Well Logging--Kirkuk U.—Petroleum Engineering Dept.-BY: Dr.Adnan A.

Abed
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The Syllabus and Weekly Load:

Academi
3rd Academic year
c year

Course
symbol PETE 314

Course
Well Log Analysis
Name

Weekly
4hrs
load

Theory 3hrs

Tutorial --

Practical 1hrs

Number
6 units
of Units

Term 1st & 2nd

Assessme
2examinations ,quizzes
nt

Weeks Contents

1 Introduction

2,3 Brief History and common log tools

4 Basic elements in log analysis

5,6,7 Basic rock properties

Bore hole environments and fluid distribution.

8,9

Syllabus 10,11 Borehole Environments and invasion

Methods to determine Rw.

11

12 Invasion and Resistivity Profile

13 Resistivity and Conductivity

14 Archie equation parameters (Rw, Rt, Fr. M, n, a)

The Spontaneous Potential Log

15,16
 Formation water determination
 Shale volume calculation

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Resistivity logs

 Laterologs
17,18,19,20  Induction logs
 Flushed Zone resistivity logs
 Interpretation
 High Frequency (dielectric) measurements.
Porosity logs

 Neutron log
21,22,23,24  Density log
 Sonic log
 Nuclear magnetic resonance log
 Porosity measurement combinations
 Consistency in lithology Predicting
Gamma ray log
25,26  General
 Shale volume calculation.
 Spectral gamma ray log.
Log interpretation techniques

 Quick –Kook methods

27,28  Porosity , Lithology and mineralogy cross plots
 M-N and mid lithology plots

29 Interpretation cases studies

Formation Evaluation

30  Determine effective porosity

 Determine absolute permeability

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1 INTRODUCTION

Open-hole well logging began after the first world war, with tools
being developed for the mining industry to identify the presence of
metaliferous ores in the vicinity of a borehole. In 1927 the first oil well
was logged by the Schlumberger brothers, Conrad and Marcell, and H G
Doll.
Well Logging is a sophisticated form of proximal, or not so remote,
sensing. Modern tools and evaluation procedures are at the cutting edge
of technology.
The Geologists role is to locate, describe and quantify the assets of the
company while The Engineers role is to determine and mange the rate of
return on these assets.
It is the Petrophysicists role to acquire and analyse measured data of
known accuracy and uncertainty, and provide it in a timely way to both
the Geologist and Engineer, so that they may accomplish their goals.
Accomplishing this role is impossible without high quality log analysis.
Today, the detailed analysis of a carefully chosen suite of wireline
services provides a method of deriving or inferring accurate values for the
hydrocarbon and water saturation’s, the porosity, the permeability index,
and the lithology of the reservoir rock.

1.1- Wireline Openhole Logging

Once a section of hole has been completed, the bit is pulled out of the
hole and there is an opportunity to acquire further openhole logs either
via wireline or on the drill string before the hole is either cased or
abandoned.
Additional tools may be run:
• Gamma ray: This tool measures the strength of the natural adioactivity
present in the formation. It is particularly useful in distinguishing sands
from shales in siliciclastic environments.
• Natural gamma ray spectroscopy: This tool works on the same
rincipal as the gamma ray, although it separates the gamma ray counts
into three energy windows to determine the relative contributions arising
from (1) uranium, (2) potassium, and (3) thorium in the formation. As
described later in the book, these data may be used to determine the
relative proportions of certain minerals in the formation.

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• Spontaneous potential (SP): This tool measures the potential
difference naturally occurring when mud filtrate of a certain salinity
invades the formation containing water of a different salinity. It may be
used to estimate the extent of invasion and in some cases the formation
water salinity.
• Caliper: This tool measures the geometry of the hole using either two
or four arms. It returns the diameter seen by the tool over either the major
or both the major and minor axes.
• Density: The wireline version of this tool will typically have a much
stronger source than its LWD counterpart and also include a Pe curve,
useful in complex lithology evaluation.
• Neutron porosity: The “standard” neutron most commonly run is a
thermal neutron device. However, newer-generation devices often use
epithermal neutrons (having the advantage of less salinity dependence)
and rely on minitron-type neutron generators rather than chemical
sources.
• Resistivity: These tools fall into two main categories: laterolog and
induction type. Laterolog tools use low-frequency currents (hence
requiring water-based mud [WBM]) to measure the potential caused by a
current source over an array of detectors. Induction-type tools use
primary coils to induce eddy currents in the formation and then a
secondary array of coils to measure the magnetic fields caused by these
currents. Since they operate at high frequencies, they can be used in oil-
based mud (OBM) systems. Tools are designed to see a range of depths
of investigation into the formation. The shallower readings have a better
vertical resolution than the deep readings.
• Microresistivity: These tools are designed to measure the formation
resistivity in the invaded zone close to the borehole wall. They operate
using low-frequency current, so are not suitable for OBM. They are used
to estimate the invaded-zone saturation and to pick up bedding features
too small to be resolved by the deeper reading tools.
• Imaging tools: These work either on an acoustic or a resistivity
principle and are designed to provide an image of the borehole wall that
may be used for establishing the stratigraphic or sedimentary dip and/or
presence of fractures/vugs.

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• Formation pressure/sampling: Unlike the above tools, which all “log”
an interval of the formation, formation-testing tools are designed to
measure the formation pressure and/or acquire formation samples at a
discrete point in the formation. When in probe mode, such tools press a
probe through the mudcake and into the wall of the formation. By
opening chambers in the tool and analyzing the fluids and pressures
while the chambers are filled, it is possible to determine the true pressure
of the formation (as distinct from the mud pressure). If only pressures are
required (pretest mode), the chambers are small and the samples are not
retained. For formation sampling, larger chambers are used (typically
23/4 or 6 gallons), and the chambers are sealed for analysis at the surface.
For some tools, a packer arrangement is used to enable testing of a
discrete interval of the formation (as opposed to a probe measurement),
and various additional modules are available to make measurements of
the fluid being sampled downhole.
• NMR: These tools measure the T1 and T2 relaxation times of the
formation. Their principles and applicability are described in Chapter 5.

1.2 Wireline Cased Hole Logging

When a hole has been cased and a completion string run to produce the
well, certain additional types of logging tools may be used for monitoring
purposes. These include:

Thermal decay tool (TDT): This neutron tool works on the same
principle as the neutron porosity tool, that is, measuring gamma ray
counts when thermal neutrons are captured by the formation. However,
instead of measuring the HI, they are specifically designed to measure the
neutron capture cross-section, which principally depends on the amount
of chlorine present as formation brine. Therefore, if the formation water
salinity is accurately known, together with the porosity, Sw may be
determined. The tool is particularly useful when run in time-lapse mode
to monitor changes in saturation, since many unknowns arising from the
borehole and formation properties may be eliminated.
• Gamma ray spectroscopy tool (GST): This tool works on the same
principal as the density tool, except that by measuring the contributions
arising in various energy windows of the gamma rays arriving at the
detectors, the relative proportions of various elements may be

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determined. In particular, by measuring the relative amounts of carbon
and oxygen a (salinity independent), measurement of Sw may be made.
• Production logging: This tool, which operates using a spinner, does not
measure any properties of the formation but is capable of determining the
flow contributions from various intervals in the formation.
• Cement bond log: This tool is run to evaluate the quality of the cement
bond between the casing and the formation. It may also be run in a
circumferential mode, where the quality around the borehole is imaged.
The quality of the cement bond may affect the quality of other production
logging tools, such as TDT or GST.
• Casing collar locator (CCL): This tool is run in order to identify the
positions of casing collars and perforated intervals in a well. It produces
a trace that gives a “pip” where changes occur in the thickness of the
steel.

