BBM 352: RESEARCH METHODS

TOPIC 1
DEFINITION OF RESEARCH
Different authors have defined research as follows:
Research is carrying out a diligent inquiry or a critical examination of a given phenomenon
(Mugenda & Mugenda). This implies exhaustive study, investigation or experimentation by
following some logical sequence. Research involves a critical analysis of existing conclusions or
theories with regard to newly discovered facts i.e. it’s a continued search for new knowledge and
understanding of the world around us. Mouly defines research as a process of arriving at
effective solutions to problems through systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data.

In conclusion Research is an ORGANIZED and SYSTEMATIC way of FINDING

ANSWERS to QUESTIONS. SYSTEMATIC because there is a definite set of procedures and
steps which you will follow. There are certain things in the research process which are always
done in order to get the most accurate results. ORGANIZED in that there is a structure or
method in going about doing research. It is a planned procedure, not a spontaneous one. It is
focused and limited to a specific scope.

FINDING ANSWERS is the end of all research. Whether it is the answer to a hypothesis or
even a simple question, research is successful when we find answers. Sometimes the answer is
no, but it is still an answer. QUESTIONS are central to research. If there is no question, then the
answer is of no use. Research is focused on relevant, useful, and important questions. Without a
question, research has no focus, drive, or purpose.

The branch of philosophy that deals with this subject is called EPISTEMOLOGY

Epistemologists generally recognize at least four different sources of knowledge:

1.Intuitive Knowledge takes forms such as belief, faith, intuition, etc. It is based on feelings
rather than hard, cold "facts."

2.Authoritative Knowledge is based on information received from people, books, a supreme

being, etc. Its strength depends on the strength of these sources.

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3.Logical Knowledge is arrived at by reasoning from "point A" (which is generally accepted) to
"point B" (the new knowledge).

4.Empirical Knowledge is based on demonstrable, objective facts (which are determined

through observation and/or experimentation).

Research often makes use of all four of these ways of knowing:

INTUITIVE (when coming up with an initial idea for research)

AUTHORITATIVE (when reviewing the professional literature)

LOGICAL (when reasoning from findings to conclusions)

EMPIRICAL (when engaging in procedures that lead to these findings)

 PURPOSE OF RESEARCH
There are 6 purposes of research as stated below:
1) The main purpose of research is to discover new knowledge- this involves the finding of
new facts, their correct interpretation and practical application.
2) The second purpose of research is to describe a phenomenon-accurate identification of
any event involves thorough description, for example of size, shape, age, weight, color,
height, change over time, etc. Description then provides knowledge that is the basis for
other purposes of research stated below.
3) The third purpose of research is to enable prediction. Prediction is the ability to estimate
phenomenon A given phenomenon B.
4) The fourth purpose of research is to enable control. In scientific research control is
concerned with the ability to regulate the phenomenon under study. Many scientific
experiments are designed to achieve this objective.one phenomenon is manipulated in
order to exert control over another. It should be recognized that the control and predictive
functions of science are closely related.in predictive inquiry, the researcher is interested
in studying naturally occurring associations between phenomena. In control, however the
researcher manipulates one phenomenon to estimate the impact on another phenomenon.
This is experimental research and leads to more powerful statements about association
compared to predictive inquiry.
5) The fifth purpose of research is to enable explanation of phenomena. Explanation
involves accurate observation and measurement of a given phenomenon.in order to
explain a phenomenon one should be able to describe it, predict its occurrence and
observe factors that cause its occurrence with certainty and accuracy.
6) The last purpose of research is to enable theory development. Theory development
involves formulating concepts, laws and generalizations about a given phenomenon.

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 Research is also conducted in ana attempt to confirm or validate existing theories. This is
sometimes referred to as “falsification of theory.”

 TYPES OF RESEARCH

Different authors have classified research into various categories.

BROAD CLASSIFICATION
Qualitative research
It includes designs, techniques and measures that do not produce discrete numerical data.
Qualitative data can be collected through direct observation, participant observation or interview
method. More Often the data are in form of words rather than numbers and these words are often
grouped into categories. There are three methods usually used to collect qualitative data. The
first method is direct observation where the required behaviour is observed in a particular setting.
The second method is participant observation where data are collected by an observer who is a
regular, full time participant in the activities being observed. A researcher compiles data through
long term interactions with the subjects in the context of their everyday lives. The third is the
interview method. This is face to face interaction between the researcher and the subjects.

Quantitative research
It includes designs, techniques and measures that produce discreet numerical or quantifiable data.
Random sampling is done to ensure representatives of the sample. Some of the research designs
which may be categorized as quantitative research are experimental designs, causal comparative
research and correlational research which are to be described at greater length later on this
chapter.

Advantages of using both qualitative and quantitative methods

1. Since in many cases a researcher has several objectives, some of these objectives are
better assessed using quantitative methods.
2. Both methods supplement each other i.e. qualitative methods provide the in-depth
explanations while quantitative methods provide the data needed to test hypotheses.
3. Since both methods have a bias, using both types of research help to avoid such bias in
that each method can be used to check the other.
Disadvantages of using both qualitative and quantitative methods
1. It is expensive
2. Researchers may not have sufficient training in both methods to be able to use them
effectively.
Classification by purpose
1. Basic / Pure / Fundamental Research
Basic researchers are interested in deriving scientific knowledge i.e. they are motivated by
intellectual curiosity and need to come up with a particular solution. It focuses on generating
new knowledge in order to refine or expand existing theories. It does not consider the
practical application of the findings to actual problems or situations.
2. Applied research

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 It is conducted for the purpose of applying or testing theory and evaluating its usefulness in
solving problems. It provides data to support a theory, guide theory revision or suggest the
development of a new theory.
3. Action research
It is conducted with the primary intention of solving a specific, immediate and concrete
problem in a local setting e.g. investigating ways of overcoming water shortage in a given
area. It is not concerned with whether the results can be generalized to any other setting.
4. Evaluation Research
It is the process of determining whether the intended results were realized. Types of
evaluation research
i. Needs assessment
A need is a discrepancy between an existing set of conditions and a desired set of
conditions. The results of needs assessment study provide the foundation for developing
new programmers and for making changes in existing ones.
ii. Formative evaluation
Helps to collect data about a program while it is still being developed e.g. an educational
program a marketing strategy etc.
iii. Summative evaluation
It is done after the program has been fully developed. It is conducted to evaluate how
worthwhile the final program has been especially compared to similar programs.

Classification by methods of analysis

1. Descriptive research
It is the process of collecting data in order to test hypotheses or to answer questions
concerning the current status of the subjects in the study. It determines and reports the way
things are. It attempts to describe such things as possible behaviour, attitudes, values and
characteristics.
Steps involved in descriptive research
 Formulating the objectives of a study
 Designing the methods of data collection
 Selecting the sample
 Data collection
 Analyzing the results
2. Causal-comparative research
It is used to explore relationships between variables. It determines reasons or causes for the
current status of the phenomenon under study. The variables of interest cannot be
manipulated unlike in experimental research.
Steps in causal-comparative research
 Define the research question
 Select a group that possesses the characteristics, which the researcher wants to study.
 Select a comparison group which does not display the characteristics under study but
which is similar to the group in other respects.
 Collect data on both the experimental and control groups
 Analyze the data
Advantages of causal-comparative study
 Allows a comparison of groups without having to manipulate the independent variables

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  It can be done solely to identify variables worthy of experimental investigation
 They are relatively cheap.
Disadvantages of causal-comparative study
 Interpretations are limited because the researcher does not know whether a particular
variable is a cause or result of a behavior being studied.
 There may be a third variable which could be affecting the established relationship but
which may not be established in the study.

3. Correlation Methods
It describes in quantitative terms the degree to which variables are related. It explores
relationships between variables and also tries to predict a subject’s score on one variable
given his or her score on another variable.
Steps in correlational research
 Problem statement
 Selection of subjects
 Data collection
 Data analysis
Advantages of the correlational method
 Permits one to analyze inter-relationships among a large number of variables in a single
study.
 Allows one to analyze how several variables either singly or in combination might affect a
particular phenomenon being studied.
 The method provides information concerning the degree of relationship between variables
being studied.
Disadvantages of the correlational method
 Correlation between two variables does not necessarily imply causation although
researchers often tend to interpret such a relationship to mean causation.
 Since the correlation coefficient is an index, any two variables will always show a
relationship even when commonsense dictates that such variables are not related.
 The correlation coefficient is very sensitive to the size of the sample.
Classification by type of research
1. Survey Research
A survey is an attempt to collect data from members of a population in order to determine the
current status of that population with respect to one or more variables. Survey study is therefore
a self-report study, which requires the collection of quantifiable information from the sample. It
is a descriptive research.
Steps involved in Survey research
 Problem statement
 Defining Objectives
 Selecting a Sample
 Preparing the instruments
 Data analysis
Purpose of survey research
i. It seeks to obtain information that describes existing phenomena by asking individuals
about their perceptions, attitudes, behavior or values.

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 ii. Can be used for explaining or exploring the existing status of two or more variables, at a
given point in time.
iii. It is the most appropriate to measure characteristics of large populations.
Limitations of Survey research
i. They are dependent on the cooperation of respondents.
ii. Information unknown to the respondents cannot be tapped in a survey e.g. amount saved
per year
iii. Requesting information which is considered secret and personal encourages incorrect
answers.
iv. Surveys cannot be aimed at obtaining forecasts of things to come.

2. Historical research
Involves the study of a problem that requires collecting information from the past.

Purpose of Historical Research

 Aims at arriving at conclusions concerning causes, effects or trends of past occurrences
that may help explain present events and anticipate future events.
 Attempts to interpret ideas or events that had previously seemed unrelated.
 Synthesizes old data or merges old data with new historical facts that the researcher or
other researchers have discovered.
 To interpret past events that has been studied.

Steps involved in historical research

 Identifying and delineating the problem.
 Developing hypothesis or hypotheses that one is interested in testing.
 Collecting and classifying resource materials, determining facts by internal and external
criticism.
 Organizing facts into results
 Interpreting data in terms of stated hypothesis or theory.
 Synthesizing and presenting the research in an organized form.

3. Observational Research
The current status of a phenomenon is determined not by asking but by observing. This helps
to collect objective information.

Steps
 Selection and definition of the problem.
 Sample selection.
 Definition of the observational information.
 Recording observational information
 Data analysis and interpretation.

Types of observational research

1. Non-participant observation
The observer is not directly involved in the situation to be observed.

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2. Naturalistic Observation
Behavior is studied and recorded as it normally occurs.
3. Simulation observation.
The researcher creates the situation to be observed and tells subjects to be observed what
activities they are to engage in. Disadvantage – the setting is not natural and the behavior
exhibited by the subjects may not be the behavior that would occur in a natural setting.
4. Participant observation
The observer becomes part of or a participant in the situation. May not be ethical
5. Case studies
A case study is an in-depth investigation of an individual, group, institution or phenomenon.
It aims to determine factors and relationships among the factors that have resulted in the
behavior under study.
6. Content analysis
It involves observation and detailed description of objects, items or things that comprise the
sample. The purpose is to study existing documents such as books, magazines in order to
determine factors that explain a specific phenomenon.
Steps
 Decide on the unit of analysis
 Sample the content to be analyzed
 Coding
 Data analysis
 Compiling results and interpretations.

Advantages
 Researchers are able to economize in terms of time and money.
 Errors that arise during the study are easier to detect and correct.
 The method has no effect on what is being studied.
Disadvantages
 It is limited to recorded communication.
 It is difficult to ascertain the validity of the data.

Characteristics of a Good Research

Following the standards of the scientific method
 Purpose clearly defined
 Research process detailed
 Research design thoroughly planned
 Limitations frankly revealed
 High ethical standards applied
 Findings presented unambiguously
 Conclusions justified
 Researcher’s experience reflected
 Adequate analysis for decision-makers needs


Definition of basic terms used in research

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 Population: it refers to an entire group of individuals, events or objects having a common
observable characteristic.
Sample: It is a smaller group obtained from the accessible population.
Sampling: It is the process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in such a way
that the individuals selected represent the population.
Variable: It is a measurable characteristic that assumes different values among the subjects.
They can be dependent, independent, intervening, confounding or antecedent variables.
Data: refers to all information a researcher gathers for his or her study. Can be secondary
data or primary data.
Parameter: It is a characteristic that is measurable and can assume different values in the
population.
Statistics: it is the science of organizing, describing and analyzing data. Descriptive and
inferential statistics.
Objective: it refers to the specific aspects of the phenomenon under study that the
researcher desires to bring out at the end of the research study.
Literature review: It involves locating, reading and evaluating reports of previous studies,
observations and opinions related to the planned study.
Hypothesis: It is a researcher’s anticipated explanation or opinion regarding the result of the
study.
Theory: It is a set of concepts or constructs and the interrelations that are assumed to exist
among those concepts. It provides the basis for establishing the hypothesis to be tested in the
study.
 A construct is an image or idea specifically invented for a given research and/or theory-
building purpose
 A concept is a bundle of meanings or characteristics associated with certain events, objects,
conditions, situations, and behaviors. Concepts have been developed over time through
shared usage

Components of research
1. Identification of the research area and topic.
2. Statement of the problem.
3. Literature review.
4. Methodology design
5. Sampling frame and sampling techniques.
6. Data collection tools, design and techniques.
7. Data analysis methods.
8. Report writing techniques.

What is Business Research?

It is a systematic inquiry whose objective is to provide information to solve managerial problems
(Cooper and Schindler, 2003).

Why Managers need Better Information

i. Explosive growth and influence of the internet
ii. Stakeholders demanding greater influence
iii. More vigorous competition

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 iv. More government intervention
v. More complex decisions
vi. Maturing of management as a group of disciplines
vii. Greater computing power and speed
viii. New perspectives on established research methodologies
ix. Global and domestic competition is more vigorous
x. Workers, shareholders, customers and the general public are demanding to be included in
company decision-making.
xi. Organizations are increasingly practicing data mining and data warehousing.
xii. The power and ease of use of today’s computers to analyze data, which help in decision-
making.
xiii. There are more variables to consider in every decision.
xiv. More knowledge exists in every field of management.

The Value of Acquiring Research Skills

 To gather more information before selecting a course of action
 To do a high-level research study
 To understand research design
 To evaluate and resolve a current management dilemma
 To establish a career as a research specialist

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 TOPIC TWO: THE RESEARCH PROCESS
The Research Process consists of eight elements
Selection of topic

Reviewing literature

Development of theoretical and conceptual framework

Clarification of research questions

Research design

Data collection

Data analysis

Drawing conclusions

STAGE 1: SELECTION OF TOPIC

This is the stage that will take up most of the time at the beginning and developing a preliminary research
question and set of objectives. The selection of research questions is a crucial stage as an appropriate
topic or question will often lead to irretrievable difficulties in the research so it is worth dealing with the
stage carefully.
STAGE 2: REVIEWING LITERATURE
A literature review consists of critically reading, evaluating and organizing existing literature on the topic
to assess the state of knowledge in the area.
During this stage you should you should aim to become an expert in your field of research. The literature
review is generally done alongside the development of the theoretical and conceptual frameworks.
Reading widely may also alert you to other helpful factors such as whether similar research has already

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been carried out or show the types of findings that you could expect or provide descriptions of the
theoretical frameworks and previous methodologies adopted by others doing similar research.
STAGE 3: DEVELOPMENT OF THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS
As you read literature you should be continually developing and refining your theoretical and conceptual
fraeworks.it is a stage that often be overlooked in the haste to collect data.it is a vital part of the research
process and its important in alerting you to potential problems before they occur. The theoretical
framework refers to the underlying theoretical approach that you adopt to underpin your study. The
conceptual framework defines and organize the concepts important within the study.
STAGE 4 CLARIFICATION OF THE RESEARCH QUESTION
Stage 1 to 3 can take longer than initially anticipated and you will become discouraged by lack of success
in identifying a good research question or hypothesis. There are no easy methods to com up with an
appropriate question and it can be a very much a case of perseverance. Once you have developed a good,
focused research question then the rest of the research process is based upon answering that specific
question. The importance of developing a clearly focused question and set of research objectives at this
stage cannot be overstated. A common fault is the lack of clarity over the overall aim of the research.
Stage 5: RESEARCH DESIGN
In this stage you consider two questions
i. What data do I need to collect to answer this question?
ii. What is the best way to collect this data?
Some of the issues faced by the researcher are:
What overall design should I use?
Will I need to collect primary data or there will be suitable secondary data to use?
Who should participate in the research?
STAGE 6: DATA COLLECTION
Once the issues in stages 4 and 5 od the research process have been addressed then you should have a
clear idea of what data to collect how to collect it. you also have t consider which methodology to choose
and which methods to utilize within the methodology.
STAGE 7: DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
The data you collect in stage 6 needs to be analyzed to provide answers to your research question.
Methods of data analysis should always be related to the objectives of the research that is your analysis
should answer the research question or hypotheisis.in the discussion part, reference should also be made
back to the literature reviewed in stage 2.
A common fault is to discuss the findings with no reference back to the literature reviewed as part of
stage 2 of the development of the conceptual framework.
STAGE 8: DRAWING CONCLUSIONS

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This should relate back to the focused research question. The answer to the research question should be
clearly stated. You can evaluate how successful you have been achieving your research objectives and
highlight the strengths and weaknesses of the research. You may also make recommendations for further
research.

DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Writing a research proposal and research reports

A proposal is a document, which details an intended activity. The formats for writing proposals
differ from institution to institution or from department to department. Generally, a research
proposal should include the following prefatory items; the title page, declaration, table of
contents, list of figures and tables, list of acronyms and abbreviations and an abstract. It will also
have chapter one: Introduction, Chapter Two: Literature review and Chapter Three:
Methodology. In addition it will also have the references, time schedule, budget and any
appendices.
The final research report will have what is contained in the proposal (apart from the time
schedule and budget) and in addition dedication, acknowledgement, chapter four: Data analysis
and findings and chapter five: Summary, conclusions and recommendations.
Prefatory items
Prefatory items do not have a direct bearing on the research itself. They assist the reader in using
the research report. They can include: -
Title page:
The title page should include the title of the report, the date and for whom and by whom it was
prepared. The title should be brief but should include the variables included in the study, the type
of relationship among the variables and the population to which the results may be applied.
Declaration
This is whereby the researcher declares that the work s his/her original work.
Dedication
Some researchers would always wish to dedicate their work to a person or persons they deem
special in their lives.
Acknowledgements
During the research process, the researcher may require help from other individuals or
organisations. It would be necessary if the researcher acknowledged received from these
individuals and organisations.
Table of contents and list of figures and tables
Any report with several sections that total more than six to ten pages should have a table of
contents. If there are many tables, charts or other exhibits, they should also be listed after the
table of contents in a separate list of tables or list of figures.
List of abbreviations and acronyms
All abbreviations and acronyms used in report should be explained. An abbreviation is a short
form of a word while an acronym is a contraction formed by taking the first letter of several
words.
Abstract
A proposal abstract is a summary of what the researcher intends to do. It should be brief, precise
and to the point.

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Chapter One
Introduction
The introduction prepares the reader for the report by describing the parts of the report.
Background to the problem
In the background, the researcher should broadly introduce the topic under investigation. The
researcher introduces briefly the general area of study, and then narrows down to the specific
problem to be studied. The background enables the reader to have an idea of what is happening
regarding the area under investigation.
The problem Statement
The researcher states the problem under investigation. The researcher should describe the factors
that make the stated problem a critical issue to warrant the study. Relevant literature can be
referred to. It should be brief and precise.
The objectives of the study
Research objectives are those specific issues within the scope of the stated purpose that the
researcher wants to focus upon and examine in the study. The objectives should be specific,
measurable, achievable, reliable and time bound. Objectives guide the researcher in formulating
testable hypotheses.
Research questions
These are the questions, which the researcher would like to be answered by undertaking the
study. They should be formulated from the objectives of the study.
Research Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a researcher’s prediction regarding the outcome of the study. It states possible
differences, relationships or causes between two variables or concepts. Hypothesis are derived
from or based on existing theories, previous research, personal observations or experiences. The
test of a hypothesis involves collection and analysis of data that may either support or fail to
support the hypothesis. If the results fail to support a stated hypothesis, it does not mean that the
study has failed but it implies that the existing theories or principles need to be revised or
retested under various situations.
Scope of the study
This section indicates the boundary of the study
Significance / Justification of the study
The justification helps to answer the following questions. Why is this work important? What are
the implications of doing it? How does it link to other knowledge? How does it stand to inform
policy making? The significance must be strong enough to warrant the use of time, energy and
money in carrying out the research.
Assumptions and limitations of the study
An assumption is any fact that a researcher takes to be true without actually verifying it. It puts
some boundary around the study and provides the reader with vital information, which influences
the way results of the study are interpreted. A limitation is an aspect of a research that may
influence the results negatively but over which the researcher has no control. A common
limitation in social science studies is the scope of the study, which sometimes may not allow
generalizations. Sample size may also be another limitation.

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Chapter two
Literature Review
The purpose of the literature review is to situate your research in the context of what is already
known about a topic. It need not be exhaustive; it needs to show how your work will benefit the
whole. It should provide the theoretical basis for your work, show what has been done in the area
by others, and set the stage for your work.
In a literature review you should give the reader enough ties to the literature that they feel
confident that you have found, read, and assimilated the literature in the field. It should probably
move from the more general to the more focused studies, but need not be exhaustive, only
relevant.
The literature review should clearly present the holes in the knowledge that need to be plugged
and by so doing, situate your work. It is the place where you establish that your work will fit in
and be significant to the discipline.
Chapter three
Research Methodology
This section should make clear to the reader the way that you intend to approach the research
question and the techniques and logic that you will use to address it.
Research design
The coverage of the design must be adapted to the purpose. In an experimental study, the
materials, tests, equipment, control conditions and other devices should be described. In
descriptive or ex post facto designs, it may be sufficient to cover the rationale for using one
design instead of competing alternatives. The strengths and weaknesses of the design can be
identified and the instrumentation and materials discussed.
The target population
The researcher should explicitly define the target population being studied
Sampling strategy
Explanations of the sampling methods, uniqueness of the chosen parameters or other points that
need explanation should be covered with brevity.
Data Types and Data Collection Techniques
This part of the report describes the specifics of gathering the data. Its contents depend on the
design. This might include the data that you anticipate collecting and a description of the
instruments you will use. Detailed copies of the data collection tools e.g. questionnaires,
interview schedule or observation schedule should be attached as an appendix.
Data Analysis
This section summarizes the methods used to analyze the data. It describes data handling,
preliminary analysis, statistical tests, computer programs and other technical information. The
rationale for the choice of analysis approaches should be clear. A brief commentary on
assumptions and appropriateness of use should be presented.

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Chapter Four
Data analysis and Findings
The objective is to explain the data rather than draw interpretations or conclusions. When
quantitative data can be presented, it should be done as simply as possible with charts, graphics
and tables. The data need not include everything collected. Only material important to the
reader’s understanding of the problem and the findings should be included. Both findings that
support or do not support the hypothesis should be included.

Chapter Five

Summary and conclusions

The summary is a brief statement of the essential findings. Sectional summaries may be used if
there are many specific findings. These may be combined into an overall summary. Conclusions
represent inferences drawn from the findings. Conclusions may be presented in a tabular form
for easy reading and reference. Summary findings may be subordinated under the related
conclusion statement.
Recommendations
There are usually a few ideas about corrective actions. In academic research, the
recommendations are often further study suggestions that broaden or test understanding of the
subject area. In applied research, the recommendations will usually be for managerial action
rather than research action. The writer may offer several alternatives with justifications.
References
The use of secondary data requires a reference or a bibliography. Proper citation, style and
formats are unique to the purpose of the report. The
Appendixes
The appendixes are the place for complex tables, statistical tests, supporting documents, copies
of forms and questionnaires, detailed descriptions of the methodology, instructions to field
workers and other evidence important for later support. The reader who wishes to learn about
technical aspects of the study and to look at statistical breakdowns will want a complete
appendix.
Time schedule
It is a listing of the major activities and the corresponding anticipated time period it will take to
accomplish that activity. The time is usually given in months. Activities to be undertaken can
always overlap.
Budget
A budget is a list of items that will be required to carry out the research and their approximate
cost. It should be detailed enough and precise on items needed, prices per unit and total cost.
Details of requirements in each budget will be governed by the type of research.

