Module i

Module in

and

Prepared by:

ROGELIO A. BANAGBANAG, DALL

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Module 1
Speech and Communication – An Overview

Introduction
We talk, read and/or write during our day to day interactions with our family,
friends, classmates or acquaintances. But, do we realize the importance of these forms?
The manner by which we say or deliver the message that we try to convey and the words
that we use when expressing the message all play a significant role in communicating
and understanding others.

Speech, language and communication are terms we are quite familiar with. These
three terms are inter-related with one another and may sound just the same but they have
unique and different meanings.

This module covers the concepts of speech and communication, the definition of
communication, the levels of communication, the process of communication and the
different elements of communication.

Objectives

At the end of the lesson, the student is able to:

1. Discuss the concepts of speech and communication
2. Define communication
3. Understand the levels of context of communication
4. Explain the process of communication
5. Identify the different elements of communication

Speech and Communication

Speech is the ability to physically produce individual sounds and sound patterns
related to a specific language. It is the act of speaking or the action of producing or
articulating speech. Speech is also a vocal form of communication that includes sounds
or a combination of sounds that function as a principal carrier of meaning and is spoken
or written in the form of a word, sentence, or conversation. These spoken words are a
component of language and consist of one or more morphemes which are the smallest
units of speech.
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While speech involves the physical motor ability to talk, language is a symbolic,
rule governed system to convey a message composed of spoken or written words or
gestures such as waving hello or good bye. Language is not just purely based on the act
of speaking, but does involve writing in order to express one’s feelings or
thoughts. Language is a human form of speech, which is either spoken or written. We
communicate in either form in order to deliver or receive meaningful messages. It is the
most common system of communication as it enables people to talk to each other or put
into writing their messages or ideas. Furthermore, language is an important tool in every
society as it plays a significant role in nearly all forms of human activity. Whether it’s in
the academia, government, science, religion, commerce, or any other sector, it impacts
the growth and development of the society. Moreover, a common language will allow us
to continue to work in various ways as it promotes cooperation among people.

A much broader category is communication. This term refers to the sharing of

information either by speaking, writing, or using non-verbal cues. It is not only limited to
a personal level of communication where people express their thoughts and wishes to
one another but also through mass communication where the messages are intended for
a large audience. Thus, in terms of scope, communication is much broader compared to
speech and language. Personal communication involves talking and listening along with
movement of our hands or even just making facial expressions. Mass communication,
meanwhile, makes use of books, newspapers, television, radio, cellular phones or other
devices. The messages are sent through these means in order to reach a larger number
of people. Just as the former is important to most of us, the latter is also an integral part
of the society as it also plays a key role in our day to day living. News of weather
disturbances such as typhoons or hurricanes, tragic events like tsunamis or earthquakes,
religious undertakings or perhaps political events such as an election or other important
occurrences can reach huge numbers of people by mass communication. Thus, the
importance of these two can impact the lives of many people.

Speech, language and communication may differ in terms of usage, scope and
importance but they also go hand in hand as these three not only play major roles in our
daily lives but also contribute to the community or society at large.

Communication

Etymologically, the word ‘communication’ is derived from the Latin verb -

communicare, adjective - communis and old French adjective - comun. The key root is
‘mun’ stemming from the Latin word ‘munus’ meaning to share publicly/ impart/ make
common. Communication can thus be traced back to be derived from the old French term
comunicacion and Latin word communicatio (n-). This clearly only means ‘to share’ and
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are ‘common’ to all. The word seems to have entered English language vocabulary in the
14th and 15th centuries. The term originally meant sharing of tangible things; food, land,
goods, and property. Today, it is often applied to knowledge and information processed
by living things or computers.
Communication connects people and places. Thus, it is clear to understand that
communication allows people to exchange their thoughts and ideas through speech,
signals, writing, or behavior. Basically, communication is shared feelings/shared
understanding. People have always communicated, but the process of communication
became the subject of study in the 20th Century. The serious study of communication
was triggered by the development of technologies.

Definitions of Communication
Communication is a two-way process in which participants not only exchange
ideas, feelings and information but also create and share meaning for reaching mutual
understanding. It is the exchange of ideas, thoughts, messages, or the like, by speech,
signals or writing. It is to express oneself in such a way that one is readily and clearly
understood. It is a process of conveying information from the sender to the receiver with
the use of the media in which the communicated information is understood.
Communication is the expression or exchange of information by speech, writing,
gestures, conduct or electronic medium. It is a process of passing information, ideas,
facts, or opinions between two or more parties. It is the process by which an idea is
brought to another 's perception. The information that is so expressed or exchanged is
also referred to as communication. It is a complex and dynamic process that allows
organisms to exchange information by several methods.
The everyday view of communication is quite different from the view of
communication taken by communication scholars. In the business world, for example, a
popular view is that communication is synonymous to information.
To quote a few, select definitions on communication:

• Communication is viewed as simply one activity among many others, such as

planning, controlling, and managing (Deetz, 1994). It is what we do in
organizations.
• Communication is a process by which people interactively create, sustain, and
manage meaning (Conrad & Poole, 1998). As such, communication both reflects
the world and simultaneously helps to create it. Communication is not simply one
more thing that happens in personal and professional life; it is the very means by
which we produce our personal relationships and professional experiences—it is
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how we plan, control, manage, persuade, understand, lead, love, and so on. All of
the theories presented in this book relate to the various ways in which human
interaction is developed, experienced, and understood.
• Communication process is the flow of information from one person to another
(Axley, 1984).
• A communication takes place when one individual, a sender, displays, transmits
or otherwise directs a set of symbols to another individual, a receiver, with the aim
of changing something, either something the receiver is doing (or not doing) or
changing his or her world view. This set of symbols is typically described as a
message. (William Rice-Johnson)
• Effective communication occurs only if the receiver understands the exact
information or idea that the sender intended to transmit. Many of the problems that
occur in an organization are the either the direct result of people failing to
communicate and/or processes, which leads to confusion and can cause good
plans to fail. (Pranav Mistry)
• The most important thing in communication is hearing what isn't said. (Peter
Drucker)

Levels of Context of Communication

Types of Communication

Communication can be categorized into three basic types: (1) verbal communication, in
which you listen to a person to understand their meaning; (2) written communication, in
which you read their meaning; and (3) nonverbal communication, in which you observe a
person and infer meaning. Each has its own advantages, disadvantages, and even
pitfalls.

1. Verbal communications take place over the phone or in person. The medium of
the Message is oral.

Storytelling has been shown to be an effective form of verbal communication; it

serves an important organizational function by helping to construct common
meanings for individuals within the organization. Stories can help clarify key values
and help demonstrate how things are done within an organization, and story
frequency, strength, and tone are related to higher organizational commitment
(McCarthy, 2008). The quality of the stories entrepreneurs tell is related to their
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ability to secure capital for their firms(Martens, et. al., 2007). Stories can serve to
reinforce and perpetuate an organization’s culture, part of the organizing P-O-L-C
function.

Crucial Conversations. While the process may be the same, high-stakes

communications require more planning, reflection, and skill than normal day-to-
day interactions at work. Examples of high-stakes communication events include
asking for a raise or presenting a business plan to a venture capitalist. In addition
to these events, there are also many times in our professional lives when we
have crucial conversations—discussions where not only the stakes are high but
also where opinions vary and emotions run strong (Patterson, et. al., 2002).

2. Written Communication. In contrast to verbal communications, written

communications are printed messages. Examples of written communications
include memos, proposals, e-mails, letters, training manuals, and operating
policies. They may be printed on paper, handwritten, or appear on the screen.
Normally, a verbal communication takes place in real time. Written communication,
by contrast, can be constructed over a longer period of time. Written
communication is often asynchronous (occurring at different times). That is, the
Sender can write a Message that the Receiver can read at any time, unlike a
conversation that is carried on in real time. A written communication can also be
read by many people (such as all employees in a department or all customers). It’s
a “one-to-many” communication, as opposed to a one-to-one verbal conversation.
There are exceptions, of course: a voicemail is an oral Message that is
asynchronous. Conference calls and speeches are oral one-to-many
communications, and e-mails may have only one recipient or many.

Figure 1

Communication mediums have come a long way since Alexander Graham Bell’s
original telephone. Wikimedia Commons – First Bell telephone 1875 – public domain.
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3. Nonverbal Communication. What you say is a vital part of any communication.

But what you don’t say can be even more important. Research also shows that
55% of in-person communication comes from nonverbal cues like facial
expressions, body stance, and tone of voice. According to one study, only 7% of a
Receiver’s comprehension of a Message is based on the Sender’s actual words;
38% is based on paralanguage (the tone, pace, and volume of speech), and 55%
is based on nonverbal cues (body language) (Mehrabian, 1981).

A change in facial expression can change our emotional state. Before an interview,
for example, if we focus on feeling confident, our face will convey that confidence
to an interviewer. Adopting a smile (even if we’re feeling stressed) can reduce the
body’s stress levels.

To be effective communicators, we need to align our body language, appearance,

and tone with the words we’re trying to convey. Research shows that when
individuals are lying, they are more likely to blink more frequently, shift their weight,
and shrug (Siegman, 1985).

Another element of nonverbal communication is tone. A different tone can change

the perceived meaning of a message demonstrates how clearly this can be true,
whether in verbal or written communication. If we simply read these words without
the added emphasis, we would be left to wonder, but the emphasis shows us how
the tone conveys a great deal of information. Now you can see how changing one’s
tone of voice or writing can incite or defuse a misunderstanding.

Don’t Use That Tone with Me!

Placement of the emphasis What it means

I did not tell John you were late. Someone else told John you were late.

I did not tell John you were late. This did not happen.

