated convolutions well as graph partitioning, give priors on features and links,
can highly increase the accuracy of dense prediction tasks. and thus they defend better against feature attacks and link
The reason behind this is that the receptive field is enlarged attacks. Graph completion, with perturbation priors on both
by dilation without the loss of resolution. Dilation assists or features and links, increase the robustness consistently and
helps the receptive fields of deep Graph Convolutional sometimes hugely for the most damaging feature and link
Networks. attacks.

Therefore, dilated aggregation [6] is introduced to Graph IV. APPLICATIONS OF GRAPH

Convolutional Networks. Out of the many possible ways, a CONVOLUTIONAL NETWORKS
Dilated k-NN [9] is used to find dilated neighbours using a
predefined distance metric after every Graph Convolutional Lots of machine learning tasks require dealing with
Network layer and construct a Dilated Graph. Thus, by graph data which contains rich relation information among
adding skip connections to Graph Convolutional Networks, elements. Modelling physics systems, learning molecular
the difficulty of training can be addressed, which is the major fingerprints, predicting protein interface, and classifying
problem of Graph Convolutional Networks to go deeper. diseases require a model to learn from graph inputs. In other
Additionally, dilated graph convolutions help to gain a larger domains such as learning from non-structural data like texts
receptive field without loss of resolution. Even using a small and images, reasoning on extracted structures, like the
amount of nearest neighbours, deep Graph Convolutional dependency tree of sentences and the scene graph of images,
Networks can achieve high performance. is an important research topic that also needs graph reasoning
models. Graph Convolutional Networks (Graph
Another way of letting Graph Convolutional Networks go Convolutional Networks) are connectionist models that
deeper is to use a differentiable generalized message capture the dependence of graphs via message passing
aggregation function. This defines a family of permutation between the nodes of graphs. Unlike standard neural
invariant functions. The definition of such a generalized networks, graph neural networks retain a state that can
aggregation function provides a new view of the design of represent information from its neighbourhood with an
aggregation functions in Graph Convolutional Networks. A arbitrary depth. Although the primitive graph neural networks
new variant of residual connections and message have been found difficult to train for a fixed point, recent
normalization layers are further introduced. The new advances in network architectures, optimisation techniques,
generalized aggregation function is suitable for Graph and parallel computation have enabled successful learning
Convolutional Networks, as it has a permutation invariant with them. On several of the tasks described above, systems
property. The generalized aggregation covers commonly used based on graph convolutional networks (Graph Convolutional
functions like mean and max in graph convolutions. Network) and gated graph neural networks (GGNN) have
Additionally, its parameters can be modified to improve the recently exhibited ground-breaking performance. We present
performance of diverse Graph Convolutional Network tasks. a comprehensive assessment of the applications of graph
This method improves current state-of-the-art performance convolutional networks through adaptations and categorize
by 7.8%, 0.2%, 6.7% and 0.9% on the following datasets: those applications [3] while giving an in-depth overview of
ogbn-proteins, ogbn-arxiv, ogbg-ppa and ogbg-molhiv, the process and comparison with state-of-the-art models.
respectively.
A. Graph Convolutional Network approach for decoding
Self-supervision helps improve Graph Convolutional EEG Motor Imagery Skills
Networks as well. They help in generalizability and they Brain Control Interface(BCI) applications have been on
boost Adversarial robustness as well. There are three the rise in the fields of medical engineering. BCIs decode the
schemes to incorporate self-supervision into Graph brain activity so that they can operate devices like artificial
Convolutional Networks. Out of these, multi-task learning limbs and wheelchairs. Electroencephalogram(EEG) has been
seems to work as the regularizer and consistently benefits the go-to procedure for measuring brain activity due to its
Graph Convolutional Networks in generalizable standard high resolution, portability and ease of use. EEG based on
performances with proper self-supervised tasks. Self-training motor imagery(MI) mentally mimics a variety of motor
is restricted in what are the assigned pseudo-labels and what activities, such as visualising hand or foot movements. The
data are used to assign pseudo-labels. We also see that the Euclidean structure of EEG electrodes may not effectively
performance gain is more visible in few-shot learning reflect and describe the interplay between signals. Traditional
methods and can diminish with slightly increasing labelling Convolutional Neural Network methods do the classification
rates. In the case of the second, multi-task learning, self- without considering the topological relationship among
supervised tasks provide informative and relevant priors electrodes. Neuroscience presses on the need for analysing
which benefit Graph Convolutional Network in generalizable patterns of brain dynamics, Thus Graph Convolutional

