2020

Environmental Engineering and Disaster Management

(7AG6-60.2)
 VISION OF THE INSTITUTION
To become a renowned centre of outcome based learning and work toward academic,
professional, cultural and social enrichment in the lives of individuals and communities.

MISSION OF THE INSTITUTION

M1: Focus on evaluation of learning outcome and motivate students to inculcate research
aptitude by project based learning.

M2: Identity based on informed perception of Indian, regional and global needs and the areas
of focus and provide platform to gain knowledge and solutions.

M3: Offer opportunities for interaction between academia and industry.

M4: Develop human potential to its fullest extent so that intellectually capable and
imaginatively gifted leaders can emerge in a range of professions.
 VISION OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT
To contribute to the society through excellence in scientific and technical education, teaching
and research aptitude in Electronics & Communication Engineering to meet the needs of
Global Industry.

MISSION OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT
M1: To equip the students with strong foundation of basic sciences and domain knowledge of
Electronics & Communication Engineering, so that they are able to creatively apply their
knowledge to design solution of problems arising in their career path.

M2: To induce the habits of lifelong learning in order to continuously enhance overall
performance.

M3: Students are able to communicate their ideas clearly and concisely so that they can work
in team as well as an individual.

M4: To make the students responsive towards the ethical, social, environmental and
economical growth of the society.
 PROGRAM OUTCOMES (PO’S)
PO1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,
engineering fundamentals, and Electronics & Communication Engineering
specialization to the solution of complex Electronics & Communication Engineering
problems.
PO2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, research literature, and analyze complex
Electronics & Communication Engineering problems reaching substantiated
conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering
sciences.
PO3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex Electronics &
Communication Engineering problems and design system components or processes
that meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public health
and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
PO4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of Electronics & Communication Engineering
experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to
provide valid conclusions.
PO5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern electronic engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to
complex Electronics & Communication Engineering activities with an
understanding of the limitations.
PO6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge
to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to the professional Electronics & Communication
Engineering practice.
PO7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
Electronics & Communication Engineering solutions in societal and environmental
contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
PO8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
responsibilities and norms of the Electronics & Communication Engineering
practice
PO9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member
or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
PO10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex Electronics &
Communication Engineering activities with the engineering community and with
society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports and
design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear
instructions.
PO11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of
the Electronics & Communication Engineering and management principles and
apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage
projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
PO12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of Electronics
& Communication Engineering changes.
 PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSO’S)
PSO1: Ability to develop knowledge for robotics and its applications.

PSO2: Ability to apply the concept of IoT for challenges of real-world.

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

PEO1. To provide students with the fundamentals of engineering sciences with more
emphasis in Electronics & Communication Engineering by way of analyzing and exploiting
electronics & communication challenges.

PEO2. To train students with good scientific and Electronics & Communication Engineering
knowledge so as to comprehend, analyze, design and create electronics & communication
based novel products and solutions for the real life problems.

PEO3. To inculcate professional and ethical attitude, effective communication skills,

teamwork skills, multidisciplinary approach, entrepreneurial thinking and an ability to relate
Electronics & Communication Engineering with social issues.

PEO4. To provide students with an academic environment aware of excellence, leadership,

written ethical codes and guidelines, and the self-motivated life-long learning needed for a
successful Electronics & Communication Engineering professional career.

PEO5. To prepare students to excel in electronics & communication based industry and
higher education by educating students in Electronics & Communication Engineering field
along with high moral values and knowledge.
 Course Outcomes

CO1 Understand the importance of safe water system and its standards.

CO2 Understand the waste water treatment and its supply.

CO3 Identify the major sources, effects and monitoring of air pollutants.

CO4 Understand the importance of disaster management.

CO-PO mapping
PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12
CO1 1 - - 1 - 2 2 1 2 3 1 3
CO2 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 - 3
CO3 1 1 1 2 1 1 3 1 1 3 - 3
CO4 1 - - 1 1 1 3 1 3 3 1 3
 Chapter 1
Water supply system
No life can exist without water as it is the elixir of life. Air, Water, Food and Shelter the
essential items for any living being in the decreasing order of their importance. Without air,
one cannot live even for a few minutes. Next to air, it is water which attains paramount
importance for any living being. It is almost available as a free gift to the mankind. It
occupies about 17 % of the earth's surface and is an essential element for the survival of
human life on earth

Essentials of any water supply

Outline of water supply system

Preliminary investigations for water supply scheme
Any water supply system / project has to be meticulously planned and studied for various
view points. The following points should be looked into while considering any water supply
system

 Sources of water supply: It is quite clear that the success of a water supply scheme
entirely depends on good sources of water supply. The sources should be selected
while keeping in view its adequacy throughout the year, quality of water and
cheapness. The present source of water supply should also be adjusted properly in the
new water supply scheme.
 Population: From the available census of previous years, the present population
should be determined and it is a general practice to make the scheme to accommodate
population after three or four decades.
 Financial aspects: The availability of fund for the completion of the water supply
scheme should be obtained in the initial stages of the scheme itself. The scheme
should then be adjusted according to the fund available. Every step should be taken to
make the scheme as economical as possible and to take the maximum advantage of it.
 Quantity of water: The demand of water depends on various uses such as domestic,
industrial, public, trade, etc. The rate of consumption per capita should be decided by
carefully considering all these possible uses. This rate, when multiplied by the
population, gives the total quantity of water required for the water supply scheme.
 Quality of water: The quality of available water decides the line of treatment of
water. The more pure water is, the less it the cost of the treatment. Hence, samples of
available sources of water should be taken and properly analysed and the results of
various tests should be thoroughly studied to suggest an economical water supply
scheme for the locality.
 Sanitary survey: The sanitary survey of area surrounding the available water sources
should be carefully carried out. Such a survey helps in estimating the possible
pollution or contamination of water from such sources. The sanitary survey includes
the collection of information regarding the likely sources of water pollution
 Topography: The topographical map of the area to be served by the scheme should
be prepared and it should be studied in relation to low lying area, ridges, density of
population, etc. The study is essential to evolve a simple but cheap water supply
scheme.
 Town development trend: The trends of town development in future should be
predicted and properly adjusted in the water supply scheme. Such trends may take
various forms such as possibility of new industries, public recreation centres, public
institutions, residential blocks, etc.

Importance of a safe water supply system

Water is a basic need for every human being. Most of the world population still does not
have centralized water supply with connections to individual households. According to the
World Health Organization (WHO), roughly 2.4 billion of the world’s population does not
have access to an improved sanitation facility and about 1.1 billion people does not have
access to safe drinking water. The provision of safe and adequate drinking water to the
burgeoning urban population continues to be one of the major challenging tasks for any state.

Water constitutes one of the important physical environments of man and has a direct bearing
on the health and hygiene of mankind. There is no denying the fact that the contamination of
water leads to numerous health hazards. Water is precious to man and therefore WHO refers
to “control of Water supplies to ensure that they are pure and wholesome as one of the
primary objectives of environmental sanitation”.

Water is a good carrier of disease germs. If water is not made safe against disease germs, it
may become responsible for so many diseases and epidemics. Diseases such as typhoid,
cholera, dysentery, etc are the direct causes of defective water supply. Water is a also a very
good solvent. If water contains excessive amounts of minerals or poisonous dissolved
substances, it will again cause so many difficulties to the public. Therefore, water which is
used by the public should be wholesome and must be free from disease producing bacteria,
poisonous substances and excessive amount of minerals, and organic matter. Therefore, it is
very important that water works must remove all the impurities and bacteria from water and
make it wholesome.

 Any water supply project grants the following advantages:

 The growth of new industries for various pipe appurtenances such as air valves, etc.
takes place in the locality granting employment opportunities.

 The industries which require pure water for their working are saved from the
expenditure of installing their own water purification plant.

 The installation and maintenance of the water supply scheme grant opportunities of
employment to the local people.

 The public in general gets treated reliable water for consumption and other uses.

 The sanitation of the area is considerably improved by the adequate water supply

 There are less chances of water borne diseases to occur resulting in saving of human
lives and working hours.

 The available water in the locality is used in the best possible manner and its misuse
and wastage are avoided to a considerable extent.

Domestic water requirements of urban and rural areas

A small quantity of water is required by a man under normal conditions for his personal use.
But this demand of water for other purposes will naturally depend upon the standard of living
and degree of culture.
In order to arrive at a reasonable water requirement for any particular town, the demand of
water for various purposes is divided under the following five categories:

 Domestic purposes

 Civic or public purposes

 Industrial purposes

 Business or trade purposes

 Loss and waste

We will briefly analyse each category and will discuss how the quantity of water under
each category is worked out for the purpose of estimating rate of demand of water.

Domestic purposes
The quantity of water required for domestic purposes can be sub divided as follows:

 Drinking: A human body contains about 70 % of water. The consumption of water

by a man is required for various physiological processes such as blood formation,
food assimilation, etc. The quantity of water which a man would require for drinking
depends on various factors. But on the average and under normal conditions, it is
about 2 litres per day. This amount, as will be seen, is very small as compared to
various other uses of water. But it is most essential to supply water for drinking
purposes with a high degree of purity. If water for drinking contains undesirable
elements, it may lead to epidemic. In fact, the drinking water should be protected,
potable and palatable.

 Cooking: Some quantity of water will also be required for cooking. The quantity of
water required for this purpose will depend upon the stage of advancement of the
family in particular and society in general. However, for the purpose of estimation,
amount of water required for cooking may be assumed as about 5 litres per capita` per
day.

 Bathing: The quantity of water required for bathing purpose will mainly depend on
the habits of people and type of climate. For an Indian bath, this quantity may be
assumed as about 30 to 40 litres per capita per day and for tub-bath, it may be taken as
about 50 to 80 litres per capita per day.

 Washing hands, face etc.: The quantity of water required for this purpose will
depend on the habits of people and may roughly be taken as 5 to 10 litres capita per
day.

 Household sanitary purposes: Under this division, the water is required for washing
clothes, floors, utensils, etc. and it may be assumed to be about 50 to 60 litres per
capita per day.

 Private gardening and irrigation: In case of developed cities, there will be

practically no demand of water for this purpose. In case of undeveloped cities, private
wells are generally used to provide water for private gardening and irrigation. It is
 therefore not essential to include the quantity of water required for this purpose in
case of public water supply project.

 Domestic animals and private vehicles: The amount of water required for the use of
domestic animals and private vehicles is not of much concern to a water supply
engineer. With the growth and development of town, the cattle disappear and
commercial stables come into existence. The water required for animal drinking and
cleaning of stables is around 13.5 litres per capita per day.

The requirement of water for domestic purposes is a minimum of 135 litres per capita per
day which amounts to 50% of the total water requirements per capita per day.

Civic or public purposes

The quantity of water required for civic or public purposes can be sub divided as follows:

 Road washing: The roads with heavy amount of dust are to be sprinkled with water
to avoid inconvenience to the users. On the average, the quantity of water required for
this purpose may be taken as about 5 litres per capita per day.

 Sanitation purposes: In this division, water is required for cleaning public sanitary
blocks, large markets, etc. and for carrying liquid wastes from houses. The quantity
of water required for this purpose will depend on the growth of civilization and may
be assumed to be about 2 to 3 litres per capita per day.

 Ornamental purposes: In order to adorn the town with decorative features, fountains
or lakes or ponds are sometimes provided. These objects require huge quantity of
water for their performance. As far as Indian towns are concerned, the quantity of
water required for this purpose may be treated as quite negligible since in most of the
towns, the quantity of water available is not enough even with the most urgent needs
of the society.

Industrial purposes
The quantity of water required for industrial or commercial purposes can be sub divided as
follows:

 Factories: The quantity of water required for the processes involved in factories will
naturally depend on the nature of products, size of factory, etc. and it has no relation
with the density of population. It is quite likely that the demand of water for factories
may equal or even exceed the demand of water for domestic purposes. The
possibility of recycling of water in the plant will also have appreciable effect on the
demand of water for a particular product.

 Power stations: A huge quantity of water will be required for working of power
stations. But generally, the power stations are situated away from the cities and they
do not represent a serious problem to public water supply.

 Railways: In most of the cases, the railways make their own arrangements regarding
their water requirements and hence, the quantity of water to be consumed by railways
is not ordinarily included in any public water supply system.
  Business or trade purposes: Some trades such as dairies, hotels, laundries, motor
garages, restaurants, stables, etc. require a large quantity of water. Such trades are to
be maintained in hygienic conditions and sanitation of such places should be strictly
insisted. The number of such business centres will depend upon the population and
for a moderate city, an average value of about 15 to 25 litres per capita per day may
be taken as water requirements for this purpose.

 Loss and waste: The quantity of water required under this category is sometimes
termed as unaccounted requirement. It includes careless use of water, leakage in
mains, valves, other fittings, etc. unauthorized water connections and waste due to
other miscellaneous reasons. The quantity of water lost due to all these reasons is
uncertain and cannot be effectively predicted. However, for the purpose of calculating
the average rate of demand it may be estimated to be about 30 to 40 per cent of per
capita consumption.

Sources of water supply

Sources from which water is available for water supply schemes can conveniently be
classified into the following two categories according to their proximity to the ground
surface, viz., surface and underground source

 Surface waters: In this type of source, the surface runoff is available for water
supply schemes. Usual forms of surface sources are as follows:

 Lakes and streams: A natural lake represents a large body of water within
land with impervious bed. Hence, it may be used as source of water supply
scheme for nearby localities. The quantity of runoff that goes to the lake
should be accurately determined and it should be seen that it is at least equal
to the expected demand of locality. Similar is the case with streams which
are formed by the surface runoff. It is found that the flow of water in
streams is quite ample in rainy season. But it becomes less and less in hot
season and sometimes the stream may even become absolutely dry.

The catchment area of lakes and streams is very small and hence, the
quantity of water available from them is also very low. Hence, lakes and
streams are not considered as principal sources of water supply schemes for
the large cities. But they can be adopted as sources of water supply
schemes for hilly areas and small towns.

The water which is available from lakes and streams is generally free from
undesirable impurities and can therefore be safely used for drinking
purposes.

 Ponds: A pond is a man-made body of standing water smaller than a lake.

Thus ponds are formed due to excessive digging of ground for the
construction of roads, houses, etc and they are filled up with water in rainy
season. The quantity of water in pond is very small and it contains many
impurities.

A pond cannot be adopted as a source of water supply and its water can
only be used for washing of clothes or animals only.
  Rivers: Since the dawn of civilization, the ancient man settled on the banks
of river, drank river water and ate fish caught from river water and sailed
down rivers to find out unknown lands.

Large rivers constitute the principal source of water supply schemes for
many cities. Some rivers are perennial while others are non-perennial. The
former rivers are snowfed and hence, water flows in such rivers for all the
seasons. The latter type of rivers dries in summer either wholly or partly
and in monsoon, heavy flood visits them. For such types of rivers, it is
desirable to store the excess water of flood in monsoons by constructing
dams across such rivers. This stored water may then be used in summer.

The main use points to be considered in investigating a river supply of water are as
follows:

 Adequacy of storage of purified water so as not to disturb the distribution

system during periods of fold when the river water is turbid

 Efficiency of the subsequent stages of purification system adopted

 General nature of river, the rate of flow and the distance between the
sources of pollution and the intake of the water

 Relative proportions of the polluting matter and the flow of river when at its
minimum.

 Storage reservoirs: An artificial lake formed by the construction of dam across a

valley is termed as a storage reservoir. It essentially consists of the following three
parts

 A dam to hold water

 A spillway to allow the excess water to flow and

 A gate chamber containing necessary valves for regulating the flow of water

At present, this is rather the chief source of water supply schemes for very big
cities. The multipurpose reservoirs also make provisions for other uses in addition
to water supply such as irrigation and power generation.

 Forms of underground sources

 Springs: When ground water appears at the surface for any reason, springs
are formed. They serve as source of water supply for small towns,
especially near hills or bases of hills. Some springs discharge hot water due
to presence of sulphur and other minerals in their formations. These hot
springs cannot be used to supply water for domestic purposes. But hot
water is found to cure some of the human disorders.

A good spring proves to be a sure source of water. But it is difficult to find

a good spring for the purpose of water supply scheme. However, when a
 spring is to be developed as a source of water supply, the following factors
should be carefully ascertained:

 It should be easier, cheaper and surer enough to develop the spring

for the locality than to adopt any other source of water supply.

 The flow of water should be adequate, even in dry weather

 The spring should be adequately protected from the water pollution

sources

 The spring should be so located as to have natural gravity flow

 The water should be of good quality

 Wells: A well is defined as an artificial hole or pit made in the ground for
the purpose of tapping water. The holes made for tapping oil are also
known as wells. But in the general sense, a well indicates a source of
water. In India, the chief source of water supply for most of its population
is wells and it is estimated that 75 to 85% of Indian population has to
depend on wells for its water supply.

The three factors which form the basis of theory of wells are as follows:

 Geological conditions of earth’s surface,

 Porosity of various layers and

 Quantity of water which is absorbed and stored in different layers.

The geological conditions of earth’s surface indicate the slope of water bearing strata. If
the slope of water bearing layers is towards the well, there will be some quantity of water
in the well even during the severe hot season. On the other hand, if the slope of water
bearing layers is away from the well, such well will soon get dry and it will only give some
quantity of water only in monsoon.

The porosity of aquifers will also play a great role in determining the quantity of water in
the well. If the porosity of aquifers is more, the well will easily collect more quantity of
water in less time. The capacity of aquifers to absorb and store water will determine the
supply rate of water to the well. If the aquifers are capable of storing more water, the well
will get more quantity of water and practically at a constant rate.