I did not tell John you were late. I may have implied it.

I did not tell John you were late. But maybe I told Sharon and José.

I did not tell John you were late. I was talking about someone else.

I did not tell John you were late. I told him you still are late.

I did not tell John you were late. I told him you were attending another meeting.
Source: Based on ideas in Kiely, M. (1993, October). When “no” means “yes.” Marketing, 7–9.

Changing your tone can dramatically change your meaning.

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Body Language. A simple rule of thumb is that simplicity, directness, and warmth
convey sincerity. And sincerity is key to effective communication. A firm
handshake, given with a warm, dry hand, is a great way to establish trust. A weak,
clammy handshake conveys a lack of trustworthiness. Gnawing one’s lip conveys
uncertainty. A direct smile conveys confidence.

Eye Contact. The style and duration of eye contact considered appropriate vary
greatly across cultures. In the United States, for example, looking someone in the
eye (for about a second) is considered a sign of trustworthiness.

Facial Expressions. The human face can produce thousands of different

expressions. These expressions have been decoded by experts as corresponding
to hundreds of different emotional states (Ekman, et. al., 2008). Our faces convey
basic information to the outside world. Happiness is associated with an upturned
mouth and slightly closed eyes; fear with an open mouth and wide-eyed stare.
Flitting (“shifty”) eyes and pursed lips convey a lack of trustworthiness. The effect
of facial expressions in conversation is instantaneous. Our brains may register
them as “a feeling” about someone’s character.

Posture. The position of our body relative to a chair or another person is another
powerful silent messenger that conveys interest, aloofness, professionalism—or
lack thereof. Head up, back straight (but not rigid) implies an upright character. In
interview situations, experts advise mirroring an interviewer’s tendency to lean in
and settle back in her seat. The subtle repetition of the other person’s posture
conveys that we are listening and responding.

Touch. The meaning of a simple touch differs between individuals, genders, and
cultures. In Mexico, when doing business, men may find themselves being grasped
on the arm by another man. To pull away is seen as rude. In Indonesia, to touch
anyone on the head or touch anything with one’s foot is considered highly
offensive. In the Far East, according to business etiquette writer Nazir Daud, “it is
considered impolite for a woman to shake a man’s hand (Daud, 2008).” Americans,
place great value in a firm handshake. But handshaking as a competitive sport
(“the bone-crusher”) can come off as needlessly aggressive, at home and abroad.

Space. Anthropologist Edward T. Hall coined the term proxemics to denote the
different kinds of distance that occur between people. These distances vary
between cultures. The figure below outlines the basic proxemics of everyday life
and their meaning (Hall, 1966):
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Figure 2

Interpersonal Distances

Standing too far away from a colleague (such as a public speaking distance of
more than seven feet) or too close to a colleague (intimate distance for embracing)
can thwart an effective verbal communication in business.

Forms of Communication

The forms of communication vary in terms of participants, channels used, and

contexts. The five main forms of communication, all of which will be explored in much
more detail in this book, are intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, public, and mass
communication.

a. Intrapersonal Communication. Intrapersonal communication is communication

with oneself using internal vocalization or reflective thinking. Like other forms of
communication, intrapersonal communication is triggered by some internal or
external stimulus. We may, for example, communicate with our self about what we
want to eat due to the internal stimulus of hunger, or we may react intrapersonally
to an event we witness. Unlike other forms of communication, intrapersonal
communication takes place only inside our heads. The other forms of
communication must be perceived by someone else to count as communication.

So what is the point of intrapersonal communication if no one else even sees it?

Intrapersonal communication serves several social functions. Internal vocalization,

or talking to ourselves, can help us achieve or maintain social adjustment. Frank
E. X. Dance and Carl E. Larson, Speech Communication: Concepts and
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Behaviors (New York, NY: Holt, Reinhart, and Winston, 1972), 51. For example, a
person may use self-talk to calm himself down in a stressful situation, or a shy
person may remind herself to smile during a social event. Intrapersonal
communication also helps build and maintain our self-concept. We form an
understanding of who we are based on how other people communicate with us
and how we process that communication intrapersonally. The shy person in the
earlier example probably internalized shyness as a part of her self-concept
because other people associated her communication behaviors with shyness and
may have even labeled her “shy” before she had a firm grasp on what that meant.

We also use intrapersonal communication or “self-talk” to let off steam, process

emotions, think through something, or rehearse what we plan to say or do in the
future. As with the other forms of communication, competent intrapersonal
communication helps facilitate social interaction and can enhance our well-being.
Conversely, the breakdown in the ability of a person to intrapersonally
communicate is associated with mental illness.

Sometimes we intrapersonally communicate for the fun of it. I’m sure we have all
had the experience of laughing aloud because we thought of something funny. We
also communicate intrapersonally to pass time. Intrapersonal communication is
usually unplanned and doesn’t include a clearly defined goal. We can, however,
engage in more intentional intrapersonal communication. In fact, deliberate self-
reflection can help us become more competent communicators as we become
more mindful of our own behaviors. For example, your internal voice may praise
or scold you based on a thought or action.

