UNIT – II: Physical Layer – Fourier Analysis – Bandwidth Limited Signals – The Maximum

Data Rate of a Channel - Guided Transmission Media, Digital Modulation and

Multiplexing: Frequency Division Multiplexing, Time Division Multiplexing, Code Division
Multiplexing Data Link Layer Design Issues, Error Detection and Correction, Elementary
Data Link Protocols, Sliding Window Protocols

Physical Layer

 The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer.
 It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices. The physical
layer contains information in the form of bits. 
 It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next.
 When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and
1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.

Fourier series

In the early 19th century, the French mathematician Jean-Baptiste Fourier proved that
any reasonably behaved periodic function, g(t) with period T, can be constructed as the
sum of a (possibly infinite) number of sines and cosines:Bandwidth

where f = 1/T is the fundamental frequency, an and bn are the sine and cosine amplitudes
of the nth harmonics (terms), and c is a constant. Such a decomposition is called a Fourier
series. From the Fourier series, the function can be reconstructed. That is, if the period, T,
is known and the amplitudes are given, the original function of time can be found by
performing the sums of Eq. (2-1). A data signal that has a finite duration, which all of them
do, can be handled by just imagining that it repeats the entire pattern over and over
forever (i.e., the interval from T to 2T is the same as from 0 to T, etc.). The an amplitudes
can be computed for any given g(t) by multiplying both sides of Eq. (2-1) by sin(2πkft) and
then integrating from 0 to T. Since

only one term of the summation survives: an. The bn summation vanishes completely.
Similarly, by multiplying Eq. (2-1) by cos(2πkft) and integrating between 0 and T, we can
derive bn. By just integrating both sides of the equation as it stands, we can find c. The
results of performing these operations are as follows:
Bandwidth limited signals

The relevance of all of this to data communication is that real channels affect different
frequency signals differently. Let us consider a specific example: the transmission of the
ASCII character ‘‘b’’ encoded in an 8-bit byte. The bit pattern that is to be transmitted is
01100010. The left-hand part of Fig. 2-1(a) shows the voltage output by the transmitting
computer. The Fourier analysis of this signal yields the coefficients:

The Maximum Data Rate of a Channel

 Data rate refers to the speed of data transfer through a channel. It is generally
computed in bits per second (bps). Higher data rates are expressed as Kbps ("Kilo"
bits per second, i.e.1000 bps), Mbps ("Mega" bits per second, i.e.1000 Kbps), Gbps
("Giga" bits per second, i.e. 1000 Mbps) and Tbps ("Tera" bits per second, i.e. 1000
Gbps).
 One of the main objectives of data communications is to increase the data rate.
There are three factors that determine the data rate of a channel:
o Bandwidth of the channel
o Number of levels of signals that are used
o Noise present in the channel
 Data rate can be calculated using two theoretical formulae:

 Nyquist Bit Rate – for noiseless channel

 Shannon’s Capacity – for noisy channel
Nyquist Bit Rate
 Nyquist bit rate was developed by Henry Nyquist who proved that the transmission
capacity of even a perfect channel with no noise has a maximum limit.
 The theoretical formula for the maximum bit rate is:
maximum bit rate = 2 × Bandwidth × log2V
Here, maximum bit rate is calculated in bps
Bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel
V is the number of discrete levels in the signal
  For example, if there is a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 4 KHz that is
transmitting a signal with 4 discrete levels, then the maximum bit rate will be
computed as, maximum bit rate = 2 × 4000 × log24 = 16,000 bps = 16 kbps
Shannon's Capacity
 Claude Shannon extended Nyquist's work for actual channels that are subject to
noise. Noise can be of various types like thermal noise, impulse noise, cross-talks etc.
Among all the noise types, thermal noise is unavoidable. The random movement of
electrons in the channel creates an extraneous signal not present in the original
signal, called the thermal noise. The amount of thermal noise is calculated as the
ratio of the signal power to noise power, SNR.
 Signal-to-Noise Ratio,SNR = Average Signal Power/Average Noise Power
 Since SNR is the ratio of two powers that varies over a very large range, it is often
expressed in decibels, called SNRdb and calculated as: SNRdb = 10log10SNR.
 Shannon's Capacity gives the theoretical maximum data rate or capacity of a noisy
channel. It is expressed as:
Capacity = Bandwidth × log2( 1+SNR )
Here, Capacity is the maximum data rate of the channel in bps
Bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel
SNR is the signal – to – noise ratio
 For example, if the bandwidth of a noisy channel is 4 KHz, and the signal to noise
ratio is 100, then the maximum bit rate can be computed as:
Capacity = 4000 × log2( 1+100 ) = 26,633 bps = 26.63 kbps
Networking devices