Characteristics of a Good Proposal:

 The need for the proposed activity is clearly established, preferably with data.

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 The most important ideas are highlighted and repeated in several places.
 The objectives of the project are given in detail.
 There is a detailed schedule of activities for the project, or at least sample portions of such a
complete project schedule.
 Collaboration with all interested groups in planning of the proposed project is evident in the
proposal.
 The commitment of all involved parties is evident, e.g., letters of commitment in the
appendix and cost sharing stated in both the narrative of the proposal and the budget.
 The budget and the proposal narrative are consistent.
 The uses of money are clearly indicated in the proposal narrative as well as in the budget.
 All of the major matters indicated in the proposal guidelines are clearly addressed in the
proposal.
 The agreement of all project staff and consultants to participate in the project was
acquired and is so indicated in the proposal.
 All governmental procedures have been followed with regard to matters such as civil
rights compliance and protection of human subjects.
 Appropriate detail is provided in all portions of the proposal.
 All of the directions given in the proposal guidelines have been followed carefully.
 Appendices have been used appropriately for detailed and lengthy materials which the
reviewers may not want to read but are useful as evidence of careful planning, previous
experience, etc.
 The length is consistent with the proposal guidelines and/or funding agency expectations.
 The budget explanations provide an adequate basis for the figures used in building the
budget.
 If appropriate, there is a clear statement of commitment to continue the project after
external funding ends.
 The qualifications of project personnel are clearly communicated.
 The writing style is clear and concise. It speaks to the reader, helping the reader
understand the problems and proposal. Summarizing statements and headings are used to
lead the reader.

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  TOPIC 3: LITERATURE REVIEW
The review of literature involves the systematic identification, location and analysis of
documents containing information related to the research problem being investigated. It should
be extensive and thorough because it is aimed at obtaining detailed knowledge of the topic being
studied.

Purpose of literature review

i. To determine what has already been done related to the research problem being studied.
This will help the researcher to:
a. Avoid unnecessary and unintentional duplication.
b. Form the framework within which the research findings are to be interpreted.
c. Demonstrate his or her familiarity with the existing body of knowledge.
ii. Helps reveal the strategies, procedures and measuring instruments that have been found
useful in investigating the problem in question. This will help the researcher to:
a. Avoid mistakes that have been made by other researchers
b. Benefit from other researcher’s experiences
c. Clarify how to use certain procedures, which one may only have learned in
theory.
iii. Helps to suggest other procedures and approaches, which will help, improve the research
study.
iv. Familiarizes the researcher with previous studies, which facilitates interpretation of the
results of the study. If there is a contradiction, the literature review might provide
rationale for the discrepancy.
v. It helps the researcher to limit the research problem and to define it better.
vi. Helps to determine new approaches and stimulates new ideas. The researcher may be
alerted to research possibilities, which have been overlooked in the past.
vii. Approaches that have been proved to be futile will be revealed through literature review.
viii. Specific suggestions and recommendations for further research can be found by
reviewing literature.
ix. It pulls together, integrates and summarizes what is known in an area. Thus helping to
reveal gaps in information and areas where major questions still remain.

Steps in carrying out literature review.

1. Familiarize yourself with the library before beginning the literature review.
2. Make a list of key words or phrases to guide your literature search.
3. With the key words and phrases related to the study, one should go to the source of literature.
4. Summarize the references on cards for easy organization of the literature.
5. Once collected, the literature should be analyzed, organized and reported in an orderly
manner.
6. Make an outline of the main topics or themes in order of presentation.
7. Analyze each reference in terms of the outline made and establish where it will be most
relevant.
8. The literature should be organized in such a way that the more general is covered first before
the researcher narrows down to that which is more specific to the research problem.
Sources of literature

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 (a) Primary sources: are direct descriptions of any occurrence by an individual who actually
observed or witnessed the occurrence.
(b) Secondary source: they include any publications written by an author who was not a direct
observer or participant in the events described.
Examples
 Scholarly journals
 Theses and dissertations
 Government documents
 Papers presented at conferences
 Books
 References quoted in books
 International indices
 Abstracts
 Periodicals
 The Africana section of the library
 Reference section of the library
 Grey literature
 Inter-library loan
 The British lending library
 The internet
 Microfilm

Tips on good review of literature

 Do not conduct a hurried review for fear of overlooking important studies.
 Do not rely too heavily on secondary sources.
 Check daily newspapers as they contain very educative, current information.
 Copy the references correctly in the first place so as to avoid the frustration of trying to
retrace a reference later.
 Do not only concentrate on findings, check on methodology and measurement of variables.

THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL DEFINITION OF VARIABLES

Refers to a way of specifying precisely what we mean when we use a particular term to refer to a
variable. Researchers cannot effectively study a variable without first agreeing on the definition
of a variable.
Researchers cannot effectively study a variable without first agreeing on a working definition of
the variable.
Usually such terms or variables happen to be a combination of several other concepts.
Conceptual/Theoretical Framework
Theoretical Framework VS Conceptual Framework
Theoretical Framework is a theory in the form of a model/paradigm that serves as the basis for
the study. It mentions the proponents of the study and their results.
Conceptual Framework is the researcher’s own model illustrating variables that specify the
problem and gives direction to the study. It may be an adaptation of a model in an early theory,
with modifications to suit the inquiry.
It is collection of interrelated ideas/concepts/theories (related to the topic).

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A Theoretical Framework guides your research, determining what things you will measure, and
what statistical relationships you will look for.
CF/TF helps us to understand and use the ideas of others who have done similar work.
Theoretical Framework
A. It provides an inventory of variables, shows all the variables in a diagram.
B. It specifies the directions of relationships.
C. It explains these relationships.
D. It helps in making new proposition/plan/scheme.
E. It helps in arranging these propositions in sequential order.
Researchers create theoretical and conceptual frameworks that include a philosophical and
methodological model to help design their work. A formal theory provides context for the
outcome of the events conducted in the research. The data collection and analysis are also based
on the theoretical and conceptual framework.

As stated by Grant and Osanloo (2014), “Without a theoretical framework, the structure and
vision for a study is unclear, much like a house that cannot be constructed without a blueprint.
By contrast, a research plan that contains a theoretical framework allows the dissertation study to
be strong and structured with an organized flow from one chapter to the next.”

Theoretical and conceptual frameworks provide evidence of academic standards and procedure.
They also offer an explanation of why the study is pertinent and how the researcher expects to
fill the gap in the literature. Literature does not always clearly delineate between a theoretical or
conceptual framework. With that being said, there are slight differences between the two.

IDENTIFICATION OF RESEARCH AREA

The research process starts by formulating a research problem that can be investigated through
research procedures.
Identifying a research problem
The first step in selecting a research problem is to identify the broad area that one is interested in.
Such an area should be related to the professional interests and goals of the researcher e.g. low-
cost housing, productivity of workers, small-scale businesses etc.
The second step is to identify a specific problem within it that will form the basis of the research
study. The research problem should be an important one i.e. it should
 Lead to findings that have widespread implications in a particular area
 Challenge some commonly held truism
 Review the inadequacies of existing laws, views or policies
 Cover a reasonable scope e.g. not too narrow or too general.
Certain factors determine the scope of a research Study include:
 Time available to carry it out
 The money available to carry it out
 The availability of equipment if needed to carry it out
 The availability of subjects or the units of study

Defining the research problem

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A research problem refers to some difficulty which the researcher experiences in the context of
either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same. A research
problem exists if the following conditions are met:-
 There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem.
 There must be some objective(s) to be attained.
 There must be alternative means or courses of action for obtaining the objective(s)
one wishes to attain.
 There must be some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the selection of
alternatives.
 There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains.

Selecting the problem

The following points must be observed by a researcher in selecting a research problem or a
subject of study:
 Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a difficult task to
throw any new light in such a case.
 Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher.
 Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
 The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the related research
material or sources of research are within one’s reach.
 The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a researcher, the costs
involved and the time factor must be considered.
 The selection of a study must be preceded by a preliminary study.

Defining the problem

It involves the task of laying down boundaries within which a researcher shall study the problem
with a predetermined objective in view. The following steps can be followed: -
 Statement of the problem in a general way
 Understanding the nature of the problem: Understand the origin and nature of the problem
e.g. by discussing it with those who raised it in order to find out how the problem originally
came about. The researcher should keep in view the environment within which the problem
is to be studied and understood.
 Surveying the available literature: the researcher must be well conversant with relevant
theories in the field, reports and records as also all other relevant literature.
 Developing ideas through discussions:
 Rephrasing the research problem: Its putting the research problem in as specific terms as
possible so that it may become operationally viable and may help in the development of
working hypotheses.
The following should also be observed when defining a research problem:
Technical terms and words or phrases with special meanings used in the statement of the
problem, should be clearly defined.
Basic assumptions or postulates if any relating to the research problem should be clearly
stated.
A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation should be provided.
The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available must also be considered
by the researcher in defining the problem.

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 The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to be studied must
be mentioned explicitly in defining a research problem.

Ways of identifying a specific research problem from the broad area

(a) Existing literature
(b) Existing theories
(c) Discussions with experts
(d) Previous research studies
(e) Replication
(f) The media
(g) Personal experiences.
STATING THE PROBLEM
A research study starts with a brief introductory section. The researcher introduces briefly the
general area of study, and then narrows down to the specific problem to be studied.
Characteristics of a good problem statement
 It should be written clearly and in such a way that the reader’s interest is captured
immediately.
 The specific problem identified in the problem statement should be objectively
researchable
 The scope of the specific research problem should be indicated
 The importance of the study in adding new knowledge should be stated clearly
 The problem statement must give the purpose of the research.

STATING THE PURPOSE

The purpose of a study crystallizes the researcher’s inquiry into a particular area of knowledge in
a given field. If the purpose is accurately expressed, the research process will be carried out with
ease. The purpose of the study should meet the following criteria:
 It must be indicated clearly, unambiguously and in a declarative manner.
 The purpose should indicate the concepts or variables in the study.
 Where possible, the relationships among the variables should be stated.
 The purpose should state the target population.
 The variables and target population given in the purpose should be consistent with the
variables and target population operationalized in the methods section of the study.

In stating the purpose of the study, the researcher should choose the right words to convey the
focus of the study effectively. Use of subjective or biased words or sentences should be avoided.
Examples
Biased Neutral
To show To determine
To prove To compare
To confirm To investigate
To verify To differentiate
To check To explore
To demonstrate To find out
To indicate To examine
To validate To inquire

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 To explain To establish
To illustrate To test

STATING THE OBJECTIVES

Research objectives are those specific issues within the scope of the stated purpose that the
researcher wants to focus upon and examine in the study.

Characteristics of a good objective

 Specific:
 Measurable
 Achievable
 Reliable
 Time bound
Objectives guide the researcher in formulating testable hypotheses.
In stating the objectives of the study, the researcher should choose the right words to convey the
focus of the study effectively. Use of subjective or biased words or sentences should be avoided.

Research is an organized investigation of a problem where an investigator attempts to gain

solution to a problem.In order to get the right solution a clearly defined objectives are very
important.
A clearly defined objective directs a researcher in the right direction.
A clearly defined objectives are important feature of a good research study
Without a clear objective a researcher is aimless and directionless in conducting the study.
Without focused objectives, no replicable scientific findings can be expected
Research objective should be RELEVANT, FEASIBLE, LOGICAL, OBSERVABLE,
UNEQUIVOCAL &
MEASURABLE.
Objective is a purpose that can be reasonably achieved within the expected timeframe and with
the available resources
The objective of research project summarizes what is to be achieved by the study.
The research objectives are the specific accomplishments the researcher hopes to achieve by the
study.
The objectives include obtaining answers to research questions or testing the research hypotheses

Need for objectives

Focus
 A clearly defined research objective will help the researcher to focus on the study.
 he formulation of research objectives helps in narrowing down the study to its essentials.
 It will avoid unnecessary findings, which otherwise lead to wastage of resources.
Avoid Unnecessary Data
 The formulation of research objectives helps the researcher to avoid unnecessary
accumulation of data that is not needed for the chosen problem.

ASSUMPTION

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An assumption is any fact that a researcher takes to be true without actually verifying it. It puts
some boundary around the study and provides the reader with vital information, which influences
the way results of the study are interpreted.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

the significance of the study is basically the importance of your research. The significance of a

study must be stated in the Introduction section of your research paper. While stating the

significance, you must highlight how your research will be beneficial to the development of

science and the society in general. You can first outline the significance in a broader sense by

stating how your research will contribute to the broader problem in your field and gradually

narrow it down to demonstrate the specific group that will benefit from your research. While

writing the significance of your study, you must answer questions like:
 Why should your research be published?
 How will this study contribute to the development of your field?

LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

The limitations of a study are its flaws or shortcomings which could be the result of

unavailability of resources, small sample size, flawed methodology, etc. No study is

completely flawless or inclusive of all possible aspects. Therefore, listing the limitations of

your study reflects honesty and transparency and also shows that you have a complete

understanding of the topic.

Generally speaking, the limitations are added in the Discussion section, just before the

concluding paragraph. While you should definitely point out the limitations, do not get into

an elaborate discussion about them. Keep this section short and crisp. The limitations of a

study basically discuss any unanswered questions that your study did not address. Could

you have used another means or method of data collection? Could the research design have

been better? Was the sample not representative of the target population? Being self -critical

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and acknowledging the study’s limitations will give the impression that you are aware of

what the study was not able to cover.

DEVELOPING RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

FORMULATING HYPOTHESES
A hypothesis is a researcher’s prediction regarding the outcome of the study. It states possible
differences, relationships or causes between two variables or concepts. Hypothesis are derived
from or based on existing theories, previous research, personal observations or experiences. The
test of a hypothesis involves collection and analysis of data that may either support or fail to
support the hypothesis. If the results fail to support a stated hypothesis, it does not mean that the
study has failed but it implies that the existing theories or principles need to be revised or
retested under various situations.

Purpose of hypothesis

i. It provides direction by bridging the gap between the problem and the evidence needed
for its solution.
ii. It ensures collection of the evidence necessary to answer the question posed in the
statement of the problem.
iii. It enables the investigator to assess the information he or she has collected from the
standpoint of both relevance and organization.
iv. It sensitizes the investigator to certain aspects of the situation that are relevant regarding
the problem at hand.
v. It permits the researcher to understand the problem with greater clarity and use the data to
find solutions to problems.
vi. It guides the collection of data and provides the structure for their meaningful
interpretation in relation to the problem under investigation.
vii. It forms the framework for the ultimate conclusions as solutions.

Characteristics of a good hypothesis

A sound review of literature or of existing theories often leads to good hypothesis.
1. Should state clearly and briefly the expected relationships between variables.
2. Must be based on a sound rationale derived from theory or previous research or professional
experience.
3. Must be consistent with common sense or generally accepted truths.
4. Must be testable.
5. Must be related to empirical phenomena. Words like ought, should, bad should be avoided
since they reflect moral judgment.
6. Should be testable within a reasonable time.
7. Variables stated in the hypothesis must be consistent with the purpose statement, objectives
and operationalized variables in the method section.
8. Must be as simple and as concise as the complexity of the concepts involved allows.
9. It must be stated in such a way that its implications can be deduced in the form of empirical

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 operations with respect to which relationship can be validated or refuted.

TYPES OF HYPOTHESES

 Null Hypotheses
 Alternative Non-Directional Hypotheses
 Alternative Directional Hypotheses

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  TOPIC 4: RESEARCH DESIGN
Definition of research design
Kerlinger, N.F (1986) defines research design as
“The plan and structure of investigation so conceived as to obtain answers to research
questions. The plan is overall scheme or program of the research. It includes an outline of
what the investigator will do from writing hypotheses and their operational implications
to the final analysis of data…. a research design expresses both the structure of the
research problem and the plan of investigation used to obtain empirical evidence on
relations of the problem”
Therefore, a research design is the strategy for a study and the plan by which the strategy is to be
carried out. It specifies the methods and procedures for the collection, measurement, and analysis
of data.
ESSENTIALS OF RESEARCH DESIGN
The design:
 Is an activity and time based plan
 Is always based on the research question
 Guides the selection of sources and types of information
 Is a framework for specifying the relationships among the study’s variables
 Outlines procedures for every research activity.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF DESIGNS
Research can be classified using eight different descriptors as shown in the table below:
Category Options
The degree to which the research  Exploratory study
questions has been crystallized  Formal study
The method of data collection  Monitoring
 Interrogation / communication
The power of the researcher to  Experimental
produce effects in the variables
under study
The purpose of the study  Descriptive
 Causal
The time dimension  Cross-sectional
 Longitudinal
The topical scope – breath and depth  Case
of the study  Statistical study
The research environment  Field setting
 Laboratory research
 Simulation
The participants perceptions of  Actual routine
research activity  Modified routine

1. Degree to which the research questions has been crystallized

A study may be viewed as exploratory study or formal study. The essential distinctions between
these two options are the degree of structure and the immediate objective of the study.

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 Exploratory studies tend toward loose structures with the objective of discovering future
research tasks. Its immediate purpose is to develop hypotheses or questions for further study.
 Formal study begins where the exploration leaves off- it begins with a hypothesis or
research question and involves precise procedures and data source specifications. Its goal is
to test the hypotheses or answer the research questions posed.

2. Method of data collection

 Monitoring: It includes studies in which the researcher inspects the activities of a subject or
the nature of some material without attempting to elicit responses from anyone e.g. an
observation of the actions of a group of decision makers.

 Interrogation / communication: the researcher questions the subjects and collects their
responses by personal or impersonal means. The collected data may result from
i. Interview or telephone conversations
ii. Self-administered or self-reported instruments sent through the mail, left in
convenient locations, or transmitted electronically or by other means
iii. Instruments presented before and / or after a treatment or stimulus condition in an
experiment.

3. Researcher control of variables

 Experimental: the researcher attempts to control and / or manipulate the variables in the
study. It is appropriate when one wishes to discover whether certain variables produce effects
in other variables. Experimentation provides the most powerful support for a hypothesis of
causation.
 Ex post facto: Investigators have no control over the variables in the sense of being able to
manipulate them. They can only report what has happened or what is happening. It is
important that the researcher’s using this design do not influence the variables since doing so
will introduce bias. The researcher is limited to holding factors constant by judicious
selection of subjects according to strict sampling procedures and by statistical manipulation
of findings.

4. Purpose of the study

 Descriptive study: it is a research that is concerned with finding out who, what, where,
when, or how much.
 Causal study: It is concerned with learning why i.e. how one variable produces changes in
another. It tries to explain the relationships among variables.

5. The time dimensions

 Cross-sectional studies: they are carried out once and represent a snapshot of one point in
time.
 Longitudinal studies: are repeated over an extended period. It tracks changes over time.
6. The topical scope
 Statistical studies: they are designated for breadth rather than depth. They attempt to
capture a population’s characteristics by making inferences from a sample’s
characteristics. Hypotheses are tested quantitatively. Generalizations about findings are
presented based on the representativeness of the sample and the validity of the design.

27
  Case studies: they place more emphasis on a full contextual analysis of fewer events or
conditions and their interrelations. Although hypotheses are often used, the reliance on
qualitative data makes support or rejection more difficult. An emphasis on detail provides
valuable insight for problem solving, evaluation and strategy. This detail is secured from
multiple sources of information. It allows evidence to be verified and avoids missing data.

7. The research environment

 Field setting: it is where the research occurs under actual environmental conditions
 Laboratory research: it is where the research occurs under staged or manipulated
conditions
 Simulation: To simulate is to replicate the essence of a system or process. Simulations are
increasingly used in operations research. The major characteristics of various conditions and
relationships in actual situations are often represented in mathematical models. Role-playing
and other behavioral activities may also be viewed as simulations.

8. Participants’ perceptions
The usefulness of a design may be reduced when people in a disguised study perceive that
research is being conducted. Participants’ perceptions influence the outcomes of the research in
subtle ways. There are three levels of perception:
 Participants perceive no deviations from everyday routines
 Participants perceive deviations, but as unrelated to the researcher.
 Participants perceive deviations as researcher-induced.
In all research environments and control situations, researchers need to be vigilant to effects that
may alter their conclusions. Participant’s perceptions serve as a reminder to classify one’s study
by type, to examine validation strengths and weaknesses and to be prepared to qualify results
accordingly.

MAJOR TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

(a) Exploratory studies
Exploration is particularly useful when researchers lack a clear idea of the problems they will
meet during the study. Through exploration researchers develop concepts more clearly, establish
priorities, develop operational definitions and improve the final research design. Other factors
that necessitate the use of exploration are
 To save time and money
 If the area of investigation is new
 Important variables may not be known or thoroughly defined
 Hypothesis for the research may be needed
 A researcher can explore to be sure if it is practical to do a formal study in the area.

Despite its obvious value, researchers and managers give exploration less attention that it
deserves. Exploration is sometimes linked to old biases about qualitative research i.e. subjective
ness, non-representativeness and non-systematic design.

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When we consider the scope of qualitative research, several approaches are adaptable for
exploratory investigations of management questions:
 In-depth interviewing – usually conversational rather than structured.
 Participant observation – to perceive first hand what participants in the setting experience
 Films, photographs and videotapes – to capture the life of the group under study.
 Case studies – for an in-depth contextual analysis of a few events or conditions
 Document analysis – to evaluate historical or contemporary confidential or public records,
reports, government documents and opinions.

Where these approaches are combined, four exploratory techniques emerge with wide
applicability for the management researcher: -
i. Secondary data analysis
ii. Experience surveys
iii. Focus groups
iv. Two-stage designs
An exploratory research is finished when the researchers have achieved the following:
 Established the major dimensions of the research task
 Defined a set of subsidiary investigative questions that can be used as a guide to a detailed
research design.
 Developed several hypotheses about possible causes of a management dilemma. Learned that
certain other hypotheses are such remote possibilities that they can be safely ignored in any
subsequent study.
 Concluded additional research is not needed or is not feasible.
(b) Descriptive Studies
It is the process of collecting data in order to test hypotheses or to answer questions concerning
the current status of the subjects in the study. It determines and reports the way things are. It
attempts to describe such things as possible behavior, attitudes, values and characteristics.
(c) Causal Research
It is used to explore relationships between variables. It determines reasons or causes for the
current status of the phenomenon under study. The variables of interest cannot be
manipulated unlike in experimental research.
Advantages of causal study
 Allows a comparison of groups without having to manipulate the independent variables
 It can be done solely to identify variables worthy of experimental investigation
 They are relatively cheap.
Disadvantages of causal study
 Interpretations are limited because the researcher does not know whether a particular
variable is a cause or result of a behaviour being studied.
 There may be a third variable which could be affecting the established relationship but
which may not be established in the study.

(d) Correlation Methods

It describes in quantitative terms the degree to which variables are related. It explores
relationships between variables and also tries to predict a subject’s score on one variable
given his or her score on another variable.

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Advantages of the correlational method
 Permits one to analyze inter-relationships among a large number of variables in a single
study.
 Allows one to analyze how several variables either singly or in combination might affect a
particular phenomenon being studied.
 The method provides information concerning the degree of relationship between variables
being studied.

Disadvantages of the correlational method

 Correlation between two variables does not necessarily imply causation although
researchers often tend to interpret such a relationship to mean causation.
 Since the correlation coefficient is an index, any two variables will always show a
relationship even when commonsense dictates that such variables are not related.
 The correlation coefficient is very sensitive to the size of the sample.

THE SAMPLE DESIGN

It refers to the techniques of the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the
sample.
Factors to consider in developing a sample design
1. Type of universe; finite or infinite
2. Sampling unit; geographic: state, district or village, construction unit: house, flat. Social unit:
family, club, school or individual.
3. Source list: sampling frame- contains all the names of all items of a universe. The list should
be comprehensive, correct, reliable and appropriate.
4. The size of the sample. Should be efficient, representative, reliable and flexible.
5. Parameters of interest
6. Budgetary constraint
7. Sampling procedure.
Criteria for selecting a sampling procedure
Two costs are involved in a sampling analysis i.e. the cost of collecting the data and the cost of
an incorrect inference resulting from the data. Two causes of incorrect inferences are systematic
bias and sampling error. A systematic bias result from errors in the sampling procedures and it
cannot be reduced or eliminated by increasing the sample size. Systematic bias is the result of the
following factors:-
 Inappropriate sampling frame
 Defective measuring device
 Non-respondents
 Indeterminacy principle – individuals act differently when kept under observation.
 Natural bias in reporting data e.g. government tax – downward bias, social organizations –
upward bias.
Sampling errors are the random variations in the sample estimates around a true population
parameter. It decreases with the increase in the size of the sample and it happens to be of a
smaller magnitude in case of a homogenous population. While selecting a sampling procedure,
the researcher must ensure that the procedure causes a relatively small sampling error and helps
to control the systematic bias in a better way.