Of the forms of communication, intrapersonal communication has received the

least amount of formal study. It is rare to find courses devoted to the topic, and it
is generally separated from the remaining four types of communication. The main
distinction is that intrapersonal communication is not created with the intention that
another person will perceive it. In all the other levels, the fact that the communicator
anticipates consumption of their message is very important.

b. Interpersonal Communication. Interpersonal communication is communication

between people whose lives mutually influence one another. Interpersonal
communication builds, maintains, and ends our relationships, and we spend more
time engaged in interpersonal communication than the other forms of
communication. Interpersonal communication occurs in various contexts and is
addressed in subfields of study within communication studies such as intercultural
communication, organizational communication, health communication, and
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computer-mediated communication. After all, interpersonal relationships exist in all

those contexts.

Interpersonal communication can be planned or unplanned, but since it is

interactive, it is usually more structured and influenced by social expectations than
intrapersonal communication. Interpersonal communication is also more goal
oriented than intrapersonal communication and fulfills instrumental and relational
needs. In terms of instrumental needs, the goal may be as minor as greeting
someone to fulfill a morning ritual or as major as conveying your desire to be in a
committed relationship with someone. Interpersonal communication meets
relational needs by communicating the uniqueness of a specific relationship. Since
this form of communication deals so directly with our personal relationships and is
the most common form of communication, instances of miscommunication and
communication conflict most frequently occur here. Couples, bosses and
employees, and family members all have to engage in complex interpersonal
communication, and it doesn’t always go well. In order to be a competent
interpersonal communicator, you need conflict management skills and listening
skills, among others, to maintain positive relationships.

c. Group Communication. Group communication is communication among three or

more people interacting to achieve a shared goal. You have likely worked in groups
in school, and if you’re like most students, you didn’t enjoy it. Even though it can
be frustrating, group work in an academic setting provides useful experience and
preparation for group work in professional settings. Organizations have been
moving toward more team-based work models, and whether we like it or not,
groups are an integral part of people’s lives. Therefore the study of group
communication is valuable in many contexts.

Group communication is more intentional and formal than interpersonal

communication. Unlike interpersonal relationships, which are voluntary, individuals
in a group are often assigned to their position within a group. Additionally, group
communication is often task focused, meaning that members of the group work
together for an explicit purpose or goal that affects each member of the group.
Goal-oriented communication in interpersonal interactions usually relates to one
person; for example, I may ask my friend to help me move this weekend. Goal-
oriented communication at the group level usually focuses on a task assigned to
the whole group; for example, a group of students may be tasked to figure out a
plan on how to go about a class presentation using zoom.

You know from previous experience working in groups that having more
communicators usually leads to more complicated interactions. Some of the
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challenges of group communication relate to task-oriented interactions, such as

deciding who will complete each part of a larger project. But many challenges stem
from interpersonal conflict or misunderstandings among group members. Since
group members also communicate with and relate to each other interpersonally
and may have preexisting relationships or develop them during the course of group
interaction, elements of interpersonal communication occur within group
communication too.

d. Public Communication. Public communication is a sender-focused form of

communication in which one person is typically responsible for conveying
information to an audience. Public speaking is something that many people fear,
or at least don’t enjoy. But, just like group communication, public speaking is an
important part of our academic, professional, and civic lives. When compared to
interpersonal and group communication, public communication is the most
consistently intentional, formal, and goal-oriented form of communication we have
discussed so far.

Public communication is more sender focused than interpersonal or group

communication. It is precisely this formality and focus on the sender that makes
many new and experienced public speakers anxious at the thought of facing an
audience. One way to begin to manage anxiety toward public speaking is to begin
to see connections between public speaking and other forms of communication
with which we are more familiar and comfortable. Despite being formal, public
speaking is very similar to the conversations that we have in our daily interactions.
For example, although public speakers don’t necessarily develop individual
relationships with audience members, they still have the benefit of being face-to-
face with them so they can receive verbal and nonverbal feedback.

e. Mass Communication. Public communication becomes mass

communication when it is transmitted to many people through print or electronic
media. Print media such as newspapers and magazines continue to be an
important channel for mass communication, although they have suffered much in
the past decade due in part to the rise of electronic media. Television, websites,
blogs, and social media are mass communication channels that you probably
engage with regularly. Radio, podcasts, and books are other examples of mass
media. The technology required to send mass communication messages
distinguishes it from the other forms of communication. A certain amount of
intentionality goes into transmitting a mass communication message since it
usually requires one or more extra steps to convey the message. This may involve
pressing “Enter” to send a Facebook message or involve an entire crew of camera
people, sound engineers, and production assistants to produce a television show.
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Even though the messages must be intentionally transmitted through technology,

the intentionality and goals of the person actually creating the message, such as
the writer, television host, or talk show guest, vary greatly. The president’s State
of the Nation Address is a mass communication message that is very formal, goal
oriented, and intentional, but a president’s verbal gaffe during a news interview is
not.