A set of logs run on a well will usually mean different things to

different people. Let us examine the questions asked–and/or answers
sought by a variety of people.
The Geologist:

The Geologist may ask:

'' What depths are the formation tops?
'' Is the environment suitable for accumulation of Hydrocarbons?
'' Is there evidence of Hydrocarbon in this well?
'' What type of Hydrocarbon?
'' Are Hydrocarbons present in commercial quantities?
'' How good a well is ti?
'' What are the reserves?
'' Could the formation be commercial in an offset well?
The Geophysicist:
As a Geophysicist what do you look for?
'' Are the tops where you predicted?
'' Are the potential zones porous as you have assumed from seismic data?
'' What does a synthetic seismic section show?
The Drilling Engineer:
" What is the hole volume for cementing?
" Are there any Key-Seats or severe Dog-legs in the well?

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" Where can you get a good packer seat for testing?
" Where is the best place to set a Whipstock?
The Reservoir Engineer:
The Reservoir Engineer needs to know:
" How thick is the pay zone?
" How Homogeneous is the section?
" What is the volume of Hydrocarbon per cubic metre?
" Will the well pay-out?
" How long will it take?
The Production Engineer:
The Production Engineer is more concerned with:
" Where should the well be completed (in what zone(s))?
" What kind of production rate can be expected?
" Will there be any water production?
" How should the well be completed?
" Is the potential pay zone hydraulically isolated?

2- HISTORY

The first electrical log was recorded in 1927 in a well in the small oil
field of Pechelbronn, in Alsace, a province of north-eastern France. This
log, a single graph of the electrical resistivity of the rock formations cut
by the borehole, was recorded by the “station” method. The downhole
measurement instrument (called sonde) was stopped at periodic intervals
in the borehole, measurements were made, and the calculated resistivity
was hand-plotted on a graph. This procedure was carried on from station
to station until the entire log was recorded. Since the resistivity of the
formation was a direct indication of the fluid contained in the pore space
of the formation, this log was used to detect the presence of hydrocarbons
in the formation.
In 1929, electrical resistivity logging was introduced on a commercial
basis in Venezuela, the United States, and Russia, and soon afterwards in
the Dutch East Indies. The usefulness of the resistivity measurement for
well to well correlation purposes and for identification of potential
hydrocarbon-bearing strata was quickly recognised by the oil industry.
In 1931 the spontaneous potential (SP) measurement was included with
the resistivity curve on the electrical log. In the same year, the
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Schlumberger brothers, Marcel and Conrad, perfected a method of
continuous recording and the first pen recorder was developed.

The development of a dipmeter log began in the early 1930’s with the
anisotropy dipmeter tool. The three-arm dipmeter device, with an
associated photoclinometer, was introduced in 1943; it permitted both the
direction and angle of the formation dip to be determined.
followed in the mid- 1950’s. The gamma ray (GR) and neutron tools
represented the first use of radioactive properties in well logging and the
first use of downhole electronics.

After about 1949, attention was given to the neutron log as a porosity
indicator. It was not until the introduction of the SNP sidewall neutron
porosity tool in 1962 and the CNL* compensated neutron tool in 1970
that the neutron gained acceptance as a porosity measurement.
The Microlog tool, introduced in the early 1950’s, The microlog
recording is also useful to delineate permeable beds, and other
microresistivity devices help establish the resistivity profile from the
invaded zone near the borehole to the non-invaded virgin formation.
The Microlaterolog tool was developed for salt muds in 1953. The
MicroProximity log and MicroSFL* log have followed.
In 1951, the laterolog tool, the first focused deep-investigating resistivity
device, was introduced. It uses a focusing system to constrain the
surveying current (emitted from a central electrode) to substantially a
horizontal disc for some distance from the sonde.
the DLL* dual laterolog tool, which consists of deep laterolog and
shallow laterolog measurements, is the standard. It is usually run with a
MicroSFL device as well.
The induction log was developed in 1949, as an outgrowth of wartime
work with mine detectors, for use in oil-based mud.
The DIL* dual induction log, introduced in 1963, is now the standard. It
consists of deep induction, medium induction, and shallow resistivity-
measurements.1963 tool and an SFL device on current tools.
In the late 1950’s, the sonic log gained acceptance as a reliable porosity
log; its measurement responds primarily to porosity and is essentially
independent of saturation.

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An FDC* compensated formation density log, which compensated for the
mudcake, quickly followed in 1964. In 1981, the Litho-Density* log
provided an improved bulk density measurement and a lithology-sensitive
photoelectric absorption cross section measurement.
In 1957, a formation tester was introduced. It recovered a sample of the
formation fluids and the pore pressure was measured during the sampling
process. The FIT formation interval tester and the RFT* repeat
formation tester have followed.
The EPT* electromagnetic propagation log was introduced in 1978; the
DPT* deep propagation log, in 1985.

3-THE FIELD OPERATION

Wireline electrical logging is done from a logging truck, sometimes

referred to as a “mobile laboratory” (Figure 1).

Figure 1 Wireline electrical logging

MWD (measurement while drilling) or LWD (logging while drilling)

logs, by contrast, are made as a formation is drilled. Quite different
techniques are made to record MWD and LWD to the open hole wireline
logs.

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To run wireline logs, the hole is cleaned and stabilized and the drilling
equipment extracted. The first logging tool is then attached to the logging
cable (wireline) and lowered into the hole to its maximum drilled depth.
Most logs are run while pulling the tool up from the bottom of the hole.

4- DATA PROCESSING

Signal processing can be performed at at least three levels: downhole in

the tool, uphole in the truck, and at a central computing centre.
A wellsite digital computer system, called the CSU* unit, is now standard
on all Schlumberger units throughout the world. The system provides the
capability to handle large amounts of data.
Nearly all the common log interpretation models and equations are
executable on the CSU unit. Although not quite as sophisticated as the
log interpretation programs available in computing centres, the wellsite
interpretation programs significantly exceed what can be done manually.
Wellsite programs exist to determine porosity and saturation in simple
and complex lithology, to identify lithology, to calculate formation dip, to
calculate permeability, and to determine many more petrophysical
parameters.

5-LOG RUNS

When a log is made it is said to be ‘run’. A log run is typically made at

the end of each drilling phase, i.e. at the end of the drilling and before
casing is put in the hole.
The choice of logs depends on what it is hoped to find. Logging costing
5-10% of total well costs is expensive, so that in cheap, onshore wells, in
known terrain, a minimum set is run. Offshore, where everything is
expensive, full sets of logs are generally run, even if hydrocarbons are
not found, as each well represents hard-gained information.

6-LOG PRESENTATIONS

A standard API (American Petroleum Institute) log format exists (Figure

2 a-c). The overall log width is 8.25 in (21 cm), with three tracks of 2.5 in
(6.4 cm), tracks 1 and 2 being separated by a column of 0.75 in (1.9 cm)
in which the depths are printed.
There are various combinations of grid. Track 1 is always linear, with ten
standard divisions of 0.25 in (0.64 cm). Tracks 2 and 3 may have a 4-
cycle logarithmic scale, a linear scale of 20 standard divisions, or a hybrid
of logarithmic scale in track 2 and linear scale in track 3.