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Steps in sampling design
Identification of the: -
 Relevant population
 Type of universe i.e. finite or infinite
 Parameters of interest
 Sampling frame
 Type of sample i.e. probabilistic or non-probabilistic
 Size of the sample needed
Characteristics of a good sample design
 Must result in a truly representative sample
 Must result in a small sampling error
 Must be viable in the context of funds available for the research study
 Must ensure that systematic bias is controlled in a better way
 Must be such that the results of the sample study can be applied in general for the universe
with a reasonable level of confidence.

The methodology section of a research study describes the procedures that are to be followed in
conducting the study. The techniques of obtaining data are developed.
Population: It’s a complete set of individuals, cases or objects with some observable
characteristics.
A census is a count of all the elements in a population.
Sample: A sample is a subset of a particular population. The target population is that population
to which a researcher wants to generalize the results of the study. There must be a rationale for
defining and identifying the accessible population from the target population.
Sampling; It’s the process of selecting a sample from a population.

Reasons for sampling

 Cost
 Time: Greater speed of data collection
 Destructive nature of certain tests
 Greater accuracy of results
 Physical impossibility of checking all items in the population.
 Availability of population elements.

Characteristics of a good sample

 Accuracy: It’s the degree to which bias is absent from the sample. An unbiased sample is
the one in which the under-estimators and the over-estimators are balanced among the
members of the sample.
 Precision of estimate: Precision is measured by the standard error of estimate a type of
standard deviation measurement. The smaller error of estimate, the higher is the
preciseness of the sample.

Factors that influence the sample size

 Dispersion / variance: The greater the dispersion or variance within the population, the
larger the sample must be to provide estimation precision.

31
  Precision of the estimate: the greater the desired precision of the estimate, the larger the
sample must be.
 Interval range: The narrower the interval range, the larger the sample must be.
 Confidence level: The higher the confidence level in the estimate, the larger the sample
must be.
 Number of subgroups: The greater the number of subgroups of interest within a sample, the
greater the sample size must be, as each subgroup must meet minimum sample size
requirements.
 If the calculated sample size exceeds 5% of the population, sample size may be reduced
without sacrificing precision.

Ways of determining the sample size:

If the target population is greater than 10,000 the following formula is used to determine the
sample size;
Z 2 pq
n
d2
where
n = the desired sample size
z = the standard normal deviate at the required confidence level.
P = the proportion in the target population estimated to have characteristics being
measured.
Q= 1–p
D = the level of statistical significance set.

If the target population is less than 10,000 the following formula is used to determine the sample
size;
n
nf 
(1  n)
N
Where
nf = the desired sample size( when the population is less than 10,000)
n = the desired sample size( when the population is greater than 10,000)
N = the estimate of the population size.

Sampling procedures:
There are two major ways of selecting samples;
 Probability sampling methods
 Non - Probability sampling methods

1. Probability Sampling Methods

Samples are selected in such a way that each item or person in the population has a known
(Nonzero) likelihood of being included in the sample.

Types of Probability sampling methods

a) Simple Random Sampling:

32
 A sample is selected so that each item or person in the population has the same chance of
being included.
Advantages
 Easy to implement with automatic dialing and with computerized voice response
systems.
Disadvantages
 Requires a listing of population elements.
 Takes more time to implement
 Uses larger sample sizes
 Produces larger errors
 Expensive
b) Systematic Random Sampling:
The items or individuals of the population are arranged in some manner. A random starting
point is selected and then every kth member of the population is selected for the sample.
Advantages
 Simple to design
 Easier to use than the simple random.
 Easy to determine sampling distribution of mean or proportion.
 Less expensive than simple random.
Disadvantages
 Periodicity within the population may skew the sample and results.
 If the population list has a monotonic trend, a biased estimate will result based on the
start point.
c) Stratified Random Sampling:
A population is divided into subgroups called strata and a sample is selected from each
stratum. After the population is divided into strata, either a proportional or a non-proportional
sample can be selected. In a proportional sample, the number of items in each stratum is in
the same proportion as in the population while in a non-proportional sample, the number of
items chosen in each stratum is disproportionate to the respective numbers in the population.
Advantages
 Researcher controls sample size in strata
 Increased statistical efficiency
 Provides data to represent and analyze subgroups.
 Enables use of different methods in strata.

Disadvantages
 Increased error will result if subgroups are selected at different rates
 Expensive especially if strata on the population have to be created.

d) Cluster Sampling:
The population is divided into internally heterogeneous subgroups and some are randomly
selected for further study. It is used when it is not possible to obtain a sampling frame
because the population is either very large or scattered over a large geographical area. A
multi-stage cluster sampling method can also be used.
Advantages
 Provides an unbiased estimate of population parameters if properly done.

33
  Economically more efficient than simple random.
 Lowest cost per sample, especially with geographic clusters.
 Easy to do without a population list.

Disadvantages
 More error (Lower statistical efficiency) due to subgroups being homogeneous rather
the heterogeneous.

2. Non - Probability Sampling Methods

It is used when a researcher is not interested in selecting a sample that is representative of the
population.
a) Convenience or Accidental Sampling
It involves selecting cases or units of observation as they become available to the researcher
e.g. asking a question to the radio listeners, roommates or neighbours.
b) Purposive Sampling
It allows the researcher to use cases that have the required information with respect to the
objectives of his or her study e.g. educational level, age group, religious sect etc.
c) Quota Sampling
The researcher purposively selects subjects to fit the quotas identified e.g.
 Gender: Male or Female.
 Class Level: Graduate or Undergraduate
 School: Humanities, Science or human resource development.
 Religion: Muslim, Protestant, catholic, Jewish.
 Fraternal affiliation: member or nonmember.
 Social economic class: Upper, middle or lower.

Advantage
Widely used by pollsters, marketers and other researchers.
Disadvantages
 It gives no assurance that the sample is representative of the variables being studied.
 The data used to provide controls may be outdated or inaccurate.
 There is a practical limit on the number of simultaneous controls that can be applied to
ensure precision.
 Since the choice of subjects is left to field workers, they may choose only friendly looking
people.

d) Snow ball sampling

It is used when the population that possesses the characteristics under study is not well known
and can be best located through referral networks. Initial subjects are identified who in turn
identify others. Commonly used in drug cultures, teenage gang activities, Mungiki sect, insider
trading, Mau Mau etc.

Sampling error
It’s the difference between a sample statistic and its corresponding population parameter. The
sampling distribution of the sample means is a probability distribution of possible sample
means of a given sample size.

34
 The central limit theorem
If samples of a particular size are selected from any population, the sampling distribution of
the sample means is approximately a normal distribution. The approximation improves with
larger samples.

Point estimates and confidence intervals

 Point estimate is the value computed from sample information that is used to estimate
the population parameter.
 Confidence interval is a range of values constructed from sample data so the parameter
occurs within that range at a specified probability (level of confidence).

The standard error of the mean (x)

The standard error is a measure of the variability of the sampling distribution of the sample
mean. Its size is affected by
 Standard deviation: the larger the standard deviation, the larger the standard error.
 Sample size: as the sample size increases, the standard error decreases.


The standard error of the mean x 
n

s
Confidence interval for a mean x  z
n

Testing – pilot survey

Questionnaire design is fraught with difficulties and problems. A number of rewrites will be
necessary, together with refinement and rethinks on a regular basis. Do not assume that you will
write the questionnaire accurately and perfectly at the first attempt. If poorly designed, you will
collect inappropriate or inaccurate data and good analysis cannot then rectify the situation.

To refine the questionnaire, you need to conduct a pilot survey. This is a small-scale trial prior to
the main survey that tests all your question planning. Amendments to questions can be made.
After making some amendments, the new version would be re-tested. If this re-test produces
more changes, another pilot would be undertaken and so on. For example, perhaps responses to
open-ended questions become closed; questions which are all answered the same way can be
omitted; difficult words replaced, etc.

35
It is usual to pilot the questionnaires personally so that the respondent can be observed and
questioned if necessary. By timing each question, you can identify any questions that appear too
difficult, and you can also obtain a reliable estimate of the anticipated completion time for
inclusion in the covering letter. The result can also be use to test the coding and analytical
procedures to be performed later.

RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

Primary Data Collection Methods

In primary data collection, you collect the data yourself using methods such as interviews and
questionnaires. The key point here is that the data you collect is unique to you and your research
and, until you publish, no one else has access to it.

There are many methods of collecting primary data and the main methods include:

 questionnaires

 interviews

 focus group interviews

 observation

 case-studies

 diaries

 critical incidents

 portfolios

The primary data, which is generated by the above methods, may be qualitative in nature
(usually in the form of words) or quantitative (usually in the form of numbers or where you can
make counts of words used). We briefly outline these methods but you should also read around
the various methods. A list of suggested research methodology texts is given in your Module

36
Study Guide but many texts on social or educational research may also be useful and you can
find them in your library.

The research instruments that are widely used include

 Questionnaires
 Interviews
 Observations
QUESTIONNAIRES
Each item in the questionnaire is developed to address a specific objective, research question or
hypothesis of the study. The researcher must also know how information obtained from each
questionnaire item will be analysed.
Types of questions used in questionnaires
1 Structured or closed-ended questions
They are questions, which are accompanied by a list of possible alternatives from which
respondents select the answer that best describes their situation.
Advantages of Structured or closed-ended questions
 They are easier to analyse since they are in an immediate usable form
 They are easier to administer
 They are economical to use in terms of time and money
Disadvantages of Structured or closed-ended questions
 They are more difficult to construct
 Responses are limited and the respondent is compelled to answer questions according to the
researcher’s choices
2 Unstructured or open – ended questions
They refer to questions, which give the respondent complete freedom of response. The amount of
space provided is always an indicator of whether a brief or lengthy answer is desired.
Advantages of Unstructured or open – ended questions
 They permit a greater depth of response
 They are simple to formulate
 The respondent’s responses may give an insight into his feelings, background, hidden
motives, interest and decisions.
Disadvantages of Unstructured or open – ended questions
 There is a tendency of the respondents providing information, which does not answer the
stipulated research questions or objectives.
 The responses given may be difficult to categorize and hence difficult to analyze
quantitatively
 Responding to open ended questions is time consuming, which may put some respondent off.
3 Contingency questions
In particular cases, certain questions are applicable to certain groups of respondents. In such
cases, follow-up questions are needed to get further information from the relevant sub-group
only. These subsequent questions, which are asked after the initial questions, are called
‘contingency questions’ or ‘ filter questions’. The purpose of these kinds of questions is to probe
for more information. They also simplify the respondent’s task, in that they will not be required
to answer questions that are not relevant to them.
4 Matrix questions

37
These are questions, which share the same set of response categories. They are used whenever
scales like likert scale are being used.
Advantages of matrix questions
 When questions or items are presented in matrix form, they are easier to complete and hence
the respondent is unlikely not to be put off.
 Space is used efficiently
 It is easy to compare responses given to different items.
Disadvantages of matrix questions
 Some respondents, especially the ones that may not be too keen to give right responses,
might form a pattern of agreeing or disagreeing with statements.
 Some researchers use them when in fact the kind of information being sought could better be
obtained in another format.
Rules for constructing questionnaires and questionnaire items
1. List the objectives that you want the questionnaire to accomplish before constructing the
questionnaire.
2. Determine how information obtained from each questionnaire item will be analyzed.
3. Ensure clarity and avoid ambiguity.
4. If a concept has several meanings and that concept must be used in a question, the
intended meaning must be defined.
5. Construct short questions.
6. Items should be stated positively as possible.
7. Double-barreled items should be avoided.
8. Leading and biased questions should be avoided.
9. Very personal and sensitive questions should be avoided.
10. Simple words that are easily understandable should be used.
11. Questions that assume facts with no evidence should be avoided.
12. Avoid psychologically threatening questions.
13. Include enough information in each item so that it is meaningful to the respondent.
Tips on how to organize or order items in a questionnaire
1. Begin with non-threatening, interesting items.
2. It is not advisable to put important questions at the end of a long questionnaire.
3. Have some logical order when putting items together.
4. Arrange the questions according to themes being studied.
5. If the questionnaire is arranged into content sub-sections, each section should be
introduced with a short statement concerning its content and purpose.
6. Socio-economic questions should be asked at the end because respondents may be put off
by personal questions at the beginning of the questionnaire.
Presentation of the questionnaire
1. Make the questionnaire attractive by using quality paper. It increases the response rate.
2. Organize and lay out the questions so that the questionnaire is easy to complete.
3. All the pages and items in a questionnaire should be numbered.
4. Brief but clear instruction must be included.
5. Make your questionnaire short.
Pretesting the questionnaire
The questionnaire should be pretested to a selected sample, which is similar to the actual sample,
which the researcher plans to study. This is important because:-

38
  Questions that are vague will be revealed in the sense that the respondents will interpret
them differently.
 Comments and suggestions made by respondents during pretesting should be seriously
considered and incorporated.
 Pretesting will reveal deficiencies in the questionnaire.
 It helps to test whether the methods of analysis are appropriate.
Ways of administering questionnaires
Questionnaires are mainly administered using three methods:
i. Self administered questionnaires
Questionnaires are send to the respondents through mail or hand-delivery, and they complete
on their own.
ii. Researcher administered questionnaires
The researcher can decide to use the questionnaire to interview the respondents. This is
mostly done when the subjects may not have the ability to easily interpret the questions
probably because of their educational level.
iii. Use of the internet
The people sampled for the research receive and respond to the questionnaires through their
web sites or e-mail addresses.
The letter of transmittal / Cover letter
The letter of transmittal / Cover letter should accompany every questionnaire.
Contents of a letter of transmittal
 It should explain the purpose of the study.
 It should explain the importance and significance of the stuidy.
 A brief assurance of confidentiality should be included in the letter.
 If the study is affiliated to a certain institution or organisation, it is advisable to have an
endorsement from such an institution or organisation.
 In a sensitive research, it may be necessary to assure the anonymity of respondents.
 The letter should contain specific deadline dates by which the completed questionnaire is to
be returned.
Follow-up techniques
 Sending a follow-up letter which should be polite, and asking the subjects to respond
 A questionnaire and a follow-up letter.
Response rate
It refers to the percentage of subjects who respond to questionnaires. Many authors believe that
a response rate of 50% is adequate for analysis and reporting. If the response rate is low, the
researcher must question the representativeness of the sample.
INTERVIEWS
An interview is an oral (face to face) administration of a questionnaire or an interview schedule.
To obtain accurate information through interviews, a researcher needs to obtain the maximum
co-operation from respondents. Interviews are particularly useful for getting the story behind a
participant's experiences. The interviewer can pursue in-depth information around a topic.
Interviews may be useful as follow-up to certain respondents to questionnaires, e.g., to further
investigate their responses. Usually open-ended questions are asked during interviews.
Guidelines for preparation for Interview

39
1. Choose a setting with little distraction. Avoid loud lights or noises, ensure the interviewee is
comfortable (you might ask them if they are), etc. Often, they may feel more comfortable at
their own places of work or homes.
2. Explain the purpose of the interview.
3. Address terms of confidentiality. Note any terms of confidentiality. (Be careful here. Rarely
can you absolutely promise anything. Courts may get access to information, in certain
circumstances.) Explain who will get access to their answers and how their answers will be
analyzed. If their comments are to be used as quotes, get their written permission to do so.
4. Explain the format of the interview. Explain the type of interview you are conducting
and its nature. If you want them to ask questions, specify if they're to do so as they have them
or wait until the end of the interview.
5. Indicate how long the interview usually takes.
6. Tell them how to get in touch with you later if they want to.
7. Ask them if they have any questions before you both get started with the interview.
8. Don't count on your memory to recall their answers. Ask for permission to record the
interview or bring along someone to take notes.
Types of Interviews approaches
(a) Informal, conversational interview - no predetermined questions are asked, in order to
remain as open and adaptable as possible to the interviewee's nature and priorities;
during the interview, the interviewer "goes with the flow".
(b) General interview guide approach - the guide approach is intended to ensure that the
same general areas of information are collected from each interviewee; this provides
more focus than the conversational approach, but still allows a degree of freedom and
adaptability in getting information from the interviewee.
(c) Standardized, open-ended interview - here, the same open-ended questions are asked to
all interviewees (an open-ended question is where respondents are free to choose how to
answer the question, i.e., they don't select "yes" or "no" or provide a numeric rating,
etc.); this approach facilitates faster interviews that can be more easily analyzed and
compared
(d) Closed, fixed-response interview - where all interviewees are asked the same questions
and asked to choose answers from among the same set of alternatives. This format is
useful for those not practiced in interviewing.
Sequence of Questions
1. Get the respondents involved in the interview as soon as possible.
2. Before asking about controversial matters (such as feelings and conclusions), first ask
about some facts. With this approach, respondents can more easily engage in the interview
before warming up to more personal matters.
3. Intersperse fact-based questions throughout the interview to avoid long lists of fact-based
questions, which tends to leave respondents disengaged.
4. Ask questions about the present before questions about the past or future. It's usually
easier for them to talk about the present and then work into the past or future.
5. The last questions might be to allow respondents to provide any other information they
prefer to add and their impressions of the interview.
Wording of Questions
 Wording should be open-ended. Respondents should be able to choose their own terms
when answering questions.

40
  Questions should be as neutral as possible. Avoid wording that might influence answers,
e.g., evocative, judgmental wording.
 Questions should be asked one at a time.
 Questions should be worded clearly. This includes knowing any terms particular to the
program or the respondents' culture.
 Be careful asking "why" questions. This type of question infers a cause-effect relationship
that may not truly exist. These questions may also cause respondents to feel defensive,
e.g., that they have to justify their response, which may inhibit their responses to this and
future questions.
 While Carrying Out Interview
 Occasionally verify the tape recorder (if used) is working.
 Ask one question at a time.
 Attempt to remain as neutral as possible. That is, don't show strong emotional reactions to
their responses. Patton suggests to act as if "you've heard it all before."
 Encourage responses with occasional nods of the head, "uh huh"s, etc.
 Be careful about the appearance when note taking. That is, if you jump to take a note, it
may appear as if you're surprised or very pleased about an answer, which may influence
answers to future questions.
 Provide transition between major topics, e.g., "we've been talking about (some topic) and
now I'd like to move on to (another topic)."
 Don't lose control of the interview. This can occur when respondents stray to another
topic, take so long to answer a question that times begins to run out, or even begin asking
questions to the interviewer.
Immediately After Interview
 Verify if the tape recorder, if used, worked throughout the interview.
 Make any notes on your written notes, e.g., to clarify any scratchings, ensure pages are
numbered, fill out any notes that don't make senses, etc.
 Write down any observations made during the interview. For example, where did the
interview occur and when, was the respondent particularly nervous at any time? Were
there any surprises during the interview? Did the tape recorder break?
Personal interviews
People selected to be part of the sample are interviewed in person by a trained interviewer.
Requirements for success
Three broad conditions must be met in order to have a successful personal interview:
 The participant must possess the information being targeted by the investigative questions
 The participant must understand his or her role in the interview as the provider of accurate
information
 The participant must perceive adequate motivation to cooperate
Increasing the participant’s receptiveness
The first goal in an interview is to establish a friendly relationship with the participant. Three
factors will help increase participant receptiveness. The participant must:
 Believe that the experience will be pleasant and satisfying
 Believe that answering the survey is an important and worthwhile use of his or her time
 Dismiss any mental reservations that he or she might have about participation.
The technique of stimulating participants to answer more fully and relevantly is termed probing.
Since it presents a great potential for bias, a probe should be neutral and appear as a natural part

41
of the conversation. Appropriate probes should be specified by the designer of the data collection
instrument. There are several probing styles e.g.
 A brief assertion of understanding and interest e.g. comments such as “I see” “yes”.
 An expectant pause
 Repeating the question
 Repeating the participant’s reply
 A neutral question or comment
 Question clarification.
Problems likely to be encountered during personal interviews
In personal interviews, the researcher must deal with bias and cost.
Biased results is as a result of three types of errors:
(a) Sampling error
It’s the difference between a sample statistic and its corresponding population parameter. The
sampling distribution of the sample means is a probability distribution of possible sample
means of a given sample size.
(b) Non-response error
This occurs when the responses of participants differ in some systematic way from the responses
of non-participants. It occurs when the researcher:
 Cannot locate the person to be studied
 Is unsuccessful in encouraging that person to participate
Solutions to reduce errors of non-response are
 Establishing and implementing callback procedures
 Creating a non response sample and weighting results from this sample
 Substituting another individual for the missing non-participant.
(c) Response error
Occurs when the data reported differ from the actual data. It can occur during the interview or
during preparation of data analysis.
 Participant-initiated error occurs when the participant fails to answer fully and accurately
either by choice or because of inaccurate or incomplete knowledge. Can be solved by using
trained interviewers who are knowledgeable about such problems.
 Interviewer error can be caused by:-
- Failure to secure full participant cooperation
- Failure to consistently execute interview procedures
- Failure to establish appropriate interview environment
- Falsification of individual answers or whole interviews
- Inappropriate influencing behaviour
- Failure to record answers accurately and completely
- Physical presence bias.
Advantages of Personal interviews
 Good cooperation from the respondents
 Interviewer can answer questions about survey, probe for answers, use follow-up
questions and gather information by observation.
 Special visual aids and scoring devices can be used.
 Illiterate and functionally illiterate respondents can be reached
 Interviewer can prescreen respondent to ensure he / she fits the population profile.

42
  Responses can be entered directly into a portable microcomputer to reduce error and cost
when using computer assisted personal interviewing.
Disadvantages of Personal interviews
 High costs
 Need for highly trained interviewers
 Longer period needed in the field collecting data
 May be wide geographic dispersion
 Follow-up is labour intensive
 Not all respondents are available or accessible
 Some respondents are unwilling to talk to strangers in their homes
 Some neighborhoods are difficult to visit
 Questions may be altered or respondent coached by interviewers.
Telephone interviews
People selected to be part of the sample are interviewed on the telephone by a trained
interviewer.
Advantages of Telephone interviews
 Lower costs than personal interviews
 Expanded geographic coverage without dramatic increase in costs
 Uses fewer, more highly skilled interviewers
 Reduced interview bias
 Fates completion time
 Better access to hard-to-reach respondents through repeated callbacks
 Can use computerized random digit dialing
 Responses can be entered directly into a computer file to reduce error and cost when using
computer assisted telephone interviewing.
Disadvantages of Telephone interviews
 Response rate is lower than for personal interview
 Higher costs if interviewing geographically dispersed sample
 Interview sample must be limited
 Many phone numbers are unlisted or not working, making directory listings unreliable
 Some target groups are not available by phone
 Responses may be less complete
 Illustrations cannot be used.
 Respondents may not be honest with their responses since it is not a face to face situation
Rules pertaining to interviews
The interviewer must
 Be pleasant
 Show genuine interest in getting to know respondents without appearing like spies.
 Be relaxed and friendly.
 Be very familiar with the questionnaire or the interview guide.
 Have a guide which indicates what questions are to be asked and in what order.
 Interact with the respondent as an equal.
 Pretest the interview guide before using it to check for vocabulary, language level and how
well the questions will be understood.
 Inform the respondent about the confidentiality of the information given.
 Not ask leading questions

43
  Remain neutral in an interview situation in order to be as objective as possible.
An interview schedules
It’s a set of questions that the interviewer asks when interviewing. It makes it possible to obtain
data required to meet specific objectives of the study.
Note taking during interviews
It refers to the method of recording in which the interviewer records the respondent’s responses
during the interview.
Advantages
 It facilitates data analysis since the information is readily accessible and already classified
into appropriate categories.
 If taken well, no information is left out.

