UNIT-1

Syllabus
• Introduction to Networks,
• Data and signals-analog and digital,
• periodic analog signals, digital signals,
• bit rate, baud rate, bandwidth.
• Transmission impairments- attenuation, distortion and noise.
• Data communication protocols and standards,
• Network models - OSI model-layers and their functions.
• TCP/IP protocol suite.
Computer Networks?
• A computer network is a group of interconnected nodes or computing
devices that exchange data and resources with each other.

• Connection between these devices can be established using cable or

wireless media.

• Once a connection is established, communication protocols -- such

as TCP/IP, Simple Mail Transfer Protocol(SMTP) and Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP)-- are used to exchange data between the networked
devices.
Example of Computer Networks

• The first example of a computer network was the Advanced Research

Projects Agency Network. This network was created in the late 1960s
by ARPA, a U.S. Department of Defense agency.

• A computer network can be as small as two laptops connected through

an Ethernet cable or as complex as the internet, which is a global
system of computer networks.
Internet?

• The Internet is a global network of billions of computers and other

electronic devices.

• With the Internet, it's possible to access almost any information,

communicate with anyone else in the world, and do much more.
Why we need computer networks?
• The simple and basic answer for this question is Data
communication.

• Data communication -is a process or an act in which we can send

or receive data.
Data and Signals

Generally, the data (audio, video, text, images)that we are using are
not in a form that can be transmitted over a network.
To be transmitted, data must be transformed to electromagnetic
signals.
Data can be either analog or digital in form

Data

Analog Digital
Analog Data

• The term analog data refers to information that is continuous

• For example, an analog clock that has hour, minute, and second hands
gives information in a continuous form; the movements of the hands
are continuous.

• Analog data are continuous and take continuous values.

Digital Data

• Digital data refers to information that has discrete states and take
discrete values..

• For example, data are stored in computer memory in the form of 0s

and 1s

• Digital Clock- a digital clock that reports the hours and the minutes
will change suddenly from 8:05 to 8:06
Signals can be either analog or digital in form

Signals

Analog Digital
Periodic Signal and Non-Periodic Signal

• A periodic signal completes a pattern within a measurable time frame,

called a period, and repeats that pattern over subsequent identical periods.

• The completion of one full pattern is called a cycle.

• A nonperiodic signal changes without exhibiting a pattern or cycle that

repeats over time.

Note- In data communications, we commonly use periodic analog signals and nonperiodic
digital signals
Bit Rate
• The number of bits per second that can be transmitted along a digital
network.

• Bitrate, as the name implies, describes the rate at which bits are
transferred from one location to another.

• It measures how much data is transmitted in a given amount of time.

• Bitrate is commonly measured in bits per second (bps), kilobits per second
(Kbps), or megabits per second (Mbps).
Baud Rate

• The number of times a signal can change on a transmission line per

second is referred to as the baud rate.

• For example, the 500 baud rate indicates that the channel state can
change up to 500 times per second.

• The term "changing state" refers to a channel's ability to change state

from 0 to 1 or 1 to 0 up to 500 times per second (in the given case).
Relation between bit rate and baud rate
• Bit rate = Baud rate x number of bits per signal unit

• Baud rate= Bit rate / the number of bits per signal unit.
Difference between bit rate and baud rate
Bandwidth

• The amount of information that may be sent and received via a

computer network at a specific time is referred to as bandwidth.

• Higher bandwidth enables more data transmission in a given amount

of time.

• In contrast, a smaller bandwidth limits the quantity of data that can be

transferred
• As we know through signal we are
transmitting data, so bandwidth of a
signal is defined as the difference
between the highest and the lowest
frequency of a particular type of
electromagnetic wave signal.
Network Bandwidth v/s Throughput

• Network Bandwidth -It is the maximum data transfer rate a network

can support. It is generally in bits per second or megabits per second.

• Throughput- It is the actual data transfer rate or the amount of data

transmitted through the network in a given period of time. It is
generally in megabits per second.
TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT

• Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect.