Intakes for water supply

Intakes are the structures used for admitting water from the surface sources (i.e., river,
reservoir or lake) and conveying it further to the treatment plant. Generally, an intake is a
masonry or concrete structure with an aim of providing relatively clean water, free from
pollution, sand and objectionable floating material. Its main purpose is to provide calm
and still water conditions, so that comparatively purer water may be collected from the
source. If intake well has to withstand the effects of severe forces which may be due to
striking of high water currents, it may be made from reinforced cement concrete.
Site for location of intake
While selecting a site for location of intakes, the following points should be taken into
account:

 Intake work should provide purer water so that its treatment may be less exhaustive

 Heavy water currents should not strike the intake directly

 Intake should be located at such a situation where sufficient quantity of water

remains available under all the circumstances

 Site should be well connected by good type or roads

 Site should be such that intake should be in a position to provide more water, if
requied to do so.

 Site should not be located in navigation channels, the reason being water in such
channels are generally polluted.

 During floods, the intake should not be submerged by the flooding waters.

 As far as possible, the site should be located on the upstream side of the town / city.

 The intake should be so located that good foundation conditions are prevalent and
the possibility of scouring is minimal.

 The site should be selected in such a manner that there is ample scope for further
expansion.

Types of intakes
 Submerged intake: Submerged intake is the one which is constructed entirely
under water. Such an intake is commonly used to obtain supply from a lake. An
exposed intake is in the form of a well or tower constructed near the bank of a river,
or in some cases even away from the river banks. Exposed intakes are more
common due to ease in its operation. A wet intake is that type of intake tower in
which the water level is practically the same as the water level of the sources of
supply. Such an intake is sometimes known as jack well and is most commonly
used. In the case of dry intake, however, there is no water in the water tower.
Water enters through entry point directly into the conveying pipes. The dry tower
is simply used for the operation of valves etc.

 River intake: A river intake is located to the upstream of the city so that pollution
is minimized. They are either located sufficiently inside the river so that demands
of water are met with in all the seasons of the year, or they may be located near the
river bank where a sufficient depth of water is available. Sometimes, an approach
channel is constructed and water is led to the intake tower. If the water level in the
river is low, a weir may be constructed across it to raise the water level and divert it
to the intake tower.
  Reservoir intake: When the flow in the river is not guaranteed throughout the year
a dam is constructed across it to store water in the reservoir so formed. The
reservoir intakes are practically similar to the river intake, except that these are
located near the upstream face of the dam where maximum depth of water is
available.

 Lake Intake: Lake intakes are similar to reservoir intakes if the depth of the water
near the banks is reasonable. If however, the depth of the water near the banks is
shallow, and greater depth is available only at its centre, a submerged intake is
provided.

 Canal intake: Sometimes, the source of water supply to a small town may be an
irrigation canal passing near the town. The canal intake essentially consists of
concrete or masonry intake chamber of rectangular shape, admitting water through
a coarse screen. A fine screen is provided over the bell mouth entry of the outlet
pipe. The bell mouth entry is located below the expected low water level in the
canal. Water may flow from outlet pipe under gravity if the filter house is situated
at a lower elevation. Otherwise, the outlet pipe may serve as suction pipe, and the
pump house may be located on or near the canal bank. The intake chamber is so
constructed that is does not offer any appreciable resistance to normal flow in the
canal. Otherwise, the intake chamber is located inside the canal bank. Near the
location of the intake work, canal is lined.

Transportation of water
The term transportation refer to taking of water from source to purification plants and from
treatment plant to consumers. Water supply system broadly involves transportation of
water from the sources to the area of consumption, through free flow channels or conduits
or pressure mains. Depending on the topography of the land, conveyance may be in free
flow and/or pressure conduits. Transmission of water accounts for an appreciable part of
the capital outlay and hence careful consideration fo the economics is called for before
deciding on the best mode of conveyance. Care should be taken so that there is no
possibility of pollution from surrounding areas.

If the source is at higher level than the treatment plant, the water can flow under gravity,
automatically. Similarly after necessary purification of water, it has to be conveyed to the
consumers. Therefore, for conveyance of water some sort of devices or structures is
required. The arrangement may be in the form of open channels, aqueducts, tunnels or
pipes.

 Open channels: In any water supply systems, raw water from source to treatment
plants may be carried in open channels. Economical sections of open channels are
generally trapezoidal while rectangular sections prove economical when rock
cutting is involved. The channels are to be properly lined to prevent seepage.
Also these kind of channels need to be taken along the gradient and therefore the
intitial cost and maintenance cost may be high. While open channels are not
recommended for conveyance of treated water, they may be adopted for conveying
raw water. If these kind of channels are unlined, they have to be run with limited
velocity of flow so that it does not effect scouring.
  Aqueducts: The term aqueduct is usually restricted to closed conduits made up of
masonry. These can be used for conveyance of water from source to treatment
plant or for distribution. Aqueducts normaly run half to two-third full at required
capacity of supply in most circumstances. In ancient times, rectangular aqueducts
were most commonly used, but these days circular or horse-shoe shaped ones are
more common. Masonry aqueducts unless reinforced with steel, are usually
constructed in horse-shoe cross-section. This cross-section has good hydraulic
properties and resists earth pressure well. It is economical and easy to build.

 Tunnels: Tunnels are also like aqueducts. Tunnels which are not under pressure
are usually constructed in horse-shoe shape. But if they convey water under
pressure, circular cross-section is the best. In pressure tunnels, the depth of cover is
generally such that the weight of overlying material overcomes the bursting
pressure. Tunnels are used to convey water into the cities from outside sources.

 Pipes: Pipe is a circular closed conduit used to convey water from one point to
another, under gravity or under pressure. Usually pipes follow the profile of the
ground surface closely. If pipes do not run full, they are called to flowing under
gravity. But flow under gravity is possible only if the pipe is given a definite
longitudinal slope. Pipes running full will be said to be running under pressure.
Pipes are mostly made up of materials like cast iron, wrought iron, RCC, asbestos
cement, plastic, timber, etc.

 Cast iron pipes: Cast iron pipes are used in majority of water conveyance mains
because of centuries of satisfactory experience with it. Cast iron pipe is resistant to
corrosion and accordingly long lived; its life may be over 100 years.

 Wrought iron and galvanized iron pipes: Wrought iron pipes are manufactured
by rolling flat plates of the wrought iron to the proper diameter and welding the
edges. Such pipes are much lighter than the cast iron pipes and can be more easily
cut, threaded and worked. They look much neater, but are much costlier. They
corrode quickly, and hence are used principally for installation within buildings.
These pipes are usually protected by coating them with a thin film of molten zinc.
Such coated pipes are known as galvanized iron pipes, and they are commonly
jointed by screwed and socketed joints.

 Steel pipes: Steel pipes of small diameter can be made from the solid, but larger
sizes are made by riveting or welding together the edges of suitably-curved plates,
the sockets being formed later in a press. The joints may be either transverse or
longitudinal. Steel pipes cannot be easily made to resist high external pressures.

 Cement concrete pipes: Cement concrete pipes may be either plain or reinforced,
and are best made by the spinning process. They may be either precast, or may be
cast-in-situ. The plain cement concrete pipes are used for heads up to 7 m while
reinforced cement concrete pipes are normally used for head upto 60 m.

Advantages:

 They are more suitable to resist the external loads and loads due to backfilling.

 The maintenance cost is low.

  The inside surface of pipes can be made smooth, thus reducing the frictional losses.

 Due to their heavy weight, the problem of floatation is not there when they are
empty.

Disadvantages

 Unreinforced pipes are liable to tensile cracks and they cannot withstand high
pressure.

 The tendency of leakage is not ruled out as a result of its porosity and shrinkage
cracks.

 It is very difficult to repair them.

 Precast pipes are very heavy, and it is difficult to transport them.

 Chapter 2
Drinking water quality
The quality of water is determined by the impurities present in it. The impurities may be
physical, chemical or bacteriological in nature. In order to ascertain the quality of water,
it is subjected to various tests viz., physical, chemical and bacteriological tests. In this
chapter, introduction to quality of water and different physical tests will be dealt.

Impurities in water:
It is not possible to find pure water in nature. The rain water as it drops down to the
surface of earth absorbs dust and gases from the atmosphere. It is further exposed to
organic matter on the surface of earth and by the time, it reaches the source of water
supply, it is found to contain various other impurities also.

For the purpose of classification, the impurities present in water may be divided into the
following three categories:

 Physical impurities

 Chemical impurities

 Bacteriological impurities

Analysis of water:
These tests can be divided into the following three categories:

 Physical tests

 Chemical tests

 Bacteriological tests

Before we take up the discussion of various tests, it will be necessary to note the
precautions which are to be taken while collecting the sample of water to be analysed. In
fact, the sampling is the most important part of any analysis because the final results
obtained, even from the most accurate analysis, will be misleading, if the samples on
which such analysis is carried out, are not representative ones of the liquids to be tested.
As a matter of fact, it will be ideal to carry out all the analysis immediately after the
collection of samples and quicker the analysis, the more representative will be the results
of analysis of the liquid at the time the samples are taken. These precautions are as
follows:

 The water should be collected in bottles, especially of white glass, having well-
fitted stoppers. Bottles having holding capacity of about 2 litres of water are
necessary for chemical analysis. For bacteriological examination, bottles with
smaller capacities will be sufficient
  Bottles should be thoroughly cleansed, filled thrice with water and thrice emptied
before collecting the sample. However, it will not be necessary to carry out such
process, if the sealed bottles are directly obtained from the laboratories.

 When the sample of water is to be collected from a pipe, the water tap should be
turned on and the water should be allowed to go waste for at least two minutes so
as to prevent the entry of impurities of the pipe in the sample of water. If the
sample is to be collected for conducting a bacteriological analysis, the nozzle of the
tap should be flamed and made unbearably hot and then cooled by the running
water before the bottle is filled.

 For collecting the sample of water from lake, streams, spring or well the whole
bottled with stopper closed should be immersed deep into the surface of water and
then only the stopper of the bottle should be removed by means of a clean piece of
string and the bottle is filled. Thus the entry of floating materials will be prevented
in the bottle.

 The bottle should be held as far away from its neck as possible. In no case, the
water entering the bottle should come into contact with the hand.

 After collecting the sample, the stopper of bottle should be well secured and the
bottles containing samples of water should be labeled stating the source, date and
time of collection.

Physical test:
Under this category, following tests are carried out:

 Colour

 Taste and Odour

 Temperature

 Turbidity

Other physical characteristics for which tests are sometimes carried out are density,
electrical conductivity, radioactivity and viscosity.

 Colour: An undesirable appearance is produced by colour in water. It spoils the

clothes and affects various industrial processes. The measurement of colour in
water is carried out by means of a tintometer. The instrument has an eye piece with
two holes. A slide of standard coloured water is seen through one hole and in the
other hole, the slide of water to be tested is inserted. The intensity of colour in
water is measured on a arbitrary scale. The unit of colour on cobalt scale is the
colour produced by one milligram of platinum cobalt in one litre of distilled water.
For public water supply, the number on cobalt scale should not exceed 20 and
should preferably less than 10.

 Taste and odour: The water possesses taste and odour due to various causes and
they make the water unpleasant for drinking. The test is conducted by inhaling
through two tubes of osmoscope. One tube is kept in a flask containing diluted
 water and other one in a flask containing water to be tested. The taste and odour of
water may also be tested by threshold number. In this method, water to be tested is
diluted with odour-free water and mixture at which odour becomes detectable is
determined. It indicates threshold number and other intensities of odour are then
worked out. The results of test are greatly affected by the sensitiveness of the
observer. For public water supply, the threshold number should not be more than
3.

 Temperature: The test for temperature of water has no meaning in the sense that it
is not possible to give any treatment to control the temperature in any water supply
project. The temperature of water to be supplied from storage reservoir depends on
the depth from which it is drawn. The desirable temperature of potable water is
10°C while temperature of 25°C is considered to be objectionable.

The multiplication of bacteria in the waters is more rapid at higher temperatures

than in the waters at lower temperature. Hence, when waters with a temperature of
about 15°C are collected for bacteriological analysis, they should be cooled down
as quickly as possible. It should further be remembered that the air temperature at
the time of taking the water sample should always be recorded.

The measurement of temperature of water is done with the help of ordinary

thermometers. From the study of temperature, the characteristics of water such as
density, viscosity, vapour pressure and surface tension can be determined. It also
helps in determining the saturation values of solids and gases which can be
dissolved in water and also the rates of chemical, biochemical and biological
activity.

 Turbidity: The colloidal matter present in water imparts turbidity to water. The
turbidity in water may also be due to clay and silt particles, discharges of sewage or
industrial wastes, presence of large numbers of micro-organisms etc., and the
cloudy appearance developed in water due to turbidity is aesthetically unattractive
and it may also be harmful to the consumers.

The turbidity is expressed in terms of parts of suspended matter per million parts of
water or shortly written as ppm. It is to be noted that the expression ppm is
equivalent to mg per litre. The standard unit of turbidity is the form of finely
divided silica in a million parts of distilled water. The permissible turbidity for
drinking water is 5 to 10 ppm.

The measurement of turbidity in the field is done by means of a turbidity rod. For
laboratory, various turbid meters are found out to measure the turbidity of water,
the most common being Jackson turbid meter and Baylis turbid meter.

Chemical tests:
Under this category, tests are carried out to examine water for the following

 Chlorides: The chloride contents, especially of sodium chloride or salt, are worked
out for a sample of water. The excess presence of sodium chloride indicates
pollution of water due to sewage, minerals, etc. The water has lower contents of
salt than sewage due to the fact that salt consumed in food is excreted by body. For
 potable water, the highest desirable level of chloride content is 200 mg/litre and its
maximum permissible level is 600 mg per litre.

The measurement of chloride contents is carried out as follows:

 50 cc of sample of water is taken by pipette in a porcelain dish.

 Two or three drops of potassium chromate solution are added to the sample
of water

 The chloride content is then determined by titrating with standard solution

of silver nitrate.

The silver reacts first with all chlorides and silver chloride thus formed then reacts
with potassium chromate. The silver chromate appears as reddish precipitate and
the amount of silver nitrate required to produce such reddish precipitate determines
the amount of chlorides present in water.

 Dissolved gases: The water contains various gases from its contact with the
atmosphere and ground surfaces. The usual gases are nitrogen, methane, hydrogen
sulphide, carbon dioxide and oxygen. The contents of these dissolved gases in a
sample of water are suitably worked out.

The methane concentration is to be studied for its explosive property. The

hydrogen sulphide gives disagreeable odour to water even if its amount is very
small. The carbon dioxide content indicates biological activities, causes corrosion,
increases solubility of many minerals in water and gives taste to water.

Oxygen in the dissolved state is obtained from atmosphere and pure natural surface
water is usually saturated with it. The simple test to determine the amount of
dissolved oxygen present in a sample of water is to expose water for 4 hours at a
temperature of 27°C with 10% acid solution of potassium permanganate. The
quantity of oxygen absorbed can then be calculated. This amount, for potable
water, should be about 5 to 10 ppm.

 Hardness: The hardness or soap-destroying power of water is of two types –

temporary hardness and permanent hardness. The temporary hardness is also
known as carbonate hardness and it is mainly due to the presence of bicarbonates of
calcium and magnesium. It can be removed by boiling or by adding lime to the
water. The permanent hardness is also known as non-carbonate hardness and it is
due to the presence of sulphates, chlorides and nitrates of calcium and magnesium.
It cannot be removed by simply boiling the water. It requires special treatment of
water softening.

Total hardness = carbonate hardness or alkalinity + Non carbonate hardness

The excess hardness of water is undesirable because of various reasons such as it

causes more consumption of soap, affects the working of dyeing system, provides
scales on boilers, causes corrosion and incrustation of pipes, makes food tasteless,
etc.,
 The hardness is usually measured by the soap solution test. The standard soap
solution is added in the sample of water. It is then vigorously shaken for about five
minutes and formation of lather is observed. The difference between the total
amount of soap solution and the latter factor indicates the hardness of water.

The water, having hardness of about 5 degrees, is reasonably soft water and a very
soft water is tasteless. Hence, for potable water, the hardness should preferably be
more than 5 degrees but less than 8 degrees or so.

 Hydrogen ion concentration (pH): The acidity or alkalinity of water is measured

in terms of its pH value or H-ion concentration. It is desirable to maintain pH value
of water very close to 7. The acidic water causes tuberculation and the alkaline
water causes incrustation. For potable water, the pH value should be between 7 and
8.50

Following are the two methods which are employed to measure the pH value of
water:

 Electrometric method: In this method, potentiometer is used to measure

the electrical pressure exerted by positively charged H-ions. The pH value
is then correspondingly expressed.

 Colourimetric method: In this method, chemical reagents are added to

water and the colour produced is compared with standard colours of known
pH values. A set of sealed tubes containing coloured waters of known pH
values is kept in the laboratory for ready reference. This test is simple and
hence, it is commonly carried out in public health laboratories. The usual
indicators are Benzol yellow, Methyl red, Bromphenol blue, etc., for acidic
range and Thymol blue, Phenol red, Tolyl red, etc. for alkaline range.

 Alkalinity: The alkalinity is the capacity of a given sample to neutralize a standard

solution of acid. The alkalinity is due to the presence of bicarbonate (HCO3),
carbonate (CO3) or hydroxide (OH).

The determination of alkalinity is very useful in waters and wastes because it

provides buffering to resist changes in pH value. The alkalinity is usually divided
into the following two parts:

Total alkalinity i.e. above pH 4.5

Caustic alkalinity i.e. above pH 8.2

The alkalinity is measured by volumetric analysis. The commonly adopted two

indicators are:

 Phenolphthalein : pink above pH 8.5 and colourless below pH 8.2

 Methyl orange : red below pH 4.5 and yellow orange above pH 4.5

Alkalinity in mg/l as CaCO3 = (total reading / volume of sample in ml) x 1000

  Nitrogen and its compounds:The nitrogen is present in water in the following four
forms:

 Free ammonia

 Albuminoid ammonia

 Nitrites

 Nitrates

The amount of free ammonia in potable water should not exceed 0.15 ppm and that
of albuminoid ammonia should not exceed 0.3 ppm. The terms albuminoid
ammonia is used to represent the quantity of nitrogen present in water before
decomposition of organic matter has started.

