General Chemistry II

Chapter 13 Lecture Notes

Chemical Kinetics

Chemical Kinetics is concerned with reaction rates.

Typical reaction rate units are M/s, the change in concentration of a species per unit time.
There is a huge variation in possible reaction rates.
Increasing reaction rates is the goal of many industrial (and biological) processes.

In a simple reaction, A → B, the number of A molecules or [A] decreases with time and the number of B
molecules or [B] increases with time.
The reaction rate can be expressed in several useful forms,

Rate = - ∆[A]/∆t or rate = ∆[B]/∆t

(Since is it desirable for rate values to be positive, the [A] equation has a negative sign.

Species may be monitored by pressure, pH, spectroscopically or otherwise.

The Oxidation of Formic Acid by Molecular Bromine.

Br2(aq) + HCOOH(aq) → 2Br-1(aq) + 2H+1(aq) + CO2(g)

The reaction may be followed by tracking the loss of bromine color spectroscopically using Beer’s Law.

The average rate of the reaction can be calculated by measuring the bromine concentration and the time at
two different stages of the reaction. The average rate will typically vary with the time interval and the
stage of the reaction chosen. Since the reaction rate will decrease as the reactants are used up, a plot of
the reaction rate vs. time will be a curve. The average rate of the reaction is not necessarily equal to the
instantaneous rate of the reaction at any given time.

A sketch of Br2(M) vs. time will show steadily decreasing rate.

Rate = ∆[Br2]/∆t

Since [Br2] is in mol/L and t is in seconds, the rate is expressed with units M/s.

The instantaneous rate at a given point of the reaction is more meaningful, since it is constant for a given
reaction at a specified temperature and specified reactant concentrations.

To separate the factors influencing the rate of a reaction, one reactant concentration can be held constant
by making it so high that it changes little during the reaction.
For the reaction between bromine and formaldehyde, keeping formaldehyde concentration constant, the
rate of disappearance of bromine is proportional to [Br2].

Therefore, rate ∝ [Br2] or rate = k[Br2] or k = rate/[Br2]

k, called the rate constant, therefore equals the reaction rate divided by the bromine concentration at
constant temperature and formaldehyde concentration.
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A sketch of reaction rate (M/s) vs. bromine concentration (M) will be linear. The slope of the line, the
rate constant, expressed in s-1 therefore remains the same.

The experiment tells nothing about the reaction rate dependence on [HCOOH] or on temperature.

Decomposition of Hydrogen Peroxide

Since one product of the reaction is a gas, the reaction rate can be tracked by measuring the pressure
exerted by the evolved oxygen (at constant system volume).
2H2O2(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g)

If an expression involving the molar concentration of oxygen is desired, it can be derived from the
measurable gas parameters, P, V, and T. the simplest experimental setup is to keep V and T constant and
measure changing P.

From PV = nRT, the molar concentration M(mol/L) is equal to n/V = P/RT. A change in the
concentration of oxygen ∆M = ∆P/RT. To measure ∆M = ∆[O2] with respect to time,

∆[O2] /dt = ∆M/dt = d(∆P)dt • 1/RT

Keep the temperature and volume constant and track the increase in oxygen pressure in a closed system.
This can be converted to change in O2 concentration.

Reaction Rates and Stoichiometry

How to express reaction rates when the stoichiometry of reactants is not one-to-one? For example:

2A → B

In this reaction, the rate of disappearance of A is twice the rate of appearance of B.

If rate is written as
rate = ∆[B]/∆t,

Then the rate of disappearance of A must be written as rate = - ½∆[A]/∆t

Note that the coefficient 2 appears in the denominator of the fraction. For 3A, the rate coefficient would
have been ⅓, etc.

The Rate Law

For the general expression of a chemical reaction, aA + bB → cC + dD, the rate law is expressed as
the rate law constant, k, times the reactant concentrations raised to the power of the order of each
reactant.
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Rate = k [A]x [B]y

It is tempting to assign x = a, y = b, etc. for the reactant orders, but this is generally not possible.
Reaction order often does not correlate to reactant coefficient. Rate measurements are needed to
determine the values of x and y. The reactions is described as being first, second, etc. order in A and first,
second etc. order in B. The allover reaction order is the sum of x + y + ⋅⋅⋅. Reactant orders are typically
0, 1, 2, 3, or sometimes 0.5.

A zero order reactant means that the rate of the reaction is not influenced by the concentration of that
particular reactant.

Example: An experimental determination of the order of the reaction between fluorine and chlorine
dioxide gas was done by measuring the initial reaction rate for different starting concentrations of
fluorine and chlorine dioxide.

