St.

Mary’s University
Faculty of Informatics
Department of Computer Science
For 2008 None Computer Science Student

Chapter one
Introduction to computer

A computer is an electronic device that takes input such as raw data which can be numbers, text, sound,
image, animations, video, etc., processes it, and converts it into meaningful information that could be
understood, presenting the changed input (processed input) as output. All numbers, text, sound, images,
animations, and video used as input are called data, and all numbers, text, sound, images, animations,
and video returned as output are called information.

∑ The data consists of numbers, text, sound, images, animations, and video.
∑ The process converts numbers, text, sound, images, animations, and video (data) into usable
data, which is called information.
∑ The information consists of numbers, text, sound, images, animations, and video that has been
converted by the process.
∑ The data is inserted using an input device.
∑ The central processing unit (CPU) converts data to information.
∑ The information is put on an output device.

A storage device is an apparatus for storing data and information. A basic computer consists of 4
components: an input device, a CPU, output devices, and memory.
By using computer we can exchange different kinds of data as well as information’s.
What is Data?
∑ Data is raw, unorganized facts that need to be processed.
¸ It is a collection of symbols that represent a thing, a concept or an event
¸ It is any collection of figures that are arranged in general accessed principle or convention.
Example 16, John, table…….
Data Processing
¸ It is the process of rearrangement of collected data in to our desire.
¸ It is the process of collecting, arranging and representing of a given facts in accordance with sets
of rules.
What is Information
∑ When data is processed, organized, structured or presented in a given context so as to make it
useful, it is called information.
¸ Information:-
o Should be meaningful
o Should be correct and accurate
o Should help for decision making actions
What is Knowledge?
¸ It is accumulation (group) of Information gathered from different area.
¸ Is information that helps us to draw conclusion
¸ Different kinds of information stored inside our mind.
What is Wisdom?
¸ It is the use of knowledge in making judgment based on the accepted values and tradition of
society.
¸ By using the knowledge you have creating/inventing new things for the society.

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 St.Mary’s University
Faculty of Informatics
Department of Computer Science
For 2008 None Computer Science Student
Fig .Hierarchy of data processing

DATA

INFORMATION

KNOWLEDGE

WISDOM

Sources of information

Sources of information are classified into two major categories; Documentary Source and Non
Documentary Source.
I. Documentary sources of information
It is a recorded sources of information in different forms.It is categorized into three groups.
These are
A) Primary documentary sources.
B) Secondary documentary sources.
C) Tertiary documentary sources.

A) Primary documentary sources of information are the first published records of original
research and development undertakings. It may also be a description of new application or new
interpretation of an old idea or Original thinking or new discoveries.
∑ It constitute the latest available information ,therefore ,researcher who produces new information
make it available to interested readers in the same field.
∑ It is unorganized and difficult to be directly used as they are. In most cases, they further
organized into secondary sources.
∑ It is important because they highly contribute to the development and strengthening of a given
subject or discipline.
∑ Primary sources of information can be published in variety of forms such as periodicals, research
reports, patent, standards, dissertations, journals, seminar ...etc
There are also unpublished primary sources examples of these are
∑ Laboratory note books
∑ Diaries (personal records of the daily activities of the diarist, depending on
His /her interest mostly kept on daily bases)
∑ Coins, inscription on stone.

B) Secondary documentary Sources: - Are those sources which are either compiled from or
referred to the primary sources of information. The primary sources is modified, selected,
filtered, digested, reorganized and repacked knowledge rather than a new knowledge is produced
as the secondary sources of information.
Secondary sources can be published in the form of periodicals, reference books, index, bibliographies,
text books...etc

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 St.Mary’s University
Faculty of Informatics
Department of Computer Science
For 2008 None Computer Science Student
Tertiary documentary sources:-It contains information, which is refined or distilled and collected
from primary and secondary sources of information.
Such information is published in the form of catalogues, directories (such as telephone directories)

II. Non documentary sources of information

- Those sources of information which are not properly recorded or documented for public use.
- Are those sources, which are not intentionally organized and documented to serve a wide range of
actual and potential users. These sources provide information that the primary and secondary sources
lack. It is categorized into two, these are
A) Formal non-documentary sources: The user formally consults the formal non documentary
sources to get the required information .By consulting professional societies, Universities, Industries
experts, Research organizations, Government department ...etc
B) Informal non-documentary sources: -They are live sources that are important in the process of
exchange of information. Examples of such information are conversation between colleagues,
visitors and discussions from different meetings.