The presence of nitrites indicates that the organic matter present in water is not
fully oxidized or in other words, it indicates an intermediate oxidation stage. The
amount of nitrites in potable water should be nil.

The presence of nitrites indicates that the organic matter present in water is fully
oxidized and the water is no longer harmful. For potable water, the highest
desirable level of nitrates is 45 mg per litre.

The free ammonia is measured by simply boiling the water. The ammonia gas is
then liberated. The albuminoid ammonia is measured by adding strong alkaline
solution of potassium permanganate to water and then boiling it. The ammonia gas
is then liberated. The nitrites and nitrates are converted chemically into ammonia
and then measured by comparison with standard colours.

 Total solids: In this test, the amounts of dissolved and suspended matter present in
water are determined separately and then added together to get the total amount of
solids present in water. The highest desirable level of total solids is 500 mg/litre
and its maximum permissible level is 1500 mg/litre.

For measuring suspended solids, water is filtered through a fine filter and dry
material retained on the filter is weighed. The filtered water is evaporated and
weight of residue that remains on evaporation represents the amount of dissolved
water in water.

Bacteriological tests
The examination of water for the presence of bacteria is very important. The bacteria are
very small organisms and it is not possible to detect them by microscopes. Hence, they are
detected by circumstantial evidences or chemical reactions. The growth of bacteria takes
place by cell division and there are various classifications of bacteria depending upon their
shapes, oxygen requirements and effects on mankind. The last classification is important
for the water supply engineer from the view point of public health. The bacteria may be
harmless to mankind or harmful to mankind. The former category is known as non-
pathogenic bacteria and the latter category is known as pathogenic bacteria. It is not
possible to isolate pathogenic bacteria with the help of laboratory instruments. Their
chances of presence in a sample of water are increased in relation to the amount of non-
pathogenic bacteria present in the sample of water.

The combined group of pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria is designated by bacillus

coli or B-coli group. This group of bacteria is present in the intestines of all living warm-
blooded animals.

Following are the two standard bacteriological tests for bacteriological examination of
water.

 Total count or Agar plate count test: In this test, bacteria are cultivated on
specially prepared medium of agar for different dilutions of sample of water with
sterilized water. The diluted sample is placed in an incubator for 24 hours at 37°C
or for 48 hours at 20°C. These represent the so-called hot counts and cold counts
respectively. The bacterial colonies which are formed, are than counted and the
results are computed for 1cc. For potable water, the total count should not exceed
100 per cc.

 B-coli test: This test is divided into the following three parts:

 Presumptive test

 Confirmed test

 Completed test

The presumptive test is based on the ability of coliform group to ferment the lactose
broth and producing gas. The confirmed test consists of growing cultures of
coliform bacteria on media which suppress the growth of other organisms. The
completed test is based on the ability of the culture grown in the confirmed test to
again ferment the lactose broth.

 Presumptive test: Following procedure is adopted in this test:

 The definite amounts of diluted samples of water are taken in

multiples of ten, such as 0.1 cc, 1.0 cc, 10 cc, etc.

 The water is diluted in standard fermentation tubes containing

lactose broth.

 The tube is maintained at a temperature of 37°C for a period of 48

hours.

 If gas is seen in the tube after this period is over, it indicates

presence of B-coli group and the result of test is treated as positive.
If reverse is the case, it indicates the absence of B-coli group and the
result of test is treated as negative.

 A negative result of presumptive test indicates that water is fit for

drinking.
  Confirmed test: A small portion of lactose broth showing positive
presumptive test is carefully transferred to another fermentation tube
containing brilliant green lactose bile. If gas is seen in the tube after 48
hours, the result is considered positive and the completed test becomes
essential.

 Completed test: This test is made by introducing or inoculating bacterial

colonies into lactose broth fermentation tubes and agar tubes. The
incubation is carried out at 37°C for 24 to 48 hours. If gas is seen after this
period, it indicates positive result and further detailed tests are carried out to
detect the particular type of bacteria present in water. The absence of gas
indicates negative result and water is considered safe for drinking.

B-coli index: This is an index or number which represents approximately the

number of B-coli per cc of sample of water under consideration. The presumptive
tests are carried out with different dilution ratios of the sample of water with
sterilized water. A number of tests is carried out for each proportion and
percentage of positive results is recorded. The difference between successive
percentages is worked out and it is multiplied by the reciprocal of quantity of
solution. The sum of such values indicates B-coli index. For potable water, B-coli
index should be preferably less than 3 and it should not exceed 10 in any case.

Indian Standards of drinking water:

Permissib
le limit in
Undesirable effect the
Sl. Substance or Requirement
outside the absence Remarks
No. characteristic Desirable limit
desirable of
alternate
Source

Essential Characteristic

Extended to 25 only if
Above 5,
toxic
Colour Hazen consumer
1. 5 25 Substance are not
Units, Max acceptance
suspect in absence of
decreases
alternate sources

a) test cold and when

heated
2. Odour Unobjectionable - -
b) test are several
dilutions
 Test to be conducted
3. Taste Agreeable - - only after safely has
been established

Above 5,
Turbidity consumer
4. 5 10 -
(NTU) Max acceptance
decreases

Beyond this range

the water will after
the mucous No
5. pH value 6.5 to 8.5 -
membrane and/or relaxation
water supply
system

Encrustation in
Total
water supply
Hardness
6. 300 structure and 600 -
(mg/L)
adverse effects on
CaCO3
domestic use

Beyond this limit

taste/appearance
are affected; has
adverse effects on
Iron (mg/L,
7. 0.3 domestic uses and 1.0 -
Fe) Max
water supply
structure and
promotes iron
bacteria

Chlorides 250 Beyond effects

8. (mg/L, Cl) 250 outside the 1000 -
Max desirable limit

To be applicable only
when water is
Residual free chlorinated. Tested at
9. Chlorine 0.2 - - customer end. When
(mg/L), Max protection against viral
infection is required, it
should be min. 0.5
 mg/L.

Desirable Characteristics

Beyond this,
palatability
Dissolved
decreases and may
10. solids mg/L. 500 2000 -
cause
Max
gastrointestinal
irritation.

Encrustation in
Calcium water supply
11. (mg/L, Ca) 75 structure and 200 -
Max. adverse effects on
domestic use.

Encrustation in
Magnesium water supply
12. (mg/L, Mg) 30 structure and 100 -
Max adverse effects on
domestic use.

Astringent taste dis

coloration and
Copper corrosion of pipes
13. (mg/L, Cu) 0.05 fittings and 1.5 -
Max utensils will be
caused beyond
this.

Beyond this limit

taste/appearance
Manganese are affected, has
14. (mg/L, Mn) 0.1 advers effect on 0.3 -
Max domestic use and
water supply
structure

May be extended upto

Sulphate Beyond this causes
400 provided
15. (mg/L, SO4) 200 gastro intestinal 400
irritation when magnesium (as Mg)
Max.
does not exceed 30
magnesium or
 sodium are present

Beyond this
Nitrate (mg/L, methaemo
16. 45 100 -
NO3) Max. globinemia takes
place.

Fluoride may be
Fluoride kept as low as
17. (mg/L, F) 1.0 possible. High 1.5 -
Max. fluoride may cause
fluorosis.

Phenolic
Beyond this, it
Compounds
may cause
18. (mg/L 0.001 0.002 -
objectionable taste
C6H5OH)
and odour
Max.

Mercury Beyond this the No

To be tested when
19. (mg/L Hg) 0.001 water becomes Relaxatio
pollution is suspected
Max toxic n.

Cadmium Beyond this the No

To be tested when
20 (mg/L, Cd) 0.01 water becomes Relaxatio
pollution is suspected
Max toxic n.

Selenium Beyond this the No

To be tested when
21. (mg/L, Se) 0.01 water becomes Relaxatio
pollution is suspected
Max toxic. n.

Arsenic Beyond this the No

To be tested when
22. (mg/L, As) 0.05 water becomes Relaxatio
pollution is suspected
Max. toxic n

Beyond this the No

To be tested when
23. Cyanide 0.05 water becomes Relaxatio
pollution is suspected
toxic n

Lead (mg/L To be tested when

24. 0.05 Beyond this the No
Pb) Max. water becomes Relaxatio pollution is suspected
 toxic n

Beyond this limit it

can cause
Zinc (mg/L, To be tested when
25. 5 astringent taste and 15
Zn) Max. pollution is suspected
an opalescence in
water

Anionic
Beyond this limit it
detergents To be tested when
26. 0.2 can cause a light 1.0
(mg/L, pollution is suspected
froth in water
MBAS) Max

May be
Chromium
27. 0.05 carcinogenic above - -
(mg/L, Cr6+)
this limit

Polynuclear
Aromatic
May be
28. Hydrocarbons - - -
carcinogenic
(mg/l, PAH)
Max

Beyond this limit,

undesirable taste
Mineral oil To be tested when
29. 0.01 and odour after 0.03
(mg/L) pollution is suspected
chlorination takes
place

Pesticides
30. Absent Toxic 0.001 -
(mg/L) max

Radioactive materials

Alpha
31. emitters Bq/L - - 0.1 -
Max

Beta emitters
32. - - 1.0 -
Pci/L Max
 Beyond this limit,
Alkalinity
33. 200 taste becomes 600 -
(mg/L,) Max
unpleasant

Aluminum Cumulative effect

34. (mg/L, Al) 0.03 is reported to cause 0.2
Max dementia

Boron (mg/L)
35. 1.0 - 5.0 -
Max

Introduction to water treatment

The available raw waters must be treated and purified before they can be supplied to the
public for their domestic, industrial or any other uses. The extent of treatment required to
be given to the particular water depends upon the characteristics and quality of the
available water, and also upon the quality requirements for the intended use.

Raw water may contain suspended, colloidal and dissolved impurities. The purpose of
water treatments is to remove all those impurities which are objectionable either from taste
and odour perspective or from public health perspective.

layout of conventional water treatment plant

For surface waters, following are the treatment processes that are generally adopted

 Screening: This is adopted to remove all the floating matter from surface waters.
It is generally provided at the intake point.

 Aeration: This is adopted to remove objectionable tastes and colour and also to
remove the dissolved gases such as carbon-dioixide, hydrogen sulphide etc. The
iron and manganese present in water also oxidized to some extent. This process is
optional and is not adopted in cases where water does not contain objectionable
taste and odour.

 Sedimentation with or without coagulants: The purpose of sedimentation is to

remove the suspended impurities. With the help of plain sedimentation, silt, sand
etc. can be removed. However, with the help of sedimentation with coagulants,
very fine suspended particles and some bacteria can be removed.

 Filtration: The process of filtration forms the most important stage in the
purification of water. Filtration removes very fine suspended impurities and
colloidal impurities that may have escaped the sedimentation tanks. In addition to
this, the micro-organisms present in the water are largely removed.

 Disinfection: It is carried out to eliminate or reduce to a safe minimum limit, the

remaining micro-organisms and to prevent the contamination of water during its
transit from the treatment plant to the place of its consumption

 Miscellaneous processes: These include water softening, desalination, removal of

iron, manganese and other harmful constituents.

Sedimentation:
Having examined the quality of water, a line of treatment is to be recommended for impure
water to make it potable or fit for drinking purposes. The first stage of treatment is the
prefiltration of water and it includes provision of sedimentation tanks or settling tanks or
clarifiers. These tanks remove inorganic impurities and make water fit for the next process
of filtration.

The sedimentation tanks are designed to give complete rest to the flowing water or water is
allowed to flow at a very low velocity. The heavier inorganic impurities settle at the
bottom of tanks and the lighter inorganic impurities float on the surface of liquid level. The
former impurities are removed from the bottom while the latter impurities are removed
from the top.

The actual amount of matter removed by sedimentation tanks depends on several factors
such as design of tank, detention period, size of suspended particles, velocity of flow, etc.
It is estimated that plain sedimentation tank can remove about 60% of suspended matter
and about 75% of bacterial load from water.

In order to make the sedimentation tanks effective, coagulants are added to water before it
is bought to the sedimentation tanks. The sedimentation tanks are located near filter units
and in case of variations in demand, they may even be called upto to work as storage
reservoirs. The height of location of sedimentation tank should be decided by keeping in
view the natural configuration of locality and the pressure head required.

Where filtration is to be adopted, it is essential to provide sedimentation tanks. The treated

water from sedimentation tanks enters filter units for further purification.

The size and shape of the particle are altered by the addition of certain chemicals in water.
These chemicals are known as coagulants.

Coagulation:
The source of water supply for the most of public water supply project is surface water.
This water is turbid and contains many suspended impurities. It also possesses colour
which may be due to colloidal matter and dissolved organic material in water. The
turbidity is mainly due to the presence of very fine particles of clay, silt and organic matter.

All these impurities are in a finely divided state and it is not possible to detain them in
plain sedimentation tanks unless such tanks are designed for longer detention periods. The
other alternative to remove such particles is to increase their size so that they become settle
able. The purpose of coagulation is thus to make particles of bigger size by adding certain
chemicals know as coagulants to water. The coagulants react with the impurities in water
and convert them in settle able size.

The coagulation is to be adopted when turbidity of water exceeds about 40 p.p.m. It

should, however, be remembered that it is not complete process by itself. It simply assists
plain sedimentation and it is to be followed by the process of filtration. Thus, coagulation
is merely a process by which impure water is prepared for successful purification by rapid
sand filtration.

Principle of coagulation: The principal of coagulation can be explained from the

following two considerations.

 Floc formation: When coagulants are dissolved in water and thoroughly mixed
with it, they produce a thick gelatinous precipitate. This precipitate is known as floc
and this floc has got the property of arresting the suspended impurities in water
during its downward travel towards the bottom of tank.

 Electric charges: The ions of the floc are found to possess positive electric
charge. Hence, they will attract the negatively charged colloidal particles of clay
and thus they cause the removal of such particles from water.

Flocculation: The floc produced by the action of coagulants with water is heavy and
hence, it starts to settle down at the bottom of tank. As it descends, it absorbs and catches
more and more suspended impurities present in water. It thus slowly goes on increasing in
size. During this process, some amount of bacterial removal also takes place. The surface
of floc is sufficiently wide to arrest colloidal and organic matter present in water. The term
flocculation is used to denote the process of floc formation and thus flocculation follows
the addition of coagulant and its efficiency depends on the following factors.
  Dosage of coagulant: The dosage or quantity of coagulant should be carefully
determined so as to cause visible floc. The quantity of coagulants should be such
that turbidity of water is brought down to the limit of 10 to 25 p.p.m.

 Feeding: The feeding of coagulants may be in powder form or in solution form,

the latter being more popular

 Mixing: The coagulants should be properly mixed with water so as to cause a

uniform mass. In the beginning, the mixing may be quick for a period of about 30
to 60 seconds or so.

 pH value: Depending upon the quality of water and coagulant adopted, suitable
pH value should be determined. The pH value should be actually tested in the
laboratory at regular intervals. To remove acidity, lime is added to water and to
remove alkalinity, sulphuric acid is added to water.

 Velocity: The floc should be allowed to move gently after initial quick mixing,
The gentle movement of floc results in collision of particles and ultimately, the
floc grows in size. The detention period of coagulated sedimentation tanks is
about 3 to 4 hours.

The processes of coagulation and flocculation are greatly influenced by the physical
characteristics of water, its dissolved constituents and the temperature. The failures in
coagulation plant are due to incorrect does of the coagulant, inadequate mixing
arrangements, improper tank design, etc. Hence, the characteristics of water to be
submitted to the coagulation plant should be properly studied before deciding the details of
the plant.

Usual coagulants

Following six are the usual coagulants which are adopted for coagulation

 Aluminium sulphate

 Chlorinated chopperas

 Ferrous sulphate and lime

 Magnesium carbonate

 Polyelectrolytes

 Sodium aluminate

Filtration:
The process of filtration forms the most important stage in the purification of water. It
usually consists in allowing water to pass through a thick layer of sand. It has been noticed
from experience that during the process of filtration, the following effects occur on water:
  The suspended and colloidal impurities which are present in water in a finely
divided state are removed to a great extent

 The chemical characteristics of water are altered

 The number of bacteria present in water is also considerably reduced.

To explain why such effects take place is based on the following four actions:

 Mechanical straining: The suspended particles which are unable to pass through
the voids of sand grains are arrested and removed by the action of mechanical
straining.

 Sedimentation: The voids between sand grains of filter act more or less like small
sedimentation tanks. The particles of impurities, arrested in these voids, adhere to
particles of sand grains, mainly for the following two reasons:

 Due to the presence of a gelatinous film or coating developed on sand

grains by previously caught bacteria and colloidal matter and

 Due to the physical attraction between the two particles of matter.

 Biological metabolism: The growth and life process of the living cells is known as
biological metabolism and the action of filter is explained on the basis of biological
metabolism. When bacteria are caught in the voids of sand grains, a zoological
film is formed around the sand grains. The film contains large colonies of living
bacteria. The bacteria feed on the organic impurities contained in water. They
convert such impurities into harmless compounds by the complex biochemical
reactions

 Electrolytic changes: The action of filter is also explained by the ionic theory. It
states that when two substances with opposite electric charges are brought into
contact with each other, the electric charges are neutralized and in doing so, new
chemical substances are formed. It is observed that some of the sand grains of filter
are charged with electricity of some polarity. Hence, when particles of suspended
and dissolved matter containing electricity of opposite polarity come into contact
with sand grains, they neutralize each other and it ultimately results in the alteration
of chemical characteristics of water. After some interval of time, the electrical
power of sand grains gets exhausted. At that time, it becomes necessary to clean
the filter and restore it with its property.

Filter sand:
The sand to be used for filter should be free from clay, loam, vegetable matter, organic
impurities, etc. It should also be uniform in nature and size. The filter sand is classified on
the basis of its effective size and uniformity coefficient.

The effective size of sand indicates the size of sieve in mm through which ten per cent of
the sample by weight will pass.

