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Demystifying Complex Numbers

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2018 The OM Particle 1

Demystifying Complex Numbers

Lori Gardi

Complex numbers are 2-dimensional numbers that are expressed in the form a + bi, where a and b are "real"
values, and "i" is a solution of the equation x2 = −1. Because no "real" value can satisfy this equation, "i" is
referred to as imaginary. Although a lot of mystery surrounds imaginary numbers and complex numbers, they
turn out to be quite useful in many fields of science including electrical engineering, quantum mechanics and
relativity. In this article, an alternate notation is presented where complex numbers can be described using only
"real" values, thus demystifying the concepts of imaginary and complex numbers. When complex numbers are
modeled using 2x2 matrices, then, you find that the real component occupies the forward diagonal or scalar
part of the matrix and the imaginary component occupies the backward diagonal or rotation part of the matrix.
This explains why imaginary numbers are generally associated with rotations in computer graphics and phase
angles in electrical engineering. Euler’s formula, which has an imaginary component, can also be expressed in
2x2 matrix form. When expressed in this manner, it can be easily applied to solve the kinematics of complex
robotic systems. Finally, the mystery surrounding imaginary and complex numbers disappears using the 2x2
matrix notation since all entries in the complex matrix are real and ponderable values.

Keywords: real numbers, imaginary numbers, complex numbers, Euler’s identity, Euler’s formula, waves,
wavefunction

1. Introduction
Complex numbers are 2-dimensional numbers that are traditionally expressed by the formula, a + bi, where a is the
real component of the complex number and bi is the imaginary component. (In electrical engineering, the character
"j" is used to denote imaginary numbers instead of√"i", since the letter "i" is reserved for current.) It is a conception
that imaginary numbers don’t really exist because −1 doesn’t have any real and ponderable solutions. In the distant
past, the existence of zero and negative numbers were also called into question.
I think everyone would agree that, although nature does not "do" math, math can be very useful in mimicking nature.
Complex numbers are used in many fields of science including and especially electrical engineering and physics.
Complex numbers are particularly useful in AC circuit analysis. For example, in electrical engineering, amplitude and
phase are encoded into a complex number such that amplitude is real and phase is imaginary. Electrical engineers also
use complex numbers to model impedances which is impossible using real numbers alone. In this case, resistance is
real and reactance is imaginary. Fourier transforms, which are complex, are useful in understanding oscillations that
occur both in alternating current and in signals modulated by electromagnetic waves.
In this article, an alternate notation for complex numbers is presented. When complex numbers are modeled using
2x2 matrices, then you find that the real component occupies the forward diagonal of the matrix and imaginary numbers
occupy the backward diagonal. The forward diagonal is the scalar part of the matrix and the backward diagonal is the
rotation part of the matrix. This explains why imaginary numbers are associated with rotations and phase shifts. To
prove that the 2x2 complex matrix is functionally identical to the complex numbers, the Mandelbrot Set, which literally
lives in the complex plane, is generated the 2x2 matrix notation directly. Euler’s formula can also be expressed in 2x2
matrix form. This turns out to be very useful in simplifying the kinematics of robotic systems.
2. Solving the problem ?2 = −1
Using 1-dimensional real numbers alone, ?2 = −1 has no direct solution. Using 2-dimensional numbers however,
there is a real and ponderable solution to this problem. Scalars in 2-dimensions are written as follows:
 
A 0
[A] = (1)
0 A
To distinguish 1D scalars from 2D scalars, square brackets are placed around the scalar value, for example the 2D
scalar value, 2, is written as follows:

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2 Demystifying Complex Numbers Vol. 1

 
2 0
[2] = (2)
0 2
and the scalar π is written as follows:
 
π 0
[π] = (3)
0 π
and the scalar [-1] is written as follows:
 
−1 0
[−1] = (4)
0 −1
So, now the problem becomes:
 
−1 0
[?]2 = (5)
0 −1
In 2-dimensions, the problem ?2 = [−1] is much easier to solve. There are, in fact, two solutions:
 2  
0 +1 −1 0
= (6)
−1 0 0 −1
and:
 2  
0 −1 −1 0
= (7)
+1 0 0 −1
These two matrices are functionally identical to the imaginary identities, i and -i and can be used to solve any problem
that requires imaginary numbers and complex numbers.