The value of information

The value of information is directly related to how it helps the user or decision maker to meet individual,
organizational and societal objectives.
The value of information is measured in terms of
∑ The time it saves to make a decision.
∑ The increase in profit it brings to the organizations or individuals.
∑ The decrease in costs it makes possible to the individual or organization.

Characteristics of value of information

Information to be valuable to the users, it has to fulfill the following characteristics.
ÿ Accuracy: - Free from any kind of errors.
ÿ Completeness:-It has to contain all important facts or figures that are required for specific
purpose.
ÿ Economical: - It must be processed with less cost, time and effort.
ÿ Flexibility: - The collected information must be opened or invites for more discussion to generate
concrete and useful outcome.(or it shouldn't be rigid)
ÿ Reliability: - The information must be dependable.
ÿ Relevance: - The information should fit for decision makers or users.
ÿ Timeliness: - It has to be timely information.
ÿ Accessibility: - Smooth condition for authorized users to get the necessary information easily in
the right format.

DATA PROCESSING AND INFORMATION PROCESSING

Data Processing: - is the manipulation and transformation of data into a more useful form. Data
processing includes all the tasks performed to produce an information package. This may include:-
Classifying, Comparing, Organizing, Merging, Calculating, Sorting, Transmitting the obtained data.
The raw data is collected, the collected data is processed, output is produced and the output is
communicated to concerned users in the processing of data.
Data processing can be performed manually, mechanically or electronically.

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 St.Mary’s University
Faculty of Informatics
Department of Computer Science
For 2008 None Computer Science Student

ÿ Manual Data Processing:- involves the manipulation of data by hand

ÿ Mechanical Data Processing: - involves the use of mechanical materials like typewriters etc. to
assist the processing of data.
ÿ Electronic Data Processing:- is the processing of data using computers , people have to create
the instructions that the computer follows in processing the data
Data Processing Cycle
The basic steps in data processing cycle are three: - Input, Processing and output.

INPUT PROCESSING OUTPUT

INPUT: - This is the stage in which data is prepared and input to the system. This kind of input
information is determined factor for the quality of the output. To get quality results you must have
quality data to start with. Thus, within the information processing community, there is a well known
saying Garbage in Garbage out (GIGO), to mean unreliable original data inputs generate unusable
results or outputs

PROCESSING:- this is the stage in which data is transformed into information. The processing activity
involves any methods for using, handling, adding to or changing data.

OUTPUT: - that is a processed data which is ready to be used for some kinds of tasks. The output stage
must provide the required information on a readily usable form

Data processing operations

Several data processing operations may be required before we get the processed data. These include
recording or capturing, verifying, sorting, merging, calculating, storing, retrieving, summarizing and
reporting.
Information Processing
Data processing and information processing are often used interchangeably. The information produced
at lower level is being used as data for a higher-level activity. Thus, information processing is the way of
refining the data and getting the relevant information accurately and in time. The information processing
work was split up into batches. Information processing is done through the use of information
Technology (IT)

Basics of Computers and Data Communications

What is a computer?
Before going into the details about how a computer works, its components and so on, we will begin by
defining what a computer is. Here are some definitions:
A computer is an electronic device that can perform a variety of operations in accordance with a set of
instructions called program.

A computer is a tool that people use to achieve a goal, just like any other tool that we use for example a
hammer to knock in nails. A computer in its simplest form is a box full of switches. These switches can
have two possible states, On or Off. That is why a computer is known as a ‘Two state electronic device’.
Most people assume that computers are intelligent, but this is not true. Computers are really thick, they
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 St.Mary’s University
Faculty of Informatics
Department of Computer Science
For 2008 None Computer Science Student
can’t do anything without being told to do so, and when a computer does something wrong, it is not
usually the computer that is wrong but either the person using the Computer, or the person who
programmed the software.
A computer is a device that is capable to processing data. The world’s greatest and most advanced
computer is the human body. Your mind is much faster and far superior to any computer in existence.

Basic Characteristics (features) of computers

The characteristics of a computer show the capability and the potential of the computer for processing
data. This saves time, space, money, labor etc.

There are six basic characteristics of computer.

Speed: The most important characteristic of a computer is its speed. Computer works only one step at a
time. Its speed is measured by the amount of time it took to perform or carry out a basic operation.
Computer speed measured in terms of micro second (10-6 one millionths), nano second (10-9 one
billionths), and pico second (10-12 one trillionths).

Storage: Computers have enormous storage capacity. Computers can store a vast amount of
information, which can be recalled at any time in a fraction of a second. The information is stored in the
form of files, but on disks and tapes. This helps in easy and speedy retrieval of information. This storage
is known as electronic storage system. This system removes the duplication of information being stored.
For example, in a company or an organization the details of employees are given such as name, address,
basic salary, unique code number etc…, that may be required by accounts department as well as
personnel department. In case, an employee resigns or is promoted, then the updating of the information
is required only once and at one place.