The uniformity coefficient of sand is the ratio of sieve size in mm through which 60 per
cent of the sample of sand by weight will pass to the effective size of sand. For instance,
suppose the effective size of sand is 0.50 mm. If 60 percent of sand from the same sample
passes through 0.60 mm sieve, the uniformity coefficient will be 0.60 / 0.50 = 1.20

Instead of sand, sometimes anthrafilt is used. It is made from anthracite which is a stone-
coal that burns nearly without flame or smoke. It almost entirely consists of carbon. This
material is found to possess many advantages such as low cost in handling, high rate of
filtration, durability, better efficiency, etc. But as sand is readily available, the usual
practice is to recommend bed of sand for filters.

Classification of filters

The filters are classified into the following categories:

 Slow sand filters: In case of slow sand filtration, the water is allowed to pass
slowly through a layer of sand placed above the base material and thus the
purification process aims at simultaneously improving the biological, chemical and
physical characteristics of water. The slow sand filtration is very well suited for
rural areas in developing countries because of its simple operation and maintenance
procedures. It thus provides safe drinking water at low recurrent cost.

 Rate of filtration: The rate of filtration for a normal slow sand filter varies
from 100 to 200 litres per hour per m2 of filter area.

 Efficiency of slow sand filters:

 Bacterial load: The slow sand filters are highly efficient in the
removal of bacterial load from water. It is expected that they
remove about 98 to 99 per cent of bacterial load from raw water and
this percentage may be as high as 99.50 to 99.90, when pre-
treatment has been given to the raw water. However, for complete
removal of bacteria, disinfection is essential.

 Colour: The slow sand filters are less efficient in the removal of
colour of raw water. It is estimated that they remove about 20 to 25
per cent of colour of raw water.

 Turbidity: The slow sand filters can remove turbidity to the extent
of about 50 ppm. For water having greater turbidity than 60 ppm, it
is necessary to give preliminary treatment and bring down is
turbidity below 50 ppm

 Rapid sand filters (gravity type): The great disadvantage of a slow sand filter is
that it requires considerable space for its installation. This requirement makes it
uneconomical for places where land values are high. The area required for slow
sand filter, only for a moderate town of 15000 population, works out to be 1000
m2 and with future expansion, other additional equipment etc., the area required for
water supply project would be about 2000 m2 or so.

The difficulty of requiring more space for slow sand filters led the engineers and
scientists to find out means to increase the rate of filtration. It was observed that
rate of filtration can be increased in two ways:
  By increasing the size of sand so that friction to water passing through filter
media is minimized and

 By allowing water to pass under pressure through the filter media

The former is achieved in rapid sand filters (gravity type) and it is the most popular
method of filtration for public water supply projects. The latter principle is adopted
in the working of pressure filters.

 Efficiency of rapid sand filter:

 Bacterial load: The rapid sand filters are less effective in the
removal of bacterial load. It is expected that they remove about 80
to 90 per cent of bacterial impurity present in water.

 Colour: The rapid sand filters are highly efficient in colour removal
and the intensity of colour can be brought down below 10 on cobalt
scale.

 Turbidity: The rapid sand filters can remove turbidity to the extent
of 35 to 40 ppm. As water entering rapid sand filter is invariably
given the treatment in coagulation sedimentation tank, it posses less
turbidity. This turbidity is easily brought down to permissible limits
by rapid sand filters.

 Pressure filters: The term pressure filter indicates that a filter is enclosed in space
and water passes under pressure greater than atmospheric pressure. This pressure
can be developed by pumping and it may vary from 0.3 to 0.7 N/mm2.

 Rate of filtration: The rate of filtration of pressure filters is high as

compared to that of rapid sand filters. It is about 6000 to 15000 litres per
hour per m2 of filter area as compared to that of 3000 to 6000 litres per hour
per m2 of rapid sand filters.

 Efficiency: The pressure filters are found to be less efficient than rapid sand
filters in terms of bacterial load, colour and turbidity.

 Suitability: The pressure filters are not suitable for public water supply
projects. But they can be installed for small water supply water projects
such as colonies of a few houses, industrial plants, private estates,
swimming pools, railway stations, etc.

Double filtration:

Sometimes the water is filtered twice to achieve better results. This known as double
filtration and it may be carried out in different ways as follows:

 The water is allowed to pass through two or more slow sand filters arranged one
after the other.

 The water is allowed to pass through two or more rapid sand filters arranged one
after the other.
  The water is allowed to pass through a rapid sand filter before it is sent to a slow
sand filter.

In practice, the last alternative is most commonly adopted to increase the rate of filtration
The rapid sand filter in such a case is known as a roughing filter. The coarse materials are
used in the construction of a roughing filter and consequently, its rate of filtration is as
high as 7000 litres per hour per m2 of filter area. The roughing filters generally do not
require water treated with the coagulant.

The double filtration, especially of last combination as stated above, is adopted at places
where land available for the installation of slow sand filters is restricted. The installation
of roughing filters practically doubles the capacity of slow sand filters.

Importance of sanitation
The main purpose of sanitation is to maintain such environments as will not affect the
public health in general. Thus sanitation aims at the creation of such conditions of living
which will not result into serious outbreak of epidemic or in other words, it is a preventive
measure for the preservation of health of community in general and individual in
particular. It is to be noted that the word health indicates the physical and mental
soundness of human body such that it is in a position to discharge its daily routine
functions.

Principles of sanitation

Following are some of the fundamental or rather ideal principles of sanitation which, if
observed, result in better living conditions

 Collection and conveyance: The basic principle of sanitation is to remove any

waste matter as early as possible after its formation. The earlier it is removed, the
easier it becomes to render it harmless. The waste matter may be in any of the
three forms – solid, liquid or gas

 Interior decoration: The interior decoration of the building should be done after
giving a serious thinking. The substances which are likely to catch dust should not
be generally placed in room or if placed, arrangement should be made to clean
them periodically

 Orientation of building: In order to achieve natural ventilation, the orientation of

building should be made to adjust with the prevailing natural conditions at site of
construction of building. The building should be so oriented with respect to the
local climatic conditions that all the rooms are properly lighted naturally and that
there is free circulation of fresh air.

 Prevention of dampness: The construction of building should be damp proof. The

health of human body is considerably affected when there is presence of damp in
the surroundings. The preventive measures to admit damp should invariably be
taken to achieve proper sanitation of the building
  Supply of water: There should be plentiful supply of pure water to the building.
The scarcity of water leads to the development of unhygienic conditions in the
building

 Treatment of water: All the waste matter received from the building should be
disposed off only after giving proper treatment to it. Thus the effluent from sewage
plant should be thrown into Natural River or stream after it has been made
harmless.

Site for sewage treatment works

The site for treatment units sewage of any town should be carefully selected and the
following aspects are to be considered at the time of its final selection

 Good foundation soil should be available for various sewage treatment units to rest
firmly on the ground and thus to grant the structural stability to them

 The general slope of the site should neither be too steep nor too flat. It will assist in
placing various treatment units at such levels that sewage may flow from one unit
to the other by gravity only

 The general level of the site should be lowest level area of the town or city so that
the sewage from the entire town or city can be collected and conveyed by gravity
only

 The location of site should be appropriate with respect to the method of sewage
treatment to be adopted for the project

 The location of site should be such that enough area is available nearby when it
becomes necessary in future to expand the existing project.

 The proximity of water course near the site or enough waste land for irrigation will
be considered as an additional advantage.

 The site should be safe from floods for all the time

 The site should be situated on the leeward side of wind so that the undesirable
odours will be prevented from entering the town or city

 The site should not be, as far as possible, far away from the town or city

 The subsoil water level at the site should remain low even during monsoon

Design aspects: Following aspects should be kept in mind while making design of the
sewage treatment plant:

 Every unit of the plant should have flexibility in control and operation

 The design of the plant should be aimed at granting the safety of health of the
personnel operating the plant
 The major units of the plant should have bypass facilities which can be put into
commission during emergency

 The overall design of the plant should be such that there is easy accessibility for
operating and maintaining valves, sampling points and various other operating
devices.

 There should be adequate alternative provisions in case the plant fails or is shut
down for repairs or any other reason

 There should be some alternative for operating of the plant when its outlet is
submerged under high water.

 The treatment plant should accommodate a full-fledged laboratory in which routine

tests can be carried out for the performance of various units of the plant.
 Chapter 3
Introduction to sewers
Sewers are underground pipes or conduits which carry sewage to the point of discharge or
disposal. The sewage originating from a building passes through fixtures and then lead to
lateral sewers, which in turn discharge into sub mains or main sewers.

Important points to be considered before selecting sewer material

The following points are to be considered before selecting a material for constructing
sewer:

 Strength and durability: The sewer should have sufficient strength to withstand
all the forces that are likely to fall on them. Sewers are subjected to considerable
external loads of backfill material and traffic load, if any. They are not subjected to
internal pressure of water. To withstand external load safely without failure,
sufficient wall thickness of pipe or reinforcement is essential. In addition, the
material selected should be durable and should have sufficient resistance against
natural weathering action to provide longer life to the pipe.

 Resistance to abrasion: Sewage mostly contains grit. These particles moving at

high velocity can cause wear and tear of sewer material. This abrasion can reduce
thickness of pipe and reduces hydraulic efficiency of the sewer by making the
interior surface rough. Therefore, the material of the sewer should be in a position
to offer enough resistance to abrasion.

 Resistance to corrosion: Sewer carries wastewater that releases gases such as

H2S. This gas in contact with moisture can be converted in to sulphuric acid. The
formation of acids can lead to the corrosion of sewer pipe. Hence, selection of
corrosion resistance material is needed for long life of pipe.

 Weight: To facilitate easy handling and transportation, the sewers should have less
specific weight.

 Imperviousness: This property is also important in selecting a sewer material. To

eliminate chances of sewage exfiltration and infiltration, the material selected for
pipe should be impervious.

 Cost: Sewer should be less costly to make the sewerage scheme economical.

 Hydraulically efficient: The sewer shall have smooth interior surface to have less
frictional coefficient

Types of sewers:
Types of sewers normally refers to the different shapes of sewers. The shapes of sewers
play an important role in the construction and design process, handling and maintenance
and decide in reducing / increasing the cost.

Sewers are generally circular in shape. The advantages of circular sewers are:
  The perimeter of circular sewer is the least with respect to the sewer of other shape.

 The inner surface is smooth hence the flow of sewage is uniform and there is no
chance of deposition of suspended particles.

 The circular sewers are easy to construct.

However non-circular shaped sewers are also adopted for the following reasons:

 They can be construct in such a convenient shape and size so that a man can enter
the sewer for cleaning, maintenance, etc.

 The process of construction is easy.

 The structural strength is more.

 Cost of construction is low.

The following are the non-circular shaped sewers that are more commonly adopted

 Standard Egg-shaped sewer: These types of sewers are generally used in

combined sewers. These sewers can generate self cleansing velocity during dry
weather flow.

New egg-shaped sewer

 Horse shoe shaped sewer: This type of sewer is constructed for carrying heavy
discharge. This is like a tunnel and resembles a horse-shoe. The size is so large hat
the maintenance works within the sewer are very easy.

Horse shoe shaped sewer

 Parabolic shaped sewer: The upper surface of the sewer is of the shape of a
parabola and the invert is in the form of an ellipse. This type of sewer is suitable
for carrying small discharges.

Parabolic shaped sewer

 Semi-elliptical section

 Rectangular shape section: This type of sewer can be easily constructed. These
are suitable for large sewers to carry heavy discharge of sewage. The maintenance
works are easy in this section
  U-shaped section: The shape of sewer resembles the letter ‘U’. The sewer is
suitable for carrying heavy discharges. Maintenance works are very easy in this
type of sewers.

 Semi-circular shaped sewer: In this type of sewer, the outer surface is circular.
The inner surface is divided into two portions. The upper portion resembles a
basket-handle and the lower portion is like a channel. During dry season, the
sewage flows through the lower portion and during monsoon, the combined sewage
flows through the full section.

Design discharge for sewers

Sewers need to be designed before commencing the actual laying work. Designing
involves estimation of period or duration for the which the sewer will serve for an expected
population and the discharge for which the sewer is to be designed.

 Design Period: The length of time up to which the capacity of a sewer will be
adequate is referred to as the design period. In fixing a period of design,
consideration must be given for the useful life of structures and equipment
employed, taking into account obsolescence as well as wear and tear. Because the
flow is largely a function of population served, population density and water
consumption, lateral and sub main sewers are usually designed for peak flows of
the population at saturation density as set forth in the Master Plan.
 Population Forecasting: There are several methods for estimation or forecasting
of population which can predict or forecast population for a specific design period,
usually three to four decades.

 Tributary area: The natural topography, layout of buildings, political boundaries,

economic factors, etc., determine the tributary area. For larger drainage areas,
though it is desirable that the sewer capacities be designed for the total tributary
area, sometimes, political boundaries and legal restrictions prevent the sewers to be
constructed beyond the limits of the local authority. However, in designing sewers
for larger areas, there is usually an economic advantage in providing adequate
capacity initially for a certain period of time and adding additional sewers, when
the pattern of growth becomes established. The need to finance projects within the
available resources necessitates the design to be restricted to political boundaries.
The tributary area for any section under consideration has to be marked on a key
plan and the area can be measured from the map.

 Per capita sewage flow: The entire spent water of a community should normally
contribute to the total flow in a sanitary sewer. However, the observed dry weather
flow quantities usually are slightly less than the per capita water consumption,
since some water is lost in evaporation, seepage into ground, leakage, etc. In arid
regions, mean sewage flows may be as little as 40% of water consumption and in
well developed areas, flows may be as high as 90%. However, the conventional
sewers shall be designed for a minimum sewage flow of 100 litres per capita per
day or higher as the case may be. Non-conventional sewers shall be designed as the
case may be.

The flow in sewers varies from hour to hour and also seasonally. But for the purpose of
hydraulic design, estimated peak flows are adopted. The peak factor or the ratio of
maximum to average flows depends upon contributory population as given in
following Table.

Contributory Population Peak Factor

up to 20,000 3.00

above 20,001 to 50,000 2.50

above 50,001 to 7,50,000 2.25

above 7,50,001 2.00

The peak factors also depend upon the density of population, topography of the
site, hours of water supply and therefore individual cases may be further analysed if
required. The minimum flow may vary from 1/3 to 1/2 of average flow.

 Infiltration: Estimate of flow in sanitary sewers may include certain flows due to
infiltration of groundwater through joints. Since sewers are designed for peak
discharges, allowances for groundwater infiltration for the worst condition in the
area should be made as in Table.
 Description Unit Minimum Maximum

Area litres/ha/day 5000 50000

Length of
litres/km/day 500 5000
sewers

Number of
litres/day/manhole 250 500
manholes

Once the flow is estimated as per the above Table, the design infiltration value shall
be limited to a maximum of 10% of the design value of sewage flow.

Hydraulic design of sewers

If the velocity and depth of flow is the same for the length of a conduit, it is termed as
steady flow and as otherwise, it is non-steady flow. The hydraulic analysis of sewers is
simplified by assuming steady flow conditions though the actual flow conditions are
different during morning peak flows and varying flows in other parts of the 24 hours.

General approach for the design of sewer is the same as that of water mains. But the
following are the two main differences between the basic principles of design of sewers
and those of water mains.

 Presence of particles: The water carried by water mains is practically free from
particles of any solid matter – organic and inorganic. Sewage, on the other hand,
contains such particles in suspension and the heavy particles settle down at the
bottom of sewers which may ultimately result in the clogging of sewers. The
sewers are, therefore, to be laid down at gradient and they should be capable of
resisting the wear and tear due to abrasion of these particles.

 Pressure: The water mains normally carry water under pressure and hence, within
certain limits, they may be carried up and down the hill. The sewers, on the other
hand, are treated as open channels and they must, therefore, be laid at continuous
gradient in downward direction. If sewage has to be carried under pressure, it will
require elaborate equipment at each house which is to be connected to the drainage
system.

 Minimum and Maximum velocities: The silting or deposition of particles of solid

matter is undesirable in sewers and hence, the sewers should be laid at such a
gradient that a minimum velocity which will prevent the silting of particles in
sewers is developed over a wide variation in discharge of sewage. Such a
minimum velocity is known as self-cleansing velocity and for keeping the sewers
free from any trouble, this velocity should be developed at least once in a day,
preferably twice a day.

The self-cleansing velocity depends on the nature of suspended matter in sewage

and the size of the sewer. The following table shows the self-cleansing velocities
for different materials in suspension as recommended by Beardmore.
 Self-cleansing
Name of the material
velocity in cm/sec

Angular stones 100

Round pebbles 60

Fine gravel 30

Coarse sand 20

Fine sand and clay 15

The following table shows the self-cleaning velocities for sewers for different sizes
as recommended by Badwin Latham. Usually, a self-cleaning velocity of about 80
cm to 90 cm per second is adopted for normal sewage.

Self-cleansing velocity
Diameter of sewer in cm
in cm/sec

15 to 25 100

30 to 60 75

Above 60 60

The maximum velocity of flow is also to be taken in to consideration. If the

velocity of flow exceeds a certain limit, the particles of solid matter start to damage
the inside smooth surface of sewers or in other words, a scouring action takes
place. The maximum permissible velocity at which no such scouring action will
occur is known as non-scouring velocity and it will mainly depend on the material
used in the construction of sewers. The following table shows the non-scouring
velocities for common sewer materials.

Non-scouring
Material of sewer
velocity in cm/sec

Earthen channels 60 to 120

Brick-lined sewers 150 to 240

Cement Concrete
240 to 300
sewers

Stoneware sewers 300 to 450

  Size of sewers: The minimum size of a sewer depends upon the practice followed
in the locality. Usually, sewers of 10 cm diameter are allowed upto a maximum
length of 6 m or so. But when the length of sewer line exceeds about 6 m, a sewer
of minimum diameter 15 cm is allowed. The smaller the diameter of sewer, the
greater will be the slope and hence, in order to take advantage of available fall,
sewers of large diameter are sometimes used.

The design of sewers should be made in such a way that it ends in sections of
sewers which are commercially available. The non-commercial sizes are difficult
to obtain and they prove to be costly. For sewers to be constructed on site of work,
this problem does not arise.