Disadvantages of note taking

 It may interfere with the communication between the respondent and the interviewer.
 It might upset the respondent if the answers are personal and sensitive.
 If it is delayed, important details may be forgotten.
 It makes the interview lengthy and boring.
Tape recording
The interviewer’s questions and the respondent’s answers are recorded either using a tape
recorder or a video tape.
Advantages
 It reduces the tendency for the interviewer to make unconscious selection of data in the
course of the recording.
 The tape can be played back and studied more thoroughly.
 A person other than the interviewer can evaluate and categorize responses.
 It speeds up the interview.
 Communication is not interrupted.
Disadvantages
 It changes the interview situation since respondents get nervous.
 Respondents may be reluctant to give sensitive information if they know they are being
taped.
 Transcribing the tapes before analysis is time consuming and tedious.
Advantages of interviews
 It provides in-depth data, which is not possible to get using a questionnaire.
 It makes it possible to obtain data required to meet specific objectives of the study.
 Are more flexible than questionnaires because the interviewer can adapt to the situation and
get as much information as possible.
 Very sensitive and personal information can be extracted from the respondent.
 The interviewer can clarify and elaborate the purpose of the research and effectively
convince respondents about the importance of the research.
 They yield higher response rates
Disadvantages of interviews
 They are expensive – traveling costs
 It requires a higher level of skill
 Interviewers need to be trained to avoid bias
 Not appropriate for large samples

44
  Responses may be influenced by the respondent’s reaction to the interviewer.
OBSERVATION
Observation is one of the few options available for studying records, mechanical processes,
small children and complex interactive processes. Data can be gathered as the event occurs.
Observation includes a variety of monitoring situations that cover non-behavioral and
behavioral activities.

The observer-participant relationship

Interrogation presents a clear opportunity for interviewer bias. The problem is less pronounced
with observation but is still real. The relationship between observer and participant may be
viewed from three perspectives:
 Whether the observation is direct or indirect
 Whether the observer’s presence is known or unknown to the participant
 What role the observer plays

Guidelines for the qualification and selection of observers

 Concentration: Ability to function in a setting full of distractions
 Detail-oriented: Ability to remember details of an experience
 Unobtrusive: Ability to blend with the setting and not be distinctive
 Experience level: Ability to extract the most from an observation study

Advantages of observation
Enables one to:
 Secure information about people or activities that cannot be derived from experiment or
surveys
 Reduces obtrusiveness
 Avoid participant filtering and forgetfulness
 Secure environmental context information
 Optimize the naturalness of the research setting
Limitations of observation
 Difficulty of waiting for long periods to capture the relevant phenomena
 The expense of observer costs and equipment
 Reliability of inferences from surface indicators
 The problem of quantification and disproportionately large records
Observation forms, schedules or checklists
The researcher must define the behaviors to be observed and then develop a detailed list of
behaviors. During data collection, the researcher checks off each as it occurs. This permits the
observer to spend time thinking about what is occurring rather than on how to record it and this
enhances the accuracy of the study.

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DATA ANALYSIS
DATA PREPARATION AND DESCRIPTION
Once the data begins to flow in, attention turns to data analysis. If the project has been done
correctly, the analysis planning is already done.
Data preparation
This includes editing, coding and data entry. These activities ensure the accuracy of the data and
their conversion from raw form to reduced and classified forms that are more appropriate for
analysis.
Editing
Editing detects errors and omissions, corrects them when possible and certifies that minimum
data quality standards have been achieved. The editor’s purpose is to guarantee that data are:
 Accurate
 Consistent with intent of the question and other information in the survey
 Uniformly entered
 Complete
 Arranged to simplify coding and tabulation
Field editing
In large projects, field editing review is a responsibility of the field supervisor. It should be done
soon after the data have been gathered. During the stress of data collection, the researcher often
uses ad hoc abbreviations and special symbols. Soon after the interview, experiment or
observation, the investigator should review the reporting forms. It is difficult to complete what
was abbreviated or written in shorthand or noted illegibly if the entry is not caught that day.
When entry gaps are present from interviews, a call back should be made rather than guessing
what the respondent ‘probably would have said’. Self-interviewing has no place in quality
research.
Central editing
For a small study, the use of a single editor produces maximum consistency. In large studies, the
tasks may be broken down so that each editor can deal with one entire section. This approach
will not identify inconsistencies between answers in different sections. However, this problem
can be handled by identifying points of possible inconsistency and having one editor check
specifically for them.
Rules to guide editors in their work
 Be familiar with instructions given to interviewers and coders
 Do not destroy, erase or make illegible the original entry by the interviewer, original entries
should be crossed out with a single line to remain legible.
 Make all entries on an instrument in some distinctive colour and in a standardized form.
 Initial all answers changed or supplied.
 Place initials and date of editing on each instrument completed.
Coding
Coding involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers so the responses can be grouped
into a limited number of classes or categories. The classifying of data into limited categories

46
sacrifices some data detail but is necessary for efficient analysis. Coding helps the researcher to
reduce several thousand replies to a few categories containing the critical information needed for
analysis. In coding, categories are the partitioning of a set and categorization is the process of
using rules to partition a body of data.
Coding rules
The categories should be:
 Appropriate to the research problem and purpose: Categories must provide the best
partitioning of data for testing hypotheses and showing relationships.
 Exhaustive
 Mutually exclusive
 Derived from one classification principle
Coding closed questions
The responses to closed questions include scaled items and others for which answers can be
anticipated. When codes are established early in the research process, it is possible to pre-code
the questionnaire. Pre-coding is particularly helpful for data entry because it makes the
intermediate step of completing a coding sheet unnecessary. The data are accessible directly
from the questionnaire. A respondent, interviewer, field supervisor or researcher is able to assign
an appropriate numerical response on the instrument by checking, circling or printing it in the
proper coding location.
Coding open-ended questions
Open-ended questions are always used where insufficient information or lack of a hypothesis
prohibits preparing response categories in advance, need to measure sensitive or disapproved
behaviour, discover salience or encouraging natural modes of expressions. Content analysis is
always used to analyse open-ended questions. Converse and Presser (1986) define content
analysis as a research technique for the objective, systematic and quantitative description of the
manifest content of a communication.
Content analysis follows a systematic process i.e.
 Selection of a unitization scheme. The units may be syntactical, referential, prepositional
or thematic
 Selection of a sampling plan
 Development of recording and coding instructions
 Data reduction
 Inferences about the context
 Statistical analysis
Content analysis guards against selective perception of the content, provides for the rigorous
application of reliability and validity criteria and is amenable to computerization.
“Don’t know” replies
“Don’t know” replies are evaluated in light of the questions nature and the respondent. While
many don’t know are legitimate, some result from questions that are ambiguous or from an
interviewing situation that is not motivating. It is better to report don’t knows as a separate
category unless there are compelling reasons to treat them otherwise.
Data entry
Data entry converts information gathered by secondary or primary methods to a medium for
viewing and manipulation. Data entry is accomplished by keyboard entry from pre-coded
instruments, optical scanning, real time keyboarding, telephone pad data entry, bar codes, voice
recognition, optical mark recognition (OMR) and data transfers from electronic notebooks and

47
laptop computers. Database programs, spreadsheets and editors in statistical software programs
e.g. SPSS and SAS offer flexibility for entering, manipulating and transferring data for analysis,
warehousing and mining.
Data description
The objective of descriptive statistical analysis is to develop sufficient knowledge to describe a
body of data. This is accomplished by understanding the data levels for the measurements we
choose, their distributions and characteristics of location, spread and shape. The discovery of
miscoded values, missing data and other problems in the data set is enhanced with descriptive
statistics
There are three general areas that make up the field of statistics: descriptive statistics, relational
statistics, and inferential statistics:
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
Descriptive statistics fall into one of two categories: measures of central tendency (mean,
median, and mode) or measures of dispersion (standard deviation and variance). Their purpose is
to explore hunches that may have come up during the course of the research process, but most
people compute them to look at the normality of their numbers. Examples include descriptive
analysis of sex, age, race, social class, and so forth.
VISUAL DISPLAYS OF DATA
In addition to numerical summaries of location, spread and shape, visual displays can be used to
provide a complete and accurate impression of distribution and variable relationships.
 Frequency table arrays data from highest to lowest values with counts and percentages.
They are most useful for inspecting the range of responses and their repeated occurrence.
 Bar charts and pie charts are appropriate for relative comparisons of nominal data.
 Histograms are optimally used with continuous variables where intervals group the
responses.
 Stem and leaf displays present actual data values using a histogram type device that
allows inspection of spread and shape.
 Box plots use the five-number summary to convey a detailed picture of a distribution’s
main body, tails and outliers.
 Control charts displays sequential measurements of a process together with a centre line
and control limits. The selection of a control chart depends on the level of data one is
measuring. It helps manager’s focus on special causes of variation by revealing whether a
system is under control and substantiating results from improvements.
 The Pareto diagram is a bar chart whose percentages sum to 100 percent. The causes of
the problem under investigation are sorted in decreasing importance with bar height
descending from left to right. Its pictorial array reveals the highest concentration of
quality improvement potential in the fewest number of remedies.
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
HYPOTHESIS TESTING
Definitions
Hypothesis: It’s a statement about a population parameter developed for the purpose of testing.
Hypothesis testing: It’s a procedure based on sample evidence and probability theory to
determine whether the hypothesis is a reasonable statement.
Procedure for testing a hypothesis
1. State the null and alternate hypothesis
2. Identify the test statistic

48
 3. Formulate a decision rule and identify the rejection region
4. Compute the value of the test statistic
5. Make a conclusion.
State the null hypothesis (HO) and alternate hypothesis (HA)
 The null hypothesis is a statement about the value of a population parameter. It should be
stated as “There is no significant difference between ……………”. It should always
contain an equal sign.
 The alternate hypothesis is a statement that is accepted if sample data provide enough
evidence that the null hypothesis is false.
One-tailed and Two-tailed tests
 A test is one tailed when the alternate hypothesis states a direction e.g.
Ho: The mean income of women is equal to the mean income of men
HA: The mean income of women is greater than the mean income of men
 A test is two tailed if no direction is specified in the alternate hypothesis
Ho: There is no difference between the mean income of women and the mean income
of men
HA: There is a difference between the mean income of women and the mean income
of men
Identify the test statistic
A test statistic is the statistic that will be used to test the hypothesis e.g.
, , Fand 2 (chi  square)
Formulating a decision rule and identifying the rejection region
A decision rule is a statement of the conditions under which the null hypothesis is rejected and
the conditions under which it is not rejected. It is determined by the level of significance which is
designated by  and should be between 0 –1.
Compute the value of the test statistic and make a conclusion.
The value of the test statistic is determined from the sample information, and is used to
determine whether to reject the null hypothesis or not.

Types of errors that can be committed

i. Type I error: it is rejecting the null hypothesis, when it is true.
ii. Type II error: It is accepting the null hypothesis, when it is false.
Null hypothesis Accept HO Reject HO
HO is True Correct decision Type I error
HO is false Type II error Correct decision

TESTING THE POPULATION MEAN WHEN THE POPULATION VARIANCE IS

KNOWN
When the population variance is known and the population is normally distributed, the test
x
statistic for testing hypothesis about  is Z  .

n
Estimating the population mean when the population variance is known
The confidence interval estimator of  when  2 is known is

49
 x  Z 
2 n

Examples
A study by the Coca-Cola Company showed that the typical adult Kenyan consumes 18 gallons
of Coca-Cola each year. According to the same survey, the standard deviation of the number
of gallons consumed is 3.0. A random sample of 64 college students showed they consumed
an average (mean) of 17 gallons of cola last year. At the 0.05 significance level, can we
conclude that there is a significance difference between the mean consumption rate of college
students and other adults?
The manager of a departmental store is thinking about establishing a new billing system for the
stores credit customers. After a thorough financial analysis, she determines that the new
system will not be cost effective if the average monthly account is less than 70,000. A
random sample of 200 monthly accounts is drawn, for which the mean monthly account is
Sh. 66,000. With  = 0.05, is there sufficient evidence to conclude that the new system will
not be cost effective? Assume that the population standard deviation is Sh. 30,000.
Past experience indicates that the monthly long distance telephone bill per household in a
particular community is normally distributed, with a mean of Sh. 1012 and a standard
deviation of Sh. 327. After an advertising campaign that encouraged people to make long
distance telephone calls more frequently, a random sample of 57 households revealed that the
mean monthly long distance bill was Sh. 1098. Can we conclude at the 10% significance
level that the advertising campaign was successful?
Testing the population proportion
The null and alternate hypotheses of tests of proportions are set up in the same way as the
pˆ  p
hypothesis of tests about mean and variance. The test statistic for p is Z 
pq
n
pˆ qˆ
Confidence interval estimator of p is pˆ  Z 
2 n
Example:
An inventor has developed a system that allows visitors to museums, zoos and other attractions
to get information at the touch of a digital code. For example, zoo patrons can listen to an
announcement (recorded on a microchip) about each animal they see. It is anticipated that the
device would rent for $3.00 each. The installation cost for the complete system is expected to
be about $400,000. The ABC zoo is interested in having the system installed, but the
management is uncertain about whether to take the risk. A financial analysis of the problem
indicates that if more than 10% of the zoo visitors rent the system, the zoo will make a profit.
To help make the decision, a random sample of 400 zoo visitors is given details of the
systems capabilities and cost. If 48 people say that they would rent the device, can the
management of the zoo conclude at the 5% significance level that the investment would result
in a profit?
In a random sample of 100 units from an assembly line, 22 were defective.
Does this provide sufficient evidence at the 10% significance level to allow us to conclude
that the defective rate among all units exceeds 10%?
Find a 99% confidence interval estimate of the defective rate.

50
A manufacturer of computer chips claims that more than 90% of his products conform to
specifications. In a random sample of 1,000 chips drawn from a large production run, 75 were
defective. Do the data provide sufficient evidence at the 1% level of significance to enable us
to conclude that the manufacturer’s claim is true?
Chi-square test of a multinomial experiment
A multinomial experiment is a generalized version of a binomial experiment that allows for
more than two possible outcomes on each trial of the experiment.
Properties of a multinomial experiment
The experiment consists of a fixed number n of trials.
The outcome of each trial can be classified into exactly one of k categories called cells
The probability Pi that the outcome of a trial will fall into a cell i remains constant for each
trial, for i  1, 2, 3, .........k. moreover, P1  P2 ........Pk  1.
Each trial of the experiment is independent of the other trials.

k
oi  ei 2
Test statistic is  
2

i 1 i

Rejection region is  2   2 , k -1
Example
Two companies A and B have recently conducted aggressive advertising campaigns in order to
maintain and possibly increase their respective shares of the market for a particular product.
These two companies enjoy a dominant position in the market. Before advertising campaigns
began, the market share for Company A was 45% while Company B had a market share of
40%. Other competitors accounted for the remaining market share of 15%. To determine
whether these market shares changed after the advertising campaigns, a marketing analyst
solicited the preferences of a random sample of 200 consumers of this product. Of the 200
consumers, 100 indicated a preference for Company’s A’s product, 85 preferred Company’s
B product and the remainder preferred one or another of the products distributed by other
competitors. Conduct a test to determine at the 5% level of significance, whether the market
shares have changed from the levels they were at before the advertising campaigns occurred.
To determine if a single die, is balanced, or fair, the die was rolled 600 times. The observed
frequencies with which each of the six sides of the die turned up are recorded in the following
table: -
Face 1 2 3 4 5 6
Observed frequency 114 92 84 101 107 102
Is there sufficient evidence to conclude at the 5% level of significance, that the die is not fair?
Rule of five
For the discrete distribution of the test statistic  2 to be adequately approximated by the
continuous chi-square distribution, the conventional rule is to require that the expected frequency
for each cell be at least 5. Where necessary, cells should be combined in order to satisfy this
condition. The choice of cells to be combined should be made in such a way that meaningful
categories result from the combination.

51
 CHI-SQUARE TEST OF A CONTIGENCY TABLE
A contingency table is a rectangular table which items from a population are classified according
to two characteristics. The objective is to analyze the relationship between two qualitative
variables i.e. to investigate whether a dependence relationship exists between two variables or
whether the variables are statistically independent. The number of degrees of freedom for a
contingency table with r rows and c columns is d . f .  r - 1 c  1.
Examples
1. The trustee of a company’s pension plan has solicited the opinions of a sample of the
company’s employees regarding a proposed revision of the plan. A breakdown of the
responses is shown in the table below: -
Response Blue-collar White-collar Managers
workers workers
For 67 32 11
Against 63 18 9
Is there sufficient evidence at the 5% significance level, to conclude that the responses differ
among the three groups of employees?
2. There are three distinct types of hardware wholesalers; independents (independently owned),
Wholesaler voluntaries (groups of independents acting together) and retailer cooperatives
(retailer owned). In a random sample of 137 retailers, the retailers were categorized
according to the type of wholesaler they primarily used and according to their store location
as shown in the table below:
Store Location Retailer Wholesaler Independents
cooperatives Voluntaries
Multiple locations 14 10 5
Free- standing 29 26 13
Others (Mall, strips) 20 14 6
At the 5% significance level, is there sufficient evidence to conclude that the type of
wholesaler primarily used by a retailer is related to the retailers location?
RELATIONAL STATISTICS
Relational statistics fall into one of three categories: univariate, bivariate, and multivariate
analysis. Univariate analysis is the study of one variable for a sub-population. Bivariate analysis
is the study of a relationship between two variables. Multivariate analysis is the study of
relationship between three or more variables. The relational statistics include correlation,
regression, discriminant analysis, conjoint analysis, factor analysis and cluster analysis
 Discriminant analysis: It is used to classify people or objects into groups based on several
predictor variables. The groups are defined by a categorical variable with two or more values,
whereas the predictors are metric. The effectiveness of the discriminant equation is based not
only on its statistical significance but also on its success in correctly classifying cases to
groups.
 Conjoint analysis: It is a technique that typically handles non-metric independent variables.
It allows the researcher to determine the importance of product or service attributes and the
levels or features that are most desirable. Respondents provide preference data by ranking or
rating cards that describe products. These data become utility weights of product
characteristics by means of optimal scaling and log linear algorithms.

52
 Factor analysis: It attempts to reduce the umber of variables and discover the underlying
constructs that explain the variance. A correlation matrix is used to derive a factor matrix
from which the best linear combination of variables may be extracted.
 Cluster analysis: It is a set of techniques for grouping similar objects or people. The cluster
procedure starts with an undifferentiated group of people, events or objects and attempts to
reorganize them into homogeneous sub-groups.
REGRESSION ANALYSIS
Regression involves developing a mathematical equation that analyses the relationship between
the variable to be forecast (dependent variable) and the variables that the statistician believes are
related to the forecast variable (independent variable).
Regression is the estimation of unknown values or the prediction of one variable from known
values of other variables.
Types of regression
 Simple linear regression: Involves a relationship between two variables only.
 Multiple regression: Analyses or considers the relationship between three or more variables.
Simple Linear Regression
The general linear regression model is of the general form Y   0  1 x  e
Where Y- dependent variable x- Independent variable
 o - Y-intercept  1 - Slope or Gradient e - error variable
To define the relationship between X and Y, the values of the coefficients of the linear model
 o and  1 must be known.
The sample regression equation is of the form yˆ  ˆ  ˆ x . The sample statistics ̂ and ˆ are
0 1 0 1

unbiased estimators of the population parameters  0 and  1 . The sample statistics can be
computed using the following formulae:-
SS xy  x  2

̂1  ˆ0  y  ˆ1 x SS xx  x 2

SS xx n
 x  y   y 2

SS xy   xy  SS yy y  2

n n

Linear regression
The linear relationship between Y and X can be written in the form of a straight-line equation
Y  a  bX . The constant b is called the regression coefficient.
The independent variable is known as the regressor, predictor or explanator.
The dependent variable is known as the regressed or explained variable.
Regression equations
There are two types of regression equations:
(a) The regression equation of Y on X.
 It used to predict the values of Y from the given values of X.
 It is expressed as follows Y  a  bX
 To determine the values of a and b the following two normal equations are to be solved
simultaneously

53
  Y  Na  b X
 XY  a X  b X 2

 Alternatively the values of a and b can be got using the following formula’s
a  Y  bX

b
 XY  n X Y
 X  nX
2 2

(b) The regression equation of X on Y

 It used to predict the values of X from the given values of Y
 It is expressed as follows X  a  bY
 To determine the values of a and b the following two normal equations are to be solved
simultaneously
 X  Na  b Y
 XY  a Y  b Y 2

 Alternatively the values of a and b can be got using the following formula’s
a  X  bY

b
 XY  n X Y
 Y  nY
2 2

Properties of the regression coefficients

 The coefficient of correlation is the geometric mean of the two regression coefficients i.e.
r  bxy * b yx
 If one of the regression coefficients is greater than unity, the other must be less than unity,
since the value of the coefficient of correlation cannot exceed unity.
 Both the regression coefficients will have the same sign.
 The coefficient of correlation will have the same sign as that of regression coefficients
 The average value of the regression coefficients would be greater than the value of
coefficient of correlation.
 Regression coefficients are independent of change of origin but not scale.
Uses of Regression Analysis
It provides estimates of values of the dependent variables from values of independent variables.
Helps one to obtain a measure of the error involved in using the regression line as a basis for
estimation.
Helps in obtaining a measure of the degree of association or correlation that exists between the
two variables.
EXAMPLE
A random sample of eight auto drivers insured with a company and having similar auto
insurance policies was selected. The following table lists their driving experience (in years) and
the monthly auto insurance premium (in Sh.000) paid by them.
Driving experience Monthly auto insurance premium
(Years) (In Sh.000)
5 64
2 87

54
 12 50
9 71
15 44
6 56
25 42
16 60
i. Find the least squares regression line by identifying the appropriate dependent and
independent variable
ii. Interpret the meaning of the values of 0 and 1 calculated in part (i).
iii. Compute the correlation of coefficient and coefficient of determination and interpret them.

SOLUTION

i.
SS xy
yˆ   0  1 x ̂1  ˆ0  y  ˆ1 x
SS xx

 x  90 x 2
 1396  xy  4739  y  474 y 2
 29642

SS xx  x 
 x 
2
2

 1396 
902
 383.5
n 8

SS xy   xy 
 x  y   4739  90 * 474  593.5
n 8

SS yy  y 
 y 
2
2

 29642 
4742
 1557.5
n 8

SS xy  593.5
ˆ1    1.55
SS xx 383.5

ˆ0  y  ˆ1 x  59.25  (1.55 *11.25)  76.69

yˆ  0  1x  76.69  1.55x

ii. ˆ1  1.55 it indicates the rate at which the insurance premium reduces with an
additional year of driving experience
ˆ0  76.69 It indicates the amount of premium that would be paid by a driver without
any years of experience.

iii.

55
 SS xy  593.5
r   0.77
SS xx * SS yy 383.5 *1557.5
There is a strong negative relationship between the years of experience and the monthly auto
insurance premiums
r 2  0.77 2  59.29%

59.29% of the premium paid is determined by the driving experience

Exercises
1. In an attempt to get a better idea of some of the determinants of medical expenditures by
families, a social worker collected data on family size and average weekly medical bills, with
the results shown in the following table;
Family size 2 2 4 5 7 3 8 10 5 2 3 5 2
Weekly medical
expenses ( in Sh. ’00’) 20 28 52 50 78 35 102 88 51 22 29 49 25

Find the least squares regression line by identifying the appropriate dependent and independent
variable.
Interpret the meaning of the values of 0 and 1 calculated in part (i).
Compute the coefficient of correlation and coefficient of determination and interpret them.

2. A Farmer wanted to find out the relationship between the amount of fertilizer used and the
yield of corn. He selected seven acres of his land on which he used different amounts of
fertilizer to grow corn. The following table gives the amount (in kg) of fertilizer used and the
yield (in Tonnes) of corn for each of the seven acres.
Fertilizer Used 120 80 100 70 88 75 110
Yield of Corn 138 112 129 96 119 104 134
i. Find the least squares regression line by identifying the appropriate dependent and
independent variable
ii. Interpret the meaning of the values of 0 and 1 calculated in part (i).
iii. Compute the correlation of coefficient and coefficient of determination and interpret
them.
3. Data from a sample of 10 pharmacies are used to examine the relation between prescription
sales volume and the percentage of prescription ingredients purchased directly from the
supplier. The sample data are shown in the table below:
Sales volume (sh.’000) 25 55 50 75 110 138 90 60 10 100
% of ingredients 10 18 25 40 50 63 42 30 5 55
purchased directly
i. Find the least squares regression line that can be used to predict the sales volume given the
percentage of ingredients purchased directly.
ii. Interpret the meaning of the values of the coefficients of the above regression equation.

iii. Compute the coefficient of correlation and coefficient of determination and interpret them.