Accuracy: Now a day’s computers are being used for surgical purposes which need almost hundred
percent accuracy. From this we can understand that computer is accurate and consistent. Unless there is
an error in the input data or unreliable program the computer processes with a very accurate.

Reliability:-Computer works for longer period of time without any problem or failure.

Versatility/Flexibility: Computers have the potential to perform or solve varieties of tasks and
problems, as long as the problem or the task can be put or reduced in the form of logical steps.

Diligence: Computers being a machine doesn’t suffer from the human traits of tiredness and lack of
concentration. If 1 million instructions have to be performed then the computer will perform the last
millionth instruction with the same accuracy and speed as the first instruction. In other word computers
does the same thing repeatedly with out saying I am tired.

Advantages of Computer

Computers have advantages over other computing devices as they are fast, reliable, accurate, can store
massive amounts of information, can move information quickly from one place to another and are
versatile in nature.

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 St.Mary’s University
Faculty of Informatics
Department of Computer Science
For 2008 None Computer Science Student
The advantages of computers can be listed out as below:

ÿ Perform repetitive tasks.

ÿ Are more accurate while dealing with large numbers.
ÿ Work at constant efficiency.
ÿ Are almost used in any field.
ÿ Process millions of instructions in a fraction of a second.
ÿ Are effective and efficient in data storage and retrieval.

Limitations of computers

(a) Non-affordability: The high cost of installation of computers puts a limit over its use. However, due
to the advent of PCs and super mini-computers and mini super computers, a common man can also
afford to buy a computer.
(b) Compatibility: Programs and software written for one type of computer or microprocessor cannot be
used for other type of microprocessors.
(c) Dependent upon human beings.
(d) Have no imagination and intuition of their own.
(e) Tasks have to be described in detail.
(f) Cannot detect flaw or error in logic.
(g) Need of an expert programmer, etc.

Generations of computers

Although computer professionals do not agree on exact dates or specifics, computer developments are
often categorized by generations. Actually there are four generations and major characteristics that
distinguish these generations are the following;

ÿ Dominant type of electronic circuit elements used.

ÿ Major secondary storage media used.
ÿ Computer language used.
ÿ Types or characteristic of operating system used.
ÿ Memory access time (a time to store or retrieve a word or data from memory).

Computer generations are usually categorized by dramatic improvement in the hardware, typically
tenfold or better increases in speed and reliability.

First generation (1950s)

This generation computers used vacuum tubes as components for the electronic circuit. Punched cards
were the main source of inputs, and magnetic grams were used for internal storage. They operate in a
speed of milliseconds (thousands of a second) and could handle more than 10,000 additions each
second. Most applications were scientific calculations.

Second generations (early 1960s)

Transistors were the main circuit components. Invented by Bell Labs, the transistor was smaller, faster
and more reliable than the vacuum tube. Magnetic cores, used for main storage, could be concerned in
microseconds (millionths of a second) with more than 200,000 additions possible each second. Business
applications become more common place, with large data files stored on magnetic tape and disk.
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 St.Mary’s University
Faculty of Informatics
Department of Computer Science
For 2008 None Computer Science Student
Examples
IBM 1620 –small scientific computers
IBM 1401 –small to medium commercial computers
IBM 7094 –large scientific computer
High level languages COBOL and FORTRAN were introduced during this period. Batch operating
systems are used that permitted rapid processing of magnetic tape files.

Third generation (late 1960s, early 1970s)

It was characterized by solid-state logic and integrated circuit (IC). Computer storage switched from
magnetic cores to integrated circuit boards that provide modularity (expandable storage) and
compatibility (interchangeable equipment). Software become more important with sophisticated
operating systems, improved programming languages, and new input/output methods such as optical
scanning and plotters.
Example
∑ IBM system /360 was the dominant
∑ IBM 1130

Fourth generation (late 1970s,early 1989s,)

It has greatly expanded storage capabilities and improved circuitry. It has large scale integrated circuits
(LSI) which has several hundred thousands transistors placed on one tiny silicon chip. Computer
memory operates at speeds of nano-seconds (billionths of a second) with large computers capable of
adding 15 million numbers per second.

The fifth generation computer

It is in progress. An architecture, which makes use of the changes in technology and allows a simple and
natural methodology for solving problems, is being sought.
These computers will have:
ÿ Intelligent processors, i.e., processors which can draw inferences.
ÿ Users will also be able to interact with them in natural languages such as English, German etc.