There is no upper limit for the size of sewer. It is however submitted that it is
desirable to lay duplicate sewer line when sewer diameter exceeds about 3 m or so.

 Time of concentration: This term is used in connection with the design of storm
water drains. As the rain falls on the ground, all the area to be served by the sewer
does not start to contribute immediately to the flow of sewer. But the flow is build-
up gradually as follows:

 The area just near the sewer line will start contributing first and it will go on
increasing as more and more area starts to contribute.

 When the whole area is contributing to the flow of sewer, the maximum
limit of flow will be reached and it will be equal to the rate of precipitation
of rain water.

 The maximum flow continues until the storm stops. The flow then
gradually falls down as the area near the sewer line stops contributing
firstly, while flow continues to come for considerable time from the distant
areas.

The importance of time of concentration in the design of storm water sewers lies in
the fact that out of all the storms of equal frequency of occurrence, that storm
which has duration equal to the time of concentration, produces maximum flow in
sewer.

Quantity of domestic waste water

In order to find out a suitable section for the sewer, it is necessary to determine the quantity
of sewage that will flow through the sewer. The sewage consists of the following two
categories:

 Dry weather flow: This is sometimes written as D.W.F. and it consists of two
types of sewage:

 Domestic or sanitary sewage

 Industrial sewage

The quantity of D.W.F. is determined by considering the following four factors:

 Infiltration and exfiltration: The term infiltration is used to indicate the
leakage of water from the ground surrounding the sewer and the term
exfiltration is used to indicate the leakage of sewage from the sewer into the
ground surrounding the sewer.

The infiltration and exfiltration are both undesirable. The infiltration

unnecessarily increases the quantity of sewage. The exfiltration pollutes the
underground sources of water, if any. The infiltration, however, is preferred
to exfiltration.

The infiltration and exfiltration can be prevented to some extent by

constructing watertight joint of sewers.The quantity of water through
infiltration depends on the following four factors:

 Head of subsoil water level

 Length of sewer

 Nature and type of soil through which sewer is laid and

 Size of sewer

 Nature of industries:The quantity of industrial sewge will depend upon the

nature of industries. A careful study is, therefore, made of the industries
contributing to the flow of sewage and the quantity of industrial sewage is
then accordingly worked out.

 Population: Just as in case of water supply projects, the future population

after two or three decades is determined by applying any suitable method of
population forecast. The design period of different parts of the sewerage
system is different and the following factors are taken into account while
fixing the probable life of a particular part of the sewerage system

 Chances of improvement in the equipment

 Cost of adding an extra unit of the equipment

 Labour conditions having important influence on the cost of

equipment

 Maintenance cost and overhead charges

 Operation methods and

 Original cost of the part

Usually, the design periods of the following parts of sewerage system are:

 Laterals: These are designed for 50 years or so

 Branches and submains: These are also designed to last for 50 years
or more
  Main sewers and trunk sewers: These are designed for 30 to 50 years

 Pumping plant: As additional pump can be installed with short

notice, the design period of pumping plant is about 5 to 10 years.

 Treatment units: These are designed for 10 to 30 years.

 Rate of water supply: Usually the quantity of water entering the sewer will
be slightly less than the quantity of water supplied. For practical purposes, it
is assumed that the quantity of water which does not enter sewer is very
nearly equal to the extra quantity of water which enter sewer. In other
words, the rate of sewage is assumed as equal to the rate of water supply.
The rate of sewage may, however, be assumed lower than the rate of water
supply to the extent of about 60 to 70 per cent where there are sufficient
reasons to justify such assumption.

Following two factors should be carefully considered while comparing rate

of sewage with rate of water supply.

 Intensity of pressure: If water is supplied at high pressure, there is

more consumption of water and more wastage of water from leakage
in pipes, valves etc.

 Use of water: The use for which water is consumed should be

carefully studied. It is quite likely that water which is supplied may
not appear as sewage after its consumption. For instance, water that
is supplied to fill up the tanks of railway locomotives will not appear
as sewage. Similarly, the quantity of water supplied and the
quantity of sewage formed by various prominent industries such as
cotton mills, milk plants, etc. should be studied and accordingly the
rate of sewage should be decided.

 Storm water: Wherever possible, the storm water is to be collected and conveyed
in sewers at proper places for the following reasons:

 Damp conditions are created which are unhygienic as they provide

flourishing ground for micro organisms

 Existence of waterpools affects the foundations of structures

 Initial washings of streets by storm water contain organic matter and hence
such water requires to be collected and to be taken to the treatment plant

 Low lying areas get flooded and transport system is paralysed. It leads to
loss of revenue.

 Stagnant waterpools serve as breeding places for mosquitoes.

The quantity of storm water, which is known as wet weather flow and mentioned as
W.W.F., that will enter sewer is to be carefully determined. It involves various
factors such as intensity of rainfall, characteristics of catchment area, duration of
 storm, etc. Following two methods are generally employed for calculating the
quantity of storm water for the purpose of designing sewers:

 Rational method

 Empirical method

Rational method

In this method, the following three factors are combined in the form of an equation:

Q= K I A / 360

Where,

Q = peak runoff in m3 per second

K = Impermeability factor

I = Intensity of rainfall, mm per hour

A = Area in hectares

Catchment area: The catchment area to be served by a storm water sewer is measured
directly form the map of the locality

Impermeability factor: Some quantity of rain water that falls on the ground is absorbed
by soil and the percentage of rain water that enters the sewer is known as impermeability
factor.

Intensity of rainfall: The intensity of rainfall can be worked out from the rainfall records
of the area under consideration. Where rainfall records are not available, the intensity of
rainfall is obtained by applying suitable empirical formula.

Characteristics of domestic waste water

In order to determine the line of treatment, constituents of which sewage is composed are
to be properly determined. Quality of sewage plays an important role in the design and
construction of various treatment units. The treatment given to sewage should be such that
it can be easily disposed off in natural stream or river.

Properties of sewage
The properties of sewage will be studied in the following three groups:

 Physical properties: Specific gravity of sewage is very nearly equal to that of

water and as such, no modification of hydraulic formulae is necessary.

Colour of fresh sewage is earthy or grey and it has soapy or oily smell. It starts to
give objectionable odour after few hours of its production.
 Normal sewage is usually turbid and it contains some matter which can be easily
identified when the sewage is fresh. Such matter includes faecal matter or night
soil, pieces of paper, cigarette ends, grease, fruit skins, soap, match sticks,
vegetable debris, etc.

Sewage contains a very small amount of solid in relation to large amount of water.
Liquid content of normal sewage is about 99.90 per cent and the total amount of
solid matter present either in suspension state or dissolved state is only about 0.10
per cent. For normal sewage, it is estimated that two tones or 2000 kg of sewage
will hardly contain 1 kg of solids. The amount of 1 kg of solids will normally
include 0.50 kg in solution stage, 0.25 in settleable state and 0.25 kg in suspension
state.

Sewage contains organic and inorganic matter. It will be interesting to note the
proportions of these matters in a normal sewage. For illustration, one lakh parts of
sewage will normally contain only 100 parts of solids. Distribution of 100 parts of
solids in sewage will roughly be as follows:

As a general rule, presence of inorganic solids in sewage is not harmful. It requires

only mechanical appliances for its removal in the treatment plants. Suspended and
dissolved organic solids require treatment and they are as such responsible for
creating troubles in sewage disposal. As seen above, the amount of such solids in
one lakh parts of sewage is about (20 + 25) = 45, say 50 parts only, i.e., they form
only 1/2000th part of the entire quantity of sewage and such a small part requires
heavy treatment for its purification.

 Chemical properties: Nature of fresh sewage and treated or purified sewage is

alkaline. Nature of stale sewage is acidic.

In addition to solids and liquids, sewage also contains various gases such as
hydrogen sulphide, methane, ammonia and carbon dioxide. These gases are
obtained either from atmosphere or formed by the decomposition of organic matter
present in sewage.

It may be noted that the sewage containing industrial wastes may possess unusual
chemical properties.

 Biological properties: Sewage contains bacteria and other living micro-organisms

such as algae, fungi, protozoa, etc.

Bacteria are present in sewage in large number and depending upon their nature,
they may be classified as pathogenic bacteria and non-pathogenic bacteria.
Pathogenic bacteria are harmful and they are responsible for causing diseases.
Sewage obtains such bacteria from the discharges of persons and animals suffering
from various diseases. Non-pathogenic bacteria are harmless.

The major part of bacteria in sewage is engaged in carrying out the process of
breaking the complex organic compounds into simple and stable compounds which
may be organic or inorganic
 Chapter 4
Introduction to domestic waste water treatment
The raw sewage must be treated before it is discharged into the river stream. The extent of
treatment required to be given depends not only upon the characteristics and quality of the
sewage but also upon the source of disposal, its quality and capacity to tolerate the
impurities present in the sewage effluents without itself getting potentially polluted.

The unit operations and processes commonly employed in domestic wastewater treatment,
their functions and units used to achieve these functions are as follows:

 Screening: The main purpose of the installation of screens is to remove floating

matter of comparatively large size. If such materials are not removed, they will
choke up the small pipes or affect seriously the working of sewage pumps. Thus,
the main idea of providing screens is to prevent the pumps and other equipment
from the possible damage due to floating matter of the sewage. Screens should
preferably be located just before grit chambers. If the quality of grit is of not much
importance, as in case of land filling, screens may even be placed after the grit
chambers. Screens are usually placed in an inclined position with an angle of about
30) to 60) with the direction of flow. Screens are sometimes accommodated in the
body of grit chambers.

 Grit removal: Sewage contains both types of material, namely, organic and
inorganic. The purpose of providing grit chamber in the sewage treatment process
is to remove grit, sand and such other inorganic matter from sewage. To achieve
this purpose, velocity of flow in grit chamber is decreased to such an extent that the
heavier inorganic materials settle down at bottom of grit chamber and lighter
organic materials are carried forward for further treatment.

In general, grit chambers are placed after pumping stations and before the screens.
But, there is no fixed rule regarding the location of grit chambers.

 Primary Sedimentation: Sedimentation tanks are also known as settling tanks or

clarifier and the overall features of these tanks are more or less the same as for
those tanks which are provided in water supply schemes.

Following are the objects of installing sedimentation tanks in sewage treatment

works

 The process of sedimentation reduces the strength of sewage to the extent of

about 30 to 35 per cent.

 Quantity of settleable solids in sewage is reduced to the extent of about 80

to 90 per cent.

 There is reduction in B.O.D. to the extent of about 30 to 35 per cent.

 Sewage after being treated in sedimentation tanks becomes fit for further
treatment processes.
  Sedimentation process: When velocity of flow is decreased or when sewage is
allowed to stand at rest, the suspended particles carried by the sewage tend to settle
at the bottom of tanks. Material collected at the bottom of sedimentation tanks is
knows as sludge and the partially treated sewage is known as effluent. Sludge and
effluent both require further additional treatment to make them unobjectionable.

 Aerobic biological suspended growth process: Its function is to convert the

colloidal, dissolved and residual suspended organic matter into settleable biofloc
and stable inorganics. This can be achieved by activated sludge process, waste
stabilization ponds and aerated lagoons

 Aerobic biological attached growth process: Its function is similar to that of the
previous process, viz., aerobic biological suspended growth process. This can be
achieved by trickling filter and rotating biological contactor

 Anaerobic biological growth processes: The purpose of this process is to convert

organic matter into methane and carbondioxide and relatively stable organic
residues. Anaerobic filter, Fluid bed submerged media anaerobic reactor, Upflow
anaerobic sludge blanket reactor, Anaerobic rotating biological contactor are some
of the treatment methods adopted for this process.

Disposal of domestic waste water in rural and urban areas

The domestic waste water (sewage) begins to cause nuisance as it becomes stale. If it is
possible to dispose off sewage within four to five hours after its production, the treatment
required is less in magnitude. This lesson deals with the methods of disposing domestic
waste water.

The methods of sewage disposal can classified as follows:

 Disposal by dilution: In this process, the raw sewage or the partially treated
sewage is thrown into natural waters having large volume. The sewage in due
course of time is purified by what is known as the self-purification capacity of
natural waters. The limit of discharge and degree of treatment of sewage are
determined by the capacity of self-purification of natural waters.

 Conditions favorable for dilution: Following conditions are favourable

for sewage to be disposed off by dilution into natural waters

 It is possible only to provide primary treatment to sewage i.e.,

removal of floating matter and settleable solids.

 Currents of flow of diluting waters should be favourable which

means that nuisance should not be caused when sewage is
discharged into diluting waters

 Diluting waters are not used for the purpose of navigation for at least
some reasonable distance on the downstream from the point of
sewage disposal.
  Diluting waters should not have habitation or they should not hage
been used as source of water supply for at least some reasonable
distance on the downstream from the point of sewage disposal

 Dissolved oxygen content of diluting waters should be high

 The place is situated near natural waters having large volumes

 The sewage is relatively fresh and it is possible to bring it to the

point of discharge within four or five hours of its production.

 Types of natural waters: Following are the natural waters into which the
sewage can be discharged for dilution

 Creeks

 Estuaries

 Ground waters

 Lakes

 Ocean or sea

 Perennial rivers and streams

 Self purification of natural waters: When sewage is discharged into

natural water, its organic matter gets oxidized by the dissolved oxygen
content in water. The oxidation of organic matter converts such matter into
simple inoffensive substances. Deficiency of dissolved oxygen thus created
in natural waters is filled up by the absorption of atmospheric oxygen.
Thus, the oxygen of water is consumed by sewage and at the same time, it is
replenished by the atmosphere. This phenomena which occurs in all natural
waters is known as self-purification of natural waters. It is thus seen that
natural waters, polluted by sewage, are purified in natural course by the
phenomena of self-purification

The rate of self-purification will depend on various factors such as rate of

re-aeration type of organic matter present in sewage, temperature, velocity
of flow, presence of available oxygen in receiving waters, sedimentation,
etc

 Disposal by land treatment: Here, the raw domestic waste water (sewage) is
applied on the land. A part of sewage evaporates and the remaining portion
percolates through the ground and is caught by the underground drains for disposal
into natural waters. The sewage adds to the fertilizing value of land and crops can
be profitably raised on such land. The term sewage farming is also sometimes used
for indicating disposal of sewage by land treatment. The design of a good land
treatment system demands the services of environmental engineers, hydraulic
engineers, irrigation engineers, agronomists, soil scientist, etc.

 Conditions favourable for land treatment:

  The area of land treatment is composed of sandy, loamy or alluvial
soils. Such soils are easily aerated and it is easy to maintain aerobic
conditions in them

 The depth of water table is more even in rainy season so that there
are no chances of pollution of underground water sources by land
treatment

 The rainfall in the area is low as it will assist in maintaining good

absorption capacity of soil

 There is absence of river or other natural water sources in the

vicinity of disposal of sewage

 There is demand for cash crops which can be easily grown on

sewage farms

 There is availability of large open areas in the surrounding locality

for practicing broad irrigation by sewage

 Advantages of land treatment

 It increases the fertility of land

 It is cheap where land is available in plenty

 Application of sewage on land is the best method of supplying

manure to the soil

 Crops grown on land treated with sewage possess high calorific

value and more vitamins.

 Increased fertility of land results in profitable returns of crops

 The method becomes very much useful at places where disposal of

sewage by dilution is not possible.

 The method does not require costly equipment for its working.

 The method proves economical and safe where available irrigation

water is scarce in quantity

 The method to some extent charges the underground aquifers

 Water of irrigation canal is saved when this method is practised.

 Disadvantages of land treatment

 If proper precautions are not taken, nuisance developed by sewage

farming may lead to possible dangers to the health of men. It is
therefore, necessary that the sewage farms should be operated under
skilled technical supervision
  Crops grown on sewage farms are generally not liked by ordinary
public

 The method is not applicable for all the seasons of year. In

monsoon, some other arrangement of sewage disposal has to be
found out.

 The method requires large area of land which may not be available
in some cases

 Types of crops grown on sewage treated land are limited in number.

 Sewage sickness: If sewage is applied continuously on a piece of land, pores or

voids of soil are filled up or clogged. Free circulation of air is thereby prevented
and anaerobic conditions develop. At this stage, the land is unable to take any
further sewage load. Organic matter decomposes and foul smelling gases are
produced. The phenomena of soil is known as sewage sickness of land.

 Preventive measures:

 In order to prevent sewage sickness of land, the following preventive

measures may be adopted

 Alternative arrangement: There should be ample provision of extra land so

that land with sewage sickness can be given the desired rest. Alternatively,
sewage should be disposed off by some other method when sewage farms
are taking rest

 Depth of sewage: If sewage is applied in excess, the chances of sewage

sickness are increased. The land is unable to receive the excess sewage in a
satisfactory way and it ultimately clogs up. Depth of sewage on land should
be carefully decided by keeping in view the climatic conditions, drainage
facilities, nature of crops and characteristics of soil.

 Drainage of soil: Subsoil drain pipes should be laid in sufficient number to

collect the percolated effluent

 Intermittent application: Sewage should be applied on land at intervals.

The period between successive applications depends on general working of
sewage farm and the permeability of soil. Depending on the nature of the
soil, this period between successive applications varies from few hours to
few weeks.

 Pretreatment of sewage: sewage should be given some pretreatment before

it is applied on land.

 Rotation of crops: It is desirable to grow different types of crops on a piece

of land instead of one single crop. Rotation of crops minimizes the chances
of sewage sickness.
  Treatment to land: The land affected by sewage sickness should be
properly treated before it is put up in use again. Clogged surfaces should be
broken by suitable equipment.

Introduction to solid wastes

Any solid material in the material flow pattern that is rejected by society is called solid
waste. All human activities viz., domestic, commercial, industrial, healthcare and
agriculture generate solid waste. The quantity and nature of the waste vary with the
activity and with the level of technological development in a country. Solid wastes are all
the wastes arising from human and animal activities that are normally solid and are
discarded as useless or unwanted.