F2(g) + 2ClO2 (g) → 2FClO2(g)

The concentration of one gaseous reactant is held constant while the other is varied to fine the rate order
of each reactant. Experimentally it was found that, while keeping [F2] constant and varying [ClO2]
(doubling, tripling, etc. the concentration), the reaction rate increased exactly in proportion to the change
in [ClO2]. This means that the reaction is first order in [ClO2], or that the reaction rte equals some
constant times [ClO2]. Similarly, when [ClO2] is kept constant and [F2] is varied, the reaction rte changes
in the same ratio. The reaction is also first order in [F2]. The overall reaction is second order, first order
in each of the two reactants. The rate of this reaction is given by

rate = k[ClO2] [F2]

The units of rate are typically concentration/time, or in most cases, M/s.

For carrying out calculations, it is useful to know the value of k, which is invariant when temperature is
constant.

k = rate/([ClO2] [F2])

In the case of a second order reaction, the units of k are M/s divided by M2 = M-1 · s-1. In a first order
reaction, k has units M/s ÷ M = s-1. Higher order reactions give more complicated k values.

Relation Between Reactant Concentration and Time

The mathematical relationships between reactant concentrations and time make possible the prediction of
reaction times, per cent completion, half-lives, etc. The algebraic equations are different for first and for
second order reactions.

First-Order Reactions
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The rate of a first-reaction depends only on the concentration of one reactant, A.

A → products

By definition, rate = - ∆ [A]/∆t and rate = k[A]

Therefore, - ∆[A]/∆t = k[A]

d[A]/dt = -kt (Instantaneous rate of change described by calculus.)

ln([A]/[Ao]) = - kt (Calculus solution to the equation by integration)

ln[A] - ln[Ao] = - kt or

ln[A] = - kt + ln[Ao]

This is a useful equation for graphing since it is in the form y = mx + b

Example: For a reaction with k = 5.50 x 10-3 s-1 at 45.0 ºC, what will be the concentration of A
remaining after 12.0 min if the initial concentration of A is 0.200 M?
ln[A] = - kt + ln[Ao] = - 5.50 x 10-3 s-1 (12.0 min x 60 s/1 min) + ln (0.200)
ln[A] = - 3.96 + - 1.61 = - 5.57
[A] = 3.81 x 10-3 M.

The half-life of a reaction is a useful parameter. The half-life of a first-order reaction is characteristic of
the reaction and is independent of the starting concentration of A.

t = (1/k) ⋅ ln [Ao]/[A]

t½ = 1/k ⋅ ln (1/0.5) = (1/k) ⋅ ln 2 = (1/k) ⋅ 0.693 = 0.693/k

t½ = 0.693/k or k = 0.693 t½

Second-Order Reactions

Second order reactions in A can be easily described mathematically. Second order in [A] and [B] and
third order reactions will not be covered here.

For second order reactions in A:

A → products

rate = - ∆ [A]/∆t, but now rate = k[A]2

The graphable equation becomes:

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1/[A] = 1/[Ao] + kt

again, y = mx + b

The half-life equation can be obtained by substituting ½[Ao] = [A]

The half-life, t½ then becomes, t½ = (k[Ao])-1

This makes sense because a large rate constant leads to a faster reaction and short half-life. In second
order reactions, half-life does depend on the initial [A] because a higher [Ao] means more frequent
collisions between A molecules.

Activation Energy and Temperature Dependence of Rate Constants

The Collision Theory of Chemical Kinetics

Common sense dictates that a reaction between two particles can occur only if they collide (usually in a
gas or liquid). Therefore expect that a reaction rate is proportional to the rate of collision or the number
of collisions per second.
The percentage of successful collisions in chemical systems varies greatly.
In some systems, almost every collision results in chemical change. (Instantaneous rxn)
In other systems, collisions rarely produce chemical change. (A slow rxn)
Therefore, the reaction rate is not the same as the collision rate but is often directly proportional to it.

Chemical reactions occur when the energy of collision is enough to break reactant bands and form product
bonds. If there is not enough kinetic energy in colliding species, reactant bonds will not break and new,
product bonds will not form.

It stands to reason that higher temperatures (which increase the frequency of collisions and increase the
energy of collisions) will increase all or most reaction rates.

The kinetic energy of the colliding particles must equal or exceed a certain minimum value in order for a
reaction to proceed. This minimum energy is called the Activation Energy, Ea. If a collision has
enough energy to break some reactant bonds, an Activated Complex may form. This is an intermediate
state, higher in energy than the reactants that may lead to products or may lead back to the original
reactants. The products that form may be lower in energy than the reactants (exergonic or exothermic
reaction) or may be higher in energy than the reactants (exergonic or exothermic reaction).

Two Sketches of Activated Complex Curves:

The Arrhenius Equation

The Arrhenius Equation relates the rate constant k to the activation energy, R the gas law constant and T
the absolute temperature.

k = A times e raised to the power –Eact/RT

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A is not the reactant species A, but a dimensionless constant called the collision frequency or frequency
factor. Eact, the reaction activation energy is given in J/mol or kJ/mol, R is equivalent to the gas law
constant but is expressed as 8.314 J · (mol · K)-1, and T is in kelvins. (Remember that 1/T will be in K-1.)