 Hardware devices that are used to connect computers, printers, fax machines and
other electronic devices to a network are called network devices.
 These devices transfer data in a fast, secure and correct way over same or different
networks. Network devices may be inter-network or intra-network.
 Some devices are installed on the device, like NIC card or RJ45 connector, whereas
some are part of the network, like router, switch, etc.
 The networking devices are
1. Modem
2. Repeater
3. Hub
4. Switch
5. Router
6. Bridge

Modem
  A modem is a hardware device that allows the computer to connect to the internet
over the existing telephone line.
 The data stored on the computer is digital whereas a telephone line or cable wire
can transmit only analog data.
 The main function of the modem is to convert digital signal into analog and vice
versa.
 Modem is a combination of two devices − modulator and demodulator.
 The modulator converts digital data into analog data when the data is being sent by
the computer.
 The demodulator converts analog data signals into digital data when it is being
received by the computer.

Ethernet Card

 Ethernet card, also known as network interface card (NIC), is a hardware component
used by computers to connect to Ethernet LAN and communicate with other devices
on the LAN.
 The earliest Ethernet cards were external to the system and needed to be installed
manually.
  In modern computer systems, it is an internal hardware component.
 Ethernet card speeds may vary depending upon the protocols it supports.
 Old Ethernet cards had maximum speed of 10 Mbps.
 However, modern cards support fast Ethernets up to a speed of 100 Mbps.
 Some cards even have capacity of 1 Gbps.

Repeater

 Repeater is a layer 1 device.

 It just regenerates the signal in the single device.

Hub
  Hub works at physical layer of the OSI model.
 It is a networking device used to setup a LAN.
 It has multiple ports.
 It is used to star topology.
 hen a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to the other ports so that all segments
of the LAN can sell all packets.
 It does broadcasting.

Switch

 A switch is a networking hardware that connects devices on a computer network to

establish a local area network.
 Switch has memory i.e., used to store the MAC address table.
 It is used in layer 2 of the OSI reference model.
 It does unicasting, broadcasting, multicasting.

Routers
  A router is a networking device that forwards data packet between computer
networks.
 A router is connected to at least two networks commonly between two LAN’s or
WAN’s or a LAN and its ISP’s network.
 It identifies the devices with IP address.
 It is a layer 3 device.
 Stores routing table.

Bridge

 It is a repeater and having additional functionality of reading MAC address.

 It is a layer 2 device.
 It is also used for interconnecting two LAN’s on same protocol.
 It is having only two ports.
RJ45 Connector

 RJ45 is the acronym for Registered Jack 45. RJ45 connector is an 8-pin jack used by
devices to physically connect to Ethernet based local area networks (LANs). 
 Ethernet is a technology that defines protocols for establishing a LAN.
 The cable used for Ethernet LANs are twisted pair ones and have RJ45 connector
pins at both ends.
 These pins go into the corresponding socket on devices and connect the device to
the network.

Some factors need to be considered for designing the transmission media:

1. Bandwidth
2. Distance to be covered.
3. Cost
4. Ease of installation and maintenance
5. Efficiency of transmission.
Guided and Unguided Transmission Media

 The purpose of the physical layer is to transport bits from one machine to another.
 Various physical media can be used for the actual transmission.
 Each one has its own niche in terms of bandwidth, delay, cost, and ease of
installation and maintenance.
 Media are roughly grouped into guided media, such as copper wire and fiber optics,
and unguided media, such as terrestrial wireless, satellite, and lasers through the air.