3. Definitions
There are four root identities of the complex numbers, 1, -1, i and -i.
√
Definition: The identity of the real numbers is 1. It has two root identities: 1 and -1. This covers both the positive
real numbers and the negative real numbers.
√
Definition: The identity of the imaginary numbers is −1. It has two root identities: i and -i. This covers both the
positive imaginary numbers and the negative imaginary numbers.

The identities, 1, -1, i and -i are written in 2x2 matrix notation as follows:

The positive real identity is:

 
+1 0
+1 = (8)
0 +1
The negative real identity is:

 
−1 0
−1 = (9)
0 −1
The positive imaginary identity is:

 
0 +1
+i = (10)
−1 0

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2018 The OM Particle 3

The negative imaginary identity is:

 
0 −1
−i = (11)
+1 0

Complex numbers combine the real an imaginary components into one matrix as follows:

 
R I
C(R, I) = (12)
I R

In the 2x2 complex notation, the real component is on the forward diagonal and the imaginary component is on the
backward diagonal. Two-dimensional complex numbers come in four flavours:

 
+R +I
C(R, I) = (13)
−I +R
 
+R −I
C(R, −I) = (14)
+I +R
 
−R +I
C(−R, I) = (15)
−I −R
 
−R −I
C(−R, −I) = (16)
+I −R
4. Discussion
Most of the confusion surrounding imaginary numbers and complex numbers seems to stem from notation. The
historical notation of complex numbers, leaves out some important details that may be the cause for this confusion.
For example, in the expression, a + bi, the imaginary identity, i, is written but the real identity is not written. It is
generally thought that the numberical value of "1" is the identity of the real numbers, and the non-numerical value of
"i" is the identity of the imaginary numbers. But there is an inconsistency in this logic. The square root of negative 1
has two solutions, i and -i. In a similar
√ manner,√the square root of positive 1 has two solutions, 1 and -1. Therefore,
it’s not rigourous to say that i = −1 because −1 has two solutions, i and -i. And it’s not rigours to say that "1" is
the identity of the real numbers when the identity of the√imaginary numbers is a square root. In actuality,√it is more
rigorous to say that the identity of the real numbers is 1 and the identity of the imaginary numbers is −1. This
covers both the positive and negative real numbers and the positive and negative imaginary numbers.
That said, the illusive concept of "imaginary" can be completely eliminated by doing complex math in 2-dimensions
using 2x2 matrices. When complex numbers are modeled using 2x2 matrices, you discover that the "real numbers"
occupy the scalar part of the matrix and the "imaginary numbers" occupy the rotation part of the matrix. This explains
why imaginary numbers are always associated with rotations and phase angles. When written this way, imaginary
numbers are as "real" as real numbers, only, they occupy a different part of the matrix. This approach to complex math
is much easier to understand (and teach) as you only need to be able to add and multiply 2-dimensional "real" matrices.
The complexity is now in the dimensionality and not the concepts.
Finally, although it may be more elegant to write a + bi it is not more rigorous because the "real" identity is not
being written.
√ Notation is more
√ √ rigorous when everything is written and nothing is√hidden. Thus, it is more rigorous to
write, 1 a + −1 b where 1 is the identity of the real numbers (1 and -1) and −1 is the identity of the imaginary
numbers (i and -i). Alternatively, we could write the 2x2 identities (as seen above in equations 8, 9, 10, and 11) beside
the real scalars, a and b, but for the sake of notation, this is not practical. That said, the 2x2 matrix formulation of
complex numbers is better suited for implementation into computer programs as all the values are real and ponderable.
Imaginary numbers, as they are currently defined, cannot be directly encoded into the CPU of a computer. In other
words, there are no imaginary operators natively built into central processing units of computers. That said, since the
2x2 matrix formulation is functionally identical to complex numbers, it would be straightforward to implement 2x2
matrix operations natively on the CPU of a computer, if hardware support for complex numbers was required.