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Fig2a

Fig2b

Fig 2c

On the old analog logging systems, the choice of vertical or depth scales
was limited to two of 1:1000, 1:500, 1:200, 1:100, 1:40 and 1:20. From

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these, the most frequent scale combinations were 1:500 (1cm=5 m) for
resume or correlation logs and 1:200 (1cm=2 m) for detailed reservoir
presentation.

7-Typical Log Heading.

Figure 3. Reproduction of a typical log heading.

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This is the first page of a typical log heading as shown in Fig.3

1. The title indicates the services that are associated with the data that
appear on this log.
2. Basic well name and location information.
3. More detailed information about the physical surface location of the
well.
4. Other services that were run at the same time (during the same trip to
the well) as the services in this log.
5. Information about location and elevation from which the well depths
are measured. K.B. = kelly bushing elevation, D.F. = drill floor elevation,
G.L. = ground level elevation, T.K.B. = top of kelly bushing
6. Environmental information about the well. The drilling mud and
borehole size values are especially important in applying the proper
environmental corrections and interpretation parameters to the data.
7. General information about the logging equipment, the engineer, and
any clients who witnessed the logging job

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Basic elements in log analysis

The parameters of log interpretation are determined directly or inferred

indirectly and are measured by one of three general types of logs:
• electrical
• nuclear
• acoustic or sonic logs
The names refer to the sources used to obtain the measurements. The
different sources create records (logs), which contain one or more curves
related to

Resistivity

Resistivity is the rock property on which the entire science of logging

first developed. Resistivity is the inherent property of all materials,
regardless of their shape and size, to resist the flow of an electric current.
Different materials have different abilities to resist the flow of electricity.
While the resistance of a material depends on its shape and dimensions,
the resistivity is an invariant property; the reciprocal of resistivity is
conductivity.
In log interpretation, the hydrocarbons, the rock, and the fresh water of
the formation are all assumed to act as insulators and are, therefore,
nonconductive (or at least very highly resistive) to electric current flow.
Salt water, however, is a conductor and has a low resistivity.
The measurement of resistivity is then a measurement, albeit indirect, of
the amount (and salinity) of the formation water. The unit of measure
used for the conductor is a cube of the formation, one meter on each
edge. The measured units are ohm-meters2/meter and are called ohm-
meters.

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ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES

The electrical conductivity of any material is an index of its ability to

conduct an electric current. It is independent of the dimensions of the
element of the material, and it is the electrical analogue of permeability.
The reciprocal of conductivity is resistivity. Resistivity and the electrical
resistance are related as follows:
r L/A
r = R L/A
,
R = r A/L
From Fig.4 as shown below
Where:
r = Resistance of element of any material of dimension A and L, ohm
R = Resistivity of any element, ohm-length
Rw = Resistivity of brine, ohm-length
ro = Resistance of brine saturated capillary or porous media model, ohm
Ro = Resistivity of brine saturated capillary or porous media model, ohm-
length

Fig.4
In a capillary tube model the equations are: Fig.5:

ro = Rw × L/a,

Ro = ro × A/L

𝑅𝑤 × 𝐿/𝑎× 𝐴
=
𝐿

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𝑅𝑤 𝑅𝑤
= 𝑎 =
Ø

𝐴

Fig.5
In a porous media model the equations become Fig.6:
F
Ro = ro A/L

𝑅𝑤 × 𝐿𝑒/𝑎× 𝐴
=
𝐿
,
𝐿𝑒 𝐿𝑒 2
𝑅𝑤 ×𝐿𝑒/𝐿 𝑅𝑤×( )
Ro = 𝑎 × 𝐿
𝐿𝑒 = 𝐿
Ø

𝐴 𝐿



Fig.6

Electrical Conductivity in Porous Media

The conduction of an electric current in porous rock is due primarily to

the movement of dissolved ions in the brine that fills the pores of the
rock. The conductivity varies directly with ion concentration. In
formation evaluation this is usually defined as in NaCl equivalents. See
Schlumberger charts.
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Similarly, conductivity varies directly with temperature. This is due to the
increased activity of the ions in solution as temperature increases. An
estimate of formation temperature can be achieved from bottom hole
temperature (BHT) measurements and Schlumberger chart.

Variables That Influence Resistivity of Natural Porous Media:

 Salinity of water
 Temperature
 Porosity
 Pore geometry
 Formation stress
 Composition of rock

THE ARCHIE RELATIONSHIP:

The Archie relationship simply states that the true resistivity, Rt, is equal
to the product of a factor of the formation, F, the resistivity of the
saturating brine, Rw and a resistivity index of saturation, RI, or
Rt =F×Rw×RI .

Formation Factor:

Formation factor is defined as the ratio of the resistivity of completely

brine saturated rock to the resistivity of the saturating brine.

𝐿𝑒 2
𝑅𝑤×(
𝐿
) 𝐿𝑒 2
𝑅𝑜 Ø
(𝐿)
F= = =
𝑅𝑤 𝑅𝑤 Ø

The ratio Le/L is the ratio of the length of the tortuous path through the
rock to the length of the rock element. It is commonly termed
“tortuosity”, and in clean, uniform sandstones the square of this value is
approximately equal to the reciprocal of porosity.
Resistivity and formation factor vary with porosity in somewhat the
manner described by the previous equation. Rarely do natural formations
have such uniform pore geometry. It is more common to express
formation factor as: Fig.7-8

F=aØ-m

where a and m are unique properties of the rock.

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Fig.7

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Fig.8

Resistivity Index

Oil and gas are not electrical conductors. Their presence in an element of
reservoir or in a core sample will reduce the mean cross-sectional area of
the flow path for an electric current and increase the length of the flow
path, thus increasing the resistivity.
Resistivity Index is defined as the ratio of rock at any condition of gas, oil
and water saturation to its resistivity when completely saturated with
water:
1
RI =Rt/Ro = Sw-n =
𝑆𝑊 𝑛

Thus, the Resistivity Index is a function of water saturation. It is also a

function of the pore geometry. The main factor influencing the Saturation
exponent, not covered above, is the formation wettability. Oil wetting
tends to result in some of the water-phase being present in discrete,
or discontinuous globules. Discontinuous water-phase cannot contribute
to electrical flow, hence, there will be higher resistivity for a given
saturation. The resultant increase in RI, gives a steeper slope and higher
values of the saturation exponent, n. Typically values can approach 4 in
strongly oil-wet reservoirs.Fig.9

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Fig.9

Resistivity Index (Rt/Ro) is a ratio of the resistivity of a zone containing

hydrocarbons to the resistivity of the zone if it were 100 percent water
saturated. The following data indicate the maximum error in calculated
water saturation if all variables except “n” were correct when used in the
equation to calculate water saturation.
To recap then, it is obvious that certain rock properties influence
calculated water saturation, when using the Archie equation or its
derivatives. The following is a summary of the relationships;

Rt=F× 𝑹𝒘 × 𝑹𝑰
𝟏
F=Ø−𝒎 =
Ø𝒎
𝑹𝒕 𝟏
RI= = Sw-n =
𝑹𝒐 𝑺𝒘𝒏
𝒏 𝑭×𝑹𝒘 𝒏 𝑹𝒐
Sw= √ =√
𝑹𝒕 𝑹𝒕

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𝒏 𝒂 𝑹𝒘 𝟏
Sw= √ × ×
Ø𝒎 𝟏 𝑹𝒕

Sensitivity of Calculated Water Saturation to Both “n” and “m”

Both saturation exponent “n” and cementation factor “m” vary with pore
geometry and influence calculated water saturation. In any formation,
either may be higher or lower than the value of 2.0 often assumed to be
representative. The influence and importance of the cementation factor is
maximised in low porosity rock. For example, if saturation exponent “n”
equalled 2.0 and cementation exponent “m” equalled 1.7 in a formation
with 10 percent porosity, the calculated water saturation would be 45
percent pore space. If the cementation factor equalled 2.4, calculated
water saturation would be 100 percent pore space. This is a significant
difference.