Guided Media: (cable)

 It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media.

 Signals being transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using
physical links. 
Features:  
 High Speed
 Secure
 Used for comparatively shorter distances

Unguided Media: (air)

 It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media.

 No physical medium is required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals. 

Features

 The signal is broadcasted through air

 Less Secure
 Used for larger distances

Magnetic Media

 One of the most common ways to transport data from one computer to another is to
write them onto magnetic tape or removable media (e.g., recordable DVDs),
physically transport the tape or disks to the destination machine, and read them
back in again.
 Although this method is not as sophisticated as using a geosynchronous
communication satellite, it is often more cost effective, especially for applications in
which high bandwidth or cost per bit transported is the key factor.
 The effective bandwidth of this transmission is 6400 terabits/86,400 sec, or a bit
over 70 Gbps.
Twisted pair cable

 A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires, typically about 1 mm thick.
 The wires are twisted together in a helical form, just like a DNA molecule. Twisting is
done because two parallel wires constitute a fine antenna. When the wires are
twisted, the waves from different twists cancel out, so the wire radiates less
effectively.
 A signal is usually carried as the difference in voltage between the two wires in the
pair.
 This provides better immunity to external noise because the noise tends to affect
both wires the same, leaving the differential unchanged.
 The most common application of the twisted pair is the telephone system. Nearly all
telephones are connected to the telephone company (telco) office by a twisted pair.
 Both telephone calls and ADSL Internet access run over these lines. Twisted pairs can
run several kilometers without amplification, but for longer distances the signal
becomes too attenuated and repeaters are needed.
 When many twisted pairs run in parallel for a substantial distance, such as all the
wires coming from an apartment building to the telephone company office, they are
bundled together and encased in a protective sheath. Twisted pairs can be used for
transmitting either analog or digital information.
 There are two types of twisted pair cables.

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): 

 This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a
physical shield for this purpose.
 It is used for telephonic applications. 
Advantages: 
1. Least expensive
2. Easy to install
3. High-speed capacity
4. Susceptible to external interference
5. Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
6. Short distance transmission due to attenuation
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):

 A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the wire that
allows the higher transmission rate.
 This type of cable consists of a special jacket to block external interference. It is used
in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and data channels of telephone lines. 

Advantages: 

1. Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP

2. Eliminates crosstalk
3. Comparatively faster
4. Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
5. More expensive
6. Bulky
Coaxial cable

 It has better shielding and greater bandwidth than unshielded twisted pairs, so it
can span longer distances at98 THE PHYSICAL LAYER CHAP. 2 higher speeds.
 Two kinds of coaxial cable are widely used. One kind, 50-ohm cable, is commonly
used when it is intended for digital transmission from the start. The other kind, 75-
ohm cable, is commonly used for analog transmission and cable television.
 A coaxial cable consists of a stiff copper wire as the core, surrounded by an
insulating material.
 The insulator is encased by a cylindrical conductor, often as a closely woven braided
mesh. The outer conductor is covered in a protective plastic sheath.
 Coaxial cable is of two types:

1. Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a single signal

at high speed.

2.Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple

signals simultaneously

Advantages Of Coaxial cable

 The data can be transmitted at high speed.

 It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
 It provides higher bandwidth.
 Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:
 It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.
 If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.
Fiber Optic Cable

 Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by several layers of
protective materials.
 It transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the problem of electrical
interference. This makes it ideal for certain environments that contain a large
amount of electrical interference.
 It has also made it the standard for connecting networks between buildings, due to
its immunity to the effects of moisture and lighting.
 Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances than
coaxial and twisted pair.
 Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over mush longer distances than
coaxial and twisted pair.
 It also has the capability to carry information at vastly greater speeds. This capacity
broadens communication possibilities to include services such as video conferencing
and interactive services.
 The cost of fiber optic cabling is comparable to copper cabling; however it is more
difficult to install and modify. 10BaseF refers to the specifications for fiber optic
cable carrying Ethernet signals.