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Volume 6, Issue 6, June – 2021 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
Networks were employed to analyse the performance of raw B. BRP-NAS: Prediction-based NAS using Graph
EEG signals on different types of motor imagery tasks while Convolutional Networks
giving equal importance to topological relationships of In comparison to hand-crafted alternatives, neural
electrons[12]. The model was built on Pearson's matrix of architecture search (NAS) has shown remarkable
overall signals, for representing the traditional topological effectiveness in automatically building competitive neural
relationship of EEG electrodes a graph Laplacian was built. networks. NAS, but on the other hand, is computationally
The Graph Convolutional Networks-Net has an expensive, as it requires the training of models or introduces
experimentally determined architecture with six convolution non-trivial complexity into the search process. Furthermore,
and six pooling layers, pooling layers are employed to reduce in addition to being accurate, real-world deployment
the dimensionality of the model, the soft plus function is used necessitates models that satisfy efficiency or hardware
as activation function for convolution layers, the output layer limitations (e.g., latency, memory, and energy consumption),
uses the SoftMax activation function yet obtaining different performance metrics of a model can be
time consuming, irrespective of the cost of training it. It has
This particular model used the same dataset as been demonstrated empirically that an accurate latency
‘PhysioNet’, the state of the art model in the given field, predictor is crucial in NAS when latency on the target
while the experiments have shown that at the hundredth hardware is of interest, and conventional latency predictors
subject level the Graph Convolutional Networks-Net model are excessively error-prone. On a variety of devices, the
outperformed all the other studies. The Graph Convolutional research offers an end-to-end NAS latency prediction based
Networks-Net was able to predict MI tasks with 99.18 on a Graph Convolutional Network and shows that it
maximum accuracy and 96.24 average accuracy, showing the outperforms prior methods (proxy, layer-wise) [13].
robustness and effectiveness of the proposed model. It, on the
other hand, accurately predicted all four MI tasks, the best of A Graph Convolutional Network that learns models for
which was the two feet prediction, which had a 99.42 percent graph-structure data is used in the proposed end-to-end
accuracy. It showed that the proposed technique could latency predictor. The Graph Convolutional Network
provide a generalised representation that was resistant to both predictor comprises four layers of Graph Convolutional
personal and group-wise changes. It may be used to decode Networks, each with 600 hidden units, and a fully connected
any EEG MI signals as well as other EEG-based graph- layer that provides a scalar latency prediction. All predictors
structured data in order to create more effective and efficient are trained 100 times with a randomly sampled set of 900
BCI systems. models from the NAS-Bench-201 dataset each time. The
remaining 14k models are utilized for testing, while 100
random models are used for validation.

TABLE I. PERFORMANCE OF LATENCY PREDICTORS ON THE NAS-BENCH-201: OUR GRAPH CONVOLUTIONAL NETWORK PREDICTOR
OUTPERFORMS THE LAYER-WISE PREDICTOR ACROSS DIFFERENT DEVICES.

Accuracy of Graph Convolutional Network Predictor Accuracy of Layer-wise predictor

Error Bound Desktop CPU Desktop GPU Embedded GPU Desktop CPU Desktop GPU Embedded GPU

±1% 36.0±3.5 36.7±4.0 24.3±1.4 3.5±0.2 4.2±0.2 6.1±0.3

±5% 85.2±1.8 85.9±1.9 82.5±1.5 18.2±0.4 17.1±0.3 29.7±0.8

±10% 96.4±0.7 96.9±0.8 96.3±0.5 29.6±1.1 32.6±1.2 54.0±0.8

Table 1 compares the performance of the proposed from a large-scale collection of high-resolution UV maps of
Graph Convolutional Network latency predictor to that of the face textures, which is difficult to create and not publicly
layer-wise predictor on various devices. The percentage of available. This research provides a method for reconstructing
models with predicted latency within the corresponding error 3D facial forms with high-fidelity textures from single-view
bound relative to measured latency is shown by the values. pictures captured in the wild, without the requirement for a
We can observe that the excellent performance is consistent large-scale face texture library, in this work. The basic
across a variety of devices with radically varying latency concept is to use face features from the input image to
characteristics. improve the first texture created by a 3DMM-based
technique. Instead of recreating the UV map, we suggest
C. New Tricks of Node Classification with Graph using graph convolutional networks to reconstruct the precise
Convolutional Networks colours for the mesh vertices[14].
Methods based on the 3D Morphable Model (3DMM)
have had a lot of success reconstructing 3D face forms from This system is made up of three modules, and it provides
single-view pictures. However, the face textures a coarse-to-fine method for 3D face reconstruction. A
reconstructed using these approaches do not have the same Regressor for regressing the 3DMM coefficients, face
quality as the input pictures. Recent research shows that position, and lighting parameters, and a FaceNet for
generative networks can recover high-quality facial textures extracting image features for future detail refining and