56
4. The following data relate to the advertising expenditures in ten thousand shillings and their
corresponding sales in million shillings.

Advertising expenditure 10 12 15 23 20
Sales 14 17 23 25 21
Estimate
i. The sales corresponding to advertising expenditure of Sh. 300,000
ii. The advertising expenditure for a sales target of 35 million shillings.
iii. Determine the coefficient of correlation and comment on its value
CORRELATION
Definition: It is the existence of some definite relationship between two or more variables.
Correlation analysis is a statistical tool used to describe the degree to which one variable is
linearly related to another variable.
Types of variables
Correlation may be classified in the following ways:-
Positive and negative correlation.
Correlation is said to be positive if two series move in the same direction, otherwise it is negative
(opposite Direction).
Linear and Non-Linear correlation
Correlation is linear if the amount of change in one variable tends to bear a constant ratio to the
amount of change in the other variable otherwise it is non-linear.
Simple, partial and multiple correlation
Simple correlation is where two variables are studied while partial or multiple involves three or
more variables.
Methods of calculating simple correlation
1. Scatter diagram
2. Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation
3. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient
4. Method of least squares
Scatter diagram
It is a chart that potrays the relationship between two variables.
Advantages
It is simple and non-mathematical method of studying correlation between variables.
It is not influenced by the size of extreme values
Limitation
One cannot establish the exact degree of correlation between the variables.

Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation (Product moment coefficient of correlation)

The coefficient of correlation (r) is a measure of strength of the linear relationship between two
variables.

r
 xy  n x y
 x2  nx  y 2  n y
2 2

Interpretation of the coefficient of correlation

When r = +1, there is a perfect positive correlation between the variables
When r = -1, there is a perfect negative correlation between the variables

57
When r = 0, there is no correlation between the variables
The closer r is to +1 or to –1, the closer the relationship between the variables and the closer r is
to 0, the less close the relationship.
The closeness of the relationship is not proportional to r.
The following table lists the interpretations for various correlation coefficients:
Value Comment
0.8 to 1.0 Very strong
0.6 to 0.8 Strong
0.4 to 0.6 Moderate
0.2 to 0.4 Weak
0.0 to 0.2 Very weak

Advantage
It summarizes in one figure the degree of correlation and whether it is positive or negative.
Limitations
It assumes linear relationship regardless of the fact whether that assumption is true or not.
The coefficient can be misinterpreted.
The value of the coefficient is unduly affected by the extreme values.
It is time consuming.
Method of least squares
SS xy
r
SS xx * SS yy
Spearman’s Rank Correlation
Definition
It is the correlation between the ranks assigned to individuals by two different characters.
It is a non-parametric technique for measuring strength of relationship between paired
observations of two variables when the data are in ranked form.

It is denoted by R or p
6 d i2 6 d 2
R  1  1 3
N ( N 2  1) N N
In rank correlation, there are two types of problems:-
i. Where actual ranks are given
ii. Where actual ranks are not given

Where actual ranks are given

Steps:
 Take the differences of the two ranks i.e. (R1-R2) and denote these differences by d.
 Square these differences and obtain the total  d 2
6 d 2
 Use the formula R  1 
N3  N
Example
The ranks given by two judges to 10 individuals are given below.
Individual 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

58
 Judge 1(X) 1 2 7 9 8 6 4 3 10 5
Judge 2 (Y) 7 5 8 10 9 4 1 6 3 2
Calculate
(a) The spearman’s rank correlation.
(b) The Coefficient of correlation
Where ranks are not given
Ranks can be assigned by taking either the highest value as 1 or the lowest value as 1. the same
method should be followed in case of all the variables.
Example
Calculate the Rank correlation coefficient for the following data of marks given to 1st year B
Com students:
CMS 100 45 47 60 38 50
CAC 100 60 61 58 48 46
Merits of the Rank method
 It is simpler to understand and easier to apply compared to the Karl Pearson’s method.
 Where the data are of qualitative nature like honesty, efficiency, intelligence etc, the method
can be used with great advantage.
 It is the only method that can be used where we are given the ranks and not the actual values.
Limitations
 The method cannot be used for finding out correlation in a grouped frequency distribution.
 Where the number of observations exceeds 30, the calculations become quite tedious and
require a lot of time.
Coefficient of determination (r2)
It is the square of the correlation coefficient. It shows the proportion of the total variation in the
dependent variable Y that is explained or accounted for by the variation in the independent
variable X. e.g. If the value of r = 0.9, r2 = 0.81, this means 81% of the variation in the dependent
variable has been explained by the independent variable.

MEASUREMENT
Introduction

While people measure things casually in daily life, research measurement is more precise and
controlled. In measurement, one settles for measuring properties of the objects rather than the
objects themselves. An event is measured in terms of its duration i.e. what happened during it,
who was involved, where it occurred etc. Measurement is the basis for all systematic inquiry
because it provides us with the tools for recording differences in the outcome of variable change.

Definition of Measurement

Measurement is the procedure by which we assign numerals, numbers, or other distinguishing

values to variables according to rules. These rules help us determine the kinds of values we will
assign to certain observable phenomena or variables. They also determine the quality of
measurement. Precision and exactness in measurement are vitally important. The measures are
what are actually used to test the hypotheses. A researcher needs good measures for both
independent and dependent variables.

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Measurement consists of two basic processes called conceptualization and Operationalization,
then an advanced process called determining the levels of measurement, and then even more
advanced methods of measuring reliability and validity.

Conceptualization is the process of taking a construct or concept and refining it by giving it a

conceptual or theoretical definition. Ordinary dictionary definitions will not do. Instead, the
researcher takes keywords in their research question or hypothesis and finds a clear and
consistent definition that is agreed-upon by others in the scientific community. More common is
the process by which a researcher notes agreements and disagreements over conceptualization in
the literature review, and then comes down in favor of someone else's conceptual definition. It's
perfectly acceptable in science to borrow the conceptualizations and operationalizations of
others. Conceptualization is often guided by the theoretical framework, perspective, or approach
the researcher is committed to. For example, a researcher operating from within a Marxist
framework would have quite different conceptual definitions for a hypothesis about social class
and crime than a non-Marxist researcher. That's because there are strong value positions in
different theoretical perspectives about how some things should be measured.

Operationalization is the process of taking a conceptual definition and making it more precise
by linking it to one or more specific, concrete indicators or operational definitions. These are
usually things with numbers in them that reflect empirical or observable reality. For example, if
the type of crime one has chosen to study is theft (as representative of crime in general), creating
an operational definition for it means at least choosing between petty theft and grand theft (false
taking of less or more than $150). I don't want to give the impression from this example that
researchers should rely upon statutory or legal definitions. Some researchers do, but most often,
operational definitions are also borrowed or created anew. They're what link the world of ideas to
the world of everyday reality. It's more important that ordinary people would agree on your
indicators than other scientists or legislators, but again, avoid dictionary definitions. If you were
to use legalistic definitions, then it's your duty to provide what is called an auxiliary theory,
which is a justification for the research utility of legal hair-splitting (as in why less or more than
$150 is of theoretical significance). The most important thing to remember at this point,
however, is your unit of analysis. You want to make absolutely sure that everything you reduce
down is defined at the same unit of analysis: societal, regional, state, communal, individual, to
name a few. You don't want to end up with a research project that has to collect political science
data, sociological data, and psychological data. In most cases, you should break it all down so
that each variable is operationally defined at the same level of thought, attitude, trait, or
behavior, although some would call this psychological reductionism and are more comfortable
with group-level units or psychological units only as a proxy measure for more abstract, harder-
to-measure terms.

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

A level of measurement is a scale by which a variable is measured. For 50 years, with few
detractors, science has used the Stevens (1951) typology of measurement levels (scales). There
are three things to remember about this typology:

 Anything that can be measured falls into one of the four types;

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 The higher the level of measurement, the more precision in measurement; and
 Every level up contains all the properties of the previous level.

The four levels of measurement, from lowest to highest, are:

 Nominal
 Ordinal
 Interval
 Ratio

The nominal level of measurement describes variables that are categorical in nature. The
characteristics of the data you're collecting fall into distinct categories. If there are a limited
number of distinct categories (usually only two), then you're dealing with a dichotomous
variable. If there are an unlimited or infinite number of distinct categories, then you're dealing
with a continuous variable. Nominal variables include demographic characteristics like sex,
race, and religion.
The ordinal level of measurement describes variables that can be ordered or ranked in some
order of importance. It describes most judgments about things, such as big or little, strong or
weak. Most opinion and attitude scales or indexes in the social sciences are ordinal in nature.
The interval level of measurement describes variables that have more or less equal intervals, or
meaningful distances between their ranks. For example, temperature, time,

The ratio level of measurement describes variables that have equal intervals and a fixed zero
(or reference) point. It is possible to have zero income, zero education, and no involvement in
crime, but rarely do we see ratio level variables in social science since it's almost impossible to
have zero attitudes on things, although "not at all", "often", and "twice as often" might qualify as
ratio level measurement.
Advanced statistics require at least interval level measurement, so the researcher always strives
for this level, accepting ordinal level (which is the most common) only when they have to.
Variables should be conceptually and operationally defined with levels of measurement in mind
since it's going to affect how well you can analyze your data later on.

Sources of measurement differences

The ideal study should be designed and controlled for precise and unambiguous measurement of
the variables. Since 100% control is unattainable, error occurs. Much potential error is systematic
(results from a bias) while the remainder is random (occurs erratically). Some of the major
sources of error are:
(a) The respondent: opinion differences that affect measurement come from relatively stable
characteristics of the respondent e.g. employee status, ethnic group and social class.
Temporary factors like fatigue, boredom, anxiety and other distractions also limit the
ability to respond accurately and fully. Hunger, impatience or general variations in mood
will also have an impact.
(b) The situational factors: any condition that places a strain on the interview or
measurement session can have serious effects on the interviewer – respondent rapport. If
another person is present, that person can distort responses by joining in, by distracting or

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 by merely being present. If the respondents believe anonymity is not ensured, they may be
reluctant to express certain feelings.
(c) The measurer: the interviewer can distort responses by re-wording, paraphrasing, or re-
ordering questions. Stereotypes in appearance and action introduce bias. Inflections of
voice or unconscious prompting with smiles and nods may encourage or discourage certain
replies. Incorrect coding, careless tabulation and faulty statistical calculation may introduce
further errors in data analysis.
(d) The data collection instrument: a defective instrument can cause distortion in two major
ways:
 It can be too confusing and ambiguous e.g. the use of complex words, leading
questions, ambiguous meanings, multiple questions.
 Leads to poor selection from the universe of content items. Seldom does the
instrument explore all the potentially important issues.
TYPES OF VARIABLES

A variable is a measurable characteristic that assumes different values among the subjects.
According to Mugenda and Mugenda (2003), variables can be classified into the following
categories: -
1. Independent variables / Predictor variables
It is a variable that a researcher manipulates in order to determine its effect or influence on
another variable. They predict the amount of variation that occurs in another variables.
Types of independent variables
i. Experimental variables: They are variables which the researcher has manipulative
control over them. Are commonly used in biological and physical sciences e.g. influence
of amount of fertilizer on the yield of wheat, influence of alcohol on reaction time.

ii. Measurement types of independent variables: Are variables, which have already
occurred. They have fixed manipulative and uninfluenceable properties. Most of the
variables are either environmental or personalogical e.g. age, gender, marital status, race,
colour, geographical location, nationality, soil type, altitude etc. (e.g. influence of
nationality on choice of food).
2. Dependent variables / criterion variables
They attempt to indicate the total influence arising from the effects of the independent
variable. It varies as a function of the independent variable e.g. influence of hours studied on
performance in a statistical test, influence of distance from the supply center on cost of
building materials.

3. Control variables / concomitant / covariate or blocking variables

They are extraneous variables that are built into the study. Extraneous variables are variables,
which influence the results of a study when they are not controlled.

Reasons for introducing control variables:

 It increases the validity of the data.
 It leads to more convincing generalizations.

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Since absolute control of extraneous variables is not possible in any study, results are interpreted
on the basis of degrees of confidence rather than certainty.

Once the major extraneous variables are identified, the researcher can control them by:-
i. Building the extraneous variable into the study: i.e. including it as an independent
variable. E.g. in determining the effect of alcohol on reaction time, sex may influence
reaction time. Therefore, sex can be introduced as an independent variable. Using
regression, one can measure the effect of alcohol on reaction time, controlling sex.
ii. Include them in the study but only at one level e.g. time is the dependent variable, alcohol
level - the independent and sex the extraneous variable. Sex can be controlled by
sampling only females or males of a given age. The disadvantage of this method is that
generalizations are limited to a smaller population.
iii. By removing the effects of the extraneous variables by statistical procedures i.e. by
siphoning its effects on the dependent variable. This can be done by:
 Analysis of co-variance
 Partial correlation.

Extraneous variables
They are those variables that affect the outcome of a research study either because the researcher
is not aware of their existence or if the researcher is aware, she or he has no control over them.

Types of extraneous variables

i. Symmetrical extraneous variables
They are those variables which have a spurious relationship with both the independent and
dependent variables in the study i.e. a relationship between the dependent and the independent
variable is found not to exist when the symmetrical extraneous variable is controlled for, but
exists when the symmetrical extraneous variable is not controlled. The relationship is
accidental and not meaningful at all.

ii. Asymmetrical extraneous variables

It’s where the effect on the dependent variable is due to both the independent variable and an
extraneous variable, which has not been accounted for. A true relationship exists between the
independent and the dependent variables and the extraneous variable only magnifies such true
effect. The difficult part is to establish how much of the total effect on the dependent variable
is due to the independent variable and how much is due to the extraneous variable that has not
been controlled for.

Intervening variables

They are a special case of extraneous variables. The difference between the intervening and
extraneous variables is in the assumed relationship among the variables. With an extraneous
variable, there is no causal link between the independent and dependent variable, but they are
independently associated with a third variable – the extraneous variable. An intervening variable
is recognized as being caused by the independent variable and as being a determinant of the
dependent variable.

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Independent intervening dependent

The total effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable can be subdivided into direct
and indirect effects.

 Indirect effects are those effects of an intervening variable.

 Direct effects are not transmitted through another variable.

The choice of the right intervening variables helps one not only to determine accurately the total
effects of an independent variable on the dependent variable but also partition the total effects
into direct and indirect.

Antecedent variables

They do not interfere with the established relationship between an independent and dependent
variable but clarifies the influence that precedes such a relationship.

Antecedent independent dependent

Conditions that must hold for a variable to be classified as a antecedent variable:-

 The variables including the antecedent variable must be related in some logical sequence.
 When the antecedent variable is controlled for, the relationship between the independent
and the dependent variables should not disappear. Rather it should be enhanced.
 When the independent variable is controlled for or its influence removed, there should not
be any relationship between the antecedent variable and the dependent variable.

e.g. political stability – attracts investors – increased job opportunities – high standards of living
– reduction of poverty.

Suppressor variables

It is an extraneous variable which when not controlled for, removes a relationship between the
two variables. When a suppressor variable is introduced in the study as a control variable, a true
relationship emerges. E.g. effect of alcohol, on driver’s reaction time, in case of an emergency.

Sex and age – males 25-30 yrs – no relationship. But when the subjects are asked to press a
button when a red flash of light appears, there is a difference. Therefore the suppressor variable
is the colour of the flash light.

Distorter variables

It is a variable that converts what was thought of as a positive relationship into a negative
relationship and vice-versa. Its effects lead a researcher into drawing erroneous conclusions from
the data. When the distorter variable is controlled, a true relationship is obtained. Consideration

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of distorter variables in a study reduces the chances of making a type I (rejecting a true null
hypothesis) or type two error (accepting a false null hypothesis).

Exogenous and endogenous variables

They are commonly used in testing hypothesized causal models. Path analysis ( a procedure that
tests causal links among several variables) is often used in testing the validity of causal
relationships in a theory or model.

A C

B D

C and D are called endogenous variables. Each endogenous variable is caused or explained by
the variable that precedes it. E.g. D is caused by A, B and C.

A and B are called exogenous variables. They lack hypothesized causes in the model.

VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY IN RESEARCH

The quality of a research study depends to a large extent on the accuracy of the data collection
procedures. Reliability and validity measures the relevance and correctness of the data.
Reliability
Reliability is the extent to which an experiment, test, or any measuring procedure yields the same
result on repeated trials. Without the agreement of independent observers able to replicate
research procedures, or the ability to use research tools and procedures that yield consistent
measurements, researchers would be unable to satisfactorily draw conclusions, formulate
theories, or make claims about the generalizability of their research. In addition to its important
role in research, reliability is critical for many parts of our lives, including manufacturing,
medicine and sports. Reliability is such an important concept that it has been defined in terms of
its application to a wide range of activities.
Reliability is influenced by random error. Random error is the deviation from a true
measurement due to factors that have not effectively been addressed by the researcher. As
random error increases, reliability decreases.
Causes of random error
 Inaccurate coding
 Ambiguous instruction to the subjects
 Interviewer’s fatigue
 Interviewee’s fatigue
 Interviewer’s bias
Research instruments yield data that have two components; the true value or score and an error
component. The error component of the data reflects the limitations of the instrument. There are
three types of errors that arise at the time of data collection;
 Error due to the inaccuracy of the instrument

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 Error due to the inaccuracy of scoring by the researcher
 Unexplained error
Ways of Assessing Reliability
 Test-Retest
 Equivalent form
 Internal consistency
 Interrater reliability
1. The Test-Retest technique
It involves administering the same instruments twice to the same group of subjects, but after
some time. Stability reliability (sometimes called test, re-test reliability) is the agreement of
measuring instruments over time. To determine stability, a measure or test is repeated on the
same subjects at a future date. Results are compared and correlated with the initial test to give a
measure of stability.
An example of stability reliability would be the method of maintaining weights used by the
Kenya Bureau of Standards. Platinum objects of fixed weight (one kilogram, half kilogram,
etc...) are kept locked away. Once a year they are taken out and weighed, allowing scales to be
reset so they are "weighing" accurately. Keeping track of how much the scales are off from year
to year establishes stability reliability for these instruments. In this instance, the platinum
weights themselves are assumed to have a perfectly fixed stability reliability
Disadvantages
 Subjects may be sensitized by the first testing hence will do better in the second test
 Difficulty in establishing a reasonable period between the two testing sessions.
2. Equivalent form

Equivalent reliability is the extent to which two items measure identical concepts at an identical
level of difficulty. Equivalency reliability is determined by relating two sets of test scores to one
another to highlight the degree of relationship or association. In quantitative studies and
particularly in experimental studies, a correlation coefficient, statistically referred to as r, is used
to show the strength of the correlation between a dependent variable (the subject under study),
and one or more independent variable, which are manipulated to determine effects on the
dependent variable. An important consideration is that equivalency reliability is concerned with
correlational, not causal, relationships. For example, a researcher studying university Bachelor of
commerce students happened to notice that when some students were studying for finals, their
holiday shopping began. Intrigued by this, the researcher attempted to observe how often, or to
what degree, these two behaviors co-occurred throughout the academic year. The researcher used
the results of the observations to assess the correlation between studying throughout the
academic year and shopping for gifts. The researcher concluded there was poor equivalency
reliability between the two actions. In other words, studying was not a reliable predictor of
shopping for gifts.

Two instruments are used. Specific items in each form are different but they are designed to
measure the same concept. They are the same in number, structure and level of difficulty e.g.
TOEFL, GRE
Advantages
 Estimates the stability of the data as well as the equivalence of the items in the two forms
Disadvantages

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 Difficulty in constructing two tests, which measure the same concept (time and resources).
3. Internal consistency technique
Internal consistency is the extent to which tests or procedures assess the same characteristic, skill
or quality. It is a measure of the precision between the observers or of the measuring instruments
used in a study. This type of reliability often helps researchers interpret data and predict the
value of scores and the limits of the relationship among variables.
For example, a researcher designs a questionnaire to find out about college students'
dissatisfaction with a particular textbook. Analyzing the internal consistency of the survey items
dealing with dissatisfaction will reveal the extent to which items on the questionnaire focus on
the notion of dissatisfaction.
4. Interrater reliability
Interrater reliability is the extent to which two or more individuals (coders or raters) agree.
Interrater reliability addresses the consistency of the implementation of a rating system.
A test of interrater reliability would be the following scenario: Two or more researchers are
observing a high school classroom. The class is discussing a movie that they have just viewed as
a group. The researchers have a sliding rating scale (1 being most positive, 5 being most
negative) with which they are rating the student's oral responses. Interrater reliability assesses the
consistency of how the rating system is implemented. For example, if one researcher gives a "1"
to a student response, while another researcher gives a "5," obviously the interrater reliability
would be inconsistent. Interrater reliability is dependent upon the ability of two or more
individuals to be consistent. Training, education and monitoring skills can enhance interrater
reliability.
Ways of improving reliability
 Minimize external sources of variation
 Standardize conditions under which measurements occurs
 Improve investigator consistency by using only well trained, supervised and motivated
persons to conduct the research
 Broaden the sample of measurement questions by adding similar questions to the data
collection instrument or adding more observers or occasions to an observation study.
 Improve internal consistency of an instrument by excluding data from analysis drawn from
measurement questions eliciting extreme responses.
Validity

Validity refers to the degree to which a study accurately reflects or assesses the specific concept
that the researcher is attempting to measure. It is the degree to which results obtained from the
analysis of data actually represent the phenomenon under study. It is the accuracy and
meaningfulness of inferences, which are based on the research results. It has to do with how
accurately the data obtained in the study represents the variables of the study. If such data is a
true reflection of the variables, then inferences based on such data will be accurate and
meaningful. Validity is largely determined by the presence or absence of systematic error in the
data e.g. using a faulty scale to measure.

Types of validity
(a) Construct validity

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Construct validity seeks agreement between a theoretical concept and a specific measuring
device or procedure. For example, a researcher inventing a new IQ test might spend a great deal
of time attempting to "define" intelligence in order to reach an acceptable level of construct
validity. Construct validity can be broken down into two sub-categories: Convergent validity and
discriminate validity. Convergent validity is the actual general agreement among ratings,
gathered independently of one another, where measures should be theoretically related.
Discriminate validity is the lack of a relationship among measures which theoretically should not
be related. To understand whether a piece of research has construct validity, three steps should
be followed. First, the theoretical relationships must be specified. Second, the empirical
relationships between the measures of the concepts must be examined. Third, the empirical
evidence must be interpreted in terms of how it clarifies the construct validity of the particular
measure being tested.