Mass communication differs from other forms of communication in terms of the

personal connection between participants. Even though creating the illusion of a
personal connection is often a goal of those who create mass communication
messages, the relational aspect of interpersonal and group communication isn’t
inherent within this form of communication. Unlike interpersonal, group, and public
communication, there is no immediate verbal and nonverbal feedback loop in mass
communication. Of course you could write a letter to the editor of a newspaper or
send an e-mail to a television or radio broadcaster in response to a story, but the
immediate feedback available in face-to-face interactions is not present. With new
media technologies like Twitter, blogs, and Facebook, feedback is becoming more
immediate. Individuals can now tweet directly “at” (@) someone and use hashtags
(#) to direct feedback to mass communication sources. Many radio and television
hosts and news organizations specifically invite feedback from viewers/listeners
via social media and may even share the feedback on the air.

The technology to mass-produce and distribute communication messages brings

with it the power for one voice or a series of voices to reach and affect many
people. This power makes mass communication different from the other levels of
communication. While there is potential for unethical communication at all the other
levels, the potential consequences of unethical mass communication are important
to consider. Communication scholars who focus on mass communication and
media often take a critical approach in order to examine how media shapes our
culture and who is included and excluded in various mediated messages.

Five levels of Communication

Communication between two people occurs on numerous levels simultaneously, each
with its nuances and complexities. These levels of communication are verbal, physical,
auditory, emotional, and energetic.

a. Verbal Level of Communication. Although this is perhaps the most apparent level
of human communication, people can spend a lifetime trying to master it. This level
includes our selection of words based on an understanding of meaning between
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the speaker and the listener. There are multiple definitions for most words, and few
of us hold the exact same meaning for each word. Different words evoke different
images, memories, and meaning for different people. The logic and reasoning of
a statement or argument (Aristotle’s logos) influence the effectiveness of the
receiving message.

To communicate effectively on the verbal level, select the “right” words and usage
for the context of the conversation (including moral, religious, ethnic and religious
differences). Be clear and concise. When possible, formulate your thoughts to
avoid rambling. This is an art in itself.

b. Physical Level of Communication. Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) brought

the importance of visual cues in how we communicate to many people's attention.
Visual cues like eye contact, gestures, movements, stances, breathing, posture,
and facial expressions influence how we feel and communicate.

When used with integrity, techniques like “matching and mirroring” people’s
posture and gestures (and certain words too) can increase their receptivity of your
message.

To communicate effectively on the physical level, it’s helpful to physically align with
others, connecting with them in form and movement. It also helps to be mindful of
your posture, facial expressions, and hand gestures.

c. Auditory Level of Communication. The sound of our voice, including the tone,
range, volume, and speed affects how our messages are received and interpreted
by others. For example, fast talkers will find it beneficial to slow their speech when
speaking to a thoughtful, introverted person or risk being unheard.

Also, how we enunciate, inflect, and place emphasis on certain words affects how
others interpret the meaning of what we say.

To communicate effectively on the auditory level, become aware of various

auditory cues, speaking to others in a manner more akin to their own ways (another
form of “matching and mirroring”).

d. Emotional Level of Communication. Few people appreciate how our emotional

states affect what we communicate and how the message is interpreted by the
recipient. In rhetoric, Aristotle’s pathos represents an appeal to the audience’s
emotions.
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Are you more receptive to someone who is positive and life-affirming or one who
is negative and critical? Enthusiastic or boring?

The speaker’s emotions put the recipient in a particular state of mind and influence
how the listener interprets what is said.

To communicate effectively on the emotional level, become aware of your

emotional state, learning to pause and release negative emotions before
attempting to connect with others. Words delivered with pride, anger or fear are
rarely well received.

e. Energetic Level of Communication. Also called the psychic level, this level of
communication encompasses a vast range of unseen factors including a person’s
level of consciousness, the frequency or harmonics of the message, and other
subtle energies.

Some people seem to have an “X-factor”—a unique presence—that naturally

imparts their messages to others with greater receptivity and understanding.
To communicate more effectively, hold the highest intention for the other person’s
wellbeing.

This requires a unique level of mindfulness generally cultivated through

compassion practices. When we are centered within ourselves, we’re more likely
to access this psychic dimension that holds great treasures of insights into others,
helping us communicate with greater ease.

Try this…

1. Recall a time when you gave a speech in front of a group. How did you feel?
What was your experience? What did you learn from your experience?
2. If you were asked to get the attention of your peers, what image or word would
you choose and why?
3. If you were asked to get the attention of someone like yourself, what image or
word would you choose and why?
4. Make a list of mass communication messages you observe for a one-hour
period of time. Share your list with classmates.
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Context of Communication
Context refers to the setting in which communication takes place. The context
helps establish meaning and can influence what is said and how it is said. There are at
least four aspects in regard to this idea: physical, cultural social-psychological, and
temporal (DeVito, 2005).