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4 Demystifying Complex Numbers Vol. 1

5. Complex Conjugate *
In the 2x2 matrix notation, the complex conjugate of a complex matrix is merely a flip of the backward diagonal
components about the forward diagonal. For example, the complex conjugate of (13) is (14) and the complex conjugate
of (15) is (16). This manifests as a negation of the imaginary components of the 2x2 matrix. Since imaginary numbers
are associated with rotations (in math and physics), complex conjugation manifests as a reversal in the direction of
rotation (or direction of a phase shift in wave mechanics). Thus, if a complex matrix describes a clockwise rotation,
the complex conjugate would describe a counter-clockwise rotation, and vice versa. This is easily intuited from the
2x2 matrix notation as we are literally flipping the sense of the rotation components of the matrix.
It can be proven that a complex number is equal to its complex conjugate if and only if its imaginary part is
zero. Although this requires a complicated proof using standard notation, this is easily provable using the 2x2 matrix
notation:
   
+a +b +a −b
!= (17)
−b +a +b +a
The 2x2 matrix notation for complex numbers removes a lot of the mystery surrounding the language of complex
numbers and paints a better picture of what is really going on under the hood.

6. The Mandelbrot Set: Z = Z 2 +C

Since the Mandelbrot Set literally lives in the complex plane, a good test of to prove that the 2x2 complex matrix is
functionally identical to complex numbers, is to use the 2x2 matrix formalism to generate the Mandelbrot Set directly.
The formula for the M-Set is as follows:

Z := Z 2 +C (18)
Here, both Z and C are complex numbers. Using the 2x2 matrix notation, Z and C are now 2x2 matrices with the
real component on the forward diagonal and the imaginary component on the backward diagonal. Thus, if the original
value for C is written as follows:
 
a0 b0
(19)
−b0 a0
the equation (18) is written:

   2  
an bn an−1 bn−1 a0 b0
= + (20)
−bn an −bn−1 an−1 −b0 a0
The new matrix, (Z), is equal to the previous matrix squared, (Z 2 ), plus the original matrix, C. Each iteration generates
a new 2x2 matrix with a new real component on the forward diagonal and a new imaginary component on the backward
diagonal. Traditionally, the Mandelbrot Set is generated using two equations; one for the real component:

an = a2n−1 − b2n−1 + a0 (21)

and one for the imaginary component:

bn = 2 × an−1 × bn−1 + b0 (22)

Although these two equations are simple and elegant, they don’t look anything like the original formula Z = Z 2 +C.
Using the matrix notation, this formula can be implemented directly without any prior algebraic derivations. That the
Mandelbrot set can be generated using the 2x2 matrix notation directly, proves that the this notation is functionally
identical to complex numbers. And, since only "real" ponderable values occupy the matrix elements, the concept of
"imaginary numbers" is no longer required. Using this notation, the terms "real" and "imaginary" could easily be
replaced with the terms "forward" and "backward" in reference to their diagonals. As a teaching tool, this terminology
would be less ambiguous and more intuitive and informative.

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2018 The OM Particle 5

7. Euler’s Formula
Euler’s formula, which is used in physics to describe how waves behave, is written as follows:
√ √
Ψ = eiθ = cos(θ ) + i sinθ = 1 cos(θ ) + −1 sin(θ ) (23)
On the left is the traditional way of writing Euler’s formula
√ and on the right is the new way of writing it. The new
notation shows
√ both the identity of the real numbers, 1, beside the √ cosine term, and the identity of the imaginary
numbers, −1, beside the sine term. The identity of the real numbers, 1, covers both the positive real numbers, with
identity,
√ 1, and the negative real numbers, with identity, -1. In a similar manner, the identity of the imaginary numbers,
−1, covers both the positive imaginary numbers, with identity, i, and the negative imaginary numbers with identity
-i. Using the new notation, everything is written and nothing is hidden. Technically, there are four wavefunctions
buried in this formula as shown below.