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BOREHOLE - WELLBORE ENVIRONMENT

Once a drill-bit has penetrated through a formation, the local environment

has been altered from the conditions that existed before drilling. The
longer the hole remains open, the more change to the environment occurs.
The actual drilling process involves removing material that is part of the
mechanical fabric of the system. The hole could not remain open unless it
was supported by a column of fluid which is about as dense, or denser,
than the equivalent pore fluid column. However, in maintaining an open
hole, where permeability exists some of the fluid invades the formation.
Drilling muds are designed to form a low permeability membrane against
the hole side. This is called the filter-cake. In order to form this, there
must be a spurt fluid loss to the formation. This is followed by a much
slower continuous filtering of fluid (filtrate) over the period of time the
hole remains open. The type of filtrate and filter-cake is dependent on the
type of drilling fluid utilised.
There are basically four types of drilling fluid that we can consider. In
each of these the filtrate is different:
 Fresh-water muds
 Salt-water muds
 Oil based muds
 KCl or CaCl - Polymer based muds
Fresh-water systems are usually used when the formation water is
brackish-fresh and are not very common these days, except in onshore
drilling. The filtrate is fresh water.
Salt-water systems are used in salty formation waters and the mud filtrate
may be saltier or less salty than the formation water. Because of poor hole
problems these became less popular in the 1970’s. However, because of
their more environmentally friendly properties they have made a
comeback since the 1990’s.
KCl or CaCl Polymer based systems are really hyper-saline salt water
systems. However, there are some additional properties of the filter cake
to take into account. Well-maintained systems have virtually zero
permeability filter-cakes, resulting in less invasion. Both CaCl and KCl
also act as clay stabilising agents, inhibiting swelling.
Oil-based systems carry their water, which may be as much as 40% of the
system, as an emulsion phase. In addition, they are often hyper-saline
systems containing as much as 350,000 ppm CaCl in solution.

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The Invasion Profile and Petrophysical Parameters

In measuring across invasion profiles of the sort generated by the various

differing drilling fluids we might see the following profiles.Fig.10

Fig.10
Where S = Shallow, M = Medium and D = Deep-reading device responses

The effects of the borehole invasion on various tool responses will be

considered in each section covering the specific tools.

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Fig.11: shown The borehole environment and symbols used in log interpretation.

This schematic diagram illustrates an idealized version of what happens

when fluids from the borehole invade the surrounding rock. Dotted lines
indicate the cylindrical nature of the invasion.
dh = hole diameter
di = diameter of invaded zone (inner boundary of flushed zone)
dj = diameter of invaded zone (outer boundary of invaded zone)
Δrj = radius of invaded zone (outer boundary)
hmc = thickness of mud cake
Rm = resistivity of the drilling mud
Rmc = resistivity of the mud cake
Rmf = resistivity of mud filtrate
Rs = resistivity of the overlying bed (commonly assumed to be shale)
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Rt = resistivity of uninvaded zone (true formation resistivity)
Rw = resistivity of formation water
Rxo = resistivity of flushed zone
Sw = water saturation of uninvaded zone
Sxo = water saturation flushed zone

Hole Diameter (dh)

The borehole size is determined by the outside diameter of the drill bit.
But, the diameter of the borehole may be
• larger than the bit size because of washout and/or collapse of shale and
poorly cemented porous rocks, or
• smaller than the bit size because of a build up of mud cake on porous
and permeable formations.

Drilling mud Resistivity (Rm)

Today, most wells are drilled with rotary bits and the use of a special
fluid, called drilling mud, as a circulating fluid. The mud helps remove
cuttings from the wellbore, lubricate and cool the drill bit, and maintain
an excess of borehole pressure over formation pressure. The excess of
borehole pressure over formation pressure prevents blowouts. The density
of the mud is usually kept high enough so that hydrostatic pressure in the
mud column is greater than formation pressure. This pressure difference
forces some of the drilling fluid to invade porous and permeable
formations.

Invaded Zone
The zone in which much of the original fluid is replaced by mud filtrate is
called the invaded zone. It consists of a flushed zone (of resistivity Rxo)
and a transition or annulus zone (of resistivity Ri). The flushed zone
occurs close to the borehole (Fig.11) where the mud filtrate has almost
completely flushed out a formation’s hydrocarbons and/or water (Rw).
The transition or annulus zone, where a formation’s fluids and mud
filtrate are mixed, occurs between the flushed zone and the uninvaded
zone (of resistivity Rt). The uninvaded zone is defined as the area beyond
the invaded zone where a formation’s fluids are uncontaminated by mud
filtrate. The depth of mud-filtrate invasion into the invaded

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Flushed zone Resistivity (Rxo)
The flushed zone extends only a few inches from the wellbore and is part
of the invaded zone. If invasion is deep or moderate, most often the
flushed zone is completely cleared of its formation water by mud filtrate
(of resistivity Rmf). When oil is present in the flushed zone, the degree of
flushing by mud filtrate can be determined from the difference between
water saturations in the flushed (Sxo) zone and the uninvaded
(Sw) zone (Fig. 11). Usually, about 70% to 95% of the oil is flushed out;
the remaining oil is called residual oil [Sro = (1.0 - Sxo), where Sro is the
residual oil saturation, (ROS)].

Uninvaded zone Resistivity (Rt)

The uninvaded zone is located beyond the invaded zone (Fig.11). Pores
in the uninvaded zone are uncontaminated by mud filtrate; instead, they
are saturated with formation water (Rw), oil, and/or gas.
Even in hydrocarbon-bearing reservoirs, there is always a layer of
formation water on grain surfaces.
Water saturation (Sw; Fig.11) of the uninvaded zone is an important
factor in reservoir evaluation because, by using water saturation data, a
geologist can determine a reservoir’s hydrocarbon saturation.

Sh = 1 – Sw
where:
Sh = hydrocarbon saturation (i.e., the fraction of
pore volume filled with hydrocarbons).
Sw = water saturation of the uninvaded zone (i.e.,
the fraction of pore volume filled with water).
The ratio of the uninvaded zone’s water saturation
(Sw) to the flushed zone’s water saturation (Sxo) is an
index of hydrocarbon moveability.