Solid waste is the term used to describe non-liquid waste materials arising from domestic,
trade, commercial, agricultural, industrial activities and from public services. Wastes that
arise from a typical urban society comprise of garbage, rubbish (package materials),
construction and demolition wastes, leaf litter, hazardous wastes, etc. If not managed
properly, these wastes can have an adverse impact on the environment and public health
arising from contamination of soil, water and pollution of air and through spread of
diseases via vectors living on waste. The relationship between public health and the
improper storage, collection and disposal of solid wastes is quite clear. Because of their
intrinsic properties, discarded waste materials are often reusable and may be considered a
resource in another setting. Ecological phenomena such as water and air pollution have
also been attributed to improper management of solid wastes

From the days of primitive society, humans and animals have used the resources of the
earth to support life and to dispose wastes. In those days, the disposal of human and other
wastes did not pose significant problems as the population was very small and the area of
land available for the assimilation of such wastes was large. However, today, serious
consideration is being given everywhere to this burgeoning problem of solid wastes. Rapid
population growth and uncontrolled industrial development are seriously degrading the
urban and semi-urban environment in many of the world's developing countries, placing
enormous strain on natural resources and undermining efficient and sustainable
development.

Solid waste management

Management of solid waste may be defined as that discipline associated with the control of
generation, storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing, and disposal of solid
wastes in a manner that is in accord withthe best principles of public health, economics,
engineering, conservation, aesthetics, and other environmental considerations. In its scope,
solid waste management includes all administrative, financial, legal, planning, and
engineering functions involved in the whole spectrum of solutions to problems of solid
wastes thrust upon the community by its inhabitants

Solid waste management in India

India, as any other developing country, is currently facing an acute problem in the
management of Municipal Solid Wastes. Open dumping of waste is wide spread
throughout the country. This is because of the mistaken belief that it is the easiest and
cheapest disposal method. Also there is insufficient will and allocation of resources to
improve the prevailing disposal practices. The deposition of wastes along roadsides and on
riverbanks and on marginal lands and then 'hoping' it will go away is both naive and
dangerous. It is inevitable that chemical and biological contaminants in waste will pollute
the surrounding natural environment and find their way back to humans to affect health,
quality of life and working activities. Thus, in the ultimate run the society has to pay dearly
for open dumping.

Now-a-days the concern for solid waste management has increased and government has
created lot of awareness among the public for proper separation of solid wastes at the
source level itself, so that it will become easier for treatment / disposal.

There are innumerable potential hazards due to the mismanagement of solid wastes. It has
the potential to pollute all the vital natural resources viz., land, water and air. Some of the
hazards caused by solid wastes are listed below:

 Environmental pollution from waste leachates and gas evolving from dumped solid
waste

 Air pollution from smoke by burning of waste and health hazards to the people
through inhalation of dust and smoke

 Health hazards to waste workers and pickers through direct contact with waste.

 Generation of noxious odours

 Promotion of micro organisms that cause diseases

 Attraction and support of disease vectors (rodents and insects that carry and
transmit disease carrying micro-organisms)

 Unaesthetic appearance

 Poor living ambience

Functional elements of a solid waste management system

The following are the key functional elements for implementing a solid waste management
system:

 source reduction

 onsite storage

 collection and transfer

 processing techniques

 disposal

The following flow chart describes the relationship between the key functional elements of
a solid waste management system
Waste generation encompasses activities in which materials are identified as no longer
being of value (in their present form) and are either thrown away or gathered together for
disposal.

Waste handling and sorting involves the activities associated with management of wastes
until they are placed in storage containers for collection. Handling also encompasses the
movement of loaded containers to the point of collection. Sorting of waste components is
an important step in the handling and storage of solid waste at the source. For example, the
best place to separate waste materials for reuse and recycling is at the source of generation.
Households are becoming more aware of the importance of separating newspaper and
cardboard, bottles/glass, kitchen wastes and ferrous and non-ferrous materials. On-site
storage is of primary importance because of public health concerns and aesthetic
consideration. Unsightly makeshift containers and even open ground storage, both of
which are undesirable, are often seen at many residential and commercial sites.

Collection: It includes not only the gathering of solid wastes and recyclable materials, but
also the transport of these materials, after collection, to the location where the collection
vehicle is emptied. This location may be a material processing facility, a transfer station, or
a landfill disposal site.

Processing and Recovery: The recovery of sorted materials, processing of solid waste and
transformation of solid waste that occurs primarily in locations away from the source of
waste generation are encompassed by this functional element. Waste processing is
undertaken to recover conversion products and energy. The organic fraction of Municipal
Solid Waste can be transformed by a variety of biological and thermal processes. The most
commonly used biological transformation process is aerobic composting. The most
commonly used thermal transformation process is incineration.
Waste transformation is undertaken to reduce the volume, weight, size or toxicity of waste
without resource recovery. Transformation may be done by a variety of mechanical (eg
shredding), thermal (e.g. incineration without energy recovery) or chemical (e.g.
encapsulation) techniques.

Transfer and Transport: It involves two steps: (i) the transfer of wastes from the smaller
collection vehicle to the larger transport equipment and (ii) the subsequent transport of the
wastes, usually over long distances, to a processing or disposal site. The transfer usually
takes place at a transfer station.

Disposal: The final functional element in the solid waste management system is disposal.
Today the disposal of wastes by landfilling or uncontrolled dumping is the ultimate fate of
all solid wastes. A municipal solid waste landfill plant is an engineered facility used for
disposing of solid wastes on land or within the earth’s mantle without creating nuisance or
hazard to public health or safety, such as breeding of rodents and insects and
contamination of groundwater.

Municipal solid waste is a potential source of the following useful materials

 Raw material to produce manufactured goods

 Feed stock for composting and mulching processes

 Can be used as a fuel

Quantity of solid waste estimation

Information on waste quantity and composition is important in evaluating alternatives in
terms of equipment, systems, plans and management programmes. Based on the quantity
of wastes generated, one can plan appropriate means for separation, collection and
recycling programmes. That is to say, the success of solid waste management depends on
the appropriate assessment of quantity of wastes generated.

The quantity of solid waste generated depends on a number of factors such as

 food habits,

 standard of living

 degree of commercial activities

 seasons

The quantity of solid waste can be expressed in units of volume or in units of weight. The
advantage of measuring quantity in terms of weight rather than weight is that weight is
fairly constant for a given set of discarded objects, whereas volume is highly variable.
Waste generated on a given day in a given location occupies different volumes in the
collection truck, on the transfer station, in the storage pit or in a landfill. In addition, the
same waste can occupy different volumes in different trucks or landfills. Hence, its
always preferable to express the quantity of solid waste on weight basis.
The best method for estimating waste quantity is to install permanent scales at disposal
facilities and weigh every truck on the way in and again in the way out. At disposal
facilities without permanent scales, portable scales can be used to develop a better estimate
of the weight of waste being deliverd. Selected trucks are weighed and environmental
engineers use the results to estimate the overall weight of the waste stream. Weighing all
trucks entering the disposal facility is a tedious job and hence a method of truck selection
must be done. A simple approach will be to weigh every nth truck (for instance, every
4th truck) that delivers waste to the facility. This approach assume that the trucks weighed
represent all trucks arriving at the facility. The total waste taonnage can be estimate can be
estimated with the following equation

W = T (w/t)

Where,

W is the total weight of the waste delivered to the facility

T is the total number of trucks that delivered waste in the facility

w is the total weight of the truck that were weighed

t is the number of trucks that were weighed

Similarly the total weight of waste delivered for the whole year is summed up and total
tones of waste generated in a year can be calculated.

The quantity of solid waste is often expressed in kg per capita per day so that the waste
streams in different areas can be compared. The quantity is typically calculated with the
following equation

Q = 1000 T / 365 * P

Where, Q – Quantity of waste in kg per capita per day

T – Tonnes of waste generated in a year

P – Population of the area in which the waste is being generated

Data on quantity variation and generation are useful in planning for collection and disposal
systems. Indian cities now generate eight times more municipal solid wastes than they did
in 1947 because of increasing urbanization and changing life styles. Municipal solid wastes
generation rates in small towns are lower than those of metro cities, and the per capita
generation rate of municipal solid wastes in India varies in towns and cities. It was also
estimated that the total municipal solid wastes generated by 217 million people living in
urban areas was 23.86 million t/yr in 1991, and more than 39 million ton in 2001. Waste
generation rate in Indian cities ranges between 200 - 500 grams/day, depending upon the
region’s lifestyle and the size of the city. The per capita waste generation is increasing by
about 1.3% per year in India.
Waste generation and GDP
The per capita waste generation rate is strongly correlated to the gross domestic product
(GDP) of a country (Table 2). Per capita waste generation is the amount of waste generated
by one person in one day in a country or region. The waste generation rate generally
increases with increase in GDP. High income countries generate more waste per person
compared to low income countries due to reasons discussed in further sections.
The average per capita waste generation in India is 370 grams/day as compared to 2,200
grams in Denmark, 2,000 grams in US and 700 grams in China.

Per Capita Urban MSW

Country
Generation (kg/day)

1999 2025

Low Income
0.45 - 0.9 0.6 - 1.0
Countries

Middle Income
0.52 - 1.1 0.8 - 1.5
Countries

High Income
1.1 - 5.07 1.1 - 4.5
Countries

The urban population of India is approx. 341 million in 2010. Figure 1 suggest the
projected MSW quantities are expected to increase from 2015 to 2030 and that per capita
per day production will increase to 1.032 kg, and urban population as 586 million in 2030.
Composition to solid waste
Materials in solid wastes can be broadly categorized into three groups, Compostable,
Recyclables and Inerts. Compostable or organic fraction comprises of food waste,
vegetable market wastes and yard waste. Recyclables are comprised of paper, plastic,
metal and glass. The fraction of solid wastes which can neither be composted nor recycled
into secondary raw materials is called Inerts. Inerts comprise stones, ash and silt which
enter the collection system due to littering on streets and at public places.

Waste composition dictates the waste management strategy to be employed in a particular

location. Organics in municipal solid wates are putrescible, and are food for pests and
insects and hence need to be collected and disposed off on a daily basis. The amount of
recyclables like paper and plastic in solid wastes dictates how often they need to be
collected. Recyclables represent an immediate monetary value to the collectors. Organics
need controlled biological treatment to be of any value, however due to the general
absence of such facilities, organics do not represent any direct value to informal collectors.

A major fraction of urban municipal solid wastes in India is organic matter (51%).
Recyclables are 17.5 % of the municipal solid wates and the rest 31% is inert waste. It has
to be understood that this composition is at the dump and not the composition of the waste
generated. The actual percentage of recyclables discarded as waste in India is unknown due
to informal picking of waste which is generally not accounted. Accounting wastes
collected informally will change the composition of municipal solid wastes considerably
and help estimating the total waste generated by communities.

Waste composition varies with the socio-economic status within a particular community,
since income, for example, determines life style, composition pattern and cultural
behavior.

Factors affecting quantity and composition of solid waste

 Geographic location: The geographical location is related primarily to different

climate that can influence both the amount of solid wastes generated and the
collection operation. For instance, substantial variations in the amount of yard and
garden wastes generated in various parts of India are related to the climate. To
illustrate, in the warmer southern areas, where the growing season is considerably
longer compared to the northern areas, yard wastes are collected in considerably
larger quantities and over a longer period of time.

 Season: Seasons of the year have implications for the quantities and composition of
certain types of solid wastes. For example, the growing season of vegetables and
fruits affect the quantities of food wastes.

 Collection frequency: A general observation is that in localities, where there are

ultimate collection services, more wastes are collected. Note that this does not
mean that more wastes are generated. For example, if a resident has access to only
one or two containers per week, due to limited container capacity, he or she will
store newspapers or other materials in some specified storage area. However, the
same person will tend to throw them away, if there is access to unlimited container
services. In this latter situation, the quantity of waste generated may actually be the
 same but the quantity collected, as it relates to the frequency of collection, is
considerably different

 Population diversity: The characteristics of the population influence the quantity

and composition of waste generated. The amount of waste generated is more in
low-income areas compared to that in high-income areas. Similarly, the
composition differs in terms of paper and other recyclables, which are typically
more in high-income areas as against low-income areas

Typical waste composition based on income pattern of population

Low High
Characteristics Comments
income income

20 to Low paper content indicates low

Paper 1 to 4 %
50% calorific value

Plastic is low in low income

areas as compared to high-
Plastics 1 to 6 % 5 to 10% income areas though the use of
plastic has increased in recent
years.

17 to 62 Ash and fines do not contribute

Ash and Fines 3 to 10%
% to combustion process

 Public attitude: Significant reduction in the quantity of solid waste is possible, if

and when people are willing to change – on their own volition – their habits and
lifestyles to conserve the natural resources and to reduce the economic burden
associated with the management of solid wastes.

 Legislation: This refers to the existence of local and state regulations concerning
the use and disposal of specific materials and is an important factor that influences
the composition and generation of certain types of wastes.

In a nutshell, elements that relate to waste generation include land use characteristics,
population in age distribution, legislation, socio economic conditions, etc.

Characteristics of solid waste

In order to identify the exact characteristics of municipal wastes, it is necessary that we
analyse them using physical and chemical parameters.

 Physical characteristics: Information and data on the physical characteristics of

solid wastes are important for the selection and operation of equipment and for the
analysis and design of disposal facilities. The following physical characteristics are
to be studied in detail.

 Density: Density of waste, i.e., its mass per unit volume (kg/m3), is a
critical factor in the design of a solid waste management system, e.g., the
 design of sanitary landfills, storage, types of collection and transport
vehicles, etc. To explain, an efficient operation of a landfill demands
compaction of wastes to optimum density. Any normal compaction
equipment can achieve reduction in volume of wastes by 75%, which
increases an initial density of 100 kg/m3 to 400 kg/m3. In other words, a
waste collection vehicle can haul four times the weight of waste in its
compacted state than when it is uncompacted. Significant changes in
density occur spontaneously as the waste moves from source to disposal,
due to scavenging, handling, wetting and drying by the weather, vibration in
the collection vehicle and decomposition

 Moisture content: Moisture content is defined as the ratio of the weight of

water (wet weight - dry weight) to the total wet weight of the waste.
Moisture increases the weight of solid wastes, and thereby, the cost of
collection and transport. In addition, moisture content is a critical
determinant in the economic feasibility of waste treatment by incineration,
because wet waste consumes energy for evaporation of water and in raising
the temperature of water vapour. In the main, wastes should be insulated
from rainfall or other extraneous water.

A typical range of moisture content is 20 to 40%, representing the extremes

of wastes in an arid climate and in the wet season of a region of high
precipitation. However, values greater than 40% are not uncommon.
Climatic conditions apart, moisture content is generally higher in low
income countries because of the higher proportion of food and yard waste.

 Size of Waste constituents: The size distribution of waste constituents in

the waste stream is important because of its significance in the design of
mechanical separators and shredder and waste treatment process. This
varies widely and while designing a system, proper analysis of the waste
characteristics should be carried out.

 Calorific Value: Calorific value is the amount of heat generated from

combustion of a unit weight of a substance, expressed as kcal/kg. The
calorific value is determined experimentally using Bomb calorimeter in
which the heat generated at a constant temperature of 25OC from the
combustion of a dry sample is measured.

The physical properties that are essential to analyse of wastes disposed at landfills
are:

 Field capacity: The field capacity of municipal solid waste is the total
amount of moisture which can be retained in a waste sample subject to
gravitational pull. It is a critical measure because water in excess of field
capacity will form leachate, and leachate can be a major problem in
landfills. Field capacity varies with the degree of applied pressure and the
state of decomposition of the wastes.

 Permeability of compacted wastes: The hydraulic conductivity of

compacted wastes is an important physical property because it governs the
movement of liquids and gases in a landfill. Permeability depends on the
 other properties of the solid material include pore size distribution, surface
area and porosity. Porosity represents the amount of voids per unit total
volume of material. The porosity of municipal solid waste varies typically
from 0.40 to 0.67 depending on the compaction and composition of the
waste.

 Compressibility: It is the degree of physical changes of the suspended

solids or filter cake when subjected to pressure.

 Chemical characteristics: Knowledge of the classification of chemical compounds

and their characteristics is essential for the proper understanding of the behaviour
of waste, as it moves through the waste management system. The products of
decomposition and heating values are two examples of chemical characteristics. If
solid wastes are to be used as fuel, or are used for any other purpose, we must know
their chemical characteristics, including the following

 Chemical: Chemical characteristics include pH, Nitrogen, Phosphorus and

Potassium (N-P-K), total Carbon, C/N ratio, calorific value.

 Bio-Chemical: Bio-Chemical characteristics include carbohydrates,

proteins, natural fibre, and biodegradable factor.

 Toxic: Toxicity characteristics include heavy metals, pesticides,

insecticides, Toxicity test for Leachates (TCLP), etc.

 Lipids: This class of compounds includes fats, oils and grease. Lipids have high
calorific values, about 38000 kcal/kg, which makes waste with a high lipid content
suitable for energy recovery processes. Since lipids in the solid state become liquid
at temperatures slightly above ambient, they add to the liquid content during waste
decomposition. They are biodegradable but because they have a low solubility in
waste, the rate of biodegradation is relatively slow.

 Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates are found primarily in food and yard waste. They
include sugars and polymers of sugars such as starch and cellulose and have the
general formula (CH2O)X. Carbohydrates are readily biodegraded to products
such as carbon dioxide, water and methane. Decomposing carbohydrates are
particularly attractive for flies and rats and for this reason should not be left
exposed for periods longer than is necessary.

 Proteins: Proteins are compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and

nitrogen and consist of an organic acid with a substituted amine group (NH2). They
are found mainly in food and garden wastes and comprise 5-10% of the dry solids
in solid waste. Proteins decompose to form amino acids but partial decomposition
can result in the production of amines, which have intensely unpleasant odours.