Basic elements of Fibre optic cable:

1. Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as a core.
A core is a light transmission area of the fibre. The more the area of the core, the
more light will be transmitted into the fibre.
2. Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main functionality
of the cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at the core interface as to
cause the reflection within the core so that the light waves are transmitted through
the fibre.
3. Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. The main
purpose of a jacket is to preserve the fibre strength, absorb shock and extra fibre
protection.
Unguided Transmission Media

 Unguided transmission media is data signals that flow through the air.
 They are not guided or bound to a channel to follow.
 Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical
conductor.
 This type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication.
 Signals are normally broadcast through free space and thus are available to anyone
who has a device receiving them.
 Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in several ways: ground
propagation, sky propagation, and line-of-sight propagation.

Ground Propagation

 In ground propagation, radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the
atmosphere, hugging the earth.
 These low-frequency signals emanate in all directions from the transmitting
antenna and follow the curvature of the planet.
 Distance depends on the amount of power in the signal: The greater the
power, the greater the distance.
 Ground waves have carrier frequencies up to 2 MHz. AM radio is an example
of ground wave propagation.

Sky propagation

 In sky propagation, higher frequency radio waves radiate upward into the
ionosphere (the layer of atmosphere where the particles exist as ions) where they
are reflected back to the earth.
 This type of transmission allows for greater distances with lower output power. It is
sometimes called double hop propagation.
 It operates in the frequency range of 30 – 85 MHz. Because it depends on the earth’s
ionosphere, it changes with the weather and time of day.
  The signal bounces off of the ionosphere and back to the earth. Ham radios operate
in this range. Other books called this Ionospheric propagation

Line of Sight Propagation

 In line-of-sight propagation, very high-frequency signals are transmitted in straight

lines directly from antenna to antenna.
 Antennas must be directional, facing each other and either tall enough or close
enough together not to be affected by the curvature the earth.
 Line-ofsight propagation is tricky because radio transmission cannot be completely
focussed.
 It is sometimes called space waves or tropospheric propagation.
 It is limited by the curvature of the earth for ground-based stations (100 km, from
horizon to horizon). Reflected waves can cause promlems. Axamples are: FM radio,
microwave and satellite.
Radio Waves

 Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are normally
called radio waves. Radio waves are omnidirectional.
 When antenna transmits radio waves, they are propagated in all directions. This
means that the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned.
 A sending antenna sends waves that can be received by any receiving antenna. The
omnidirectional property has a disadvantage too.
 The radio waves transmitted by one antenna are susceptible to interference by
another antenna that may send signals using the same frequency or band.
 Radio waves, particularly those of low and medium frequencies, can penetrate walls.
Applications Of Radio waves
• A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many receivers.
• An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.
Advantages Of Radio transmission
• Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile cellular
phones.
• Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
• Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.
Disadvantages Of Radio transmission
 It is a disadvantage because we cannot isolate a communication to just inside or
outside a building.

Microwaves

 Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called
microwaves.
 Microwaves are unidirectional. When an antenna transmits microwave waves, they
can be narrowly focused. This means that the sending and receiving antennas need
to be aligned.
 The unidirectional property has an obvious advantage.
 A pair of antennas can be aligned without interfering with another pair of aligned
antennas. The following describes some characteristics of microwave propagation:
 Microwave propagation is line-of-sight. Since towers with the mounted antennas
need to be in direct sight of each other.

Characteristics of Microwave:

• Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave is from 4-6 GHz to

21-23 GHz.

• Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.

• Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.

 • Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a longer distance.

• Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is affected by environmental

conditions and antenna size.