Using the 2x2 matrix notation, Euler’s formula is written as follows:

The positive wavefunction:

 
+cos(θ ) +sin(θ )
+Ψ = (24)
−sin(θ ) +cos(θ )
The complex conjugate positive wavefunciton:

 
∗ +cos(θ ) −sin(θ )
+Ψ = (25)
+sin(θ ) +cos(θ )
The negative wavefunction:

 
−cos(θ ) −sin(θ )
−Ψ = (26)
+sin(θ ) −cos(θ )
The complex conjugate negative wavefunction:

 
−cos(θ ) +sin(θ )
−Ψ∗ = (27)
−sin(θ ) −cos(θ )
8. Quaternions, Kinematics and the 4x4 Matrix Notation
To model rotations in the 3-dimensional world, 2-dimensional complex numbers are extended to 4-dimensions using
quaternions. Quaternions are commonly defined as 4-dimensional numbers with 1 real component, r, and 3 imaginary
components, i, j and k. In the field of computer graphics, quaternions are used to encode the rotations within a 3-
dimensional model or space. Also, in computer science, the 4x4 matrix is often used to encode the kinematics of
robotics or to transform from one coordinate system to another. Since 2-dimensional complex numbers can be modeled
using a 2x2 matrix, it seems reasonable to model quaternions using a 4x4 matrix.
In practice, there are only three kinds of rotations about a single axis: pitch, yaw and roll. Although the quaternions
are generally thought of as a 4-dimensional vector space, here, I argue that they are better thought of as 3 orthogonal
2D complex planes: (r,i) (r,j) and (r,k) corresponding to the three rotations, pitch, yaw and roll. Using the 2x2 matrix
form of Euler’s formula seen previously, these three rotations can be encoded into a 4x4 matrix as follows:

Pitch:
cos(θ ) −sin(θ ) 0 0
 
 sin(θ ) cos(θ ) 0 0 
(28)
 0 0 1 0 
0 0 0 1

5
 6 Demystifying Complex Numbers Vol. 1

Yaw:
cos(θ ) 0 −sin(θ ) 0
 
0 1 0 0 
(29)

 sin(θ ) 0 cos(θ ) 0 
0 0 0 1
Roll:
1 0 0 0
 
 0 cos(θ ) −sin(θ ) 0 
(30)
 0 sin(θ ) cos(θ ) 0 
0 0 0 1
If you need to rotate in the opposite direction, you reverse the sense of the sine components which conjugates the
imaginary component of the 2x2 complex sub-matrix embedded within the 4x4 matrix. Notice that the real component
or cosine terms are always on the forward diagonal of the 4x4 matrix whereas the sine terms are on the backward
diagonal of the 2x2 complex sub-matrix. This method of encoding rotations into a 4x4 matrix is very useful as it
greatly simplifies the development of the kinematics associated with a robotic arm or mechatronic device with many
rotating joints.

9. Conclusion
In this document, an alternate approach to complex numbers is presented that models complex numbers as 2x2
matrices. Using this approach, the concept of "imaginary" can be completely eliminated as all the entries into the 2x2
matrix are real and ponderable values. As well, imaginary numbers, as they are currently defined, cannot be directly
encoded into a computer as there are no imaginary operations native to any processing units of computers (CPU’s).
On the other hand, the 2x2 matrix formalism of complex numbers could be easily encoded onto a CPU or GPU of a
computer as all the input values are straight forward real values. This demystifies complex numbers in a manner that
can be easily taught to the future generations of mathematicians and scientists without the inherent confusions of the
current approach.

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