 Natural fibres: This class includes the natural compounds, cellulose and lignin,
both of which are resistant to biodegradation. They are found in paper and paper
products and in food and yard waste. Cellulose is a larger polymer of glucose while
lignin is composed of a group of monomers of which benzene is the primary
member. Paper, cotton and wood products are 100%, 95% and 40% cellulose
respectively. Since they are highly combustible, solid waste having a high
 proportion of paper and wood products, are suitable for incineration. The calorific
values of ovendried paper products are in the range 12000 – 18000 kcal/kg and of
wood about 20000 kcal/kg, which compare with 44200 kcal/kg for fuel oil.

 Synthetic organic material (Plastics): They are highly resistant to biodegradation

and, therefore, are objectionable and of special concern in solid waste management.
Hence the increasing attention being paid to the recycling of plastics to reduce the
proportion of this waste component at disposal sites. Plastics have a high heating
value, about 32,000 kJ/kg, which make them very suitable for incineration. But,
one should note that polyvinyl chloride (PVC), when burnt, produces dioxin and
acid gas. The latter increases corrosion in the combustion system and is responsible
for acid rain.

 Non-combustibles: This class includes glass, ceramics, metals, dust and ashes, and
accounts for 12 – 25% of dry solids.

 Heating value: An evaluation of the potential of waste material for use as fuel for
incineration requires a determination of its heating value, expressed as kilojoules
per kilogram (kJ/kg). The heating value is determined experimentally using
the Bomb calorimeter test, in which the heat generated, at a constant temperature of
25°C from the combustion of a dry sample is measured. Since the test temperature
is below the boiling point of water (100°C), the combustion water remains in the
liquid state. However, during combustion, the temperature of the combustion gases
reaches above 100°C, and the resultant water is in the vapour form. While
evaluating incineration as a means of disposal or energy recovery, one has to
consider the heating values of respective constituents.

 Ultimate analysis: This refers to an analysis of waste to determine the proportion

of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur, and it is done to perform mass
balance calculation for a chemical or thermal process. Besides, it is necessary to
determine ash fraction because of its potentially harmful environmental effects,
brought about by the presence of toxic metals such as cadmium, chromium,
mercury, nickel, lead, tin and zinc. One should note that other metals (e.g., iron,
magnesium, etc.) may also be present but they are non-toxic.

The following table shows an ultimate analysis of a typical municipal solid waste

Range (% dry
Element
weight)

Carbon 25-30

Hydrogen 2.5-6.0

Oxygen 15-30

Nitrogen 0.25-1.2

Sulphur 0.02-0.12
 Ash 12-30

Solid waste disposal in rural and urban areas

Disposal is the final element in the solid waste mangement system. It is the ultimate fate of
all solid wastes, be the residential wastes collected and transported directly to a landfill
site, semisolid waste (sludge) from municipal and industrial treatment plants, incinerator
residue, compost or other substances from various solid waste processing plants that are of
no further use to society. It is, therefore, imperative to have a proper plan in place for safe
disposal of solid wastes, which involves appropriate handling of residual matter after solid
wastes have been processed and the recovery of conversion products/energy has been
achieved.

Problems due to improper disposal of wastes

 health hazards (e.g., residents in the vicinity of wastes inhale dust and smoke when
the wastes are burnt; workers and rag pickers come into direct contact with wastes,
etc.);

 pollution due to smoke;

 pollution from waste leachate and gas;

 blockage of open drains and sewers.

Hence it is very much imminent that safe disposal of solid wastes is important for
safeguarding both public health and the environment.

Some of the disposal methods of solid wastes are

 Open dumping: Open dumping is an illegal process, in which any type of the
waste such as household trash, garbage, tires, demolition/construction waste, metal
or any other material dump at any location like along the roadside, vacant lots on
public or private property even in parks other than a permitted landfill or facility.
Open dumping poses a threat to human health and the environment because it
causes land pollution. In the developing countries, municipal solid waste is
commonly disposed off by discharge the waste in open dumps around 60-90%,
which are environmentally unsafe. Open dumping of nondegradable component
like burning of plastic waste is added to create air pollution and uncollected waste
pose serious health hazards. As a result of illegal dumping, land area such as
property value may decrease and also put negative impact on the scarcity of land in
future

 Composting: Composting is a natural biological process that carried out under

controlled aerobic (requires oxygen) or anaerobic conditions (without oxygen).
Organic waste is biodegradable and can be processed in the presence of oxygen or
in the absence of oxygen using anaerobic digestion. Anaerobic composting is not
common because of the slow degradation rate and produce odorous intermediate
 product. Anaerobic digestion however also produces methane gas which is an
important source of bio-energy.

Composting is an efficient method to break down organic materials into an end

product which is beneficial for soil and plants. Compost is used as an organic
amendment to improve the physical, chemical and biological properties of soil.
Adding compost helps to increase the ability of the soil to hold and release essential
nutrients.

Composting has a long tradition particularly in rural India. Composting is difficult

process because the waste arrives in a mixed form and contains a lot of non-organic
material. When mixed waste is composted, the end product is of poor quality. The
presence of plastic objects in the waste stream is especially problematic, since these
materials do not get recycled or have a secondary market. In the absence of
segregation, even the best waste management system or plant will be rendered
useless. In India, composting is used around 10-12% because composting needs
segregation of waste and sorting is not widely practiced

 Landfills: A landfill is an area of land onto or into which waste is deposited. The
aim is to avoid any contact between the waste and the surrounding environment,
particularly the groundwater.

Landfilling will be done for the following types of waste:

 Mixed waste not found suitable for waste processing;

 Pre-processing and post-processing wastes from waste processing sites;

 Non-hazardous waste not being processed or recycled.

 Landfilling will usually not be done for the following waste streams in the
municipal solid waste:

 Biowaste/garden waste

 Dry recyclables

Landfills minimise the harmful impact of solid waste on the environment by the
following mechanisms:

 Isolation of waste through containment;

 Elimination of polluting pathways;

 Controlled collection and treatment of products of physical, chemical and

biological changes within a waste dump – both liquids and gases; and

 Environmental monitoring till the waste becomes stable.

Essential components of municipal solid waste landfill

  A liner system at the base and sides of the landfill which prevents migration
of leachate or gas to the surrounding soil.

 A leachate collection and control facility which collects and extracts

leachate from within and from the base of the landfill and then treats the
leachate.

 A gas collection and control facility (optional for small landfills) which
collects and extracts gas from within and from the top of the landfill and
then treats it or uses it for energy recovery.

 A final cover system at the top of the landfill which enhances surface
drainage, prevents infiltrating water and supports surface vegetation.

 A surface water drainage system which collects and removes all surface
runoff from the landfill site.

 An environmental monitoring system which periodically collects and

analyses air, surface water, soil-gas and ground water samples around the
landfill site.

 A closure and post-closure plan which lists the steps that must be taken to
close and secure a landfill site once the filling operation has been completed
and the activities for long-term monitoring, operation and maintenance of
the completed landfill.

 Incineration: Incineration is one of the waste treatment technologies that involve

the combustion of organic materials and other substances. This refers to the
controlled burning of wastes, at a high temperature (roughly 1200 – 1500°C),
which sterilises and stabilises the waste in addition to reducing its volume. Hence,
Incineration waste treatment system is normally described as ‘thermal treatment’.
Incinerator process converts the waste into bottom ash, particulates and heat, which
can be used to generate the electric power. The volume of ash is usually 10% of the
original volume of the waste. Finally, the ash is typically disposed off in the
landfill site. In developing countries, the use of incineration is in few amounts to
around 1-5% respectively.

In India the incineration is a poor option as the waste consists mainly high organic
material (40–60%) and high inert content (30–50%) also low calorific value content
(800–1100 kcal/kg), high moisture content (40–60%) in MSW and the high costs of
setting up and running the plants.

 Gasification: This is the partial combustion of carbonaceous material (through

combustion) at high temperature (roughly 1000°C) forming a gas, comprising
mainly carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen, hydrogen, water vapour and
methane, which can be used as fuel. Gasification is the solid waste incineration
under oxygen deficient conditions, to produce fuel gas. In India, there are very few
gasifiers in operation, but they are mostly for burning of biomass such as agro-
residues, sawmill dust, and forest wastes. Gasification can also be used for MSW
treatment after drying, removing the inert and shredding for size reduction.
  Refuse-derived fuel (RDF): This is the combustible part of raw waste, separated
for burning as fuel. Various physical processes such as screening, size reduction,
magnetic separation, etc., are used to separate the combustibles

 Pyrolysis: This is the thermal degradation of carbonaceous material to gaseous,

liquid and solid fraction in the absence of oxygen. This occurs at a temperature
between 200 and 900°C. The product of pyrolysis is a gas of relatively high
calorific value of 20,000 joules per gram with oils, tars and solid burned residue

Introduction to air pollution

As we all know, air is the most essential for our living. A person cannot survive for five
minutes without air. The important life controlling element, viz. air, sometimes becomes
an enemy when it gets polluted. Air pollution is nothing but a system where presence of
any substance (solid, liquid or gas) in the atmosphere in such a concentration that may or
may tend to cause injuries to human, crops or property and to the atmosphere itself. The
substances which cause air pollution are called as air pollutants.

The polluted air affects not only living beings but also non living things and has a
deleterious effect on mankind. Air pollution is a serious problem in many countries of the
world. Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) has observed that air pollution is the
fifth leading cause of death in India after high blood pressure, indoor air pollution, tobacco
smoking and poor nutrition, with about 620,000 premature deaths occurring from air
pollution-related diseases. Like China, India faces an unprecedented public health crisis
due to air pollution. Half of the urban population breathes air laced with particulate
pollution that has exceeded the safety standards. As much as one third of urban population
is exposed to critical level of particulate pollution. Smaller cities are among the most
polluted in the country.

The green think tank released its own assessment and the global study's India specific data
during February 2013 warning that the number of premature deaths due to air pollution had
increased six fold over the last 10 years.

Air quality data generated by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) for 2007 under
the National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP) presents deadly facts about air
pollution levels in Indian cities. CSE has analysed the official data to assess the state of air
quality and trend in Indian cities. The most widely monitored pollutants in India are
particulate matter (PM), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2), and on a limited
scale carbon monoxide. Some of the worst forms of air pollutions are found in Indian
cities. The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) considers air to be ‘clean’ if the levels
are below 50 per cent of the prescribed standards for pollutants. During 2007 only 2 per
cent cities have low air pollution on the basis of PM10. In about 80 per cent of cities (of a
total of 127 cities/towns monitored under the NAMP) at least one criteria pollutant
exceeded the annual average ambient air quality standards. This has serious public health
implications. There are very few cities, which can be termed clean keeping PM10 levels
(respirable particulates) as criteria however over the years SO2 levels have fallen sharply
in many cities but the NO2 levels are increasing in many cities.

Issues of concern in air pollution:

 Global warming: In past few decades, there has been a large amount of hue and
cry regarding the issue of earth getting hotter and hotter year after year. This
concept of global warming is predominantly because of major changes in the
human lifestyle. Generally, green house gases viz., Carbon dioxide, methane, etc.
in the lower atmosphere act as a shield in trapping some of the heat, as it radiates
back to the atmosphere from the Earth. Such gases because of their heat and
warmth have made survival for life on our mother Earth. But when the quantities
of these green house gases increases, excessive heat is generated and makes living
almost impossible.

The reasons for increase in quantity of green house gases :

 Continuous and excessive burning of fossil fuels increases carbon dioxide

level

 Excessive deforestation leads to increase in carbon dioxide level

 Large scale decomposition of organic matter in swamps, rice fields, live

stock yards has lead to increase in methane level

 Level of Chloro Flouro Carbons (CFCs) increasing due to change in human

life style

 Acid rain: Rainfall through unpolluted environment is slightly acidic with its pH
value ranging just less than 7. However, when the environment is polluted with
primary pollutants like SOx and NOx gases, the resultant precipitation tends
become more acidic. This acidity if because of the formation of secondary
pollutants like sulphuric acid and nitric acid due to the reaction of water vapour
with SOx and NOx gases. It has been specified that when the pH value of rainfall
is less than 5.6 or below, then the rain is specifically termed as acidic.

 Photochemical smog: Photochemical smog is a unique type of air pollution which

is caused by reactions between sunlight and pollutants like hydrocarbons and
nitrogen dioxide. Although photochemical smog is often invisible, it can be
extremely harmful, leading to irritations of the respiratory tract and eyes. In regions
of the world with high concentrations of photochemical smog, elevated rates of
death and respiratory illnesses have been observed.

 Ozone depletion: Ozone depletion is the most dreaded aspect of air pollution,
having wide spread implications, extending over the entire atmosphere. This
problem is caused by the reduction of naturally available ozone layer in the
atmosphere. Scientists are also becoming aware of the possible connection
between ozone depletion and climate change due to global warming. The increased
concentrations of green house gases leading to warmer climate at the Earth’s
surface, infact causes cooling effect at altitudes where the ozone layer is found.
This cooling of the stratosphere enhances the chemical reaction that destroys the
ozone, leading to further ozone depletion.

Chlorofluoro carbons (CFCs) are the chief agents of ozone destruction. They are
largely used and subsequently released in modern world, in refrigeration, air-
conditioning, fire extinguishers. These inert CFCs do not disintegrate in the lower
 atmosphere and do rise several kilometers up into the stratosphere, where they
release chlorine atoms in the presence of sunlight. Each chlorine atom from CFCs
then reacts with an ozone molecule forming Chlorine monoxide. The Chlorine
monoxide thus formed, reacts with another oxygen atom to form a new oxygen
molecule and a chlorine atom. The chlorine atoms, thus replenished can go on to
break apart thousands and thousands of more ozone molecules, leading to large
scale ozone deficits. It has been estimated that each atom of chlorine can destroy
up to 1 lakh ozone molecules at a faster rate than the gas is replenished naturally.

Types of air pollution

 Personal air exposure: It refers to exposure to dust, fumes and gases to which an
individual exposes himself when he indulge himself in smoking

 Occupational air exposure: It represents the type of exposure of individuals to

potentially harmful concentration of aerosols, vapors, and gases in their working
environment.

 Community air exposure: This is most serious, complex, consists of varieties of

assortment of pollution sources, meteorological factors, and wide variety of adverse
social, economical, and health effects.

 Natural Sources: Volcano, forest fire, dust storms, oceans, plants and trees

 Anthropogenic Sources: created by human beings

Classification of sources of Air pollution

Air pollutants may be classified by sources as stationary or mobile

 Stationary sources

 Point sources (Industrial processing, power plants, fuels combustion etc.)

 Area sources (Residential heating coal gas oil, on site incineration, open
burning etc.)

 Mobile sources

 Line sources (Highway vehicles, railroad locomotives, channel vessels etc.)

Types of primary air pollutants and their properties

Primary air pollutants

The atmosphere has hundreds of air pollutants from natural or from anthropogenic
sources. All such pollutants are called as primary pollutants. The important primary
pollutants are:

 Sulphur dioxide: Sulphur dioxide is an irritant gas, and when inhaled, affects our
mucous membranes. It increases the breathing rate and causes oxygen deficits in
the body, leading to bronchial spasms. Patients of asthma are very badly affected
 by this pollutant. Sulphur dioxide is also responsible for causing acidity in fogs,
smokes and in rains and hence is the major source of corrosion of buildings and
metal objects. Major sources of Sulphur dioxide are:

 Burning of fuels

 Thermal power plants

 Oil refineries and chemical plants

 Open burning of garbage

 Carbon monoxide: Carbon monoxide possesses about 200 times affinity for blood
haemoglobin than oxygen. Eventually, then inhaled, CO replaces O2 from the
haemoglobin and form what is known as carboxy-haemoglobin. This carboxy-
haemoglobin is of no use for respiratory purposes, and hence when about half of
the haemoglobin of the blood is used up in forming carboxy-haemoglobin, death
becomes a certainty. Persons dying of carbon monoxide inhalations exhibit
characteristics bright pink colour of the flesh due to the presence of pink coloured
carboxy-haemoglobin in their bloods.

Carbon monoxide also affects the central nervous system, and is even responsible
for heart attacks, and high mortality rates.

Carbon monoxide chiefly originates from automobile exhausts, and is caused by

incomplete combustion of organic matter.

 Oxides of Nitrogen: Nitric oxide and Nitrogen dioxide are found to be injurious to
human health. Nitrogen dioxide is more injurious than nitric oxide.

Eye and nasal irritations are the common problems caused by nitrogen dioxide.
Also respiratory discomfort occurs with brief exposure to NO2.

 Hydrogen sulphide: It is a foul smelling gas with a typical odour of rotten egg.
Exposure to hydrogen sulphide for short periods may lead to loss of smell sense .
This gas may also cause headaches, conjunctivitis, sleepnessness and pain in the
eyes. Its higher concentration may block oxygen transfer and damage the nerve
tissues. However, hydrogen sulphide is generally not found in any trouble some
concentrations in our atmosphere mainly because it is not emitted in automobile
exhausts.

 Lead: Lead is mainly injected into the atmosphere through the exhausts of
automobiles, particularly, by automobiles running on petrol. The concentrations of
lead in inhaled air, may cause irritation of mucous membranes of nose, throat and
lungs. Lead poisoning may also cause damage to gastro-intestinal tracts, liver and
kidney. It may also cause abnormalities in preganancy and fertility. Lead
poisoning is also found to be responsible for retarding mental growth in children.

 Hydrocarbons: The compounds containing only hydrogen and carbon are

hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons are chiefly released into the atmosphere by
automobile exhausts. Substances like formaldehyde cause irritation of eyes, skins
and lungs and hence may be quite injurious to health
  Radioactive isotopes: The radioactive isotopes viz., Strontium-90, Cesium-137
and Iodine-131 have been the main products of atomic explosives and accidental
discharges from atomic and nuclear reactors; although, however, other isotopes
may also be present. The serious health hazards caused by such radioactive
emissions are anemia, cancers, shortening of life spans and above all the genetic
effects, like sterility, embroyo defects, congenital malformations, etc.
Radioactivity is notorious for its delayed and long term evil effects on human
health.

