Soil Mechanics I

Chapter - 4
Stresses, Strains, and Elastic Deformations of Soils

4.1 Stress and strain

4.2 Idealized stresses-Strain response and Yielding

4.3 Total and Effective Stresses

Accurate estimate of stress distribution in a soil mass is essential for calculations of elastic and
consolidation settlements, of the bearing capacity of soil for shallow and deep foundations
design, of lateral earth pressures for the design of earth-retaining structures, and of slope
stability.
The vertical stress at a particular depth is due to the weight of everything above soil grain water
foundation and so stresses generally increase with depth. In the fig.4.1 (a), the vertical stress σ z is
σz = γz
Where, γ is the unit weight of the soil. If the soil is under the water level, in the bed of a lake or a
sea, as in fig.4.1 (b),
σz = γz + γwzw
and if there is a surcharge load q at the surface from a foundation or an embankment as in
fig.4.1(c)
σz = γz + q

Figure 4.1 Total stresses in the ground.

Remember that γ is the weight of everything (soil grains and water) in unit volume. Because σ z
arises from the total weight of the soil it is known as a total stress.
The water in the pores of saturated soil has a pressure known as the pore pressure, u and is given
by;
u = γwhw

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Where, hw height of water rise. At the water table the pore pressure is zero (u = 0) because hw is
zero. Immediately above the water table the soil remains saturated because of capillarity rise in
the pore spaces. In this zone the pore pressures are negative (because water in this zone is in
tension) and are given by
u = - γwhw

Figure 4.2
The vertical stress at a point located at a depth z below the ground surface is equal to the weight
of the soil above that point. When water is present within the soil strata, we need to distinguish
between the total vertical stress and the effective vertical stress. The stress carried by the soil
grains is known as effective stress and denoted by σ’. The stress carried by the water in the pores
is termed pore water pressure and given the symbol u.
Therefore, the total stress σ becomes
σ = σ’ + u

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Figure 4.3 Calculation of effective stress distribution in a saturated soil layer inside a
container.
The soil specimen will be totally destabilized when the effective stress distribution becomes
zero. We can obtain this condition if we set the effective stress at the bottom of the soil layer
equal to zero:

or

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As you recall, the hydraulic gradient through the soil specimen is given by

,
Where, the hydraulic gradient, i, is equal to the critical hydraulic gradient, icr, because it causes
the soil specimen to be destabilized.
Now we can discuss the exit element on the downstream side of the sheet pile or dam. The flow
net indicates that the exit element is subject to a total head loss of Δh. As the water flows from
the bottom of the exit element toward the top, a distance L it encounters a head loss of Δh.
Therefore, the exit hydraulic gradient can be calculated as

Let us define a hydraulic gradient safety factor for the exit element:

When this safety factor is 1, the exit hydraulic gradient is equal to the critical hydraulic gradient,
and the exit element is in the state of incipient failure. To prevent that, this safety factor should
be equal to or greater than 1.5.
4.4 Stresses in soil from surface load
Estimation of vertical stresses at any point in a soil-mass due to external vertical loadings are of
great significance in the prediction of settlements of buildings, bridges, embankments and many
other structures. Equations have been developed to compute stresses at any point in a soil mass
on the basis of the theory of elasticity. According to elastic theory, constant ratios exist between
stresses and strains. For the theory to be applicable, the real requirement is not that the material
necessarily be elastic, but there must be constant ratios between stresses and the corresponding
strains. Therefore, in non-elastic soil masses, the elastic theory may be assumed to hold so long
as the stresses induced in the soil mass are relatively small. Since the stresses in the subsoil of a
structure having adequate factor of safety against shear failure are relatively small in comparison
with the ultimate strength of the material, the soil may be assumed to behave elastically under
such stresses.
When a load is applied to the soil surface, it increases the vertical stresses within the soil
mass. The increased stresses are greatest directly under the loaded area, but extend indefinitely in
all directions. Many formulas based on the theory of elasticity have been used to compute
stresses in soils. They are all similar and differ only in the assumptions made to represent the
elastic conditions of the soil mass. The formulas that are most widely used are the Boussinesq

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and Westergaard formulas. These formulas were first developed for point loads acting at the
surface.
These formulas have been integrated to give stresses below uniform strip loads and
rectangular loads.
The extent of the elastic layer below the surface loadings may be any one of the following:
1. Infinite in the vertical and horizontal directions.
2. Limited thickness in the vertical direction underlain with a rough rigid base such as a
rocky bed.