Types of Computers

There are different types of computers. Their differences depend on different categories of
characteristics.
A. Classification by the method of operation (processing)
Computers are classified by the type of data they are designed to process. They are classified into three:
I. Analog Computers
Analog computers operate by measuring. They deal with continues variables, they don’t compute
directly with numbers, rather, they operate by measuring physical magnitude such as pressure,
temperature, voltage, current etc. They are special purpose computers.
Examples: Thermometer, Voltmeter, Speedometer, Gasoline pomp, etc.

II. Digital Computers

Digital computers deal with discrete variables, they operate by counting rather than measuring. They
operate directly up on numbers (or digits) that represent numbers, letters, or other special symbols.
Digital computers have very high accuracy and speed than the analog ones

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 St.Mary’s University
Faculty of Informatics
Department of Computer Science
For 2008 None Computer Science Student
Examples: Abacus, Desk & pocket computers and most general purpose computers

III. Hybrid computers

The best features of analog and digital computers can be combined into a single device to form a hybrid
computer. A hybrid computer processes the information by collecting input data with analog method,
converts it into digital quantities, processes the digital values and converts the output from digital to
analog form.
Example: In hospital insensitive-care unit analog devices may measure a patient’s heart function,
temperature and other vital signs. These measurements may then be converted into numbers and
supplied to a digital component in the system. This component is used to monitor the patient’s vital
signs and to send an immediate signal to the nurse’s station if any abnormal readings are detected.

B. Classification by purpose of application

Computers can be applied or used for different purposes. Based upon their application, they are
classified as special purpose or general purpose computers.

I. Special purpose computers

They are designed to solve a single type of problem, that is their components and their functions are
uniquely adapted to a specific situation involving specific application. Most analog computers are
special purpose computers.
Example: The public telephone box, Traffic control system, Ticket machines (used in grocery, super
market etc.)

II. General purpose computers

They are designed to solve variety of problems through the use of “store program concept”. A program
or set of instructions designed to solve a problem is read and stored into the memory and then executed
by the computer one by one. The same computer can be applied to solve another set of problem using
different program. General computers are more flexible and versatile.
Examples: Micro computers, Mini computers, Super computers etc.

C. Classification by physical size, price, capacity and performance

At this stage, by a computer, we mean a general-purpose digital computer. General-purpose digital
computers are then classified as follows by their capacity and size.

Super computer: - is the fastest, largest and most potential type of computer. They have speed of
hundreds of millions of operation per second, a primary memory capacity of about 80 million characters,
and a secondary memory of capacity of about 20 times its primary memory. They are multi-user systems
in intercontinental range. They can carry out enormously complex scientific calculations. They are used
to process huge amount of data and are commonly used in space technology centers, meteorology
stations, astronomical observatories, inter continental communications, airline organizations.

Mainframe computers:- Smaller than in size and capacity, lower in speed & memory capacity than the
super computers. However they are multi-user systems and handle hundreds of users, usually used in
large organizations. The older ones used punched card for data input.

Mini computers:- have relatively lower speed, can handle multi-users, are smaller in size than the
mainframe computers. They use terminals for inputs and output. Mini computers are used in small
organizations.
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 St.Mary’s University
Faculty of Informatics
Department of Computer Science
For 2008 None Computer Science Student

Micro computers:-are the most widely used type of computers. They are single users, can fit on
desktops, are of varying capacity and easy to handle. Microcomputers are sometimes referred as
personal computers. They have video display unit for output purpose. Data is entered through the
keyboard and by the help of floppy disk.

Computers Systems
System is a group of components, consisting of subsystems or procedures that work in a coordination
fashion to achieve some objective.
A computer system consists of hardware and software for its proper functioning.

Hardware: is the physical equipment of the computer you see, you use to and the parts you can touch.

Basic Physical components of a computer system

The basic units of a computer system include Central processing Unit (CPU), Storage Devices, Input
Devices, Output Devices and Communication Bus. Below is given a detailed explanation of these
devices.

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU) or Processor

It is also referred as the brain of the system. It is that part of the process the data which contains
electronic circuit to process the data. Depending on the instructions of input devices it performs
operations on the data. It also controls the flow of data through the system, directing the data to enter the
system, placing it in memory and retrieving it when required and directing the output.
The CPU consists of Arithmetical Logic Unit and Control Unit

ALU (Arithmetical Logic Unit): It takes logical decision and performs all type of arithmetical
calculations.

Control unit: It controls all the activities of other units of computer system. It receives instructions from
memory unit. It decodes these instructions. It decides the routing and storage of these instructions.