Types of secondary air pollutants and their properties

The primary pollutants often react with one another or with water vapour, in the presence
of sunlight to form entirely a new type of pollutants called / termed as secondary air
pollutants. These types of pollutants are the chemical substances, which are produced
from the chemical reactions of natural or anthropogenic air pollutants or due to their
oxidation caused by the energy of the sun.

There are two main reasons for making distinction between primary and secondary air
pollutants. First, in order to perform and interpret atmospheric chemical research, one
must distinguish between primary and secondary air pollutants. The second reason is that
emission controls can only be effectively treated at primary anthropogenic air pollutants,
their formation process must be understood and somehow interrupted. Controlling the air
concentrations of primary anthropogenic pollutants is much easier than controlling the
concentrations of secondary pollutants. The distinction between primary and secondary air
contaminants is not always clear, as the same chemical can either be directly emitted into
or formed by reactions in the air.

As secondary air pollutants are mainly formed by chemical reactions, and chemical
reactions usually produce products that are less reactive than their reactants, it would be
convenient to assume that secondary pollutants are more inert than primary pollutants. In
many cases, it is true. However, as sunlight drives many atmospheric reactions, additional
energy can be found in some secondary pollutants.

The most important secondary air pollutants are:

 Sulphuric acid: It is formed by the simple chemical reaction between sulphur

dioxide and water vapour, and is much more toxic pollutant than sulphur dioxide
having far reaching effects on environment since it causes acid rain.

 Ozone: Ozone is a primary example of a very reactive secondary air pollutant.

Thus photoactivation can produce highly reactive products. The peak
concentration of ozone is built late in the day, after the sun has had time to drive
their formation.

Since ozone has been generally found to occur in the highly motorized areas,
particularly during day time, it is believed that it is produced by the photochemical
reaction of hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxide. Possibility of formation of such
photochemical smog is quite high in places where number of plying automobiles is
too high and where inversion smog conditions prevail in the atmosphere.
 The presence of ozone gas in the air may cause irritation in the respiratory tract,
reaching much deeper into the lungs than the oxides of sulphur.

 Formaldehyde: Formaldehyde is an organic chemical that is very prevalent in our

environment. It has colorless gas with a pungent odor from a family of gases called
aldehydes. Commonly known as a preservative in medical laboratories and
mortuaries, formaldehyde is also found in other products such as chemicals,
particle board, household products, glues, permanent press fabrics, paper product
coatings, fiberboard and plywood. It is a sensitizing agent that can cause an
immune system response upon initial exposure. It is also a suspected human
carcinogen that is linked to nasal cancer and lung cancer. Formaldehyde exposure
is most common through gas-phase inhalation.

 Peroxy-acetyl-nitrate (PAN): It is a secondary pollutant present in photochemical

smog. It is thermally unstable and decomposes into peroxyethanoyl radicals
and nitrogen dioxide gas. It is a lachrymatory substance.

Peroxyacetyl nitrate, or PAN, is an oxidant more stable than ozone. Hence, it is

better capable of long-range transport than ozone. It serves as a carrier for oxides of
nitrogen (NOx) into rural regions and causes ozone formation in the global
troposphere.

The formation of PAN on a secondary scale becomes an issue when ethanol is used
as an automotive fuel. Acetaldehyde emissions increase, which subsequently react
in the atmosphere to form smog. Whereas ethanol policies solve domestic oil
supply problems, they drastically exacerbate air quality conditions

Peroxy acetyl nitrate irritates the eyes resulting in blurred vision and eye fatigue. It
decreases vital capacity due to decrease in both inspiratory capacity and expiratory
reserve volume.

Effects of air pollutants on living beings

Air pollutants have a deleterious impact on both living and non-living beings.

 Effect of Acid rain: When an air pollutant, such as sulphuric acid combines with
the water droplets that make up clouds, the water droplets become acidic. When
those droplets fall to the ground as rain or snow, the acidity of the water can have
damaging effects on the environment. When acid rain falls over an area, it can kill
trees and harm animals, fish, and other wildlife. Acid rain destroys the leaves of
plants. When acid rain infiltrates into soils, it changes the chemistry of the soil
making it unfit for many living things that rely on soil as a habitat or for nutrition.
Acid rain also changes the chemical properties of the lakes and streams that the
rainwater flows into, harming fish and other aquatic life.

 Ozone layer depletion: Air pollutants called chlorofluorocarbons (or CFCs)

destroy ozone molecules in the stratosphere. This has left places in the layer where
the ozone is thin. These areas of thin ozone are called ozone holes. The ozone layer,
located in the stratosphere layer of Earth’s atmosphere, shields our planet from the
Sun’s ultraviolet radiation. Ultraviolet radiation causes skin cancer and damages
plants and wildlife.
 Tropospheric ozone harms living things: Ozone molecules in the troposphere
damage lung tissues of animals and prevent plant respiration by blocking the
openings in leaves, called stomata, where respiration occurs. Without sufficient
respiration, a plant is not able to photosynthesize at a high rate and will not be able
to grow. Ozone is also able to enter the stomata and decay plant cells directly.

 Global warming harms living things: Our planet is currently warming much
more rapidly than expected because of additional greenhouse gasses that are
released into the atmosphere from air pollution. When fuels are burned, some of the
pollutants released, such as carbon dioxide, are greenhouses gasses. Through the
process of photosynthesis, plants convert carbon dioxide into oxygen and use the
carbon to grow larger. However, the amount of carbon dioxide released by burning
fuels is far greater than plants can convert. Cutting down forests exacerbates the
problem

 Human health effects:

 Exposure to air pollution is associated with numerous effects on human

health, including pulmonary, cardiac, vascular, and neurological
impairments.

 The health effects vary greatly from person to person. High-risk groups
such as the elderly, infants, pregnant women, and sufferers from chronic
heart and lung diseases are more susceptible to air pollution.

 Exposure to air pollution can cause both acute (short-term) and chronic
(long-term) health effects.

 Acute effects are usually immediate and often reversible when exposure to
the pollutant ends. Some acute health effects include eye irritation,
headaches, and nausea.

 Chronic effects are usually not immediate and tend not to be reversible
when exposure to the pollutant ends. Some chronic health effects include
decreased lung capacity and lung cancer resulting from long-term exposure
to toxic air pollutants.

 Effects on human respiratory system:

 Both gaseous and particulate air pollutants can have negative effects on the
lungs.

 Solid particles can settle on the walls of the trachea, bronchi, and
bronchioles.

 Continuous breathing of polluted air can slow the normal cleansing action
of the lungs and result in more particles reaching the lower portions of the
lung.

 Damage to the lungs from air pollution can inhibit this process and
contribute to the occurrence of respiratory diseases such as bronchitis,
emphysema, and cancer.
Effect of different air pollutants on living beings
 Carbon monoxide: CO (carbon monoxide) combines with haemoglobin to lessen
the amount of oxygen that enters our blood through our lungs. The effect of carbon
monoxide leads to headaches, reduced mental alertness, heart attack, cardiovascular
diseases, impaired fetal development, death.

 Sulphur dioxide: It can oxidize and form sulphuric acid mist. Thus, presence of
sulphur dioxide is responsible for causing acidity in rains and hence causes
corrosion of metal objects and buildings. SO2 in the air leads to diseases of the
lung and other lung disorders such as wheezing and shortness of breath. Sulphur
dioxide also causes eye irritation, chest tightness.

 Nitrogen dioxide: Eye and nasal irritations are the common problems caused by
nitrogen dioxide. Nitrogen dioxide also results in respiratory infections, irritation
of the lung and respiratory symptoms (e.g., cough, chest pain, difficulty breathing).

 Ozone: Exposure to Ozone leads to eye and throat irritation, coughing, respiratory
tract problems, asthma, lung damage.

 Lead: Lead is responsible to anemia, high blood pressure, brain and kidney damage
and neurological disorders. Prolonged exposure can cause damage to the nervous
system, digestive problems, and in some cases cause cancer. It is especially
hazardous to small children.

 Particulate matter: Presence of particulate matter leads to eye irritation, asthma,

bronchitis, lung damage, cancer, heavy metal poisoning, cardiovascular effects.

 Volatile organic compounds: Volatile compounds can cause irritation of the eye,
nose and throat. In severe cases there may be headaches, nausea, and loss of
coordination. In the longer run, some of them are suspected to cause damage to the
liver and other parts of the body.

 Formaldehyde: Exposure to formaldehyde causes irritation to the eyes, nose and

may cause allergies

ISI standards for air pollutants and their abatements

National Ambient Air Quality Standards (Source: Central Pollution Control Board)

Concentration in ambient air

Time Industrial
Pollutants Weighted areas,
Sensitive
average Residential,
areas
Rural and
other areas

Sulphur Annual
50 20
Dioxide Average*
(SO2), μg/m3 24
80 80
hours**

Annual
Oxides of 40 30
Average*
Nitrogen as
(NO2) ,
24
μg/m3 80 80
hours**

Particulate Annual
60 60
Matter Average*
(RSPM)
(size less
than 10 24
100 100
microns), hours**
μg/m3

Particulate Annual
40 40
Matter Average*
(RSPM)
(size less
than 2.5 24
60 60
microns), hours**
μg/m3

8 hours 100 100

Ozone (O3),
μg/m3
1 hour 180 180

Annual
0.5 0.5
Average*
Lead (Pb),
μg/m3
24
1.0 1.0
hours**

Carbon 8 hours 2 2
Monoxide
(CO) ,
1 hour 4 4
mg/m3

Annual
100 100
Average*
Ammonia,
μg/m3
24
400 400
hours**

Annual
Benzene 5 5
Average*

Benzo Annual 1 1
 Pyrene – Average*
particulate
phase only,
ng/m3

Arsenic, Annual
6 6
ng/m3 Average*

Nickel, Annual
20 20
ng/m3 Average*
* Annual arithmetic mean of minimum 104 measurements in a year at a particular
site taken twice a week 24 hourly at uniform intervals
** 24 hourly or 8 hourly or 1 hourly monitored values, as applicable, shall be
compiled with 98 % of the time in a year, 2 % of the time, they may exceed the
limits but not on two.

Abatement of air pollution

The air pollution and the resultant air quality can be attributed to emissions from vehicular,
industrial and domestic activities. The air quality has been, therefore, an issue of social
concern in the backdrop of various developmental activities. The norms for ambient air
quality and industry specific emissions have been notified. For control of air pollution,
with a view to initiate policy measures and to prepare ambient air quality management
plans, 321 Air Quality Monitoring Stations are operational covering twenty five States and
four Union Territories.

The CPCB has evolved a format for preparation of action plans, which has been circulated
to all State Pollution Control Boards/Committees. The action plans emphasize
identification of sources of air pollution, assessment of pollution load and adoption of
abatement measures for identified sources. Setting up interdepartmental task force for
implementation of city specific action plan has also been suggested.

In order to control vehicular pollution, a road map has been adopted as per the schedule
proposed in Auto Fuel Policy, which includes use of cleaner fuels, automobile technologies
and enforcement measures for in use vehicles through improved Pollution Under control
(PUC) certification system. As per the Auto Fuel Policy, Bharat Stage-II norms for new
vehicles have been introduced through out the country from first April, 2005. However,
EURO-III equivalent emission norms for all new vehicles, except 2-3 wheelers, have been
introduced in 11 major cities from April 1, 2005. To meet Bharat Stage-II, EURO-III and
EUROIV emission norms, matching quality of petrol and diesel is being made available.
Various types of Natural disasters with the first response initiative

The sudden, drastic flow of snow

Shut off utilities;
down a slope, occurring when
Evacuate building if
either natural triggers, such as
necessary; Determine
Avalanche loading from new snow or rain,
impact on the equipment
or artificial triggers, such as
and facilities and any
explosives or backcountry skiers,
disruption
overload the snowpack
Power off all equipment;
A severe snowstorm listen to blizzard
Blizzard characterized by very strong advisories; Evacuate
winds and low temperatures area, if unsafe; Assess
damage
Shut off utilities;
The shaking of the earth's crust, Evacuate building if
caused by underground volcanic necessary; Determine
Earthquake
forces of breaking and shifting impact on the equipment
rock beneath the earth's surface and facilities and any
disruption
Attempt to suppress fire
in early stages; Evacuate
Fires that originate in uninhabited personnel on alarm, as
Fire (wild) areas and which pose the risk to necessary; Notify fire
spread to inhabited areas department; Shut off
utilities; Monitor
weather advisories
Monitor flood
advisories; Determine
Flash flooding: Small creeks,
flood potential to
gullies, dry streambeds, ravines,
Flood facilities; Pre-stage
culverts or even low-lying areas
emergency power
flood quickly
generating equipment;
Assess damage
Rain occurring when outside Monitor weather
Freezing
surface temperature is below advisories; arrange for
rain
freezing snow and ice removal
Listen to weather
advisories; Power-off all
servers after a graceful
A prolonged period of
shutdown if there is
excessively hot weather relative
imminent potential of
Heat wave to the usual weather pattern of an
power failure; Shut
area and relative to normal
down main electric
temperatures for the season
circuit usually located in
the basement or the first
floor
 Power off all equipment;
listen to hurricane
advisories; Evacuate
area, if flooding is
possible; Check gas,
Hurricane Heavy rains and high winds
water and electrical lines
for damage; Do not use
telephones, in the event
of severe lightning;
Assess damage
Shut off utilities;
Geological phenomenon which
Evacuate building if
includes a range of ground
necessary; Determine
Landslide movement, such as rock falls,
impact on the equipment
deep failure of slopes and shallow
and facilities and any
debris flows
disruption
Power off all equipment;
listen to hurricane
advisories; Evacuate
area, if flooding is
An electrical discharge caused by
Lightning possible; Check gas,
lightning, typically during
strike water and electrical lines
thunderstorms
for damage; Do not use
telephones, in the event
of severe lightning;
Assess damage
Shut off utilities;
Evacuate building if
Limnic The sudden eruption of carbon necessary; Determine
eruption dioxide from deep lake water impact on the equipment
and facilities and any
disruption
Monitor tornado
advisories; Power off
Violent rotating columns of air
equipment; Shut off
Tornado which descend from severe
utilities (power and gas);
thunderstorm cloud systems
Assess damage once
storm passes
A series of waves hitting shores
strongly, mainly caused by the Power off all equipment;
displacement of a large volume of listen to tsunami
a body of water, typically an advisories; Evacuate
ocean or a large lake, usually area, if flooding is
Tsunami
caused by earthquakes, volcanic possible; Check gas,
eruptions, underwater explosions, water and electrical lines
landslides, glacier calvings, for damage; Assess
meteorite impacts and other damage
disturbances above or below
 water
Shut off utilities;
Evacuate building if
The release of hot magma,
Volcanic necessary; Determine
volcanic ash and/or gases from a
eruption impact on the equipment
volcano
and facilities and any
disruption

Importance of disaster management

Disaster management is a collective term encompassing all aspects of planning for and
responding to emergencies and disasters, including both pre- and post-event activities. It
refers to the management of both the risk and the consequences of an event.

In essence, disaster management is more than just response and relief; it is a systematic
process aimed at reducing the negative impact and/or consequences of adverse events.
Disaster management does not avert or eliminate the threats; instead, it focuses on creating
plans to decrease the effect of disasters.

Steps involved in disaster management:

 Prevention - Prevention was recently added to the phases of emergency

management. It focuses on preventing the human hazard, primarily from potential
natural disasters or terrorist attacks. Preventive measures are taken, designed to
provide permanent protection from disasters. Not all disasters, particularly natural
disasters, can be prevented, but the risk of loss of life and injury can be mitigated
with good evacuation plans, environmental planning and design standards.

 Mitigation – In electrical risks, a periodical power quality audit and exhaustive

preventive maintenance process with the help of electrical consultants can avert fire
risks due to electrical reasons, which is the major cause (>85%) of fires. In
earthquake prone areas, these preventive measures might include structural changes
such as the installation of an earthquake valve to instantly shut off the natural gas
supply, seismic retrofits of property, and the securing of items inside a building.
The latter may include the mounting of furniture, refrigerators, water heaters and
breakables to the walls, and the addition of cabinet latches. In flood prone areas,
houses can be built on poles/stilts.

Disaster mitigation measures are those that eliminate or reduce the impacts and
risks of hazards through proactive measures taken before an emergency or disaster
occurs.

 Preparedness – Preparedness focuses on preparing equipment and procedures for

use when a disaster. This equipment and these procedures can be used to reduce
vulnerability to disaster, to mitigate the impacts of a disaster or to respond more
efficiently in an emergency.

 Conduct disaster risk assessments.

  Integrate broader social and environmental issues into business strategies
and operations.

 Enact measures and systems that reduce risks.

 Develop plans for response and recovery.

 Disaster risk management (DRM) is a systematic application of

management policies, procedures and practices to the tasks of identifying,
analyzing, evaluating, treating and monitoring risk. Disaster risk reduction
(DRR) entails measures to curb disaster losses by addressing hazards and
people’s vulnerability to them.

 The most effective disaster risk management often happens before disasters
occur, continues after a disaster and incorporates lessons learned, thus
mitigating risks to future disasters.

 Disaster risk reduction is about modifying hazards, reducing vulnerability,

increasing capacity.

 Response - The response phase of an emergency may commence with Search and
Rescue but in all cases the focus will quickly turn to fulfilling the basic
humanitarian needs of the affected population.

 Disaster response refers to actions taken during and immediately after a

disaster to ensure that its effects are minimized, and that people affected are
given immediate relief and support.

 These include providing food, water, shelter, and medical aid, removing
people from danger, among other outreach efforts.

 Disaster recovery refers to the coordinated process of supporting disaster-

affected communities in reconstruction of physical infrastructure and
restoration of emotional, social, economic and physical well- being.

 This includes re-building houses and businesses, and providing medical aid
and counseling, among other efforts.

 Recovery - The recovery phase starts after the immediate threat to human life has
subsided. The immediate goal of the recovery phase is to bring the affected area
back to normalcy as quickly as possible. During reconstruction it is recommended
to consider the location or construction material of the property.

“All the Best”