• The imperfection causes signal impairment.

• This means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not the

same as the signal at the end of the medium.

• What is sent is not what is received

Three causes of impairment

Impairment
causes

Attenuation Distortion Noise

Attenuation
• Attenuation means a loss of energy.

• When a signal, simple or composite, travels through a medium, it loses

some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of the medium.

• That is why a wire carrying electric signals gets warm, Some of the
electrical energy in the signal is converted to heat.

• To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the signal.
• Attenuation is measured in decibels(dB).
• It measures the relative strengths of two signals or one signal at two
different point.
• The decibel is negative if a signal is attenuated and positive if a signal
is amplified

• PI and P2 are the powers of a signal at points 1 and 2, respectively

Example-1
Example-2
Distortion

• Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape.

• Distortion can occur in a composite signal made of different frequencies

• Each frequency component has its own propagation speed travelling through a
medium.

• Every component arrive at different time which leads to distortion.

• Therefore, Signal components at the receiver have phases different from what they
had at the sender. The shape of the composite signal is therefore not the same
Noise
• The random or unwanted signal that mixes up with the original signal
is called noise
• Thermal noise is the random motion of electrons in a wire which

creates an extra signal not originally sent by the transmitter

• Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances.

• Crosstalk is the effect of one wire on the other

• Impulse noise is a spike (a signal with high energy in a very short

time) that comes from power lines, lightning, and so on

PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS

• For communication to occur, the entities in a computer network must

agree on a protocol.

• A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications.

• A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated,

and when it is communicated.

• The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.

Syntax.

• The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning
the order in which they are presented.

• For example, a simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits of data to
be the address of the sender, the second 8 bits to be the address of the
receiver, and the rest of the stream to be the message itself.
Semantics

• The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How
is a particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken
based on that interpretation?
Timing

• The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent
and how fast they can be sent.

• For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the receiver
can process data at only 1 Mbps, the transmission will overload the
receiver and some data will be lost
Standards

• Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors, government

agencies, and other service providers to ensure the kind of
interconnectivity necessary in today's marketplace and in international
communications.

• Data communication standards fall into two categories: de facto (meaning

"by fact" or "by convention") and de jure (meaning "by law" or "by
regulation")
De facto & De jure

• Standards that have not been approved by an organized body but have been
adopted as standards through widespread use are de facto standards.

• De facto standards are often established originally by manufacturers who seek

to define the functionality of a new product or technology. Example –
QWERTY Keyboard

• Those standards that have been legislated by an officially recognized body are
de jure standards. Example-TCP/IP
• Standards are developed through the cooperation of standards creation
committees, forums, and government regulatory agencies.

• Standards Creation Committees

International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication Standards Sector

(ITU-T)
American National Standards Institute (ANSI).

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). ETC

Internet Standards

• An Internet standard is a thoroughly tested specification that is useful

to and adhered to by those who work with the Internet.

• It is a formalized regulation that must be followed.

• There is a strict procedure by which a specification attains Internet

standard status.
Network models

• Computer networks are created by different entities.

• Standards are needed so that these heterogeneous networks can

communicate with one another.

• The two best-known standards are the OSI model and the Internet
model.
THE OSI MODEL
• OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection.

• It was the first standard model for network communications, adopted by all major
computer and telecommunication companies.

• Model was developed by ISO – ‘International Organization for

Standardization‘, in the year 1984.

• OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network
function.

• layered framework
What is the purpose of the OSI model?
• The purpose of the OSI model is to show how
to facilitate communication between different
systems without requiring changes to the
logic of the underlying hardware and
software.

• The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model

for understanding and designing a network
architecture that is flexible, robust, and
interoperable.
Layered Architecture
Interfaces & Peer-to-Peer processes
• Interfaces -Within a single machine, each layer calls upon the services of the layer
just below it. Layer 3, for example, uses the services provided by layer 2 and provides
services for layer 4.