Step profile:
This idealized model is the one inferred by the use of three resistivity logs
to estimate invasion. Mud filtrate is distributed with a cylindrical shape
around the borehole and creates an invaded zone. The cylindrical invaded
zone is characterized by its abrupt contact with the uninvaded zone. The
diameter of the cylinder is represented as dj. In the invaded zone, pores
are filled with mud filtrate (Rmf); pores in the uninvaded zone are filled
with formation water (Rw) and hydrocarbons. In this example, the
uninvaded zone is wet (water saturated and no hydrocarbons), thus the
resistivity beyond the invaded zone is low. The resistivity of the invaded

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zone is Rxo, and the resistivity of the uninvaded zone is Rt (where Rt
reduces to Ro when the formation is water bearing).Fig.12

Transition profile:
This is the most realistic model of true borehole conditions. Here again
invasion is cylindrical, but in this profile, the invasion of the mud filtrate
(Rmf) diminishes gradually, rather than abruptly, through a transition
zone toward the outer boundary of the invaded zone (see dj on diagram
for location of outer boundary).
In the flushed part (Rxo) of the invaded zone, pores are filled with mud
filtrate (Rmf), giving a high resistivity reading. In the transition part of the
invaded zone, pores are filled with mud filtrate (Rmf), formation water
(Rw), and, if present, residual hydrocarbons.
Beyond the outer boundary of the invaded zone, pores are filled with
either formation water or formation water and hydrocarbons. In this
diagram, hydrocarbons are not present, so resistivity of the uninvaded
zone is low. The resistivity of the invaded zone is Rxo, and the resistivity
of the uninvaded zone is Rt (where Rt reduces to Ro when the formation
is water bearing). Fig.12

Annulus profile:
This reflects a temporary fluid distribution and is a condition that should
disappear with time (if the logging operation is delayed, it might not be
recorded on the logs at all). The annulus profile represents a fluid
distribution that occurs between the invaded zone and the uninvaded zone
and only exists in the presence of hydrocarbons.
In the flushed part (Rxo) of the invaded zone, pores are filled with both
mud filtrate (Rmf) and residual hydrocarbons. Thus the resistivity reads
high. Pores beyond the flushed part of the invaded zone (Ri) are filled
with a mixture of mud filtrate (Rmf), formation water (Rw), and residual
hydrocarbons.
Beyond the outer boundary of the invaded zone is the annulus zone,
where pores are filled with formation water (Rw) and residual
hydrocarbons. When an annulus profile is present, there is an abrupt drop
in measured resistivity at the outer boundary of the invaded zone. The
abrupt resistivity drop is due to the high concentration of formation water
(Rw) in the annulus zone. Formation water has been pushed ahead by the
invading mud filtrate into the annulus zone. This causes a temporary
absence of hydrocarbons, which have been pushed ahead of the formation
water.
Beyond the annulus is the uninvaded zone, where pores are filled with
formation water (Rw) and hydrocarbons. The resistivity of the invaded

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zone is Rxo, and the resistivity of the uninvaded zone is Rt (where Rt
reduces to Ro when the formation is water bearing). Fig12

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Fig.12: Resistivity profiles for three idealized versions of fluid distributions in the
vicinity of the borehole.

As mud filtrate (Rmf) moves into a porous and permeable formation, it

can invade the formation in several different ways. Various fluid
distributions are represented by the step, transition, or annulus profiles.
All three profiles illustrate the effect of a freshwater mud; for profiles
using saltwater mud see fig.13.

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Fig.13: Resistivity profile for a transition-style invasion of a water-bearing formation.

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Note: These examples are shown because freshwater muds and saltwater
muds are used in different geographic regions, usually exclusively. To
find out which mud is used in your area, check the log heading of existing
wells or ask your drilling engineer.

Freshwater muds:
The resistivity of the mud filtrate (Rmf) is greater than the resistivity of
the formation water (Rw) (remember, saltwater is conductive). A general
rule when freshwater muds are used is: Rmf > 3 Rw. The flushed zone
(Rxo), which has a greater amount of mud filtrate, has higher resistivities.
Away from the borehole, the resistivity of the invaded zone (Ri)
decreases due to the decreasing amount of mud filtrate (Rmf) and the
increasing amount of formation water (Rw).
With a water-bearing formation, the resistivity of the uninvaded zone is
low because the pores are filled with formation water (Rw). In the
uninvaded zone, true resistivity (Rt) is equal to wet resistivity (Ro)
because the formation is completely saturated with formation water (Rt =
Ro where the formation is completely saturated with formation water).
To summarize: in a water-bearing zone, the resistivity of the flushed zone
(Rxo) is greater than the resistivity of the invaded zone (Ri), which in turn
has a greater resistivity than the uninvaded zone (Rt). Therefore: Rxo> Ri
> Rt in water-bearing zones.

Saltwater muds:
Because the resistivity of mud filtrate (Rmf) is approximately equal to the
resistivity of formation water (Rmf ~ Rw), there is no appreciable
difference in the resistivity from the flushed (Rxo) to the invaded zone
(Ri) to the uninvaded zone (Rxo = Ri = Rt); all have low resistivities.
Both the above examples assume that the water saturation of the
uninvaded zone is much greater than 60%. Fig.14

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Fig.14: Resistivity profile for a transition-style invasion of a hydrocarbon-bearing

formation.

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Freshwater muds:
Because the resistivities of both the mud filtrate (Rmf) and residual
hydrocarbons are much greater than formation water (Rw), the resistivity
of the flushed zone (Rxo) is comparatively high (remember that the
flushed zone has mud filtrate and some residual hydrocarbons).
Beyond its flushed part (Rxo), the invaded zone (Ri) has a mixture of mud
filtrate (Rmf), formation water (Rw), and some residual hydrocarbons.
Such a mixture causes high resistivities. In some cases, resistivity of the
invaded zone (Ri) almost equals that of the flushed zone (Rxo).
The presence of hydrocarbons in the uninvaded zone causes higher
resistivity than if the zone had only formation water (Rw), because
hydrocarbons are more resistant than formation water. In such a case, Rt
> Ro. The resistivity of the uninvaded zone (Rt) is normally somewhat
less than the resistivity of the flushed and invaded zones (Rxo and Ri).
However, sometimes when an annulus profile is present, the invaded
zone’s resistivity (Ri) can be slightly lower than the uninvaded zone’s
resistivity (Rt). To summarize: Rxo > Ri > Rt or Rxo > Ri < Rt in
hydrocarbon-bearing zones.

Saltwater muds:

Because the resistivity of the mud filtrate (Rmf) is approximately equal to

the resistivity of formation water (Rmf ~ Rw), and the amount of residual
hydrocarbons is low, the resistivity of the flushed zone (Rxo) is low.
Away from the borehole, as more hydrocarbons mix with mud filtrate in
the invaded zone the resistivity of the invaded zone (Ri) increases.
Resistivity of the uninvaded zone (Rt) is much greater than if the
formation were completely water saturated (Ro) because hydrocarbons
are more resistant than saltwater.
Resistivity of the uninvaded zone (Rt) is greater than the resistivity of the
invaded (Ri) zone. So, Rt > Ri > Rxo. Both the above examples assume
that the water saturation of the uninvaded zone is much less than 60%.

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Rock and Fluid Properties

1- INTRODUCTION:

The response to measurements made with petrophysical logging tools

will depend on the formation being investigated.
The first step in the interpretation of the logging data is to determine the
type of rock which is being logged. The next step is to determine the
porosity, saturation, and permeability of the rocks.
Rocks are classified in a very specific way for the purposes of well log
interpretation. Evaluation of reservoir rocks or potential reservoir rocks
requires basically three pieces of data:
• Porosity - the capacity of the rock to contain fluids;
• Saturation - the relative amounts of these fluids; and
• Permeability - the ability of the fluids to flow through the rock to the
well bore. Separation of the hydrocarbons into either gas or oil is of lesser
significance.