Infrared Waves

 Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz (wavelengths from 1 mm
to 770 mm), can be used for short-range communication. Infrared waves, having
high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls.
 This advantageous characteristic prevents interference between one system and
another; a short-range communication system in one room cannot be affected by
another system in the next room.
 When we use our infrared remote control, we do not interfere with the use of the
remote of our neighbors. However, this same characteristic makes infrared signals
useless for long-range communication.
 In addition, we cannot use infrared waves outside a building because the sun’s rays
contain infrared waves that can interfere with the communication.

Satellite

 Satellites are transponders (units that receive on one frequency and retransmit on
another) that are set in geostationary orbits directly over the equator.
 These geostationary orbits are 36, 000 km from the Earths’s surface.
 At this point, the gravitational pull of the Earth and the centrifugal force of Earth’s
rotation are balanced and cancel each other out.
 Centrifugal force is the rotational force placed on the satellite that wants to fling it
out into the space.

How Does Satellite work?

 The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from the earth station, and it
amplifies the signal. The amplified signal is retransmitted to another earth station.

Advantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:

 The coverage area of a satellite microwave is more than the terrestrial microwave.
 The transmission cost of the satellite is independent of the distance from the centre
of the coverage area.
 Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless communication applications.
 It is easy to install.
 It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather forecasting, radio/TV
signal broadcasting, mobile communication, etc.

Disadvantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:

  Satellite designing and development requires more time and higher cost.
 The Satellite needs to be monitored and controlled on regular periods so that it
remains in orbit.
 The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Due to this reason, another launch of
the satellite has to be planned before it becomes non-functional.

Signal

 A signal is an electromagnetic or electrical current that is used for carrying data from
one system or network to another.
 It is a function that represents the variation of physical quantity with respect of time.
 Example -Variation in temperature of a city in one day i.e.,24 hours.
 When data is sent over physical medium, it needs to be first converted into
electromagnetic signals.
 Data itself can be analog such as human voice, or digital such as file on the disk. Both
analog and digital data can be represented in digital or analog signals.

Types of Data

1. Analog data-It refers to the information that is continuous.

2. Digital data-It refers to the information that has discrete values.

Types of Signals

1. Digital Signals-Digital signals are discrete in nature and represent sequence of

voltage pulses. Digital signals are used within the circuitry of a computer system. It
can only take on one of a fixed number of values. This type of signal represents a real
number within a constant range of values.
2. Analog Signals-Analog signals are in continuous wave form in nature and
represented by continuous electromagnetic waves. These kind of signals works with
physical values and natural phenomena such as earthquake, frequency, volcano,
speed of wind, weight, lighting, etc.
Difference between Analog Data and Digital Data

Definition of Frequency

 Frequency is defined as the total number of wave cycles present in each second of a
waveform.
 It basically shows the occurrence of overall complete wave cycles in the unit time.
 The figure below represents two different waveforms:
Definition of Bandwidth

 Bandwidth is completely related to frequency but definitely, bandwidth is not

frequency.
 However, bandwidth is the range of frequencies. Bandwidth is defined as the
difference in the upper and lower frequency components present in a signal.
 Thus, it specifies the amount of data being transmitted per second.
 The figure below shows the bandwidth of a signal ‘f’ with lower and upper
frequencies as fl and fu respectively:

 Suppose a signal which is to be transmitted has different frequencies such as

6000MHz, 4200MHz, 1500 MHz, and 820 MHZ. So, here the signal bandwidth will be
specified by the difference of the lowest and highest frequency component.
 Bandwidth = 6000 MHz – 820 MHz = 5180 MHz

Amplitude

 Amplitude is the height, force or power of the wave.