Anthropologist Edward Hall stated that, “without context, the linguistic code is
incomplete since it encompasses only part of the message” (1976:86). He noted that
communication occurs through many channels in the interaction context, and one way to
understand culture is to examine the different ways that people attend to and rely on these
many contextual cues when communicating and interacting with others. Adair, et al,
a. Physical Context. The physical context refers to the concrete environment, It
can be a sporting event, place of worship, or restaurant. Each atmosphere has
its own set of rules for how to communicate. (i.e. you would not talk in the same
manner at a basketball game as you would at a church).

b. Cultural Context. The cultural context refers to the values, beliefs, lifestyles,
and behaviors of a group of people. Such instances will influence whether
something is considered right or wrong by the people involved. For example,
an American may be put off by a French speaker invading his/her space. This
difficulty arises from the very different American and French cultures in terms
of proxemics, for Americans tend to be less comfortable when they are not
given personal space.

c. Social-psychological Context. The social-psychological context involves the

norms of the group in a particular situation, including the intimacy level among
speakers and the normality of the exchange. Again, there are certain rules set
regarding how to communicate, for a conversation held between boyfriend and
girlfriend would not be handled in the same manner as a conversation between
boss and worker.

d. Temporal Context. The temporal context is the positioning of a message within

a sequence of conversational events. It governs the mood of the conversation
and how topics are to be addressed and related thereafter. For example, the
conversation is carried differently when someone admits they were laid off from
a job or when a couple announces the birth of their first child.
Adair, et al., in their research conceptualized the construct of communication
context as the multiplicity of nonverbal message, relational, spatial, and temporal cues
that can be drawn upon to convey and understand meaning.
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a. Message context. The message context refers to the indirectness and

implicitness of the message itself. We define message context as the cues that
convey implied and inferred meaning accompanying a verbal message in
communication. People who communicate directly rely mostly on the explicit
coded spoken or written message, rather than on nonverbal cues in their
environmental context to convey meaning. In contrast, indirect and implicit
messages contain information hidden in the socio-cultural system (Triandis,
1972) and in internal context–information contained within the individual, for
example, in nonverbal cues or in the life experience one brings to a social
interaction (Hall, 1976). In indirect and implicit communication, listeners must
take an active role in searching for and inferring their counterpart’s meanings
and feelings; in direct communication, which is less ambiguous, such active
participation by the listener in searching out the meaning is not necessary.

b. Relationship context. We define relationship context as the cues relating to the

meaning associated with the nature of a relationship between two interlocutors.
Relationship context includes parties’ background such as relative status or the
extent to which the parties compartmentalize their personal relationships from
their work relationships, i.e. the specific versus diffuse involvement in
relationships (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 2012). The relationship
context also influences the degree to which face-saving measures will be
employed in communication. Cohen writes that in high context cultures,
“language is a social instrument – a device for preserving and promoting social
interests as much as a means for transmitting information” (1997: 32).
Thus face-saving or relationship-maintaining communication is more likely to
be manifested in high context cultures. In contrast, in low context cultures
language “performs on the whole an informational rather than socially
lubricative function” (Cohen, 1997:33).

c. Spatial context. We define spatial context as cues within interlocutors’ physical

environment that carry meaning associated with communication engagement
and attention. Hall (1966) originated the field of proxemics, the study of the
spatial context in communication, and suggested that spatial cues play a key
role in influencing the transmission and understanding of meaning in
communication. Most obvious are cues within the physical environment, such
as the positions of and distance between communicators that convey meaning.
Yet, according to Hall, “Few people realize that space is perceived by all the
senses, not by vision alone. Auditory space is perceived by the ears, thermal
space by the skin, kinesthetic space by the muscles, and olfactory space by
the nose” (Hall & Hall, 1990: 11). As such, in addition to physical distance or
 17

boundaries, factors such as verbal exaggeration, rate of speech, facial

expression, and gestures also come into play in the spatial context, and the
use of such cues to communicate meaning may differ across individuals and
cultures (Cohen, 1997; Hall, 1966). For example, Matsumoto’s work on
emotional display rules demonstrates aggregate culture-level variation in the
use of spatial cues in communication. According to Matsumoto (1996), Japan’s
display rules are highly reserved, leading to restricted body posture, the use of
silence and muting facial expression to preserve social harmony. Conversely,
in Mexico the display rules regarding simpatia, the striving for harmony in
personal relations (Triandis, Marin, Lisansky, & Betancourt, 1984), call for
physical closeness and dramatic expression during conversation.

d. Temporal context. Hall (1976, 1989) suggests that the way people attend to
time and move through time is part of how they communicate and interact with
others. We define temporal context as cues within a communication
environment that convey meaning associated with interlocutors’ understanding
of time. The temporal context reflects variation in pace of life, time horizons,
temporal focus, and simultaneous versus sequential task involvement
(Bluedorn, 2002; Brislin & Kim, 2003; Brislin & Lo, 2006; MacDuff, 2006).