(b) Content validity

Content Validity is based on the extent to which a measurement reflects the specific intended
domain of content.
Content validity can be illustrated using the following examples: Researchers aim to study
mathematical learning and create a survey to test for mathematical skill. If these researchers only
tested for multiplication and then drew conclusions from that survey, their study would not show
content validity because it excludes other mathematical functions. Although the establishment of
content validity for placement-type exams seems relatively straight-forward, the process
becomes more complex as it moves into the more abstract domain of socio-cultural studies. For
example, a researcher needing to measure an attitude like self-esteem must decide what
constitutes a relevant domain of content for that attitude. For socio-cultural studies, content
validity forces the researchers to define the very domains they are attempting to study.
The usual procedure in assessing the content validity of a measure is to use professional or
experts in the particular field. The instrument is given to two groups of experts, one group is
requested to assess what concept the instrument is trying to measure. The other group is asked to
determine whether the set of items or checklist accurately represents the concept under study.
(c) Criterion related validity
Criterion related validity, also referred to as instrumental validity, is used to demonstrate the
accuracy of a measure or procedure by comparing it with another measure or procedure which
has been demonstrated to be valid. For example, imagine a hands-on driving test has been shown
to be an accurate test of driving skills. By comparing the scores on the written driving test with
the scores from the hands-on driving test, the written test can be validated by using a criterion
related strategy in which the hands-on driving test is compared to the written test.
Types
 Predictive validity – refers to the degree to which obtained data predicts the future
behaviour of subjects e.g. B. Com graduates
 Concurrent validity- refers to the degree to which data are able to predict the behaviour of
subjects in the present and not in the future e.g. psychiatry
Internal and external validity
Researchers should be concerned with both external and internal validity.
 External validity refers to the extent to which the results of a study are generalizable or
transferable. External validity is the degree to which research findings can be generalized

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 to populations and environments outside the experimental setting. It has to do with
representativeness of the sample with regard to the target population.
 Internal validity refers to (1) the rigor with which the study was conducted (e.g., the
study's design, the care taken to conduct measurements, and decisions concerning what
was and wasn't measured) and (2) the extent to which the designers of a study have taken
into account alternative explanations for any causal relationships they explore. In studies
that do not explore causal relationships, only the first of these definitions should be
considered when assessing internal validity. Internal validity depends on the degree to
which extraneous variables have been controlled for in the study
Internal and external validity are inversely related to each other.
Threats to internal validity
 History – refers to occurrence of events that influence experimental units during the
course of the study
 Maturation – refers to the biological or psychological processes which occur among the
subjects in a relatively short time and which influence research findings
 Instrumentation -
 Pre-testing – solution – use equivalent form tests
 Statistical regression
 Attrition- subjects dropping out of the study before completion- leads to error, biasness in the
sample
 Differential selection – occurs when subjects are systematically selected for a study -
volunteers and non-volunteers – biasness leads error
 Selection – maturation interaction
 Ambiguity - when correlation is taken for causation
 Apprehension - when people are scared to respond to your study
 Demoralization - when people get bored with your measurements
 Diffusion - when people figure out your test and start mimicking symptoms
Threats to external validity
 Accessible and target population
 Control of extraneous variables
 Pre-test treatment interaction
 Explicit description of the sample

REPORT WRITING TECHNIQUES

A quality presentation of research findings can have an inordinate effect on a reader’s or a
listener’s perceptions of a study’s quality. Recognition of this fact should prompt a researcher to
make a special effort to communicate skillfully and clearly. Research reports contain findings,
analysis, interpretations, conclusions and recommendations. Research reports differ depending
on their aims and their readership. Reports should be clearly organized, physically inviting and
easy to read. Writers can achieve these goals if they are careful with mechanical details, writing
style and comprehensibility.
Writing a research proposal and research reports
A proposal is a document, which details an intended activity. The formats for writing proposals
differ from institution to institution or from department to department. Generally, a research
proposal should include the following prefatory items; the title page, declaration, table of
contents, list of figures and tables, list of acronyms and abbreviations and an abstract. It will also

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have chapter one: Introduction, Chapter Two: Literature review and Chapter Three:
Methodology. In addition it will also have the references, time schedule, budget and any
appendices.
The final research report will have what is contained in the proposal (apart from the time
schedule and budget) and in addition dedication, acknowledgement, chapter four: Data analysis
and findings and chapter five: Summary, conclusions and recommendations.
Prefatory items
Prefatory items do not have a direct bearing on the research itself. They assist the reader in using
the research report. They can include: -
Title page:
The title page should include the title of the report, the date and for whom and by whom it was
prepared. The title should be brief but should include the variables included in the study, the type
of relationship among the variables and the population to which the results may be applied.
Declaration
This is whereby the researcher declares that the work s his/her original work.
Dedication
Some researchers would always wish to dedicate their work to a person or persons they deem
special in their lives.
Acknowledgements
During the research process, the researcher may require help from other individuals or
organisations. It would be necessary if the researcher acknowledged received from these
individuals and organisations.
Table of contents and list of figures and tables
Any report with several sections that total more than six to ten pages should have a table of
contents. If there are many tables, charts or other exhibits, they should also be listed after the
table of contents in a separate list of tables or list of figures.
List of abbreviations and acronyms
All abbreviations and acronyms used in report should be explained. An abbreviation is a short
form of a word while an acronym is a contraction formed by taking the first letter of several
words.
Abstract
A proposal abstract is a summary of what the researcher intends to do. It should be brief, precise
and to the point.
Chapter One
Introduction
The introduction prepares the reader for the report by describing the parts of the report.
Background to the problem
In the background, the researcher should broadly introduce the topic under investigation. The
researcher introduces briefly the general area of study, and then narrows down to the specific
problem to be studied. The background enables the reader to have an idea of what is happening
regarding the area under investigation.
The problem Statement
The researcher states the problem under investigation. The researcher should describe the factors
that make the stated problem a critical issue to warrant the study. Relevant literature can be
referred to. It should be brief and precise.
The objectives of the study

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Research objectives are those specific issues within the scope of the stated purpose that the
researcher wants to focus upon and examine in the study. The objectives should be specific,
measurable, achievable, reliable and time bound. Objectives guide the researcher in formulating
testable hypotheses.
Research questions
These are the questions, which the researcher would like to be answered by undertaking the
study. They should be formulated from the objectives of the study.
Research Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a researcher’s prediction regarding the outcome of the study. It states possible
differences, relationships or causes between two variables or concepts. Hypothesis are derived
from or based on existing theories, previous research, personal observations or experiences. The
test of a hypothesis involves collection and analysis of data that may either support or fail to
support the hypothesis. If the results fail to support a stated hypothesis, it does not mean that the
study has failed but it implies that the existing theories or principles need to be revised or
retested under various situations.
Scope of the study
This section indicates the boundary of the study
Significance / Justification of the study
The justification helps to answer the following questions. Why is this work important? What are
the implications of doing it? How does it link to other knowledge? How does it stand to inform
policy making? The significance must be strong enough to warrant the use of time, energy and
money in carrying out the research.
Assumptions and limitations of the study
An assumption is any fact that a researcher takes to be true without actually verifying it. It puts
some boundary around the study and provides the reader with vital information, which influences
the way results of the study are interpreted. A limitation is an aspect of a research that may
influence the results negatively but over which the researcher has no control. A common
limitation in social science studies is the scope of the study, which sometimes may not allow
generalizations. Sample size may also be another limitation.
Chapter two
Literature Review
The purpose of the literature review is to situate your research in the context of what is already
known about a topic. It need not be exhaustive; it needs to show how your work will benefit the
whole. It should provide the theoretical basis for your work, show what has been done in the area
by others, and set the stage for your work.
In a literature review you should give the reader enough ties to the literature that they feel
confident that you have found, read, and assimilated the literature in the field. It should probably
move from the more general to the more focused studies, but need not be exhaustive, only
relevant.
The literature review should clearly present the holes in the knowledge that need to be plugged
and by so doing, situate your work. It is the place where you establish that your work will fit in
and be significant to the discipline.
Chapter three

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Research Methodology
This section should make clear to the reader the way that you intend to approach the research
question and the techniques and logic that you will use to address it.
Research design
The coverage of the design must be adapted to the purpose. In an experimental study, the
materials, tests, equipment, control conditions and other devices should be described. In
descriptive or ex post facto designs, it may be sufficient to cover the rationale for using one
design instead of competing alternatives. The strengths and weaknesses of the design can be
identified and the instrumentation and materials discussed.
The target population
The researcher should explicitly define the target population being studied
Sampling strategy
Explanations of the sampling methods, uniqueness of the chosen parameters or other points that
need explanation should be covered with brevity.
Data Types and Data Collection Techniques
This part of the report describes the specifics of gathering the data. Its contents depend on the
design. This might include the data that you anticipate collecting and a description of the
instruments you will use. Detailed copies of the data collection tools e.g. questionnaires,
interview schedule or observation schedule should be attached as an appendix.
Data Analysis
This section summarizes the methods used to analyze the data. It describes data handling,
preliminary analysis, statistical tests, computer programs and other technical information. The
rationale for the choice of analysis approaches should be clear. A brief commentary on
assumptions and appropriateness of use should be presented.
Chapter Four
Data analysis and Findings
The objective is to explain the data rather than draw interpretations or conclusions. When
quantitative data can be presented, it should be done as simply as possible with charts, graphics
and tables. The data need not include everything collected. Only material important to the
reader’s understanding of the problem and the findings should be included. Both findings that
support or do not support the hypothesis should be included.
Chapter Five
5.0 Summary and conclusions
The summary is a brief statement of the essential findings. Sectional summaries may be used if
there are many specific findings. These may be combined into an overall summary. Conclusions
represent inferences drawn from the findings. Conclusions may be presented in a tabular form
for easy reading and reference. Summary findings may be subordinated under the related
conclusion statement.
Recommendations
There are usually a few ideas about corrective actions. In academic research, the

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recommendations are often further study suggestions that broaden or test understanding of the
subject area. In applied research, the recommendations will usually be for managerial action
rather than research action. The writer may offer several alternatives with justifications.
References
The use of secondary data requires a reference or a bibliography. Proper citation, style and
formats are unique to the purpose of the report. The
Appendixes
The appendixes are the place for complex tables, statistical tests, supporting documents, copies
of forms and questionnaires, detailed descriptions of the methodology, instructions to field
workers and other evidence important for later support. The reader who wishes to learn about
technical aspects of the study and to look at statistical breakdowns will want a complete
appendix.
Time schedule
It is a listing of the major activities and the corresponding anticipated time period it will take to
accomplish that activity. The time is usually given in months. Activities to be undertaken can
always overlap.
Budget
A budget is a list of items that will be required to carry out the research and their approximate
cost. It should be detailed enough and precise on items needed, prices per unit and total cost.
Details of requirements in each budget will be governed by the type of research.
Characteristics of a Good Proposal:
 The need for the proposed activity is clearly established, preferably with data.
 The most important ideas are highlighted and repeated in several places.
 The objectives of the project are given in detail.
 There is a detailed schedule of activities for the project, or at least sample portions of such a
complete project schedule.
 Collaboration with all interested groups in planning of the proposed project is evident in the
proposal.
 The commitment of all involved parties is evident, e.g., letters of commitment in the
appendix and cost sharing stated in both the narrative of the proposal and the budget.
 The budget and the proposal narrative are consistent.
 The uses of money are clearly indicated in the proposal narrative as well as in the budget.
 All of the major matters indicated in the proposal guidelines are clearly addressed in the
proposal.
 The agreement of all project staff and consultants to participate in the project was
acquired and is so indicated in the proposal.
 All governmental procedures have been followed with regard to matters such as civil
rights compliance and protection of human subjects.
 Appropriate detail is provided in all portions of the proposal.
 All of the directions given in the proposal guidelines have been followed carefully.

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  Appendices have been used appropriately for detailed and lengthy materials which the
reviewers may not want to read but are useful as evidence of careful planning, previous
experience, etc.
 The length is consistent with the proposal guidelines and/or funding agency expectations.
 The budget explanations provide an adequate basis for the figures used in building the
budget.
 If appropriate, there is a clear statement of commitment to continue the project after
external funding ends.
 The qualifications of project personnel are clearly communicated.
 The writing style is clear and concise. It speaks to the reader, helping the reader
understand the problems and proposal. Summarizing statements and headings are used to
lead the reader.
Guidelines for writing a good research report
 Break large units of text into smaller units with headings to show organization of the
topics
 Relieve difficult text with visual aids when possible
 Emphasize important material and de-emphasize secondary material through sentence
construction and judicious use of italising, underlining, capitalizing and parentheses.
 Use ample space and wide margins to create a positive psychological effect on the
reader.
 Choose words carefully, opting for the known and short rather than the unknown and
long.
 Repeat and summarize critical and difficult ideas so readers can have time to absorb
them.
 Review the writing to ensure the tone is appropriate
 Proof read the final document to correct any errors.
 Use short paragraphs
 Indent parts of text that represent listings, long quotations or examples.
 Use headings and subheadings to divide the report and its major sections into
homogeneous topical parts.

 TOPIC 5: REPORTING RESEARCH FINDINGS

DATA PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION

Definition of Data Presentation

Data presentation and analysis forms an integral part of all academic studies, commercial,
industrial and marketing activities as well as professional practices. Presentation of data requires
skills and understanding of data. It is necessary to make use of collected data which is considered
to be raw data which must be processed to put for any application. Data analysis helps in the
interpretation of data and take a decision or answer the research question. This can be done by
using data processing tools and software. Data analysis starts with the collection of data followed
by data processing by various data processing methods and sorting it. Processed data helps in
obtaining information from it as the raw data is non-comprehensive in nature. Presenting the data

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includes the pictorial representation of the data by using graphs, charts, maps and other methods.
These methods help in adding the visual aspect to data which makes it much more comfortable
and quicker to understand. Various methods of data presentation can be used to present data and
facts. Widely used format and data presentation techniques are mentioned below:

1. As text – Raw data with proper formatting, categorization, indentation is most

extensively used and very effective way of presenting data. Such format is widely found
in books, reports, research papers and in this article itself.
2. In tabular form – Tabular form is generally used to differentiate, categorise, relate
different datasets. It can be a simple pros & cons table, or a data with corresponding
value such as annual GDP, a bank statement, monthly expenditure etc.
3. In graphical Form – Data can further be presented in a simpler and even easier form by
means of using graphical form. The input for such graphical data can be another type of
data itself or some raw data. For example, a bar graph & pie chart takes tabular data as
input. The tabular data in such case is processed data itself but provides limited use.
Converting such data or raw data into graphical form directly makes it quick and easier to
interpret.

The significance and importance of data presentation

Data presentation and analysis plays an essential role in every field. An excellent
presentation can be a deal maker or deal breaker. Some people make an incredibly useful
presentation with the same set of facts and figures which are available with others. At times
people who did all the hard work but failed to present it present it properly have lost essential
contracts, the work which they did is unable to impress the decision makers. So to get the job
done especially while dealing with clients or higher authorities presentation matters! No one
is willing to spend hours in understanding what you have to show and this is precisely why
presentation matters! It is thus essential to have clarity on what is data presentation.

Data presentation and analysis or data analysis and presentation?

These two go hand in hand, and it will be difficult to provide a complete differentiation
between the two. Adding visual aspect to data or sorting it using grouping and presenting it
in the form of table is a part of the presentation which further helps in analyzing data. During
a study with an aim and multiple objectives, data analysis will be required to complete the
required objectives and compiling or presenting the analyzed data will help in overall
analysis and concluding the study.
You can have a variety of data which can be used in presentations. Some of these types
include:
 Time Series Data
 Bar Charts
 Combo Charts
 Pie Charts
 Tables
 Geo Map
 Scorecard
 Scatter Charts

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  Bullet Charts
 Area Chart
 Text & Images

Steps for presenting and analyzing data:

1. Frame the objectives of the study and make a list of data to be collected and its format.
2. Collect/obtain data from primary or secondary sources.
3. Change the format of data, i.e., table, maps, graphs, etc. in the desired format
4. Sort data through grouping, discarding the extra data and deciding the required form to
make data comprehensible
5. Make charts and graphs to help to add visual part and analyze trends.
6. Analyze trends and relate the information to fulfill the objectives.
Presentation of data:

1. A presentation should have a predefined sequence of arguments being made to support

the study. Start with stating the Aim of study and the objectives required to reach the
aim.
2. Break the objectives in multiple parts and make a list of data to be collected, the sources
of data, form in which data exist and needs to be obtained, conducting a primary survey
for information which does not exist.
3. Form and explain the methodology adapted to carry out a study.
4. Data collection through primary survey needs to have well thought of sampling methods.
This will help in reducing the efforts and increasing efficiency. Sample size should be
given importance and correct sampling technique should be applied.
5. Present only the required information and skip the background research to make your
point clearer.
6. Do not forget to give credits and references in the end and where ever required.
How to present the different type of data – which format to choose
Since there are number of options available while presenting data, careful consideration should
be given to the method being used. A basic understanding of the desired result/ form is helpful to
choose the correct form of representation. One cannot expect to get liner data from a pie chart,
thus basic knowledge and application of different type of presentation methods saves time.
Additionally, there should be enough sample available so as to get some meaningful analysis and
result. Some of the popular ways of presenting the data includes Line graph, column chart, box
pot, vertical bar, scatter plot. These and other types are explained below with brief information
about their application.

Secondary surveys form a significant part of data research and Primary means of data
collection by conducting various studies and making use of existing data from multiple sources.
The data thus obtained from multiple sources like Census department, Economics and Statistics
Department, Election Commission, Water Board, Municipal Bodies, Economic surveys, Website
feedbacks, scientific research, etc. is compiled and analyzed. Data is also required to forecast and
estimate the change in the requirement of various resources and thus provide them accordingly.
Phasing and prioritization form another important part for the effective implementation of the
proposals.

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Such presentation of data and information can be either by means of manual hand drawings/
graphs & tables, whereas much effective and accurate way for such presentation is by means of
specialized computer software. Different types of charts which can be used for data presentation
and analysis.
Bar Charts/Bar Graphs: These are one of the most widely used charts for showing the grown
of a company over a period. There are multiple options available like stacked bar graphs and the
option of displaying a change in numerous entities. These look as shown in the image below:

Line Chart: These are best for showing the change in population, i.e., for showing the trends.
These also work well for explaining the growth of multiple areas at the same time.

Pie Charts: These work best for representing the share of different components from a total
100%. For, eg. contribution of different sectors to GDP, the population of different states in a
country, etc.

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Combo Chart: As the name suggests it is a combination of more than one chart type. The one
shown in the figure below is a combination of line and bar graph. These save space and are at
times more effective than using two different charts. There can even be 3 or more charts
depending on the requirement.

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INTERPRETATION
Interpretation refers to the task if drawing inferences from the collected facts after ana analytical
and or experimental study. The task of interpretation has two major aspects:
The effort to establish continuity in research through linking the results of a given study with
those of another.
The establishment of some explanatory concepts. Interpretation is concerned with relationships
within the collected data partially overlapping analysis. Interpretation also extends beyond the
data of study to include the results of other research, theory and hypothesis.
The importance of data interpretation is evident and this is why it needs to be done properly.
Data is very likely to arrive from multiple sources and has a tendency to enter the analysis
process with haphazard ordering. Data analysis tends to be extremely subjective. That is to say,
the nature and goal of interpretation will vary from business to business, likely correlating to the
type of data being analyzed. While there are several different types of processes that are
implemented based on individual data nature, the two broadest and most common categories are
“quantitative analysis” and “qualitative analysis”.
Yet, before any serious data interpretation inquiry can begin, it should be understood that visual
presentations of data findings are irrelevant unless a sound decision is made regarding scales of
measurement. Before any serious data analysis can begin, the scale of measurement must be
decided for the data as this will have a long-term impact on data interpretation ROI. The varying
scales include:
 Nominal Scale: non-numeric categories that cannot be ranked or compared
quantitatively. Variables are exclusive and exhaustive.
 Ordinal Scale: exclusive categories that are exclusive and exhaustive but with a logical
order. Quality ratings and agreement ratings are examples of ordinal scales (i.e., good,
very good, fair, etc., OR agree, strongly agree, disagree, etc.).
 Interval: a measurement scale where data is grouped into categories with orderly and
equal distances between the categories. There is always an arbitrary zero point.
 Ratio: contains features of all three
Qualitative Data Interpretation
Qualitative data analysis can be summed up in one word – categorical. With qualitative analysis,
data is not described through numerical values or patterns, but through the use of descriptive

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context (i.e., text). Typically, narrative data is gathered by employing a wide variety of person-
to-person techniques. These techniques include:
Observations: detailing behavioral patterns that occur within an observation group. These
patterns could be the amount of time spent in an activity, the type of activity and the method of
communication employed.
Documents: much like how patterns of behavior can be observed, different types of
documentation resources can be coded and divided based on the type of material they contain.
Interviews: one of the best collection methods for narrative data. Enquiry responses can be
grouped by theme, topic or category. The interview approach allows for highly-focused data
segmentation.
A key difference between qualitative and quantitative analysis is clearly noticeable in the
interpretation stage. Qualitative data, as it is widely open to interpretation, must be “coded” so as
to facilitate the grouping and labeling of data into identifiable themes. As person-to-person data
collection techniques can often result in disputes pertaining to proper analysis, qualitative data
analysis is often summarized through three basic principles: notice things, collect things, think
about things.
Quantitative Data Interpretation
If quantitative data interpretation could be summed up in one word (and it really can’t) that word
would be “numerical.” There are few certainties when it comes to data analysis, but you can be
sure that if the research you are engaging in has no numbers involved, it is not quantitative
research. Quantitative analysis refers to a set of processes by which numerical data is analyzed.
More often than not, it involves the use of statistical modeling such as standard deviation, mean
and median. Let’s quickly review the most common statistical terms:
 Mean: a mean represents a numerical average for a set of responses. When dealing with a
data set (or multiple data sets), a mean will represent a central value of a specific set of
numbers. It is the sum of the values divided by the number of values within the data set.
Other terms that can be used to describe the concept are arithmetic mean, average and
mathematical expectation.
 Standard deviation: this is another statistical term commonly appearing in quantitative
analysis. Standard deviation reveals the distribution of the responses around the mean. It
describes the degree of consistency within the responses; together with the mean, it
provides insight into data sets.
 Frequency distribution: this is a measurement gauging the rate of a response
appearance within a data set. When using a survey, for example, frequency distribution
has the capability of determining the number of times a specific ordinal scale response
appears (i.e., agree, strongly agree, disagree, etc.). Frequency distribution is extremely
keen in determining the degree of consensus among data points.
Typically, quantitative data is measured by visually presenting correlation tests between two or
more variables of significance. Different processes can be used together or separately, and
comparisons can be made to ultimately arrive at a conclusion. Other signature interpretation
processes of quantitative data include:
 Regression analysis
 Cohort analysis
 Predictive and prescriptive analysis

Why interpretation?

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 1 It is through interpretation that the researcher can well understand the abstract principle
that works beneath his findings. Through this he can link up his findings with those of
other studies having the same abstract principle and thereby can predict about the
concrete world of events.
2 Interpretation leads to establishment of explanatory concepts that can serve as a guide for
future research studies, it opens new avenues of intellectual adventure and stimulates the
quest for more knowledge.
3 Research can better appreciate only through interpretation why his findings are what they
are and can make others to understand the real significance of his research findings.
4 The interpretation of the findings of exploratory research study often results into
hypothesis for experimental research and as such interpretation is involved in the
transition from exploratory to experimental research. Since an exploratory study does not
have a hypothesis to start with, the findings of such a study have to be interpreted on a
post factum basis in which case the interpretation is technically described as ‘post
factum’ interpretation.

Techniques of interpretation
The technique of interpretation often involves the following steps;
i. Researcher must give reasonable explanation of the relation which has found and he
must interpret the lines of relationship in terms of the underlying processes and must
try to find out the thread of uniformity that lies under the surface layer of his
diversified research findings.
ii. Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be considered while
interpreting the final results of research study for it may prove to be a key factor in
understanding the problem under consideration.
iii. It is advisable before embarking upon final interpretation to consult someone having
insight into the study and who is frank and honest and will not hesitate to point out
omission and errors in logical argumentation.
iv. Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after considering all
relevant factors affecting the problem to avoid false generalization. He must be in no
hurry while interpreting the results for quite often the conclusions, which appear to be
all right at the beginning may not at all be accurate.