4.4.1 Point Load, Line load, Strip Load

A, BOUSSINESQ’S FORMULA FOR POINT LOADS
Consider the figure below with load Q acting at a point 0 on the surface of a semi-infinite solid.
A semi-infinite solid is the one bounded on one side by a horizontal surface, here the surface of
the earth, and infinite in all the other directions.
Assumptions made by Boussinesq for the determination of vertical stress (σ z) at any point P
at depth z as a result of surface point load Q.
 The soil mass is elastic, isotropic, homogeneous and semi-infinite.
 The soil is weightless.
 The load is a point load acting on the surface.
The soil is said to be isotropic if there are identical elastic properties throughout the mass and in
every direction through any point of it. The soil is said to be homogeneous if there are identical
elastic properties at every point of the mass in identical directions.

Fig.4.4 Vertical pressure within an earth mass

The vertical stress σz, at point P due to a point load Q is given by

Where, r = the horizontal distance between an arbitrary point P below the surface and the
vertical axis through the point load Q.
z = the vertical depth of the point P from the surface.

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The values of the Boussinesq coefficient IB can be determined for a number of values of r/z.
The variation of IB with r/z in a graphical form is given in Fig. 4.5. It can be seen from this figure
that IB has a maximum value of 0.48 at r/z = 0, i.e., indicating thereby that the stress is a
maximum below the point load.

B, WESTERGAARD'S FORMULA FOR POINT LOADS

Boussinesq assumed that the soil is elastic, isotropic and homogeneous for the development of a
point load formula. However, the soil is neither isotropic nor homogeneous. The most common
type of soils that are met in nature is the water deposited sedimentary soils. When the soil
particles are deposited in water, typical clay strata usually have their lenses of coarser materials
within them. The soils of this type can be assumed as laterally reinforced by numerous, closely
spaced, horizontal sheets of negligible thickness but of infinite rigidity, which prevent the mass
as a whole from undergoing lateral movement of soil grains. Westergaard, a British Scientist,
proposed (1938) a formula for the computation of vertical stress σz by a point load, Q, at the
surface as

Where, µ is Poisson's ratio. If µ, is taken as zero for all practical purposes, the above Equation
simplifies to

Where,

is the Westergaard stress coefficient. The variation of Iw with the ratios of (r/z) is shown
graphically in Fig. 4.5 along with the Boussinesq's coefficient IB. The value of Iw at r/z = 0 is
0.32 which is less than that of IB by 33 per cent.

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Figure 4.5 Values of IB or Iw for use in the Boussinesq or Westergaard formula

C, LINE LOADS
Consider the figure below which shows a uniformly distributed load q along a line.

Figure 4.6 Stresses due to vertical line load in rectangular coordinates

A practical example of line load is the load from a long brick wall. The expression required to
determine the vertical stress at any point P at a depth of z below the ground surface is given by

Where, Iz is the influence factor equal to 0.637 at x/z - 0.

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D, STRIP LOADS
A strip load is the load transmitted by a structure of finite width and infinite length on a soil
surface.
Fig. 4.7(a) shows a load q per unit area acting on a strip of infinite length and of constant width
B.

Figure 4.7 Strip load

The total stress σz at point P due to a strip load distributed over a width B (= 2b) may be written
as

4.4.2.1 Uniformly Loaded Rectangular Area

Many structural foundations are rectangular or approximately rectangular in shape. The
increase in stresses below the corner of a rectangular area of width B and length L are

qs  −1 LB LBz  1 1 
z =  tan +  2 + 2  = q s I r
2  
 zR3 R3  R1 R2 

where R1 = ( L2 + z 2 )1 2 , R2 = ( B 2 + z 2 )1 2 , and R3 = ( L2 + B 2 + z 2 )1 2

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 2mn m 2 + n 2 + 1  m 2 + n 2 + 2   
−1  2mn m + n + 1 
2 2
1
Ir =  2 
 2 
 + tan 
4  m + n + m n + 1  m + n + 1 
2 2 2 2  m 2 + n 2 − m 2 n 2 + 1 
 

Where, m = B z and n = L z . You can program your calculator or use a spreadsheet to find Iz.
You must be careful in the last term (tan-1) in programming. If m 2 + n 2 + 1 < m 2 n 2 , then you
have to add  to the quantity in the last term. In general, the vertical stress increase is less than
10% of the surface stress when z > 3B. Ir can be determining from chart.