2. Primary Storage Devices/ main Memory

RAM (Random Access Memory)

® Is that the memory which is directly accessible by the control unit and ALU;
® Usually referred as Random Access Memory (RAM), because each memory location can be
accessed without having to work sequentially through hundreds or even thousands of
memory locations called addresses;
® Each memory location can be referred by its memory location (address);
® Holds instructions and data elements which are currently being used by the computer;
® The data in the main memory while be lost when the power is off;

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 St.Mary’s University
Faculty of Informatics
Department of Computer Science
For 2008 None Computer Science Student
ROM (Read Only Memory)

® This type of memory is integrated into the circuitry of the computer and can not be altered
without altering the computer circuitry;
® Used to store programs and data that are used frequently and permanently;

3. Secondary storage Devices/ Auxiliary Memory

Secondary storage or auxiliary storage, can take many forms, which have traditionally included punched
cards, papers tape, magnetic tape, magnetic disk and magnetic drum. This storage media are stores data
and information permanently.
Magnetic Tapes
Magnetic tapes are a particularly popular form of secondary storage because of their high data density
(the number of bytes of instruction per inch of tape) and their convenience in handling. Magnetic tapes
are approximately one - half inch wide is made of Mylar – based plastic film which can be magnetized.
Data are stored on a magnetic tape by running the tape over the electromagnetic called read/write head
which magnetizes small spots on the tape. Seven-track tapes store information as bytes of information,
where each byte consists of a six-bit code and a one-bit parity bit. Nine-track tape uses an eight-bit and a
parity bit.
Magnetic disks
Magnetic disks are metals or plastic platters coated with ferrous oxide, an easily magnetically material.
Magnetic disks allow for random access of information and overcome the slow access time commonly
found in tape files.
Disk drive: - is part of a computer system which reads from and writes data on a disk.
Floppy disks
ÿ Also called flexible or diskette.
ÿ Used to store programs and data for a longer period outside the computer system.
ÿ Often used with mini and micro computers.
ÿ Data is stored in concentric circles called tracks.
ÿ Each track is further divided into sectors
ÿ A sector stores the amount of information that can be read or written in single operation.

Track Sector

Hard Disk
ÿ A high capacity magnetic disk made up of metal which can be fixed in the system unit of the
computer.
ÿ Serves as a secondary storage.
ÿ Enables very fast accessibility of data.
ÿ Accessing data from hard disk is faster than from floppy disks.
ÿ The disks, which are usually grouped together into a disk pack are separated by small air spaces to
allow access for read/write head.
ÿ Each disk has approximately 200 tracks on which information is stored. Tracks of the small
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 St.Mary’s University
Faculty of Informatics
Department of Computer Science
For 2008 None Computer Science Student
number on all adjacent disks are referred to as a cylinder of that disk.
ÿ The disk pack is mounted on a magnetic disk drive which rotates the disk at speed up to 1,000
revolutions per second.
ÿ The total collection of tracks available on one movement of the access mechanism is known as
cylinder.
ÿ The amount of time it takes to retrieve (or store) data from (or to) disk is called the disk access
time.

Compact Disk Read Only Memory (CD ROM)

The CDROM is a thin piece of clear polycarbonate plastic with a metal layer covered with a protective
layer of lacquer, with the aluminum layer measuring 120 mm in diameter. It is mostly useful in
multimedia applications where data is huge and needed to be transferred from one place to another and
the requirement is of secure data. The disk can also be used to distribute songs that also require huge
amount of space and to distribute bundled software packages. The main disadvantage of this type of
media is that they are read-only, which means that the disk manufacture can only put data on them.

4. Input/Out Put Devices

Input Devices

π Is the unit used to enter data into the computer so that it can be processed.
π It converts information from a form suitable to human beings to one understandable by the
computer.
Examples of input devices;
π Keyboard (which is the most widely used input devices)
π Disk derives (floppy and hard-disk derives)
π Mouse
π Scanner
π Light pen (a photo cell to choose a displayed response to request further information).
π Voice synthesizer;
π CD-ROM Drive, etc.

Output Devices

ÿ Used to get data out of a computer so that it can be examined, analyzed or distributed to others.
ÿ Convert the result of the only-machine understandable form to a form understandable by human
beings.
Examples
ÿ The Visual Display Unit (VDU) or monitor or screen
ÿ Printers (dot matrix, laser printers)
ÿ Plotters
ÿ Voice (audio) response unit
ÿ Disk drives

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 St.Mary’s University
Faculty of Informatics
Department of Computer Science
For 2008 None Computer Science Student
5. Communication Bus

We have seen that there are different components of a computer and each performs a specific function.
But to perform a given task in synchronized form there should be some mechanism of communication.
For this reason there is an electronic circuit which produces communication path between the different
components of a computer system along which data are transferred, that is Bus. The bus, which
communicates the different parts of the CPU, is called Internal Bus. And the bus, which communicates
the CPU with memory and peripheral devices, is called External Bus. The size of the bus determines the
speed of efficiency of the computer.