To adapt the equation to graphing, take the natural log of both sides. The equation becomes

ln k = ln A - Eact/RT or ln k = (- Eact/R) (1/T) + ln A,

again corresponding to y = mx + b.

This form of the equation shows that ln k varies as minus T-1.

Does this make sense?

For using the Arrhenius Equation algebraically to compare rate constant value at different temperatures,
write two equations for different temperatures and therefore different k values.

ln k1 = ln A - Eact/RT1 and ln k2 = ln A - Eact/RT2

ln k1 - ln k2 = - Eact/RT1 + Eact/RT2

ln (k1/k2) = Eact/R(1/T2 - 1/T2) useful for solving for T1 or T2, and

ln (k1/k2) = Eact/R(T1 - T2)(T1 · T2) useful when both Ts are known.

Example: The rate constant for a first-order reaction is 4.50 x 10-4 s-1 at 25.0 ºC. What is its rate constant
at 50.0 º C if the activation energy is 35.6 kJ/mol? Note that the collision frequency A, being the same,
has cancelled out of the equation.

ln (k1/k2) = Eact/R(T1 - T2)(T1 · T2) T1 = 298.2 K, T2 = 323.2 K

ln k1 = Eact/R(T1 - T2)(T1 · T2) + ln k2

ln (k2) = ln k1 - Eact/R(T1 - T2)(T1 · T2)

= -7.71 - 35.6 kJ/mol/(8.314 J · mol · K)-1 · 1000 J/kJ · (-2.589 x 10-4 K-1)
= -7.71 + 1.11 = - 6.60
k = 1.36 10-3 s-1

The Arrhenius equation can also be used to solve algebraically for Eact, for either k or for either T.

Reaction Mechanisms

Observing the allover course of a reaction and measuring its rate usually tells little about the reaction
mechanism. A reaction mechanism is a series of elementary reactions or elementary steps that lead from
reactants to products. To be reasonable, the sum of the elementary steps must add up to the overall
reaction.
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Example: the reaction of nitrogen oxide (NO) and oxygen gas does not proceed in one step as shown by
the overall equation

2NO(g) + O2(g) → 2NO2(g)

First, three-body (termolecular) collisions are extremely unlikely and rare. Second, N2O2 (an
intermediate) is detected during the reaction.

The two postulated (and plausible) elementary steps are :

2NO(g) → N2O2(g)
N2O2(g) + O2(g) → 2NO2(g)

The add up to the overall observed reaction:

2NO(g) + O2(g) → 2NO2(g)

The intermediate N2O2 is not present in the final product.

Both elementary steps above are bimolecular; they involve the collision of two molecules. Bimolecular
and unimolecular reactions (when a single molecule breaks into two or more particles) are by far the most
common examples of molecularity.

Rate Laws and Elementary Steps

Knowing or postulating the elementary steps can lead to an expression of the rate law of a reaction. For
the simple unimolecular reaction where a reactant A changes spontaneously to products,

A → products

the elementary step predicts a unimolecular mechanism. That means that A decomposes without regard to
anything else present in the system. The rate depends only on the concentration of A (obviously, the
more A is present, the faster the reaction proceeds).

Rate = k[A]

For a bimolecular elementary reaction involving two different molecules, A and B:

A + B → products and rate = k[A][B]

If a reaction proceeds by the collision of two A molecules,

2A → products

then, Rate = k[A][A] or Rate = k[A]2

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When a chemical reaction proceeds by more than one elementary step and the different elementary
steps have different rate laws, the rate law for the overall process is the one for the slowest reaction (the
bottleneck), called the rate-determining step.

Hydrogen Peroxide Decomposition

The uncatalyzed decomposition of hydrogen peroxide is very slow, especially in the dark. Drugstore 3%
hydrogen peroxide lasts for years in brown bottles. Many substances, including the ubiquitous enzyme
catalase in the body, hasten (catalyze) the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen. Iodide
ion effectively promotes the reaction. What is the rate law of the allover reaction

H2O2(aq) → H2O2(l) + O2(g)

Experimentally the rate is found to be proportional both to hydrogen peroxide and iodide concentration
and first order with respect to both.

Rate = k[H2O2][I-1]

The experimental observations can be explained by the following two elementary steps:

k1 H2O2 + I-1 → H2O + IO-1

k2 H2O2 + IO-1 → H2O + O2(g) + I-1

The observed rate law, Rate = k[H2O2][I-1], can be explained if the first elementary step is the rate-
determining step. Since all the iodide ion is recovered at the end of the reaction, it fits the definition of a
catalyst, a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without itself being consumed in the process.