Precautions in interpretation
Researcher must pay attention to the following points for correct interpretation:
i. At the outset, the researcher must invariably satisfy himself that (a) the data are
appropriate, trustworthy and adequate for drawing inferences: (b) the data reflect good
homogeneity; and that (c) proper analysis has been done through statistical methods.
ii. The researcher must remain cautious about the errors that can possibly arise in the
process of interpreting results. Errors can arise due to false generalization and or due to
wrong interpretation of statistical measures, such as the application of findings beyond
the range of observations, identification of correlation with causation and the like.
iii. He must always keep in view that the task of interpretations is very much intertwined
with analysis and cannot be distinctly separated. As such he must take the task of
interpretation as a special aspect of analysis and accordingly must take all those
precautions that one usually observes while going through the process of analysis,

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 precautions concerning the reliability of data, computational checks, validation and
comparison of results.
iv. He must never lose sight of the fact that his task is not only to make sensitive
observations of relevant occurrences but also to identify and disengage the factors that
are initially hidden to the eye. This will enable him to do his job of interpretation on
proper lines. Broad generalization should be avoided as most research is not amenable to
it because the coverage may be restricted to a particular time, area and articular
conditions.
v. The researcher must remember that “ideally in the course of a research study, there
should be constant interaction between initial hypothesis, empirical observation and
theoretical conceptions. It is exactly in this area of interaction between theoretical
orientation and empirical observation that opportunities for originality and creativity lie.
He must pay special attention to this aspect while engaged in the task of interpretation.
Data interpretation problems
1) Correlation mistaken for causation: our first misinterpretation of data refers to the tendency
of data analysts to mix the cause of a phenomenon with correlation. It is the assumption that
because two actions occurred together, one caused the other. This is not accurate as actions can
occur together absent a cause and effect relationship.
 Digital age example: assuming that increased revenue is the result of increased social
media followers… there might a definitive correlation between the two, especially with
today’s multi-channel purchasing experiences. But, that does not mean an increase in
followers is the direct cause of increased revenue. There could be both a common cause
or an indirect causality.
 Remedy: attempt to eliminate the variable you believe to be causing the phenomenon.
2) Confirmation bias: our second data interpretation problem occurs when you have a theory or
hypothesis in mind, but are intent on only discovering data patterns that provide support, while
rejecting those that do not.
 Digital age example: your boss asks you to analyze the success of a recent multi-platform
social media marketing campaign. While analyzing the potential data variables from the
campaign (one that you ran and believe performed well), you see that the share rate for
Facebook posts were great, while the share rate for Twitter Tweets were not. Using only
the Facebook posts to prove your hypothesis that the campaign was successful would be a
perfect manifestation of confirmation bias.
 Remedy: as this pitfall is often based on subjective desires, one remedy would be to
analyze data with a team of objective individuals. If this is not possible, another solution
is to resist the urge to make a conclusion before data exploration has been completed.
Remember to always try to disprove a hypothesis, not prove it.
3) Irrelevant data: the third and final data misinterpretation pitfall is especially important in the
digital age. As large data is no longer centrally stored, and as it continues to be analyzed at the
speed of thought, it is inevitable that analysts will focus on data that is irrelevant to the problem
they are trying to correct.
 Digital age example: in attempting to gauge the success of an email lead generation
campaign, you notice that the number of homepage views directly resulting from the
campaign increased, but the number of monthly newsletter subscribers did not. Based on
the number of homepage views, you decide the campaign was a success when really it
generated zero leads.

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  Remedy: proactively and clearly frame any data analysis variables and KPIs prior to
engaging in a data review. If the metric you are using to measure the success of a lead
generation campaign is newsletter subscribers, there is no need to review the number of
homepage visits. Be sure to focus on the data variable that answers your question or
solves your problem and not on irrelevant data

Data Interpretation Methods Summary List

Data analysis and interpretation are critical to develop sound conclusions and make better
informed decisions. As we have seen all along this article, there is an art and science to the
interpretation of data. Hereafter is a list-summary of how to interpret data and some tips:
 Collect your data and make it as clean as possible.
 Choose the type of analysis to perform: qualitative or quantitative, and apply the methods
respectively to each.
 Qualitative analysis: observe, document and interview notice, collect and think about
things.
 Quantitative analysis: you lead a research with a lot of numerical data to be analyzed
through various statistical methods – mean, standard deviation or frequency distribution
for instance.
 Take a step back: and think about your data from various perspectives, and what it means
for various participants or actors of the project.
 Reflect on your own thinking and reasoning: and be aware of the many pitfalls data
analysis and interpretation carries. Correlation versus causation, subjective bias, false
information and inaccurate data, etc.

REPORTING STYLES AND REFERENCING

I. General Document Guidelines
A. Margins: One inch on all sides (top, bottom, left, right).
B. Font Size and Type: 12-pt. Times New Roman font.
C. Line Spacing: Double-space throughout the paper, including the title page, abstract, body of
the
document, references, appendixes, footnotes, tables, and figures.
D. Spacing after Punctuation: Space once after commas, colons, and semicolons within
sentences. Insert two spaces after punctuation marks that end sentences.
E. Alignment: Flush left (creating uneven right margin).
F. Paragraph Indentation: 5-7 spaces.
G. Pagination: The page number appears one inch from the right edge of the paper on the first
line
of every page.
H. Running Head: The running head is a short title that appears at the top of the pages of a paper
or published article. The running head is typed flush left at the top of all pages. The running
head should not exceed 50 characters, including punctuation and spacing. Using most word
processors, the running head and page number can be inserted into a header, which then
automatically appears on all pages.

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I. Active voice: As a general rule, use the active voice rather than the passive voice. For
example,
use ‘We predicted that …’ rather than ‘It was predicted that …’ Order of Pages:
Title Page, Abstract, Body, References, Footnotes, Tables, Figures, Appendixes

II. Title Page

A. Pagination: The Title Page is page 1.
B. Running Head: The running head is typed flush left (all uppercase) following ‘Running head’.
C. Key Elements: Paper title, author(s), institutional affiliation(s), author note.
D. Paper Title: Uppercase and lowercase letters, centered on the page.
E. Author(s): Uppercase and lowercase letters, centered on the line following the title.
F. Institutional affiliation: Uppercase and lowercase letters, centered on the line following the
author(s).
G.Author Note: Provide information about the author’s departmental affiliation,
acknowledgments
of assistance or financial support, and a mailing address for correspondence
III. Abstract
The abstract is a one-paragraph, self-contained summary of the most important elements of the
paper.
A. Pagination: The abstract begins on a new page (page 2).
B. Heading: ‘Abstract’ (centered on the first line below the running head).
C. Format: The abstract (in block format) begins on the line following the Abstract heading. The
abstract word limit is set by individual journals. Typically, the word limit is between 150 and
250
words. All numbers in the abstract (except those beginning a sentence) should be typed as digits
rather than words.
IV. Body
A. Pagination: The body of the paper begins on a new page (page 3). Subsections of the body of
the paper do not begin on new pages.
B. Title: The title of the paper (in uppercase and lowercase letters) is centered on the first line
below the running head.
C. Introduction: The introduction (which is not labeled) begins on the line following the paper
title.
D. Headings: Five levels of headings are available to be used to organize the paper and reflect
the
relative importance of sections. For example, many empirical research articles utilize two levels
of headings: Main headings (such as Method, Results, Discussion, References) would use Level
1
(centered, boldface, uppercase and lowercase letters), and subheadings (such as Participants,
Apparatus, and Procedure as subsections of the Method section) would use Level 2 (flush left,
boldface, uppercase and lowercase letters).
V. Text citations
Source material must be documented in the body of the paper by citing the author(s) and date(s)
of the sources. The underlying principle is that ideas and words of others must be formally
acknowledged. The reader can obtain the full source citation from the list of references that
follows the body of the paper.

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A. When the names of the authors of a source are part of the formal structure of the sentence,
the year of publication appears in parentheses following the identification of the authors.
Consider the following example - Wirth and Mitchell (1994) found that although there was a
reduction in insulin dosage over a period of two weeks in the treatment condition compared to
the control condition, the difference was not statistically significant. [Note: and is used when
multiple authors are identified as part of the formal structure of the sentence.]
B. When the authors of a source are not part of the formal structure of the sentence, both the
authors and year of publication appear in parentheses. Consider the following example Reviews
of research on religion and health have concluded that at least some types of religious
behaviors are related to higher levels of physical and mental health (Gartner, Larson, & Allen,
1991; Koenig, 1990; Levin & Vanderpool, 1991; Maton & Pargament, 1987; Paloma &
Pendleton,
1991; Payne, Bergin, Bielema, & Jenkins, 1991). [Note: & is used when multiple authors are
identified in parenthetical material. Note also that when several sources are cited
parenthetically, they are ordered alphabetically by first authors' surnames and separated by
semicolons.]
C. When a source that has two authors is cited, both authors are included every time the source is
cited.
D. When a source that has three, four, or five authors is cited, all authors are included the first
time the source is cited. When that source is cited again, the first author’s surname and ‘et al.’
are used. Consider the following example: Reviews of research on religion and health have
concluded that at least some types of religious behaviors are related to higher levels of physical
and mental health (Payne, Bergin, Bielema, & Jenkins, 1991). Payne et al. (1991) showed that …
E. When a source that has six or more authors is cited, the first author’s surname and ‘et al.’ are
used every time the source is cited (including the first time).
F. Every effort should be made to cite only sources that you have actually read. When it is
necessary to cite a source that you have not read (‘Grayson’ in the following example) that is
cited in a source that you have read (‘Murzynski & Degelman’ in the following example), use
the
following format for the text citation and list only the source you have read in the References
list - Grayson (as cited in Murzynski & Degelman, 1996) identified four components of body
language that were related to judgments of vulnerability.
G. To cite a personal communication (including letters, emails, and telephone interviews),
include
initials, surname, and as exact a date as possible. Because a personal communication is not
‘recoverable’ information, it is not included in the ‘References’ section. For the text citation, use
the following format: B. F. Skinner (personal communication, February 12, 1978) claimed …
H. To cite a Web document, use the author-date format. If no author is identified, use the first
few words of the title in place of the author. If no date is provided, use ‘n.d.’ in place of the
date. Consider the following examples - Degelman (2009) summarizes guidelines for the use of
APA writing style. Changes in Americans’ views of gender status differences have been
documented (Gender and Society.).
I. To cite the Bible, provide the book, chapter, and verse. The first time the Bible is cited in the
text, identify the version used. Consider the following example - “You are forgiving and good, O
Lord, abounding in love to all who call to you” (Psalm 86:5, New International Version). [Note:
No entry in the References list is needed for the Bible.]

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VI. Quotations
When a direct quotation is used, always include the author, year, and page number as part of the
citation.
A. A quotation of fewer than 40 words should be enclosed in double quotation marks and should
be incorporated into the formal structure of the sentence. Consider the following example -
Patients receiving prayer had “less congestive heart failure, required less diuretic and antibiotic
therapy, had fewer episodes of pneumonia, had fewer cardiac arrests, and were less frequently
incubated and ventilated” (Byrd, 1988, p. 829).
B. A lengthier quotation of 40 or more words should appear (without quotation marks) apart
from
the surrounding text, in block format, with each line indented five spaces from the left margin.

VII. References
All sources included in the References section must be cited in the body of the paper (and all
sources cited in the paper must be included in the References section).
A. Pagination: The References section begins on a new page.
B. Heading: ‘References’ (centered on the first line below the running head).
C. Format: The references (with hanging indent) begin on the line following the ‘References’
heading. Entries are organized alphabetically by surnames of first authors. Most reference
entries have the following components -
i. Authors: Authors are listed in the same order as specified in the source, using surnames and
initials. Commas separate all authors. When there are eight or more authors, list the first six
authors followed by three ellipses (…) and then the final author. If no author is identified, the
title of the document begins the reference.
ii. Year of Publication: In parentheses following authors, with a period following the closing
parenthesis. If no publication date is identified, use ‘n.d.’ in parentheses following the authors.
iii. Source Reference: Includes title, journal, volume, pages (for journal article) or title, city of
publication, publisher (for book). Italicize titles of books, titles of periodicals, and periodical
volume numbers.
iv. Electronic Retrieval Information: Electronic retrieval information may include digital object
identifiers (DOIs) or uniform resource locators (URLs). DOIs are unique alphanumeric
identifiers that lead users to digital source material.
VIII. Footnotes
Content footnotes are occasionally used to support substantive information in the text. A content
footnote may be placed at the bottom of the page on which it is discussed or on a separate page
following the References.
A. Pagination: Footnotes begin on a separate page.
B. Heading: ‘Footnotes’ is centered on the first line below the running head.
C. Format: Indent the first line of each footnote 5-7 spaces and number the footnotes (slightly
above the line) as they are identified in the text.
IX. Tables
A common use of tables is to present quantitative data or the results of statistical analyses (such
as
ANOVA). Tables must be mentioned in the text.
A. Pagination: Each Table begins on a separate page.
B. Heading: ‘Table 1’ (or 2 or 3, etc.) is typed flush left on the first line below the running head.

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Double-space and type the table title flush left (italicized in uppercase and lowercase letters).
X. Figures
A common use of Figures is to present graphs, photographs, or other illustrations (other than
tables).
A. Pagination: Figures begin on a separate page.
B. Figure Caption: ‘Figure 1.’ (or 2 or 3, etc.) is typed flush left and italicized on the first line
below
the figure, immediately followed on the same line by the caption (which should be a brief
descriptive phrase).
XI. Appendixes
A common use of appendixes is to present unpublished tests or to describe complex equipment
or
stimulus materials.
A. Pagination: Each Appendix begins on a separate page.
B. Heading: If there is only one appendix, ‘Appendix’ is centered on the first line below the
manuscript page header. If there is more than one appendix, use Appendix A (or B or C, etc.).
Double-space and type the appendix title (centered in uppercase and lowercase letters).
C. Format: Indent the first line 5-7 spaces.

CITING AND REFERENCING SOURCES

Citations
Three main systems of citation are used in scientific publication today. Within these systems
there
may be many variations. The main systems are-
-date)

Name and Year:

In the first system, the name(s) of the author(s) and the year of publication are
fitted into the text. Both may be in parentheses, or only the date may be in parentheses,
depending
on the sentence structure.
Number: In the second system, references are numbered in the order they are mentioned in the
text. In some journals, the names(s) of the author(s) may be given as well. Examples Scientific
papers are not designed to be read; they are designed to transmit information. Any real deviation
from the standard mold will be likely to inhibit easy grasp of the information by the reader (2).
The work referred to keeps that number every time it is cited throughout the text, even if it is
cited several times at widely separated points. At the end of the paper, all references that have
been cited are listed in numerical order.
Number with Alphabetical References: The third system combines the advantages of both
previous systems. All references are first placed in alphabetical order according to author. They
are numbered in that order. These numbers are used for citations in the text.
References: Each reference must be described in detail at the end of the article. The list is
usually headed ‘Literature Cited’, or ‘References Cited’, or simply ‘References’. Delete any
references that are not cited.

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Articles: Reference to an article should contain –
 names and initials of all authors (although, if there are many authors, some journals will
list only the senior author et al)
 title and subtitle
 name of the journal (usually abbreviated)
 volume number
 first and last page number
 year of publication
 months or number of issues, if pages are not numbered consecutively through a volume.
 names and initials of all authors
 title and subtitle
 number of editions, if there is more than one
 name and initials of editor or translator, if any
 place of publication
 name of publisher
 year of publication
 volume number, if more than one
 page numbers, if any need to be cited specifically.

DISSEMINATION AND PUBLICATION

Dissemination refers to “a planned process that involves consideration of target audiences and
the settings in which research findings are to be received and, where appropriate, communicating
and interacting with wider policy and…service audiences in ways that will facilitate research
uptake in decision-making processes and practice” (Wilson, Petticrew, Calnan, & Natareth,
2010.
In other words, dissemination of research findings involves careful planning, thought,
consideration of target audiences, and communication with those audiences. Writing up results
from your research and having others take notice are two entirely different propositions. In fact,
the general rule of thumb is that people will not take notice unless you help and encourage them
to do so.
Disseminating your findings successfully requires determining who your audience is, where your
audience is, and how to reach them. When considering who your audience is, think about who is
likely to take interest in your work. Your audience might include those who do not express
enthusiastic interest but might nevertheless benefit from an awareness of your research. Your
research participants and those who share some characteristics in common with your participants
are likely to have some interest in what you’ve discovered in the course of your research. Other
scholars who study similar topics are another obvious audience for your work. Perhaps there are
policymakers who should take note of your work. Organizations that do work in an area related
to the topic of your research are another possibility. Finally, any and all inquisitive and engaged
members of the public represent a possible audience for your work.

Where your audience is should be fairly obvious. You know where your research participants are
because you’ve studied them. You can find interested scholars on your campus (e.g., perhaps you
could offer to present your findings at a campus event); at professional conferences; and via
publications, such as professional organizations’ newsletters (an often-overlooked source for
sharing findings in brief form) and scholarly journals. Policymakers include your state and

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federal representatives who, at least in theory, should be available to hear a constituent speak on
matters of policy interest. Perhaps you’re already aware of organizations that do work in an area
related to your research topic, but if not, a simple web search should help you identify possible
organizational audiences for your work. Disseminating your findings to the public more
generally could take any number of forms: a letter to the editor of the local newspaper, a blog, or
even a post or two on your social media channels.

Finally, determining how to reach your audiences will vary according to which audience you
wish to reach. Your strategy should be determined by the norms of the audience. For example,
scholarly journals provide author submission instructions that clearly define requirements for
anyone wishing to disseminate their work via a particular journal. The same is true for
newspaper editorials; check your newspaper’s website for details about how to format and
submit letters to the editor. If you wish to reach out to your political representatives, a call to
their offices or a simple web search should tell you how to do so.

Whether you act on all these suggestions is ultimately your decision. But if you’ve conducted
high-quality research and you have findings that are likely to be of interest to any constituents
besides yourself, I would argue that it is your duty as a scholar and a social worker to share those
findings. In sum, disseminating findings involves the following three steps:
 Determine who your audience
 Identify where your audience
 Discover how best to reach

Formal presentations
Getting your work published in a journal is challenging and time-consuming, as journals receive
many submissions but have limited room to publish. Researchers often seek to supplement their
publications with formal presentations, which, while adhering to stringent standards, are more
accessible and have more opportunities to share research. For researchers, presenting your
research is an excellent way to get feedback on your work. Professional social workers often
make presentations to their peers to prepare for more formal writing and publishing of their
work. Presentations might be formal talks, either individually or as part of a panel at a
professional conference; less formal roundtable discussions, another common professional
conference format; or posters that are displayed in a specially designated area. We’ll look at all
three presentation formats here.
When preparing an oral presentation, it is very important to get details well in advance about
how long your presentation is expected to last and whether any visual aids such as video or
slideshows are expected by your audience. At conferences, the typical oral presentation is
usually expected to last between 15 and 20 minutes. While this may sound like a torturously
lengthy amount of time, you’ll be amazed by how easily time can fly the first time you present
formally. Researchers, myself included, can get so caught up explaining minute details like
background literature or measurement quality that we don’t have enough time to thoroughly
address the key conclusions of the study. To avoid this all-too-common occurrence, it is crucial
that you repeatedly practice your presentation in advance—and time yourself.
One stumbling block in oral presentations of research work is spending too much time on the
literature review. Keep in mind that with limited time, audience members will be more interested

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to hear about your original work than to hear you cite a long list of previous studies to introduce
your own research. While in scholarly written reports of your work you must discuss the studies
that have come before yours, in a presentation of your work the key is to use what precious time
you have to highlight your work. Whatever you do in your oral presentation, do not read your
paper verbatim. Nothing will bore an audience more quickly than that. Highlight only the key
points of your study. These generally include your research question, your methodological
approach, your major findings, and a few final takeaway messages.

In less formal roundtable presentations of your work, the aim is usually to help stimulate a
conversation about a topic. The time you are given to present may be slightly shorter than in a
formal presentation, and you’ll also be expected to participate in the conversation that follows all
presenters’ talks. Roundtables can be especially useful when your research is in the earlier stages
of development. Perhaps you’ve conducted a pilot study and you’d like to talk through some of
your findings and get some ideas about where to take the study next. A roundtable is an excellent
place to get some suggestions and also get a preview of the objections reviewers may raise with
respect to your conclusions or your approach to the work. Roundtables are also suitable places to
network and meet other scholars who share a common interest with you.
Finally, in a poster presentation, you visually present your work. Just as you wouldn’t read a
paper verbatim in a formal presentation, avoid at all costs printing and pasting your paper onto a
poster board. Instead, think about how to tell the “story” of your work in graphs, charts, tables,
and other images. Bulleted points are also fine, as long as the poster isn’t so wordy that it would
be difficult for someone walking by very slowly to grasp your major argument and findings.
Posters, like roundtables, can be quite helpful at the early stages of a research project because
they are designed to encourage the audience to engage you in conversation about your research.
Don’t feel that you must share every detail of your work in a poster; the point is to share
highlights and then converse with your audience to get their feedback, hear their questions, and
provide additional details about your research.
Presentations to stakeholders
While it is important to let academics and scientists know about the results of your research, it is
important to identify stakeholders who would also benefit from knowing the results of your
study. Stakeholders, are individuals or groups who have an interest in the outcome of the study
you conduct. Instead of the formal presentations or journal articles you may use to engage
academics or fellow researchers, stakeholders will expect a presentation that is engaging,
understandable, and immediately relevant to their lives and practice. Informal presentations are
no less rigorous than formal presentations, but they do not follow a strict format.

A research project often culminates in publication or dissemination of the findings. This passes
on the potential benefits of research to colleagues, practitioners and the wider community and
fulfils obligations to funding bodies. Publication includes reporting of research in academic
journals or books, conference presentations, creative works, web pages, and professional and
institutional repositories.
For other researchers and society to benefit from the results of research they must be able to trust
in the accuracy of reporting. Researchers therefore have a responsibility to disseminate research
findings responsibly, accurately and broadly, researchers MUST comply with the following
obligations:
 providing a full and accurate account of the research findings

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  adhering to criteria for authorship and attribution
 citing the work of other authors fully and accurately
 not making multiple, redundant or duplicate submissions, except where expressly allowed
 accurately disclosing research support and conflicts of interest
 correcting the record in a timely manner where misleading or inaccurate statements are
detected.
Communicating research findings in the public arena
Communicating research to the public may occur through traditional media, public forums or via
emerging social media technologies. Researchers have responsibilities when communicating
their research to the public in relation to restrictions or embargos imposed by various parties, in
how they report on research that has not been finalised (e.g. not peer reviewed) and in ensuring
research participants directly impacted by the outcomes are properly informed.

 Topic 6: ETHICS IN RESEARCH

Ethics are norms or standards of behavior that guide moral choices about our behavior and our
relationship with others. Ethics differ from legal constraints, in which generally accepted
standards have defined penalties that are universally enforced. The goal of ethics in research is
to ensure that no one is harmed or suffers adverse consequences from research activities.

As the research is designed, several ethical considerations must be balanced e.g.

 Protect the rights of the participant or subject.
 Ensure the sponsor receives ethically conducted and reported research.
 Follow ethical standards when designing research
 Protect the safety of the researcher and team
 Ensure the research team follows the design

1. Ethical treatment of participants

In general, the research must be designed in such a manner that the respondent does not suffer
physical harm, discomfort, pain, embarrassment or loss to privacy. To safeguard against these,
the researcher should follow the following guidelines:
 Explain the study benefits
 Obtain informed consent
 Explain respondents rights and protection

(a) Benefits
Whenever direct contact is made with a respondent, the researcher should discuss the study
benefits, being careful to neither overstate nor understate the benefits. An interviewer should
begin an introduction with his or her name, the name of the research organization and a brief
description of the purpose and benefits of the research. This puts the respondent at ease, lets
them know to whom they are speaking and motivates them to answer questions truthfully.
Inducements to participate, financial or otherwise, should not be disproportionate to the task or
presented in a fashion that results in coercion.

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Deception occurs when the respondents are told only part of the truth or when the truth is fully
compromised. The benefits to be gained by deception should be balanced against the risks to the
respondents. When possible, an experiment or interview should be designed to reduce reliance
on deception. In addition, the respondent’s rights and well-being must be adequately protected.
In instances where deception in an experiment could produce anxiety, a subject’s medical
condition should be checked to ensure that no adverse physical harm follows.

(b) Informed consent

Securing informed consent from respondents is a matter of fully disclosing the procedures of the
proposed survey or other research design before requesting permission to proceed with the study.
There are exemptions that argue for a signed consent form. When dealing with children, it is
wise to have a parent or other person with legal standing sign a consent form. If the researchers
offer only limited protection of confidentiality, a signed form detailing the types of limits should
be obtained. For most business research, oral consent is sufficient.

In situations where respondents are intentionally or accidentally deceived, they should be

debriefed once the research is complete. Debriefing involves several activities following the
collection of data e.g.
 Explanation of any deception.
 Description of the hypothesis, goal or purpose of the study.
 Post study sharing of results.
 Post study follow-up medical or psychological attention.
According to Neuman and Wiegand (2000), a full blown consent statement would contain the
following: -
 A brief description of the purpose and procedure of the research, including the expected
duration.
 A statement of any risks, discomforts or inconveniences associated with participation.
 A guarantee of anonymity or at least confidentiality, and an explanation of both.
 The identification, affiliation and sponsorship of the research as well as contact
information.
 A statement that participation is completely voluntary and can be terminated at any time
without penalty.
 A statement of any procedures that may be used.
 A statement of any benefits to the class of subjects involved.
 An offer to provide a free copy of a summary of the findings.

(c) Rights to privacy

All individuals have a right to privacy and researchers must respect that right. The privacy
guarantee is important not only to retain validity of the research but also to protect respondents.
Once the guarantee of confidentiality is given, protecting that confidentiality is essential. The
researcher can protect respondent’s confidentiality in several ways, which include: -
 Obtaining signed nondisclosure documents
 Restricting access to respondent identification.
 Revealing respondent information only with written consent.
 Restricting access to data instruments where the respondent is identified.
 Nondisclosure of data subsets.