Computer Software
The computer hardware is an electronic device which has the potential of performing the task of solving
a problem. However one has to give precise instructions to the hardware in order to solve problem.

The finite set of instructions (steps) that the computer follow to perform a given job is called a program.
Any program to be executed first it should reside / loaded/ in the memory.

Software: - is a collection of programs and routines that support the operations of performing a task
using a computer. Software also includes documentations, rules and operational procedures. Software
makes the interface between the user and the electronic components of the computer.

USER
Software
Hardware
Computer software is classified into two
1. System software
2. Application software

1. System software
¸ Constitutes those programs which facilitates the work of the computer hardware.
¸ It organizes and manages the machine’s resources, handles the input/output devices.
¸ It controls the hardware by performing functions that users shouldn’t have to or are unable to handle.
¸ System programs make complex hardware more users friendly.
¸ It acts as intermediate between the user and the hardware.
¸ It enables the computer understand programming languages i.e. it serves as means of communication
between user and a computer.

The important categories of system software are:

I. Operating system
II. Language software

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 St.Mary’s University
Faculty of Informatics
Department of Computer Science
For 2008 None Computer Science Student
I. Operating system
Operating system coordinates the activity between the user and the computer. An operating system has
three major functions.
Types of Operating Systems
Operating systems can be classified by:
ÿ The number of programs they can handle at a time and
ÿ The number of users they serve at once at one or different stations (i.e. terminals or micro-
computers connected to a central computer).

i. Single tasking operating systems

ÿ With single tasking operating systems only one program can be run on a computer at a time.
ÿ In order to run another program, one must remove the first program loaded in the computers main
memory and load the other one(i.e. it can’t handle two or more programs at a time)
ÿ These types of operating systems are single user or can serve only one user at a time.

ii. Multi user operating system

ÿ It supports a number of work stations connected to a central system.
ÿ A number of users can use the resources of one high capacity computer by the help of terminals.

iii. Real Time Operating System

ÿ A real time is a system that is capable of processing data so quickly that the results are available to
influence the activity currently taking place.
Example:
∑ Air plane seat reservations and computer controlled plant.
∑ Their primary characteristic is that it responds to an event within a well defined time.

II. Language Software.

∑ Are software which are used by programmers to develop application software and translate
programs to machine code.
∑ Language software is a generic name consisting of various programs that serve as editors &
translators to develop programs in a number of programming languages.
∑ Includes:- Translators, general purpose routines and utilities & high level languages
® Translator: - is a program that converts one or more languages to another language.
Three types of translators are assemblers, Compilers & interpreters.
® Assemblers:-is a program that translates assembly languages into machine code.
® Compiler: - is a program that translates a high level language into machine code.
(Pascal, Fortran Cobol)
® Interpreter: - is a program that translates each instruction of high level language &
executes the instruction before translating the next instruction.
® The general-purpose routine and utilities include programs which are used to handle
file processing, editing and debugging.
® High level language software are software which have their own compilers to detect
syntax errors of the users program code.
Example: COBOL, FORTRAN, Pascal. Etc.

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 St.Mary’s University
Faculty of Informatics
Department of Computer Science
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2. Application Software
ÿ Is software that is designed to perform tasks for the specific area or areas. But for use in more than
one installation.
ÿ Are usually called application packages as they may include a number of programs along with
operating instruction, documentation and so forth.
ÿ Depending on their function or task they are categorized in to the following.
1. Word Processors/ Word processing
- is a computerized typewriter which permits the electronic creation, editing, formatting,
filing and printing text.
Example: WordStar, WordPerfect, Microsoft word
2. Spreadsheet
- is an electronic worksheet display on the VDU.
- Until recently, financial analysis and other mathematical calculation were done by entering
numbers on pages of an accountants ruled ledger pad.
Example: Lotus 1-2-3, Microsoft Excel, Quatropro
3. Database management system.
- Allow you to store information on a computer, retrieve it when you need it and update it
when necessary.
- You can do this with index cards, but database management programs do them more
quickly and easily.
- Example: You can store large mailing list, inventory record or billing and collect
information in lists stored in files and manipulate this information, one file at a time with
database management program.
Example: Dbase IV, FoxPro, Microsoft Access.