The Hydrogen Iodide Reaction

H2(g) + I2(g)→ 2HI(g)

A logical assumption would be that the rate law is first order with respect to both hydrogen gas and iodine
vapor. In fact, just that rate law was found experimentally. It was assumed the only elementary step was
the simple collision of a H2 molecule with an I2 molecule.

Rate = k[H2][I2]

The reaction, however, does not take place so simply. First of all, the reaction rate is greatly increases by
UV radiation in the reaction vessel. The first elementary step is the UV-induced fast dissociation of I2
into two highly reactive I atoms. Then the rate-determining step is the rare termolecular collision of two
I atoms with one H2 molecule to produce two HI molecules. Why does this reaction appear to be second
order, first order in both H2 and I2?

Experimental Support for Reaction Mechanisms

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Oxygen-18 labeling of hydrolyzing water to show that the carbonyl C-O single bond breaks and the
oxygen atom adjacent to the ester carbonyl group ends up in the parent alcohol, not the carboxylic acid.

Using O-18 labeled water and carbon dioxide, it can be shown that the evolved O2 is derived exclusively
from water and not form CO2. The CO2 oxygen atoms are all incorporated into the glucose.

Catalysis

A catalyst is a substance that increases a reaction rate without itself being consumed in the reaction. In
principle, all of a catalyst can be recovered unchanged at the end of a reaction.

In writing a chemical equation, the catalyst is not shown as a reactant or a product, but is written above
the arrow.

Example: The decomposition of potassium chlorate when heated is thousands of times more rapid when
the catalyst manganese dioxide is present.
MnO2
2KClO3(s) → 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)

Example: The burning of glucose to produce carbon dioxide and water takes place at a much lower
temperature in the body in the presence of biological catalysts called enzymes. The energy released
during air combustion is exactly the same but the reaction takes place at a flame temperature.

C6H12O6(s) + 6O2(g) → 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)

The energy released or absorbed by a chemical reaction is exactly the same whether a catalyst is present
or not.

A catalyst serves to lower the Activation Energy of a reaction, allowing the bonds to break and reform
with much less input of energy.

Three main types of catalysis are Heterogeneous Catalysis, Homogeneous Catalysis and enzyme
Catalysis.

HETEROGENEOUS CATALYSIS

Heterogeneous two-phase) Catalysis is widely used in industrial manufacture of chemicals. The catalyst
is usually in the solid phase and the reactants are either gaseous or liquid. The gas or liquid molecules
bond temporarily to the atoms at the surface of the catalyst, which allows their internal bonds to break
more rapidly or at a lower temperature.

Catalytic Converter
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In the automobile catalytic converter a Cu or Cr oxide surface catalyzes the rapid decomposition of
toxic and smog-producing nitrogen oxides in the exhaust to harmless nitrogen and oxygen gas.

NOx(g) → N2(g) + O2(g)

If the nitrogen oxides were allowed to escape to the urban air, they would persist for days, causing
environmental and health effects.

A precious metal catalyst (Pt, Rh, Pd, etc.) converts CO and O2 in the exhaust stream to CO2. In the
atmosphere, CO would be slowly oxidized to CO2 anyway but its presence in city air is associated with
heart disease and other problems.

The Haber Synthesis of Ammonia

Probably the most important industrial process converts nitrogen gas and hydrogen to ammonia for use in
fertilizer. The reaction is exothermic (energetically favorable) but it is very slow.

H2 (g) + N2(g) → NH3(g)

H2 molecules adhere readily to the surface of an iron metal catalyst and dissociate readily into H atoms
which allows them to react with nitrogen gas. The reaction proceeds much more rapidly at 500 ºC than it
would without the catalyst and makes the reaction an economically process.

Homogeneous Catalysis

Homogeneous implies that the reaction takes place in solution, with the soluble catalyst also in solution.

The classic example is the catalysis of ester hydrolysis by hydrogen ion.

CH3COC2H5 + H2O → CH3COOH + C2H5OH

Without H+1 the process is very slow and the rate depends only on ester concentration.

Rate = k [CH3COC2H5]

With H+1, it is much more rapid and the catalyzed reaction is second order, that is first order with respect
to both ester and hydrogen ion concentration.

Rate = kc [CH3COC2H5] [H+1]

By the definition of catalysis, kc > k

Enzyme Catalysis
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Enzymes are biological catalysts, always or almost always protein in nature that speed up many
biological reactions. Enzymes have an active site, where the substrate attaches in order for its bonds to be
weakened. Life as we know it would not exist without enzymes to speed up otherwise sluggish reactions.
Enzymes are very substrate specific, since their active sites will only accept a substrate of the right size,
shape and charge distribution.

Low temperatures slow down enzyme-catalyzed reactions because collision rates are lowered. High
temperatures also slow sown enzyme-catalyzed reaction rates because high temperatures denature
(damage) proteins.