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Volume 6, Issue 6, June – 2021 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
identity-preserving are included in the feature extraction state-of-the-art methods on PU1K and the other dataset while
module. The texture refinement module is made up of three requiring fewer parameters and being more efficient in
graph convolutional networks: a Graph Convolutional inference. It also produces a higher upsampling quality on
Network Decoder that decodes FaceNet features and real-scanned point clouds compared to other methods.
generates detailed colours for mesh vertices, a Graph
Convolutional Network Refiner that refines the vertex colours E. Temporal action identification using Graph Convolutional
generated by the Regressor, and a combiner that combines the Networks
two colours to produce final vertex colours. The Temporal action identification [11] is a crucial yet
Discriminator uses adversarial training to try to enhance the difficult job in video comprehension. Although video context
texture refinement module's output. is a crucial signal for efficiently detecting activities, current
research focuses mostly on temporal context, disregarding
The results obtained from this research are extremely semantic context and other important context features. To
promising and the Graph Convolutional Network was highly attain good efficiency in the aforementioned Temporal action
effective in predicting accurate colours and mesh vertices and identification, a graph convolutional network (Graph
outperformed other models by far. Convolutional Network) model which adaptively incorporates
multi-level semantic context into video features and casts
D. Point Cloud Upsampling using Graph Convolutional temporal action detection as a sub-graph localization problem
Networks. can be used. In this method, video snippets are defined as
As seen above, adaptations like residual connections, graph nodes, snippet-snippet correlations as edges, and
dense connections, and dilated convolutions, Graph context-associated actions are defined as target sub-graphs.
Convolutional Networks were made to go deeper by getting
rid of the gradient problem. With slight adaptations, Graph With graph convolutional being the base, a GCNeXt is
Convolutional Networks can be used effectively in the task of designed, which learns the features of each node. It does this
point cloud upsampling. Deep learning-based approaches for by aggregating its context and dynamically updating the
point cloud upsampling do not rely on priors or hand-crafted edges in the graph. Each sub-graph must be localised. In
features to learn how to upsample point clouds, unlike classic order to do this, an SGAlign layer is introduced to embed
optimization-based methods. The use of point clouds to each individual sub-graph into the Euclidean space.
represent 3D data is becoming increasingly common. The Experiments show that this method is capable of finding
rising availability of 3D sensors is contributing to this effective video context without extra supervision and
growing popularity. Such sensors are now an essential achieves more efficient results than state-of-the-art
component of key robotics and self-driving automobile performance at multiple instances. The SGAlign extracts sub-
applications. But due to computational constraints, both in graph features using a set of anchors. SGAlign aligns node
terms of time and space, these 3D sensors often produce characteristics along temporal and semantic graphs and
sparse and noisy point clouds, which end up portraying outputs a concatenation of both features. The order of nodes
evident limitations. is maintained in the final representation when utilising the
temporal graph. Since node features are represented by their
The upsampling modules and feature extractors employed feature neighbours, this isn't necessarily true for the semantic
greatly influence the efficacy of learning-based point cloud network. In the GCNeXt block, temporal and semantic
upsampling processes[10]. An efficient method is one that networks of the same cardinality process the input feature. In
uses a Graph Convolutional Network (Graph Convolutional each box, we show the (input channel, output channel). Both
Network) to improve the encoding of the local point convolution streams use a split-transform-merge method with
information from point neighbourhoods. This method has 32 pathways to boost transformation variety. The total of both
proved to extensively improve state-of-the-art upsampling streams and the input is the output of the module.
methods. The other part that needs to be worked on in order
to receive an efficient upsampling result would be an F. Graph Mining
improved feature extraction. This is achieved through a multi- Graph mining is a set of tools and techniques for
scale point feature extractor which is called the Inception analysing the properties of real-world graphs, forecasting how
DenseGraph Convolutional Network. This performs by the structure and properties of a given graph might affect a
aggregating features at multiple scales, leading to better final given application, and creating models that can generate
performance efficiency. When the Inception DenseGraph realistic graphs that match the patterns found in real-world
Convolutional Network is combined with the aforementioned graphs of interest. Graph mining techniques [2] are often used
approach, it results in the PU-Graph Convolutional Network. to find valuable structures for later tasks. Frequent subgraph
The above adaptation of a novel Graph Convolutional mining, graph matching, graph classification, graph
Network was compiled and experimented on a new large- clustering, etc., are some traditional graph mining challenges.
scale dataset PU1K for point cloud upsampling and also a Although certain downstream tasks may be addressed directly
dataset that was 8 times larger than the PU1K dataset and using deep learning without the need for graph mining, the
both the results were concurrent. Extensive experiments fundamental problems are worth investigating from the
demonstrate that our proposed PU-Graph Convolutional standpoint of GNNs.
Network pipeline, which integrates Inception DenseGraph
Convolutional Network and a system to better encode local
point information from point neighbourhoods, outperforms

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Volume 6, Issue 6, June – 2021 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
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