There are two major views of time in the literature: polychronic and
monochronic (Bluedorn & Denhardt, 1988; Hall, 1966; Kaufman-Scarborough
& Lindquist, 1999). The polychronic view sees time as fluid, and punctuality and
deadlines as artificial man-made constraints relative to the reality and organic
nature of human relationships. For the polychronic individual, catching up with
an old friend they’ve run into on the way to their office is much more important
than arriving “on time” for a meeting with a new associate. The monochronic
view of time on the other hand considers time in a serial fashion, which is
reflected in a segmented and sequential approach to schedules and deadlines.
Based on this view, time is more akin to a commodity that can be measured,
saved, spent, invested, or lost. For the monochronic person, arriving late or
allowing constant interruptions–phone calls, messages, or extraneous people–
in a business meeting are interpreted as rudeness (Gesteland, 1999; Hall &
Hall, 1990).
 18

Communication Process

Communication is the process of sharing our ideas, thoughts, and feelings with other
people and having those ideas, thoughts, and feelings understood by the people we are
talking with. When we communicate we speak, listen, and observe. The way we
communicate is a learned style. As children we learn from watching our parents and other
adults communicate. As an adult we can learn to improve the way we communicate by
observing others who communicate effectively, learning new skills, and practicing those
skills.
The ability to effectively communicate at work, home, and in life is probably one of the
most important sets of skills a person needs. What would our life and world be like without
communication? We cannot get along without it. It is also not easy, and we all have
probably had experiences where our communication failed or ran into a barrier. So, if we
can understand the communication process better and improve it, we will become a more
effective and successful communicator.
Let’s take a closer look at the components in the communication process. By analyzing
the parts of the process, we are better able to understand the whole. The communication
process is a simple model that demonstrates all the factors that can affect communication.
Communication is effective if the message that is received is the same one that is sent.

Every bit of message communicated undergoes a certain process involving more than
one person. Nobody communicates to a vacuum or wilderness. Communication is
considered effective if it receives the desired result, response or reaction. All
Communications are related to some context. In any context, a communication loop exists
to enable successful communication. At one end of the loop is the sender of a message
or information. He receives a stimulus to send a message across. The stimulus may be
external or internal. There might be an urging from an outside source which is external
stimulus. The internal stimulus might be a desire from within the person to send across a
message or information. He converts the message into a code. This process is called
encoding. The sender is also called the encoder. He chooses the appropriate verbal or
non-verbal code and puts the message into that code. Then the encoder transmits the
coded message through an appropriate medium. The sender or encoder chooses the
appropriate medium based on several factors such as the receiver, the message, its
urgency or otherwise. He may choose a non-verbal signal, body language, speech,
writing or any other available medium to transmit the encoded message. The message
gets transmitted to the receiver. The receiver decodes the message and perceives it.
Unless the receiver is aware of the code and is adept in using the medium, he cannot
decode it. Misinterpretation may arise even if there is interference in the medium. The
 19

receiver’s response or reaction is the feedback that the sender gets. The feedback may
again be a signal or an action.

In short communication is related to the context. Context is determined by country and

culture generally and the individual’s mindset and attitude particularly. Environment and
the stimuli, external or internal determine the actual process of communication.

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication comprises of 8 major elements, which are the objects of study of

Communication Theory. These are interdependent and are considered as basic elements
of any communication process. They include:

Source which "produces a message or sequence of messages to be

communicated to the receiving terminal."
Sender refers to transmitter, which "operates on the message in some way to
produce a signal suitable for transmission over the channel”.[1] Aristotle uses the
term speaker (orator)’’ to refer to this component.
Channel is "merely the medium used to transmit the signal from transmitter to
receiver’’.
Receiver “performs the inverse operation of that done by the transmitter,
reconstructing the message from the signal."
 20

Destination is “the person (or thing) for whom the message is intended".
Message is derived from Latin word mittere, meaning "to send". It refers to a
concept, information, communication or statement that is sent in a
oral/graphic/written/audio/visual/audio-visual form to the recipient.
Feedback is the loop of making a two-way communication process related to the
response to the message. It is simply the reaction of the Destination back to the
Source, direct and/or indirect.
Context is considered as a very significant component as it decides the given
communication process and fixes all the above said 7 components. It refers to the
background and the environment – immediate and far. Space and time play a
larger role of a given communication. A good communication means different
things to different (or even same) people at different times.
Three other elements associated with the process of communication are: Entropy,
Redundancy and Noise.

Entropy is a measure of the amount of uncertainty in the message/content.