Data representation method and Numbering System

We enter data into a computer or review (see) output data from a computer using the letter of alphabet,
various special symbols, and the numerals in the decimal number system. But since computer is an
electronic device which understands electrical flow (signal) there is no letter, symbol or number inside
the computer. Computer works with binary numbers. As a semiconductor is conducting or isn’t
conducting; a switch is closed or opened.
So data are represented in the form of a code which can have a corresponding electrical signal.
Number System
v A number system is a set of symbols used for counting
v There are various number systems
E.g Decimal, Binary, octal-decimal, hexadecimal etc.
v For the purpose of understanding how data are represented, stored and processed in
computer, we will discuss only two of them, the Decimal and the binary number system.

The Decimal Number System

v The Decimal number system is based on the ten different digits (or symbols) 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9.
v We say it is a base ten number system
v Though it is widely used, it is inconvenient for computer to represent data. So we need another
number system.

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 St.Mary’s University
Faculty of Informatics
Department of Computer Science
For 2008 None Computer Science Student
The Binary number system
v Binary number system is based on the two different digits; 0 and 1;
v It is important to note that every decimal number system has its equivalent binary number;
v Conversion from binary to its equivalent decimal and from decimal to its equivalent binary is
possible;
v Operation on binary number system is also possible

Binary Decimal
0 0
1 1
10 2
11 3
100 4
101 5
110 6
111 7
1000 8
1001 9 etc.
v The most elementary form to organize data within a computer (an electronic device) is in the form of
a code which utilizes the “ON” and “OFF” states of electric switches or there is “current” and “no
current” condition of the electronic components;
v We see that the nature of the electronic devices has similarity with the binary number system in that
both represent only two elementary states;
v It is therefore convenient to use binary number system to represent data in a computer;
v An “ON” corresponds to a 1;
v An “OFF” corresponds to a 0;
v In the computer “ON” is represented by the existence of a current and “OFF” is represented by non
existence of current
v On a magnetic disk, the same information is stored by changing the polarity of magnetized particles
on the disk’s surface.

CODING METHODS
∑ It is possible to represent any of the character in our language in a way as a series of electrical
switches in arranged manner;
∑ These switch arrangements can therefore be coded as a series of an equivalent arrangements of bits.
There are different coding systems that convert one or more character sets into computer codes. Some
are: EBCDIC pronounced as “Eb-see-dick” and stands for Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange
Code.
∑ It is an 8-bit coding scheme; (00000000 – 11111111)
∑ It accommodates to code 28 or 256 different characters
∑ It is a standard coding scheme for the large computers.

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 St.Mary’s University
Faculty of Informatics
Department of Computer Science
For 2008 None Computer Science Student
Coding Examples

EBCDIC
Character Zone Digit
a 1000 0001
b 1000 0010
A 1100 0001
B 1100 0010
0 1111 0000
9 1111 1001

BCD (6-bits)
∑ Stands for Binary Coded Decimal
∑ It uses 6-bits to code a Character
Coding Examples

BCD
Character Zone digits
A 11 0001
Q 10 1000
8 00 1000
9 00 1001
ASCII-7
∑ ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange
∑ Used widely before the introduction of ASCII-8 (the Extended ASCII)
∑ Uses 7 bits to represent a character;
∑ With the seven bits, 27( or 128) different characters can be coded (0000000-1111111)
∑ It has a zone and digit bits positions
Coding examples:
ASCII-7
Character Zone digit
$ 010 0100
% 010 0101
A 100 0001
a 110 0001
b 110 0010

The ASCII System

Also referred as ASCII-8 or Extended ASCII
It is the most widely used type of coding scheme for Micro Computer system
∑ ASCII uses 8-bits to represent alphanumeric characters (letters, digits and special symbols).
∑ With the 8-bits, ASCII can represent 28 or 256 different characters (00000000-11111111).

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 St.Mary’s University
Faculty of Informatics
Department of Computer Science
For 2008 None Computer Science Student
Coding Examples
Character Binary representation in ASCII
a 01100001
b 01100010
A 01000001
B 01000010
? 00111111
+ 00101011
1 00110001
2 00110010
3 00110011

UNITS OF DATA REPRESENTATION

ÿ When data is stored, processed or communicated within the computer system, it is packed in units;
ÿ Arranged from the smallest to the largest, the units are called bit, byte and word;
ÿ These units are based on the binary number system;

BIT
ÿ Bits are the smallest units and can convey only two possible states 0 or 1;
ÿ bit stands for binary digits;
ÿ A bit is a single element in the computer, on a disk that stands for either “ON” indicating 1 or
“OFF” indicating 0;
ÿ In the computer “ON” is represented by the existence of current and “OFF” is represented by the non
existence of current
ÿ On a magnetic disk, the same information is stored by changing the polarity or magnetized particles
on the disk’s surface;