• The passing of the data and network information down through the layers of the
sending device and back up through the layers of the receiving device is made possible
by an interface between each pair of adjacent layers.

• Peer-to-Peer processes -Between machines, layer x on one machine communicates

with layer x on another machine.
Organization of the Layers

• Layers 1, 2, and 3 physical, data link, and network-are the network

support layers; - deal with the physical aspects of moving data from
one device to another

• Layers 5, 6, and 7-session, presentation, and application can be

thought of as the user support layers- interoperability among
unrelated software systems

• Layer 4, the transport layer, links the two subgroups

Application Layer

7th layer in the model.

 This layer directly interacts with the user.

 At the sender side –Inputting data

At the receiver side- Outputting data

Deals with all network-related applications

like Gmail, skype, Web browsers, etc.
 Application Layer

The application layer is responsible for providing network services to

the user
A few examples of application layer protocols are the Hypertext
Transfer Protocol (HTTP) for web browsing, File Transfer Protocol
(FTP) for file transfer, Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) for
sensing mail etc
Presentation Layer
6th layer in the model.

 This layer directly interacts with the

application layer.-Input from the application
layer like numbers and strings in ASCII
format is directly accepted by the
presentation layer.
The three main functions of the presentation
layer are - translation, compression, and
encryption.
 Presentation Layer
Translation-ASCII data(numbers, characters, strings) that is received from the

application layer is converted into machine-understandable form- that is Binary

form(0’s and 1’s) at the sender side whereas on the receiver side vice versa.

Encryption(sender side) means that the sender transforms the original

information into another form and sends the resulting message out over the
network. whereas on the receiver side Decryption (receiver side)reverses the
original process to transform the message back to its original form.

 Compression reduces the number of bits in the information for fast transmission.
Session Layer
• 5th Layer-Receives input from the
Presentation layer.

• The session layer creates

communication channels, called
sessions, between devices.

• Main Functions
Session Management

Authorization

Authentication
• Synchronization. The session layer allows a process to add
checkpoints, or synchronization points, to a stream of data,

• For example, if a system is sending a file of 2000 pages, it is advisable

to insert checkpoints after every 100 pages to ensure that each 100-
page unit is received and acknowledged independently.

• In this case, if a crash happens during the transmission of page 523,

the only pages that need to be resent after system recovery are pages
501 to 523. Pages previous to 501 need not be resent.
Transport Layer
• 4th Layer-Receives data from the session layer

• Process to process delivery of message/ data.

(Gmail app of sender and Gmail app of
receiver)

• Functions
• Service-point addressing,

• Segmentation and reassembly,

• Flow control, Error control

• Segmentation reassembly- A message is divided into transmittable segments, with each
segment containing a sequence number.

• Reassembly These numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the message
correctly upon arriving at the destination and to identify and replace packets that were
lost in transmission.

• Service-point addressing- Data transfer from a specific process (running program) on

one computer to a specific process (running program) on the other.

• The transport layer header must therefore include a type of address called a service-point
address (or port address).

• The transport layer gets the entire message to the correct process on that computer
• Connection control. The transport layer can be either connectionless or
connection-oriented.

• A connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an independent

packet and delivers it to the transport layer at the destination machine. The
protocol supported is UDP (User Datagram Protocol)- Eg: Live Streaming

• A connection-oriented transport layer makes a connection with the

transport layer at the destination machine first before delivering the
packets. The protocol supported is TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)-
Eg: Sending important mail.
• Error control -The sending transport layer makes sure that the entire
message arrives at the receiving transport layer without error (damage,
loss, or duplication).

• Error correction is usually achieved through retransmission.

Network Layer
• 3rd Layer-In the network layer data is
called Packets.

• Responsible for the delivery of packets

from the source to the destination,
provided if source and destination are
part of 2 different networks.

• If two systems are connected to the same

network, there is usually no need for a
network layer.
• Logical addressing: If a packet passes from one
network to another boundary, we need another
addressing system to help distinguish the source and
destination systems. The network layer adds a header
to the packet and includes the logical addresses/IP
addresses of the sender and receiver.