Baseband technology

 Baseband technology uses digital signals in data transmission. It sends binary values
directly as pulses of different voltage levels.
 Digital signals can be regenerated using repeaters in order to travel longer distances
before weakening and becoming unusable because of attenuation.
 Baseband supports bidirectional communication. It means, this technology can send
and receive data simultaneously. To support bidirectional communication, this
technology uses two separate electric circuits together; one for sending and another
for receiving.
 Although baseband transmits only a single data stream at a time, it is possible to
transmit signals of multiple nodes simultaneously. This is done by combining all the
signals into a single data stream. To combine the signals of multiple nodes, a
technology known as multiplexing is used. Baseband supports the Time Division
Multiplexing (TDM).
 Baseband technology is mainly used in Ethernet networks to exchange data between
nodes. This technology can be used on all three popular cable media types of
Ethernet; coaxial, twisted-pair, fiber-optic.
Broadband transmission

 Broadband technology uses analog signals in data transmission. This technology uses
a special analog wave known as the carrier wave.
 A carrier wave does not contain any data but contains all properties of the analog
signal. This technology mixes data/digital signal/binary values into the carrier wave
and sends the carrier wave across the channel/medium.
 To transmit data of multiple nodes simultaneously, this technology supports the
Frequency Division Multiplexing. FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing) divides the
channel (medium or path) into several sub-channels and assigns a sub-channel to
each node. Each sub-channel can carry a separate carrier wave.
 Analog signals can be regenerated using amplifiers in order to travel longer
distances.

Digital-to-Digital Conversion

 This section explains how to convert digital data into digital signals.
 It can be done in two ways
 1.Line coding

2.Block coding.

 For all communications, line coding is necessary whereas block coding is optional.

Line Coding

 The process for converting digital data into digital signal is said to be Line Coding.
Digital data is found in binary format.
 It is represented (stored) internally as series of 1s and 0s.

 Line coding can be divided into 3 types

1. Uni-polar Encoding
 Unipolar encoding schemes use single voltage level to represent data.
 In this case, to represent binary 1, high voltage is transmitted and to represent 0, no
voltage is transmitted.
 It is also called Unipolar-Non-return-to-zero, because there is no rest condition i.e. it
either represents 1 or 0.

2. Polar Encoding
 Polar encoding scheme uses multiple voltage levels to represent binary values.
 Polar encodings is available in four types:

1.Polar Non-Return to Zero (Polar NRZ)

2. Return to Zero (RZ)

3. Manchester

4. Differential Manchester

1. Polar Non-Return to Zero (Polar NRZ)

 It uses two different voltage levels to represent binary values.

 Generally, positive voltage represents 1 and negative value represents 0.
 It is also NRZ because there is no rest condition.
 NRZ scheme has two variants: NRZ-L and NRZ-I.
 NRZ-L(NRZ-Level):The level of the voltage determines the value of the bit,
typically binary 1 maps to logic-level high, and binary 0 maps to logic-level
low.
  NRZ-I(NRZ-Invert):Two-level signal has a transition at a boundary if the next
bit that we are going to transmit is a logical 1, and does not have a transition
if the next bit that we are going to transmit is a logical 0.

2.Return to Zero (RZ)

 Problem with NRZ is that the receiver cannot conclude when a bit ended and
when the next bit is started, in case when sender and receiver’s clock are not
synchronized.
 RZ uses three voltage levels, positive voltage to represent 1, negative voltage
to represent 0 and zero voltage for none. Signals change during bits not
between bits.

3. Manchester

 This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and NRZ-L. Bit time is divided into
two halves. It transits in the middle of the bit and changes phase when a
different bit is encountered.
 Manchester encoding is somewhat combination of the RZ (transition at the
middle of the bit) and NRZ-L schemes. The duration of the bit is divided into two
 halves. The voltage remains at one level during the first half and moves to the
other level in the second half. The transition at the middle of the bit provides
synchronization.

4. Differential Manchester

 Differential Manchester is somewhat combination of the RZ and NRZ-I schemes.

 There is always a transition at the middle of the bit but the bit values are determined
at the beginning of the bit.
 If the next bit is 0, there is a transition, if the next bit is 1, there is no transition.