BYTE
ÿ Bits can be organized into large units to make them represent more and meaningful information;
ÿ This large unit is called a byte and is the basic “unit of data representation” in a computer system;
ÿ The commonly used byte contains 8 bits;
ÿ Since each bit has two states and there are 8 bits in a byte, the total amount of data that can be
represented is 28 or 256 possible combinations;
ÿ Each byte can represent a character(a character is either a letter, a number or a special symbol such
as +,-,?,*, $, etc
ÿ A byte is then used as a unit of measurement in the computer memory, processing unit, external
storage and during communication;
ÿ If the computer memory is 524288 byte, this is expressed in short by saying 512KB, where KB
stands for kilobyte.
¸ 1 Kilobyte(1KB) is 210 or 1024 bytes
¸ 1 Megabyte(MB) is 220 bytes or 210 kilobytes
¸ 1 Gigabyte(GB) is 230 bytes or 220 kilobytes or 210 megabytes

WORD
ÿ Word refers the number of bits that a computer process at a time or a transmission media transmits
at a time
ÿ Although bytes can store or transmit information, the process can even be faster if more than one
byte is processed at a once;
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 St.Mary’s University
Faculty of Informatics
Department of Computer Science
For 2008 None Computer Science Student
ÿ A combination of bytes, then form a “word”
ÿ A word can contain one, two, three or four bytes based on the capacity of the computer;
ÿ Word length is usually given in bits
ÿ We say that a computer is an 8-bits, a 16 bit, a 32 bit or a 64 bit computer to indicate that the amount
of data it can process at a time;
ÿ The large the word length a computer has the more powerful and faster it is.

Methods to Convert Binary to Decimal & Vice Versa

¸ Since there is a difference between the numbering system computer and human being uses you
should convert binary numbers in to decimal and vice versa.
How to convert Binary to decimal
¸ To convert Decimal numbers in to binary, you have to use continuous addition method.
Example: What is the equivalent result of (1001)2 in base 10?
Solution:-
Step 1:- Assign power on top of each digit
¸ Start assigning power from the first digit found in right side& power starts from 0.
Example:-
Power
Power
Step II: use the formula
(13020Digit*Base
1 0
1 )2
¸ Use the formula for each given digitBase
in binary by starting from the first digit from the right side
and add them.

Example: - (13020110)2
=1*23 + 0*22 + 0*21 + 1*20
=1*8+0*4+0*2+1*1
=8+0+0+1
=9
Therefore (1001)2 are equivalent to (9)10
Example 2: What is the equivalent decimal number of (101110)2?
Solution :-(150413121100)2

=1*25 + 0*24 + 1*23 + 1*22 +1*21 +0*20

=1*32+0*16+1*8+1*4+1*2+0*1
=32+0+8+4+2+0
=46
Therefore (101110)2 is equivalent to 46 in base 10

Methods to Convert Decimal to Binary

¸ To convert Decimal in to binary you should use continous division.
Example:- What is the equivalent binary number of 12 in base ten?
¸ divide the number by two and take the reminder

Number/2 Reminder
12/2=6 0
6/2=3 0
3/2=1 1
1 1

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 St.Mary’s University
Faculty of Informatics
Department of Computer Science
For 2008 None Computer Science Student

¸ Put the reminder one by one from the bottom to top like this (1100)2.
Therefore 12 in base 10 is equivalent to (1100)2

Example 2: What is the binary equivalent of 58 in base 10?

Solution
Number/2 Reminder
58/2=29 0
29/2=14 1
14/2=7 0
7/2=3 1
3/2=1 1
1 1

The binary equivalent of 58 is (111010)2

Computer Viruses
Computer virus is a self- replicating (copying) computer program that interferes with a computer's
hardware and operating system. It may attach itself to any executable code, including but not limited to
the boot sectors and/or partition sections of hard and/or floppy disks. It may damage, corrupt, destroy
data, or degrade system performance. Once the infected programs are executed, the computer viruses,
like biological viruses, destabilize the normal functions of the computer operating system.
Viruses are designed to duplicate and to escape detection. Like any other computer program, a virus
must be executed to function, that is, it must be loaded from the computers memory, and the computer
must then follow the virus instructions. These instructions are called the payload of the virus. The
payload may disrupt or change data files, display a message, or cause the OS to malfunction.
Viruses range from the relatively harmless to the destructive ones. Some may do nothing more than
display a message or your screen, whereas others may lock up your screen, corrupt or erase files,
reformat hard disk, or totally crash your system. All viruses take up RAM and hard disk space, and may
slow down the performance of your system.

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