Figure 4.8 Chart for rectangular areal distribution

4.4.2.2 VERTICAL STRESS BENEATH Uniformly Loaded Circular Area

An example of circular area that transmits stresses to a soil mass in a circular foundation
of an oil or water tank. The increases of vertical and radial stresses under a circular area of radius
r0 are

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  1 
3/ 2

 z = q s 1 −  
  = qs I c
  1 + (r0 z ) 
2


  
3/ 2 
1
Where, I c = 1 −  

 is an influence factor.
  1 + (r0 z ) 2  
 

4.4.2.3 VERTICAL STRESS BENEATH LOADED AREAS OF IRREGULAR SHAPE

Newmark (1942) developed a chart to determine the increase in vertical stress due to a
uniformly loaded area of any shape. The chart consists of concentric circles divided by radial
lines (Fig. 4.6).

The area of each segment represents an equal proportion of the applied surface stress at
depth z below the surface. If there are 10 concentric circles (only 9 are shown because the 10th
extends to infinity) and 20 radial lines, the stress on each circle is q s 10 and on each segment
is q s (10 × 20) . The radius to depth ratio of the first (inner) circle is found by setting
 z = 0.1q s in Equation of circular area, that is,

  1  
32

0.1q s = q s 1 −  2 

 1 + (r0 z )  

From which r z = 0.27 it is for the inner circle. For the other circles, substitute the appropriate
value for  z ; for example, for the second circle,  z = 0.2q s and find r z . the chart is normalized
to the depth; that is, all dimensions are scaled by a factor initially determined for the depth.
Every chart should show a scale and an influence factor IN, which for our case
is 1 (10 × 20) = 0.005 .

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Figure 4.9: Newmark’s chart for increase in vertical stress.

The procedure for using Newmark’s chart is as follows

1. Set the scale, shown on the chart, equal to the depth at which the vertical stress is required.
We will call this the depth scale.
2. Identify the point on the loaded area below which the stress is required. Let us say this point
is point A.
3. Plot the loaded area using the depth scale with point A at the center of the chart.
4. Count the number of segments (Ns) covered by the scaled loaded area. If certain segments are
not fully covered, you can estimate what fraction is covered.
5. Calculate the vertical stress as  z = q s I N N s .

EXAMPLE 4.1

A pole carries a vertical load of 200 kN. Determine the vertical stress increase at a depth 5 m (a)
directly below the pole and (b) at a radial distance of 2 m.

Strategy: The first step is to determine the type of surface load. The load carried by the pole can
be approximated to a point load. You can then use the equation for the vertical stress increase for
a point load.

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EXAMPLE 4.2

A rectangular concrete slab, 3 m×4.5 m, rests on the surface of a soil mass. The load on the slab
is 2025 kN. Determine the vertical stress at a depth of 3 m (a) under the center of the slab, point
A, (b) under point B, and (c) at a distance of 1.5 m from a corner, point C.

Strategy: The slab is rectangular and the equations for a uniformly loaded rectangular area are
for the corner of the area. You should divide the area so that the point of interest is the corner of
a rectangle(s). You may have to extend the loaded area if the point of interest is outside it
(loaded area). The extension is fictitious so you have to subtract the fictitious increase in stress

for the extended area.

EXAMPLE 4.3

The plan of a foundation of uniform thickness for a building is shown in Fig. below. Determine
the vertical stress at a depth of 4 m below the centroid. The foundation applies a vertical stress of
200 kPa on the soil surface.

Strategy You need to locate the centroid of the foundation, which you can be found using the
given dimensions. The shape of the foundation does not fit perfectly into one of the standard
shapes (e.g., rectangles or circles) discussed. The convenient method to use for this (odd) shape
foundation is Newmark’s chart.

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