3.Bipolar Encoding

 Bipolar encoding uses three voltage levels, positive, negative and zero.
 Zero voltage represents binary 0 and bit 1 is represented by altering positive
and negative voltages.
Digital Modulation Techniques

 Digital-to-Analog signals conversion techniques are also called as Digital Modulation

techniques.
 Digital Modulation provides more information capacity, high data security, quicker
system availability with great quality communication.
 Hence, digital modulation techniques have a greater demand, for their capacity to
convey larger amounts of data than analog modulation techniques.
 There are many types of digital modulation techniques and also their combinations,
depending upon the need. Of them all, we will discuss the prominent ones.

Digital-to-Analog Conversion

 When data from one computer is sent to another via some analog carrier, it is first
converted into analog signals. Analog signals are modified to reflect digital data.
 An analog signal is characterized by its amplitude, frequency, and phase.
 There are three kinds of digital-to-analog conversions:

1.Amplitude Shift Keying

2.Frequency Shift Keying

3.Phase Shift Keying

1. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) is a type of Amplitude Modulation which represents the
binary data in the form of variations in the amplitude of a signal.
 Any modulated signal has a high frequency carrier.
  The binary signal when ASK modulated, gives a zero value for Low input while it gives
the carrier output for High input

Advantages of amplitude shift Keying

 It can be used to transmit digital data over optical fiber.

 The receiver and transmitter have a simple design which also makes it comparatively
inexpensive.
 It uses lesser bandwidth as compared to FSK thus it offers high bandwidth efficiency.

Disadvantages of amplitude shift Keying

 It is susceptible to noise interference and entire transmissions could be lost due to

this.
 It has lower power efficiency.

2.Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) is the digital modulation technique in which the
frequency of the carrier signal varies according to the digital signal changes.
  FSK is a scheme of frequency modulation. The output of a FSK modulated wave is
high in frequency for a binary High input and is low in frequency for a binary Low
input.
 The binary 1s and 0s are called Mark and Space frequencies.

Advantages of frequency shift Keying

 Frequency shift keying modulated signal can help avoid the noise problems beset by
ASK.
 It has lower chances of an error.
 It provides high signal to noise ratio.
 The transmitter and receiver implementations are simple for low data rate
application.

Disadvantages of frequency shift Keying

 It uses larger bandwidth as compared to ASK thus it offers less bandwidth efficiency.
 It has lower power efficiency

3.Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

 Phase Shift Keying (PSK) is the digital modulation technique in which the phase of the
carrier signal is changed by varying the sine and cosine inputs at a particular time.
  PSK technique is widely used for wireless LANs, bio-metric, contactless operations,
along with RFID and Bluetooth communications.

Advantages of phase shift Keying

 It is a more power efficient modulation technique as compared to ASK and FSK.

 It has lower chances of an error.
 It allows data to be carried along a communication signal much more efficiently
as compared to FSK.

Disadvantages of phase shift Keying

 It offers low bandwidth efficiency.

 The detection and recovery algorithms of binary data is very complex.

Multiplexing

 Multiplexing is a technique by which different analog and digital streams of

transmission can be simultaneously processed over a shared link. Multiplexing
divides the high capacity medium into low capacity logical medium which is then
shared by different streams.
 Communication is possible over the air (radio frequency), using a physical media
(cable), and light (optical fiber). All mediums are capable of multiplexing.
 Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer (MUX) that combines n
input lines to generate a single output line. Multiplexing follows many-to-one, i.e., n
input lines and one output line.
 De-multiplexing is achieved by using a device called De-multiplexer (DEMUX)
available at the receiving end. DEMUX separates a signal into its component signals
(one input and n outputs). Therefore, we can say that de-multiplexing follows the
one-to-many approach.

Why Multiplexing?
  The transmission medium is used to send the signal from sender to receiver. The
medium can only have one signal at a time.
 If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium must be divided
in such a way that each signal is given some portion of the available bandwidth. For
example: If there are 10 signals and bandwidth of medium is100 units, then the 10
unit is shared by each signal.
 When multiple signals share the common medium, there is a possibility of collision.
Multiplexing concept is used to avoid such collision.
 Transmission services are very expensive.