Redundancy either knowingly or unknowingly enters the communication process.
If deliberate, it serves the purpose of reiterating the message; otherwise
repetitiveness is undesired element.
Noise is actually anything irrelevant, unwarranted, undesired and hence, a
disturbance/interference to effective transmission. Noise is anything that disrupts
or interferes with the effective communication process. Noise can be physical,
psychological or semantic and can disturb the communication process at any point;
noise may be associated with any element in the system:

• Physical noise or external noise are environmental distractions such as

startling sounds, appearances of things, music playing somewhere else,
and someone talking really loudly near you, etc;
• Physiological noise are biological influences that distract one from
effectively communicating; these could include sweaty palms, pounding
heart, butterfly in the stomach, induced by speech anxiety, or feeling sick,
exhausted at work, the ringing noise in your ear, being really hungry, and if
you have a runny nose or a cough.
• Psychological noise are the preconceived bias and assumptions such as
thinking someone who speaks like a valley girl is dumb, or someone from a
foreign country can’t speak English well so you speak loudly and slowly to
them.
 21

• Semantic noise is word choices that are confusing and may have the effect
of distorting the meaning.

Berlo’s model lives a number of factors under each of the elements :

Source: The source is were the message originates.

Communication skills – It is the individual’s skill to communicate (ability to read,

write, speak, listen etc…)

Attitudes – The attitude towards the audience, subject and towards one self for
e.g. for the student the attitude is to learn more and for teachers wants to help
teach.

Knowledge- The knowledge about the subject one is going to communicate for e.g.
whatever the teacher communicates in the class about the subject so having
knowledge in what you are communicating.

Note: It is not talking about the general knowledge it is all about the knowledge of
the subject, so it is the familiarity of what you are communicating.

Social system – The Social system includes the various aspects in society like
values, beliefs, culture, religion and general understanding of society. It is were the
communication takes place.
For e.g. class room differs from country to country like behaviors, how we
communicate etc.
 22

Note: We can communicate only to the extent that the social system allows, when
we communicate take social system into account.

Culture: Culture of the particular society also comes under social system.
All to this model, only if you have the above in the proper or adequate proportion
v can communicate.

Encoder: The sender of the message (message originates) is referred as encoder,

so the source is encoding the message here.

Message

Content – The beginning to the end of a message comprises its content for e.g.
From beginning to end whatever the class teacher speaks in the class is the
content of the message.

Elements – It includes various things like language, gestures, body language etc,
so these are all the elements of the particular message. Content is accompanied
by some elements.

Treatment – It refers to the packing of the message. The way in which the message
is conveyed or the way in which the message is passed on or deliver it.

Note: When it is too much treatment also the communication will not happen
properly.

Structure- The structure of the message how it is arranged, the way you structure
the message into various parts.

Note: Message is the same but if the structure is not properly arranged then the
message will not get to the receiver.

Code- The code of the message means how it is sent in what form it could be e.g.
language, body language, gestures, music and even culture is a code. Through
this you get/give the message or through which the communication takes place or
being reached.

Note: Only when the code is proper, the message will be clear, improper use may
lead to misinterpretation.
 23

Channel- It is nothing but the five senses through this only we do. The following are the
five senses which we use
• Hearing
• Seeing
• Touching
• Smelling
• Tasting

Whatever communication we do it is there either of these channels.

Hearing: The use of ears to get the message for e.g. oral messages, interpersonal
etc.

Seeing: Visual channels for e.g. TV can be seen and the message is delivered.

Touching: The sense of touch can be used as a channel to communicate for e.g.
we touch and buy food, hugging etc.

Smelling: Smell also can be a channel to communicate for e.g. perfumes, food,
charred smell communicates something is burning, we can find out about which
food is being cooked etc.

Tasting : The tongue also can be used to decipher e.g. Food can be tasted and
communication can happen.

Note: Despite not mentioning a medium we need to assume that as communication

is taking place channels can be any of the 5 senses or combination.

Decoder : Who receives the message and decodes it is referred to as decoder.

Receiver: The receiver needs to have all the thinks like the source.

This model believes that for an effective communication to take place the source and the
receiver needs to be in the same level, only if the source and receiver are on the same
level communication will happen or take place properly. So source and receiver should
be similar.

For e.g. Communication skills on source side is good then the receiver should equally
have good listening skills.
 24

We cannot say the entire message passed doesn’t reaches the receiver has it is because
the receiver may not good in listening, so only for the effective communication the source
and the receiver to be in the same level.
Note: Self image differs from person to person, for communicating the person should
consider the receiver. Keep the receiver in mind, speak accordingly and give them what
they need.

Try this…

1. When you see a memo or e-mail full of typos, poor grammar, or incomplete
sentences, how do you react? Does it affect your perception of the Sender? Why
or why not?
2. How aware of your own body language are you? Has your body language ever
gotten you into trouble when you were communicating with someone?
3. If the meaning behind verbal communication is only 7% words, what does this
imply for written communication?

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 25

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