• Routing: When independent networks are connected

to create a large network, the connecting devices
(called routers or switches) route or switch the
packets to their final destination. One of the
functions of the network layer is to provide this
mechanism.
Data Link Layer
• 2nd Layer-In the data link layer our data is

called Frames

• Responsible for moving frames from one node

to the next in the same network.

• Physical addressing -The data link layer adds

a header to the frame to define the sender

and/or receiver of the frame. (MAC Address)

• Flow control
• Framing: The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from
the network layer into manageable data units called frames.

• Error control. The data link layer adds reliability by detecting and
retransmitting damaged or lost frames. It also uses a mechanism to
recognize duplicate frames. Error control is normally achieved through
a trailer added to the end of the frame.

• Access control. When two or more devices are connected to the same
network, data link layer protocols are necessary to determine which
device has control over the network at any given time.
 Physical Layer
• 1st Layer-responsible for movements of bits
from one node to another.

• Representation of bits-data consists of a

sequence of 0s or 1s with no
interpretation. To be transmitted, bits
must be encoded into signals--electrical
or optical. The physical layer defines the
type of encoding (how 0s and Is are
changed to signals).
• Data rate. The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each second is also
defined by the physical layer.

• Synchronization of bits. The sender and receiver not only must use the
same bit rate but also must be synchronized at the bit level.

• Line configuration. The physical layer is concerned with the connection of

devices to the media. In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are
connected through a dedicated link. In a multipoint configuration, a link is
shared among several devices.
• Physical topology. The physical topology defines how devices are
connected to make a network. It can be,

• Mesh- (every device is connected to every other device), Star

topology (devices are connected through a central device), Ring
topology (each device is connected to the next, forming a ring), Bus
topology (every device is on a common link), etc.

• Transmission mode. The physical layer also defines the direction of

transmission between two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-
duplex.
TCP/IP PROTOCOL

• Stands for Transmission Control

Protocol/Internet Protocol.

• fundamental framework for computer

networking.

• concise version of the OSI model

• made of 5 layers: physical, data link,

network, transport, and application.
• The OSI model was a theoretical/reference model, which defines the
functions of each layer whereas TCP/IP is a protocol where we discuss
the protocols that are applicable in each layer.
Physical and Data Link Layers

Physical and Data Link Layers

• At the physical and data link layers,

TCP/IP does not define any specific
protocol.

• It supports all the standard and

proprietary protocols.

• Like the physical layer, the application

layer also has many protocols acting on
it
Network Layer

• At this layer main protocol

that is working is IP and 4

supporting protocols are –

ICMP,IGMP,RARP,ARP
Internetworking Protocol (IP)
• IP is the transmission mechanism used by the TCP/IP protocols.

• unreliable, connectionless protocol-a best-effort delivery service.

• best effort means that IP provides no error checking or tracking.

• IP assumes the unreliability of the underlying layers and does its best to get a
transmission through to its destination, but with no guarantees.

• IP transports data in packets called datagrams

• Datagrams can travel along different routes and can arrive out of sequence or be
duplicated.
• ARP-Address Resolution Protocol -used to associate a logical address with
a physical address. ARP is used to find the physical address(MAC address of
the node when its Internet address(IP address) is known.

• RARP-Reverse Address Resolution Protocol -allows a host to discover its

Internet address when it knows only its physical address.

• ICMP-Internet Control Message Protocol mechanism used by hosts and

gateways to send notifications of datagram problems back to the sender.
ICMP sends query and error reporting messages.

• IGMP -Internet Group Message Protocol -used to facilitate the

simultaneous transmission of a message to a group of recipients.
Transport Layer
• This layer was represented in TCP/IP by 2

protocols: TCP and UDP.

• These protocols are responsible for the

delivery of a message from one running

program to another.

• Another protocol is SCTP, introduced to meet

the needs of some newer applications such as

voice over internet