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Researchers should restrict access to information that reveals names, telephone numbers, address
or other identifying features. Only researchers who have signed nondisclosure, confidentiality
forms should be allowed access to the data. Links between the data or database and the
identifying information file should be weakened. Individual interview response sheets should be
inaccessible to everyone except the editors and data entry personnel.

Occasionally, data collection instruments should be destroyed once the data are in a data file.
Data files that make it easy to reconstruct the profiles or identification of individual respondents
should be carefully controlled. For very small groups, data should not be made available because
it is often easy to pinpoint a person within the group. Employee-satisfaction survey feedback in
small units can be easily used to identify an individual through descriptive statistics.

Privacy is more than confidentiality. A right to privacy means one has the right to refuse to be
interviewed or to refuse to answer any question in an interview. Potential participants have a
right to privacy in their own homes, including not admitting researchers and not answering
telephones. They have the right to engage in private behavior in private places without fear of
observation. To address these rights, ethical researchers can do the following:-
 Inform respondents of their right to refuse to answer any questions or participate in the
study.
 Obtain permission to interview respondents
 Schedule field and phone interviews.
 Limit the time required for participation.
 Restrict observation to public behavior only.

2. Ethics and the sponsor

There are ethical considerations to keep in mind when dealing with the research client or
sponsor. Whether undertaking product, market, personnel, financial or other research, a sponsor
has the right to receive ethically conducted research.

(a) Confidentiality
Sponsors have a right to several types of confidentiality including sponsor nondisclosure,
purpose nondisclosure and findings nondisclosure.
 Sponsor nondisclosure: Companies have a right to dissociate themselves from the
sponsorship of a research project. Due to the sensitive nature of the management dilemma
or the research question, sponsors may hire an outside consulting or research firm to
complete research projects. this is often done when a company is testing a new product
idea, to avoid potential consumers from being influenced by the company’s current image
or industry standing. If a company is contemplating entering a new market, it may not
wish to reveal its plans to competitors. In such cases, it is the responsibility of the
researcher to respect this desire and device a plan to safeguard the identity of the sponsor.
 Purpose nondisclosure: It involves protecting the purpose of the study or its details. A
research sponsor may be testing a new idea that is not yet patented and may not want the
competitor to know his plans. It may be investigating employee complaints and may not
want to spark union activity. The sponsor might also be contemplating a new public stock

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 offering, where advance disclosure would spark the interest of authorities or cost the firm
thousands of shillings.
 Findings nondisclosure: If a sponsor feels no need to hide its identity or the study’s
purpose, most sponsors want research data and findings to be confidential, at least until
the management decision is made.

(b) Right to quality research

An important ethical consideration for the researcher and the sponsor is the sponsor’s right to
quality research. The right entails:
 Providing a research design appropriate for the research question.
 Maximizing the sponsor’s value for the resources expended
 Providing data handling and reporting techniques appropriate for the data
collected.
From the proposal through the design to data analysis and the final report, the researcher guides
the sponsor on the proper techniques and interpretations. Often sponsors would have heard about
sophisticated data handling technique and will want it used even when it is inappropriate for the
problem at hand. The researcher should propose the design most suitable for the problem. The
researcher should not propose activities designed to maximize researcher revenue or minimize
researcher effort at the sponsor’s expense. The ethical researcher should report findings in ways
that minimize the drawing of false conclusions. He should also use charts, graphs and tables to
show the data objectively, despite the sponsor’s preferred outcomes.

(c) Sponsor’s Ethics

Occasionally, research specialists may be asked by sponsors to participate in unethical behavior.
Compliance by the researcher would be a breach of ethical standards. Some examples to be
avoided are:
 Violating respondent confidentiality
 Changing data or creating false data to meet a desired objective
 Changing data presentations or interpretations.
 Interpreting data from a biased perspective.
 Omitting sections of data analysis and conclusions.
 Making recommendations beyond the scope of the data collected.

The ethical course often requires confronting the sponsor’s demand and taking the following
actions: -
 Educating the sponsor on the purpose of research
 Explain the researcher’s role in fact finding versus the sponsor’s role in decision-making.
 Explain how distorting the truth or breaking faith with respondents leads to future
problems
 Failing moral suasion, terminate the relationship with the sponsor.

3. Researchers and team members

Researchers have an ethical responsibility to their team’s safety as well as their own and also
protecting the anonymity of both the sponsor and the respondent.
(a) Safety

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It is the researcher’s responsibility to design a project so the safety of all interviewers, surveyors,
experimenters, or observers is protected. Several factors may be important to consider in
ensuring a researcher’s right to safety e.g. some urban areas and undeveloped rural areas may be
unsafe for research assistants, therefore a team member can accompany the researcher. It is
unethical to require staff members to enter an environment where they feel physically threatened.
Researchers who are insensitive to these concerns face both research and legal risks.

(b) Ethical behavior of assistants

Researchers should require ethical compliance from team members just as sponsors expect
ethical behavior from the researcher. Assistants are expected to carry out the sampling plan, to
interview or observe respondents without bias and to accurately record all necessary data.
Unethical behavior such as filling in an interview sheet without having asked the respondent the
questions cannot be tolerated. The behavior of the assistants is under the direct control of the
responsible researcher or field supervisor. If an assistant behaves improperly in an interview or
shares a respondent’s interview sheet with unauthorized person, it is the researcher’s
responsibility. All researchers’ assistants should be well trained and supervised.

(c) Protection of anonymity

Researchers and assistants protect the confidentiality of the sponsor’s information and the
anonymity of the respondents. Each researcher handling data should be required to sign a
confidentiality and nondisclosure statement.

Data related issues during research

Researcher tiredness is one of the hindrances to data collection for qualitative research.
Conducting focus groups and interviews can be stressful for the researcher who is collecting the
data. Researcher exhaustion is a key element to the smooth flow and achievement of successful
focus groups and interviews (Dickson –Swift, James, Kippen, & Liamputton, 2007 ; Fern, 1982).
This implies that researcher fatigue can reduce the quality of data. The onus is on the researcher
to manage the fatigue associated with focus groups and interviews in order to ensure data quality.
Researchers have to be observant, study people, listen attentively, and handle diverse personality
types (Fern, 1982; Kreuger, & Casey, 2009). The researcher has the duty of enticing the quiet
participants during focus groups so that every participant gets the chance to contribute. Fatigue
can undoubtedly influence the researcher’s competence to effectively handle interviews and
focus groups. Unless the researcher is firmly in charge of the meeting, the conversation could
digress into irrelevant matters, possibly squandering participant’s precious time (Orvik, Larun,
Berland, & Ringsberg, 2013).
Setting of interview
is a crucial element of the data gathering process (Gill, Stewart, Treasure, & Chadwick, 2008).
The location of an interview is an indispensable constituent of data collection to which every
researcher must give paramount attention. The quality of data collection, both good and bad, is
significantly influenced by the location of interview. The interview venue, the administration
office, was regularly used by the staff to discuss and resolve students’ conflict, behavioural and
academic related matters so many learners perceived they would be charged with an offence
when they entered the room for a meeting (Rimando, et al., 2015). Respondents may hesitate to
release information if they have a negative perception about the venue of the interview. They
may have also provided erroneous responses to the interview question in fear that data would be

95
used to victimize them. Studies with location challenges suggested that interviews should be
conducted at an impartial venue that is suitable and secure for both the respondent and the
research conductor, when applicable (Legard, Keegan, & Ward, 2003). One panacea for location
challenges in data collection is doing due diligence in selecting an impartial venue for group
focus and interviews. The inability of the participant to read and write may negatively affect the
data gathering process (Rimando, et al., 2015). Verbosity in the conduct of an interview can put
the respondent in a dilemma. The respondent may feel humiliated by his or her inability to
understand the key words in the interview question. This can negatively affect the quality of
response. Therefore, the researcher needs to study the literacy levels of respondents and
consequently adjust the wordiness of his questionnaire to their level. Inferiority complex sets in
when respondents begin to ask for clarification of words in interview questions. “Low literate
respondents indicated the challenges they faced in their attempt to understand the wording of
long questions, asked for explanation of terminology, and avoided eye contact with the
researcher” (Rimando, et al., 2015). The above finding clearly shows that data quality greatly
depends on the literacy levels of the respondents. Respondents with low literacy standing faced
challenges in comprehending the diction of the survey response arrangement: participants did not
make out the disparities in the survey’s response formation such as strongly agree, moderately
agree, neither agree nor disagree, moderately disagree and strongly disagree (Rimando, et al.,
2015). Novice researchers, while designing questionnaires, must have in mind the literacy levels
of their respondents, and adjust the diction of their questionnaires to the respondents to avoid
ambiguity. This can improve data quality. It is proposed that learners consider the factors below
when designing instruments for collecting data: literacy level of potential respondents, the
diction of data collection instrument, pilot testing of data collection instrument, the use of audio
aid when necessary, and use of diverse data collection instruments to gather information on the
same issues (Bonevski, Randell, Paul, Chapman, Twyman, Bryant, & Hughes, 2014; Mayer &
Villaire, 2007).
The period of data collection
poses a threat to the success of the data gathering process. The data gathering process can be
negatively affected by the times pan of the data collection instrument or how time-consuming the
data gathering process is (Rimando, et al., 2015). Lengthy questionnaires or interviews can
create discomfort for respondents. Their discomfort may lead them to provide inappropriate
responses to questions asked in questionnaires or interviews. In some cases, respondents may
provide information that is of no use as they hastily partake in the data gathering process
(Rimando, et al., 2015). Lengthy questionnaires or interviews can result in thirst and hunger of
the respondents. It is advisable to make provision for hunger and thirst, especially, if the
researcher is aware of the the lengthy period of data collection. For instance, the researcher can
provide furniture, water and cocktail for respondents before accomplishing the survey (Dearnley,
2005; Easton, McComish, & Greenberg, 2000).
Decline in survey response
is a big challenge in data collection. Moreover, the gradual decrease in reaction to survey over
the years poses the biggest challenge scholars have constantly encountered (Schmeets, 2010). I
can say with confidence that there is gross apathy on the part of respondents when responding to
questionnaires. Survey research is said to be established in the positivist paradigm consistent
with objectivity in reality, impartial, and absolutely free of the influence both researcher and the
subject (( Bielefield, 2006; Johnson, & Onwuegbuzie, 2004). The objectivity and independence
of the reality of the positivist paradigm in which survey research is established may be

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compromised due to the apathy of respondents. The negative effect of this apathy can be
minimized through the simultaneous use of diverse models of data collection. Contemporary
research suggested the combination diverse paradigms into a single study (Terrell, 2012).
Researchers must appreciate the need to sensitize respondents on the essence of data collection in
addition to the simultaneous use of different models of data collection.
Non-response of participants in a sample size
is a daunting challenge in data collection. Survey researchers anticipate getting the smallest
sample size to generate outcomes that are statistically consistent and generalizable as an
insufficient sample can weaken the correctness of the conclusions (Barlett, Kotrlik, & Higgins,
2001). It can unequivocally be said that the accuracy of quantitative research results hinges on
the sample size of the population. Although a group of researcher argued that a difference in
non-response rate does not significantly alter survey assessment, it is principally advocated that
non-response rate should be decreased to the bare minimum (Curtin, Presser & Singer, 2000;
Keeter, Miller, Kohut, Groves, & Presser, 2000). A letter should be sent to the respondents in
advance to reduce non-response rate (Hox, 2007). An advance letter will pre-inform and prepare
the respondent towards the survey instrument. Random sampling delays the data collection
process and frequently, scholars employ opportunistic samples, which they can attain with ease
(Carr, 1994). The time-consuming nature of sampling can delay the release of research
outcomes. .Therefore, the opportunistic sampling is the panacea to the time-consuming random
sampling. However, the weakness of this method is that it waters down the generalization from
the research findings (Onwuegbuzie, & Johnson, 2006). Making sampling decisions during the
process of data collection is harmful to the results. The greatest solution to weaknesses of
random sampling is doing due diligence.
Validity of survey instrument
is a threat to the data collection process. “Quantitative researchers share the delight that the
conclusions they would deduce from examining data would be incredible, impartial and
consistent (Adzeh, 2014,). It is the joy of every researcher to hear that the result of his work has
been adjudged credible, objective and reliable. This is the anticipation of all researchers.
However, this expectation of researchers is dashed by a collection of hazards that may happen at
any phase in the research process, which can negatively influence the cogency of the
investigation. These hazards have been categorized into content, criterion, and construct validity
of the questionnaire (Onwuegbuzie, & Johnson, 2006). Content validity concerns the extent to
which items on the questionnaire are related and illustrative of the hypothesis they aim to assess
(Rossiter, 2008). Content validity consists of face validity, item validity and sampling validity
(Onwuegbuzie, & Johnson, 2006). Face validity, in itself, depicts how properly a questionnaire
appears to assess what it has been created to assess. Face validity concerns itself with an
unofficial confirmation of the questionnaire with the intention of making sure that it is suitably
created to gather appropriate facts from the targeted group of people (Collins, 2003). This
confirms the use of field pretest by survey researchers to find out feedback on areas of
weaknesses that may require correction. Recommendations made out of the pilot test may
enhance the effectiveness of the survey instrument but researchers should not completely rely on
them. Researchers should not exclusively rely on suggestions from field pretest because
additional modifications may be required before the utilization of the instrument (Betts, 2011).

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  TOPIC 7: ROLES OF COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY
IN RESEARCH
INTRODUCTION
Computer have always assisted to solve the problems faced by the mankind since the time of
invention, the size of the computers has drastically reduced from that of a room to that can be
accommodated in a human palm. The word computer means something which computes or a
machine for performing calculations automatically, but today computer means not merely a
calculator. It does vast variety of jobs with tremendous speed and efficiency. Today people use
computers in almost every walk of life. Electronic computers have now become an indispensable
part of every profession: so do research. Computers have a very important role to play in all
research activities.
WHY COMPUTERS?
The importance of computers in scientific research is exceptionally high and the use of a
computer can help scientific research immensely, and is an almost invaluable tool [5]. There are
many reasons why computers are so important in scientific research and here are some of the
main reasons: SPEED: computer can process numbers and information in a very short time. So,
researcher can process and analyze data quickly. By saving time researcher can conduct further
research. A calculation that may take a person several hours to process will take computer mere
minutes, if not seconds.
ACCURACY: Computer is incredibly accurate. Accuracy is very much important in scientific
research. Wrong calculation could result an entire research or project being filled with incorrect
information.
ORGANIZATION: We can store millions of pages of information by using simple folders, word
processors & computer programs. Computer is more productive & safer than using a paper filing
system in which anything can be easily misplaced.

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CONSISTENCY: computer cannot make mistakes through “tiredness” or lack of concentration
like human being. This characteristic makes it exceptionally important in scientific research.

COMPUTER IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research
and the desired sequencing of these steps. The following order concerning various steps provides
a useful procedural guideline regarding the research process:
(1) formulating the research problem
(2) extensive literature survey
(3) developing the hypothesis
(4) preparing the research design
(5) determining sample design
(6) collecting the data
(7) execution of the project
(8) analysis of data
(9) hypothesis testing
(10) generalizations and interpretation
(11) preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i.e., formal write-up of
conclusions reached.
There are five major phases of the research process They are:
1. Conceptual phase
2. Design and planning phase
3. Data collection phase
4. Data Analysis phase
5. Research Publication phase
1. Role of Computer in Conceptual Phase
The conceptual phase consists of formulation of research problem, extensive literature survey,
theoretical frame work and developing the hypothesis. Use of computers in extensive literature
review: computers help for searching the literatures (for review of literature) and bibliographic
reference stored in the electronic database of the world wide webs. It can thus be used for storing
relevant published articles to the retrieved whenever needed. This has the advantage over
searching the literatures in the form of books, journals and other newsletters at the libraries
which consume considerable amount of time and effort.
2. Role of Computers in Design and Planning Phase
This phase consists of research design preparation and determining sample design. Design and
planning phase also consists of population, research variables, sampling plan, reviewing research
plan and pilot study.
Role of Computers for Sample Size Calculation: Several software’s are available to calculate the
sample size required for a proposed study. The standard deviation of the data from the pilot study
is required for the sample size calculation.
3. Role of Computers in Data collection phase
This Empirical phase consists of collecting and preparing the data for analysis:
In research studies, the preparation and inputting data is the most labor-intensive and time
consuming aspect of the work. Typically, the data will be initially recorded on a questionnaire or
record for suitable for its acceptance by the computer. To do this the researcher in conjunction
with the statistician and the programmer, will convert the data into Microsoft word file or excel

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spreadsheet or any statistical software data file. These data can be directly opened with statistical
software’s for analysis.
Data collection and Storage: The data obtained from the subjects are stored in computes are word
files or excel spread sheets or any statistical software data file. This has the advantage of making
necessary corrections or editing the whole layout of the tables if needed, which is impossible or
time consuming in case of writing in papers. Thus, computers help in data entry, data editing,
data management including follow up actions etc. computers also allow for greater flexibility in
recording the data while they are collected as well as greater ease during the analysis of these
data. Examples of editors are WordPad, SPSS data editor, word processors, others like ultraedit
etc.
Data exposition: Most researchers are anxious about seeing the data: what they look like; how
they are distributed etc. you can also examine different dimension of variables or plot them in
various charts using a statistical application.
4.Role of Computers in Data Analysis
This phase consist of the analysis of data, hypothesis testing and generalizations and
interpretation. Data analysis phase mainly consist of statistical analysis of the data and
interpretation of results. Data analysis: many software’s are now available to perform the
mathematical part of the research process i.e. the calculations using various statistical methods.
Software’s like SPSS and spreadsheets are the widely used. They can be like calculating the
sample size for a proposed study, hypothesis testing and calculating the power of the study.
Familiarity with any one package will suffice to carry out the most intricate statistical analysis.
Computers are useful not only for statistical analysis, but also to monitor the accuracy and
completeness of the data as they are collected. These software’s also display the results in
graphical char or graph form.
5.Role of Computer in Research Publication
This phase consists of preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i.e., formal write-up
of conclusions reached. This is the research publication phase. The research article, research
paper, research thesis or research dissertation is typed in word processing software and converted
to portable data format (PDF) and stored and/or published in the world wide web. Online sites
are available through we can convert our word file into any format like html, pdf etc. Various
online applications are also available for this purpose. Even we can prepare our document using
online word processing software and can store/edit/access it from anywhere using internet.
ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
There are various computer applications used in scientific research. Some of the most important
applications used in scientific research are data storage, data analysis, scientific simulations,
instrumentation control and knowledge sharing. [2] Data Storage Experimentation is the basis of
scientific research. Every experiment in any of the natural sciences generates a lot of data that
needs to be stored and analyzed to derive important conclusions, to validate or disprove
hypotheses. Computers attached with experimental apparatuses, directly record data as it's
generated and subject it to analysis through specially designed software. Data storage is possible
in SPSS data file, lotus spreadsheet, excel spreadsheet, ASCII/DOS text file etc.
Data Analysis
Analyzing tons of statistical data is made possible using specially designed algorithms that are
implemented by computers. This makes the extremely time-consuming job of data analysis to be
a matter of a few minutes. In genetic engineering, computers have made the sequencing of the

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entire human genome possible. Data from different sources can be stored and accessed via
computer networks set up in research labs, which makes collaboration simpler.
Scientific Simulations
One of the prime uses of computers in pure science and engineering projects is the running of
simulations. A simulation is a mathematical modeling of a problem and a virtual study of its
possible solutions. Problems which do not yield themselves to experimentation can be studied
through simulations carried out on computers. For example, astrophysicists carry out structure
formation simulations, which are aimed at studying how large-scale structures like galaxies are
formed. Space missions to the Moon, satellite launches and interplanetary missions are first
simulated on computers to determine the best path that can be taken by the launch vehicle and
spacecraft to reach its destination safely.
Instrumentation Control
Most advanced scientific instruments come with their own on-board computer, which can be
programmed to execute various functions. For example, the Hubble Space Craft has its own
onboard computer system which is remotely programmed to probe the deep space.
Instrumentation control is one of the most important applications of computers.
Knowledge Sharing Through Internet
Lastly, in the form of Internet, computers have provided an entirely new way to share
knowledge. Today, anyone can access the latest research papers that are made available for free
on websites. Sharing of knowledge and collaboration through the Internet, has made international
cooperation on scientific projects possible. Through various kinds of analytical software
programs, computers are contributing to scientific research in every discipline, ranging from
biology to astrophysics, discovering new patterns and providing novel insights. When the work
in neural network based artificial intelligence advances and computers are granted with the
ability to learn and think for themselves, future advances in technology and research will be even
more rapid.

TOOLS AND APPLICATIONS USED IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Statistical Analysis Tool: SPSS SPSS is the most popular tool for statisticians. SPSS stands for
Statistical Package for Social Sciences. The latest version of SPSS is IBM SPSS STATISTICS
20 (purchased by IBM after version 19). It provides all analysis facilities like following and
many more. 
 Provides Data view & variable view
 Measures of central tendency & dispersion
 Statistical inference
 Correlation & Regression analysis
 Analysis of variance
 Non parametric test
 Hypothesis tests: T-test, chi-square, z-test, ANOVA, Bipartite variable….
 Multivariate data analysis
 Frequency distribution
 Data exposition by using various graphs like line, scatter, bar, ogive, histogram,
pie chart….
Data Analysis Tool: SPREADSHEET PACKAGES
A spreadsheet is a computer application that simulates a paper worksheet. It displays multiple
cells that together make up a grid consisting of rows and columns, each cell containing either

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alphanumeric text or numeric values.
Microsoft Excel is popular spreadsheet software. Others spreadsheet packages are Lotus 1-2-3
Quattro Pro, Javeline Plus, Multiplan, VisiCalc, Supercalc, Plan Perfect etc.
OTHER STATISTICAL TOOLS
SAS, S-Plus, LISREL, Eviews etc.
WORD PROCESSOR PACKAGES
A word processor (more formally known as document preparation system) is a computer
application used for the production (including composition, editing, formatting, and possibly
printing) of any sort of printable material.
The word processing packages are Microsoft Word, Wordstar, Word perfect, Softward, Akshar
(Gujarati), Amipro etc.
PRESENTATION SOFTWARE
A presentation program is a computer software package used to display information, normally in
the form of a slide show. It typically includes three major functions: an editor that allows text to
be inserted and formatted, a method for inserting and manipulating graphic images and a
slideshow system to display the content.
The presentation packages are Microsoft Powerpoint, Lotus Freelance Graphics, Corel
Presentations, Apple keynote etc.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT PACKAGES (DBMS)
Database is an organized collection of information. A DBMS is a software designed to manage a
database.
Various Desktop Databases are Microsoft Access, Paradox, Dbase or DbaseIII+, FoxBase,
Foxpro/ Visual Foxpro, FileMaker Pro
Commercial Database Servers that supports multiuser are Oracle, Ms-SQL Server, Sybase,
Ingres, Informix, DB2 UDB (IBM), Unify, Integral, etc.
Open source Database packages are MySQL, PostgreSQL, Firebird etc.
BROWSERS
A web browser is a software application which enables a user to display and interact with text,
images, videos, music, games and other information typically located on a Web page at a website
on the World Wide Web or a local area network.
Examples are Microsoft Internet explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Opera, Netscape navigator, Chrome
(google browser), Safari
TOOLS THROUGH INTERNET
Google (popular search engine)
Yahoo!
WebCrawler
Excite
Altavista
Online Data/Documentation Management (to manage your documents online)
Dropbox
Google Drive
Google Docs
MS Sky Drive (free)
Microsoft 365 (paid version)
Online Data Collection (To collect data online from different users)
Online forms

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Online questionnaires
Online surveys
Collaboration tools
Skype: Voice and video conferencing
Google Hangouts: Voice and video conferencing
Modern Research tools
Zotero
Evernote
Modern electronic research tools, like Zotero and Evernote, make the collection of research data,
and collaboration between colleagues possible, which that in the past would have been difficult,
expensive, or even impossible. They also save large amounts of time citing and creating
bibliographies. Evernote allows the user to capture digital content, including web pages, PDF
files or snippets of web pages, organize them, annotate them, share them, publish them and
search them.

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