2- ROCK CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

This classification system uses a pseudo-rock chemistry classification.
The method is very useful since many of the responses from well logging
tools reflect physical and chemical properties of the rocks. However the
classification system, based on chemistry, must be clearly defined so that
it can be related to the geological description of the rocks. This
classification is used extensively in the evaluation of logs and in
particular in the charts used for interpretation.
This classification system is based on the following categories of rocks:
• Sandstones - SiO2;
• Limestones - CaCO3;
• Dolomite - CaCO3Mg CO3;
• NaCl, Anhydrite, Gypsum, Clay
On this rock chemistry basis,
sandstones are SiO2. Therefore, anything that is SiO2 shows up on well
logs as sandstone. Since the classification is on a purely chemical basis
and not on a grain size basis, silt is considered as a very small grained
sandstone.
Chert is also classified as a sandstone although the crystal structure is
different it looks like sandstone on well logs.
Limestone is calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Since chalk results in the
same response on logs as calcium carbonate, it is classified as a
limestone.

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Dolomite (CaCO3Mg CO3) differs strongly from limestone on well log
readings.
Physically, dolomite differs from limestone significantly in density,
hardness and other properties.
NaCl, Anhydrite, Gypsum and Clay are relatively common rocks, but
differ significantly from sandstone, limestone and dolomite. Halite is
common table salt, (NaCl) and will record as NaCl. Anhydrite is calcium
sulphate and although gypsum is calcium sulphate plus crystalline water,
the water in gypsum creates a large difference between the two log
responses.
The only apparent maverick in the system is shale, which in reality is
clay, and is classified as clay. For general usage, there is no need to
differentiate between the various clay minerals which make up shales as
long as clean shales are considered as being clay.
A few rock types have been omitted but these omissions are not
considered serious. For example, a conglomerate is nothing more than a
grain size variation of sandstone, limestones with regular, spherical grains
are not classified as sandstones but as
limestone.

3- POROSITY
The porosity of a rock is the percentage of rock gross rock volume that is
not made up of matrix material. Porosity can however be subdivided into
primary and secondary porosity.
𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Porosity=
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑐𝑘 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

3.1- Primary Porosity

Primary Porosity, usually related to granular, is the porosity developed by
the original sedimentation process by which the rock was created. For all
practical purposes, porosity is the non-solid part of the rock, filled with
fluids. Porosity is referred to in terms of percentages, while in
calculations it is always a number less than one.

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Porosity, by definition, is the volume of the non-solid part of the rock

(that filled with fluids) divided by the bulk volume. Fig.15

Figure 15- Diagram and equation of porosity

3.2- Secondary Porosity

Secondary Porosity is created by processes which occur after deposition.
An example of secondary porosity can be found in limestones or
Dolomites which has been dissolved by ground waters, a process which
creates vugs or caverns (Figure 16). Fracturing and dolomitization also
create secondary porosity.
Dolomitization is the result of the shrinking of solid volume as the
material transforms from limestone to dolomite. In most cases, secondary
porosity results in much higher permeability than primary granular
porosity.

Fig.16

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4- SATURATION
Saturation of any given fluid in a pore space is the ratio of the volume of
the fluid to the total pore space volume. For example, a water saturation
of 10% means that 1/10 of the pore space is filled with water.
Where porosity is the capacity to hold fluids, saturation is the percentage
or fraction of this total capacity that actually holds any particular fluid.
Porosity, hydrocarbon saturation, the thickness of the reservoir rock and
the areal extent of the reservoir rock all contribute to the total
hydrocarbons in place (Figures 17 and 18). These establish the economic
potential of any given reservoir.

Fig.16

Fig.17

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Of the total volume (barrels or millions of cubic feet) of gas present in a
reservoir, the percentage that is produced depends on the recovery factor.
This recovery factor, normally determined by experience, is typically in
the 20% - 50% range. The produced oil must be able to pay for the cost of
drilling and casing the well and other miscellaneous expenses, as well as
supply a profit.

5- PERMEABILITY
Permeability refers to the ease with which fluids flow through a
formation. It is not sufficient to have oil or gas in a formation, the
hydrocarbons must be able to flow from the reservoir into the wellbore in
order to be recovered at the surface. Permeability is a physical
characteristic of any given rock. Generally, permeability is measured by
flowing fluids through the rock under known conditions. To determine
the permeability of a rock formation, several factors must be known: the
size and shape of the formation; its fluid properties; pressure exerted on
the fluid; and the amount of fluid flow. The greater the pressure exerted
on the fluid, the higher the flow rate. The more viscous the fluid, the
more difficult it is to push it through rock. For example, it is a lot more
difficult to push honey through a rock than to push air through it.

5.1- D'Arcy's Law

Permeability is a measure of the ability of porous material to transmit
fluid. The unit of measurement is the Darcy, named after the French
hydrologist who investigated flow of water through filter beds in order to
design the public drinking fountains of the city of Dijon in the year 1856.
Fig.18. However, Henri d'Arcy was using clean water in his experiments.
Subsequently, it was Henri Poiseuilles, who noted that viscosity was also
inversely proportional to the flow-rate. Hence it was essential to include a
term for viscosity, µ in centipoise, in the Darcy equation.
Today the Darcy – Ritter expression is written with different letter
designations for parameters and measurements than in their 1856 paper
but the method and the outcome are unchanged. Discharge ( Q ) through a
known cross - sectional area ( A ) and length ( L ) of a cylindrical, sand -
packed cylinder is proportional to the hydraulic gradient ( h 1 −h 2 )/ L
along the cylinder, and Darcy ’ s law is given by

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where:
Q = flow rate of fluid(cm3/sec)
k = permeability (Darcy)
A = cross-sectional area (cm2)
l = length (cm)

Figure 18- A modifi ed Darcy apparatus to measure permeability, where fl uid

viscosity and pressure can be varied to be more representative of subsurface reservoir
conditions. The original Darcy apparatus, a glass cylinder with mercury manometers
and fl ow valves, was designed to operate at atmospheric pressure with water only.

In practical units, one Darcy permeability will yield a flow of

approximately one barrel/day of one centipoise oil through one foot of
formation thickness in a well bore when the pressure differential is about
one psi. Darcy's Law is used to determine permeability, which is a
constant when the following boundary conditions are met:
1 Linear-laminar flow
2 No reaction between fluid and rock
3 One phase present at 100 percent pore-space saturation
4 Incompressible
in pressures. Consider a laboratory apparatus (Figure 18 ) to measure
permeability of reservoir rock samples. In this system a rock sample of
length dL and cross - sectional area A is saturated with a fluid of dynamic
viscosity μ , which flows through dL at a rate Q . Under steady - state
conditions, the upstream pressure is P , and the downstream pressure is (
P – dP ). There is no flow through the sides of the sample and there is no
reaction between fluid and rock. Under these conditions, the modifyed
Darcy ’ s law is:

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In this expression, k is the permeability coefficient and represents rock

properties. It is known as absolute or specific permeability and has the
dimensions of an area. The permeability expression is written

the practical working unit of permeability in the petroleum industry is the

millidarcy (md), which is equal to 0.0987 ×10−15 m2 . In ordinary
applications, 1 md = 10 −15 m 2 and 1 darcy = 1 μ m 2 .
Permeability varies greatly in carbonate reservoirs from values of less
than 0.1 md in tight, crystalline mosaics in mudstones to over 10 darcies
in fracture, cavern, or connected vug systems. Qualitatively, reservoir
permeability values can be graded in the following manner (North, 1985
):

Because of the relatively high value of the base-unit, the millidarcy mD,
(one thousandth, 1/1000, of a Darcy) is commonly in use in reservoir
description. The
permeabilities typically vary from a fraction to more than 10,000
millidarcies. Permeabilities normally encountered in reservoir rocks are
from less than one millidarcy to about 50,000 millidarcies. The
permeability of any rock is governed primarily by the size of the pores.
The larger the pore size, the higher the permeability. For example, one
four-inch diameter pipe will have a higher permeability than a bundle

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of quarter-inch diameter pipes with the same flow cross sectional area.
The tortuosity of the path the fluid takes going from one end of the rock
to the other also determines permeability. This is due to the fluid flowing
around all the sand grains rather than in a straight line from one end of
the core to the other.
In sandstones, controlling factors on permeability include the percentage
of clay, grain size, sorting, the presence cements and fractures. The
gamma ray log often correlates with the amount of clay, whilst the
porosity logs often pin-point cemented (low permeability) zones.
Although there may be a correlation between increasing permeability
with increasing porosity, this does not necessarily hold for any given
situation. An example can be found in the earlier discussions in which the
sand grains were stacked one on top of the other and had a porosity of
47.6%. If the sand grains are large, the pore diameters are large and the
permeability is very high.
Reduce the size of the sand grains by a factor of 100 and the permeability
is considerably smaller because the diameters of the pores are
considerably smaller. Further, smaller pores mean larger surface areas
around them, and therefore more resistance to flow (lower permeability).
Another example is in vuggy type rocks in which the pores are often large
and permeability’s very high even though the porosity may be only
5% - 10%. The permeability of fractures has been shown to be almost a
pure function of the width of the fracture. A rough relationship for
permeability versus width of fracture can be shown as:

k = 54,000,000 x Width

Therefore, a fracture .001 inches in width has a permeability of 54,000

millidarcies. The very high permeability created by a very small fracture
is the reason that fractures significantly affect production capabilities in
reservoirs. One small fracture in a reservoir will result in the production
of most of the fluids from the fracture area as the fracture acts like a
pipeline through the formation. Equivalently, if a formation is fractured
while drilling, the high permeability of the fracture results in the high
flow of drilling fluids into the formation.
When only one fluid is present in the pores the permeability of the
formation is called the absolute permeability.

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5.2- Effective Permeability
The effective permeability to any given fluid in a rock refers to
permeability when more than one fluid is present. Effective permeability
is less than absolute permeability because the presence of a second fluid
reduces the effective pore diameter available for fluid flow.
In the case of a reservoir where only water is present, the permeability
measured will be absolute. In the case where oil and water are present and
the oil is flowing, the effective permeability of the oil will be less than
absolute permeability. This is due to the water reducing the effective
diameters of the pores through which the oil is flowing.

5.3 Relative Permeability

Relative permeability is the ratio of effective permeability of a specific

fluid to absolute permeability. Relative permeability curves reflect the
capacity of the rock to produce given fluids by showing the permeability
of those fluids as a function of saturation (Figure 19). Thus, in a typical
relative permeability curve, it will be seen that at low water saturations
only oil will flow. As the water saturation increases, the relative
permeability of oil decreases until some critical level is reached, at which
point both oil and water flow. The oil flow continues to decrease and the
water flow to increase as water saturation increases. At some level of
water saturation, the oil no longer flows and only water flows. Beyond
this point, as water saturation increases, the flow of water within the core
continues to increase.

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Fig.19

In either case, the amount of fluid flowing is not a direct effect of the
relative permeability as different fluids have different viscosities. For
example, if gas and oil have equal relative permeabilities, more gas than
oil will flow within the rock because of the dramatic difference in
viscosity.

6- CAPILLARY PRESSURE

Reservoir rocks are composed of many capillaries of varying sizes.

Capillary pressure is the phenomenon by which water or any wetting
liquid is drawn up into a capillary. The smaller the capillary, the higher
the liquid rises.
Due to the variety of capillary diameters, the water saturation existing
within a rock above the water table varies (Figure 9). The permeability of
a rock is determined by the size of the capillaries in the rock. These
capillaries also define the irreducible water saturation, which is the water
saturation that exists above the transition zone.

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The transition zone is the zone which displays a change in the water
saturation with height.
Most often it is considered the region in which both water and oil (or gas)
flow. The more small capillaries there are, the higher the water saturation,
and the longer the transition from irreducible water saturation to all water.
The larger the pore spaces, the fewer the small capillaries, the transition
zone is shorter. Fig.20

Fig.20

7- FLUID PROPERTIES
Hydrocarbons existing within reservoirs are combinations of compounds
such as methane, propane, butane and pentane. In the oil business, oil and
gas are referred to as if they are separate and distinguishable items. They
are produced either as liquid or gas at surface temperature and pressure.
The cut between liquid and gas often depends on the method of
separation used at the well site. In the reservoir, oil and gas are not
distinguishable as separate entities but are a system. One way to define
this system is with a pressure-temperature (P,T) diagram which describes
the conditions of the material in the reservoir at any given pressure or

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temperature (Figure 21). For example, the hydrocarbons existing under
the pressure and temperature that would put them in the “A” part of the
P,T diagram are undersaturated oils, (liquid). Those existing in the “B”
area are gases. The hydrocarbon fluids in the envelope “C” exist as both
oil (liquid) and gas. The location within “C” determines the volumetric
ratio between gas and oil. Every particular oil or hydrocarbon system
has its own pressure/temperature phase diagram. The composition of the
hydrocarbon determines the shape and location of the two-phase
envelope.

Fig.21

Where a two phase system exists, a free gas and a free liquid phase, the
two are in contact but not necessarily in a dispersed condition. In this
state, the oils are called saturated. That is, they have in solution all the gas
they can hold at that particular pressure and temperature, and often exist
as an oilfield with a gas cap. The size of the gas cap is dependent upon its
location in the P,T envelope. For example, if it was on the 75% line, oil
volume would be 75% and gas volume 25% of the reservoir. It should be
noted that there is no distinct barrier between “A” and “B”. The area that
separates “A” and “B” is miscible in the sense that it is impossible to tell
when the material goes from liquid to gas; within this region are the
condensate reservoirs.
Every particular hydrocarbon system has its own P,T phase diagram.
What will happen during the life of the oil or gas field can be determined
from the P,T diagram.