Concept of Multiplexing

 The 'n' input lines are transmitted through a multiplexer and multiplexer combines
the signals to form a composite signal.
 The composite signal is passed through a De-multiplexer and de-multiplexer
separates a signal to component signals and transfers them to their respective
destinations.

Types of multiplexing techniques

1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

2. Time Division Multiplexing(TDM)
3. Code Division Multiplexing(CDM)

1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

 Frequency Division Multiplexing When the carrier is frequency, FDM is used.
 FDM is an analog technology.
 FDM divides the spectrum or carrier bandwidth in logical channels and allocates one
user to each channel.
  Each user can use the channel frequency independently and has exclusive access of
it.
 All channels are divided in such a way that they do not overlap with each other.
 Channels are separated by guard bands. Guard band is a frequency which is not used
by either channel

Advantages Of FDM:

 FDM is used for analog signals.

 FDM process is very simple and easy modulation.
 A Large number of signals can be sent through an FDM simultaneously.
 It does not require any synchronization between sender and receiver.

Disadvantages Of FDM:

 FDM technique is used only when low-speed channels are required.

 It suffers the problem of crosstalk.
 A Large number of modulators are required.
 It requires a high bandwidth channel.

Applications Of FDM:

 FDM is commonly used in TV networks.

 It is used in FM and AM broadcasting. Each FM radio station has different
frequencies, and they are multiplexed to form a composite signal. The multiplexed
signal is transmitted in the air.
2.Time Division Multiplexing

 It is a digital technique.
 In Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique, all signals operate at the same time
with different frequency, but in case of Time Division Multiplexing technique, all
signals operate at the same frequency with different time.
 In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available in the channel is
distributed among different users. Therefore, each user is allocated with different
time interval known as a Time slot at which data is to be transmitted by the sender.
 A user takes control of the channel for a fixed amount of time.
 In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not transmitted simultaneously
rather the data is transmitted one-by-one.
 In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames. Frames contain a cycle of
time slots in which each frame contains one or more slots dedicated to each user.
 It can be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals but mainly used to
multiplex digital signals.

 There are two types of TDM:

1. Synchronous TDM
2. Asynchronous TDM
1. Synchronous TDM
 A Synchronous TDM is a technique in which time slot is pre assigned to every device.
 In Synchronous TDM, each device is given some time slot irrespective of the fact that
the device contains the data or not.
 If the device does not have any data, then the slot will remain empty.
 In Synchronous TDM, signals are sent in the form of frames. Time slots are organized
in the form of frames. If a device does not have data for a particular time slot, then
the empty slot will be transmitted.
 The most popular Synchronous TDM are T-1 multiplexing, ISDN multiplexing, and
SONET multiplexing.
 If there are n devices, then there are n slots.

2. Asynchronous TDM
 An asynchronous TDM is also known as Statistical TDM.
 An asynchronous TDM is a technique in which time slots are not fixed as in the case
of Synchronous TDM. Time slots are allocated to only those devices which have the
data to send. Therefore, we can say that Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor
transmits only the data from active workstations.
 An asynchronous TDM technique dynamically allocates the time slots to the devices.
 In Asynchronous TDM, total speed of the input lines can be greater than the capacity
of the channel.
 Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor accepts the incoming data streams and
creates a frame that contains only data with no empty slots.
 In Asynchronous TDM, each slot contains an address part that identifies the source
of the data.
 3. Code Division Multiplexing
 Code division multiplexing (CDM) is a multiplexing technique that uses spread
spectrum communication.
 In spread spectrum communications, a narrowband signal is spread over a larger
band of frequency or across multiple channels via division.
 It does not constrict bandwidth’s digital signals or frequencies. It is less susceptible
to interference, thus providing better data communication capability and a more
secure private line.

Code Division Multiple Access

 When CDM is used to allow multiple signals from multiple users to share a common
communication channel, the technology is called Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA).
 Each group of users is given a shared code and individual conversations are encoded
in a digital sequence.
 Data is available on the shared channel, but only those users associated with a
particular code can access the data.