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For example, assume the pressure/temperature is such that the oilfield is
produced at a constant temperature condition where just the pressure is
reduced. As pressure drops, the fluid eventually reaches the bubble point
line which separates “A” from “C”. Having once crossed the bubble point
line, the reservoir then develops larger and larger amounts of gas or in
many cases, develops a gas cap. A gas cap develops only when the
vertical permeability in the reservoir is large enough to allow the gas to
move upward. This presumes the system is closed and there is no water
encroachment. If the reservoir is initially at “Y1” on this chart and the
pressure drops, as shown going from “Y1” to “Y2”, the reservoir fluids
change from a single phase to a two-phase liquid and gas, and then to a
single gas phase. This is a retrograde condensation system in which you
first develop the liquids within the reservoir as the pressure drops. As the
pressure continues to drop, the reservoir fluid becomes a single phase gas
and ends up a gas field.
An oil being produced from the reservoir to the surface has both pressure
and temperature reduction, and will change from a liquid to a
combination of gas and liquid.
The phenomena occurring is very much like the Coke bottle phenomena.
As the well is agitated (the pressure dropped), the gas comes out of
solution. A Coke bottle that has been agitated, when you take the top off,
blows Coke everywhere. The gas in the Coke is coming out of solution
and represents the driving force that pushed the Coke out of the bottle. An
oilfield is essentially the equivalent with the natural gas forcing the oil
out of the formation.

8- WATER SALINITY:

The waters in reservoirs in the earth vary from fresh to salt saturated
solutions. Near the surface, waters are generally very fresh with low
sodium chloride concentrations.
Deeper, the waters tend to become saltier until some maximum
concentration occurs and the water often becomes fresher.
The salinity of the water is a result not only of its vertical position in the
earth, but also the age of the rocks and the physical position of the rocks
relative to surface outcrops. Salinities used are generally in parts per
million by weight. In the logging business, sodium chloride
concentrations generally are used. At normal room temperatures,
250,000 ppm (parts per million) is a saturated solution, while at higher
temperatures the saturation point for waters is higher. For example, at 300
degrees C, a 300,000 ppm sodium chloride solution is saturated.

By using Chart to estimate salinity from resistivity and temperature.

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9- DETERMINATION OF FORMATION TEMPERATURE

It is often necessary to know the resistivity of formation waters and the

drilling mud at the depth of some formation of interest. The resistivity of
aqueous solutions is a function of temperature. It is thus necessary to be
able to determine the approximate temperature in a well bore at any given
depth. The logic is very straight forward. A mean surface temperature can
be obtained or estimated for any given location. A maximum reading
thermometer is run with the logging instrument and the temperature
reported on the log heading. This maximum temperature reading is
assumed to be obtained at total depth or the maximum depth at which the
logging tool stopped. The temperature between the surface and the depth
at which the maximum temperature is recorded is assumed to change
linearly. The assumption that the geothermal gradient (the rate at which
temperature increases with increased depth) is linear is a good
approximation. Sometimes the maximum temperature in the borehole is
less than the actual formation temperature due to the cooling effect of
circulating mud while drilling the hole. If this is a problem, multiple runs
with the maximum reading thermometer should be made to determine a
stabilised temperature. The normal approach is to assume bottom hole
temperature and formation temperature are equal.

BASIC INFORMATION NEEDED IN LOG INTERPRETATION

Lithology
In quantitative log analysis, there are several reasons why it is important
to know the lithology of a zone (i.e., sandstone, limestone, or dolomite).
Porosity logs require a lithology or a matrix constant before the porosity
(Ø) of the zone can be calculated. The formation factor (F), a variable
used in the Archie watersaturation equation, also varies with lithology. As
a consequence, the calculated water saturation changes as F changes..
Formation Temperature Formation temperature (Tf) is also important in
log analysis, because the resistivities of the drilling mud (Rm), the mud
filtrate (Rmf), and the formation water (Rw) vary with temperature. The
temperature of a formation is determined by knowing:

formation depth •

)bottom hole temperature (BHT •

)total depth of the well (TD •

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surface temperature •

A reasonable value for the formation temperature can be determined by

using these data and by assuming a linear geothermal gradient (Figure
1.10). The formation temperature is also calculated (Asquith, 1980) by
using the linear regression equation:

y = mx + c

where:
x = depth
y = temperature
m = slope (In this example it is the geothermal gradient.)
c = a constant (In this example it is the mean annual surface temperature.)
An example of how to calculate formation temperature is illustrated here:

Temperature Gradient Calculation

Assume that:
y = bottom hole temperature (BHT) = 250°F
x = total depth (TD) = 15,000 ft
c = mean annual surface temperature = 70°F
Solve for m (i.e., slope or temperature gradient):

Formation Temperature Calculation

Assume:
m = temperature gradient = 0.012°/ft
x = formation depth = 8,000 ft
c = surface temperature = 70°
Remember:

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y = mx + c
Therefore:
y = (0.012 _ 8,000) + 70
y = 166° formation temperature at 8,000 ft
After a formation’s temperature is determined either by chart or by
calculation, the resistivities of the different fluids (Rm, Rmf, or Rw) can
be corrected to formation temperature. a chart that is used for correcting
fluid resistivities to the formation temperature. This chart is closely
approximated by the Arp’s formula:

where:
RTF = resistivity at formation temperature
Rtemp = resistivity at a temperature other than formation Temperature
Temp = temperature at which resistivity was measured
(usually Fahrenheit for depth in feet, Celsius for depth in meters)
Tf = formation temperature (usually Fahrenheit for depth in feet, Celsius
for depth in meters)

Using a formation temperature of 166°F and assuming

an Rw of 0.04 measured at 70°F, the Rw at 166°F is:
Rw166 = 0.04 _ (70 + 6.77) / (166 + 6.77)
Rw166 = 0.018 ohm-m

Resistivity values of the drilling mud (Rm), mud filtrate (Rmf), mud cake
(Rmc), and the temperatures at which they are measured are recorded on a
log’s header. The resistivity of a formation’s water (Rw) is obtained by
analysis of water samples from a drill stem test, a water-producing well,
or from a catalog of water resistivity values. Formation water resistivity
(Rw) is also determined from the spontaneouspotential
Log, or it can be calculated in water zones (i.e., where Sw =1) by the
apparent water resistivity (Rwa) method .

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COMMON EQUATIONS

Table is a list of common equations that are used for the log evaluation of
potential hydrocarbon reservoirs. These formulas are discussed in detail
in subsequent chapters.

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LOG MEASUREMENTS AND TOOLS
THE SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL LOG

Introduction

The spontaneous potential log (SP) measures the natural or spontaneous

potential difference, sometimes called self-potential, that exists between
the borehole and the surface in the absence of any artificially applied
current. It is a very simple log that requires only an electrode in the
borehole and a reference electrode at the surface. These spontaneous
potentials arise from the different access that different formations provide
for charge carriers in the borehole and formation fluids, which lead to a
spontaneous current flow, and hence to a spontaneous potential
difference. The spontaneous potential log is given the generic acronym
SP.

The SP log has four main uses:

· The detection of permeable beds.

· The determination of Rw.
· The indication of the shaliness of a formation.
· Correlation.

The log has a low vertical resolution, is rarely useful in offshore

environments, and is always recorded in the leftmost track of the log
suite, together with the GR log.

It is very important to recognize that this log has no absolute scale – only
relative changes in the SP log are important. This is reflected in the
design of the log header, which shows only a bar that represents a change
of, say, 10 mV.

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Principles

There are three requirements for the existence of an SP current:

·A conductive borehole fluid (i.e., a water based mud.)

·A sandwich of a porous and permeable bed between low porosity and

impermeable formations.

·A difference in salinity between the borehole fluid and the formation

fluid, which are the mud filtrate and the formation fluid in most cases.
Note, however, that in some special cases an SP current can be set-up
when there is no difference in salinity, but where a difference in fluid
pressures occurs.

The origin of the spontaneous potential has four different components.

These are shown in Fig. 22. The spontaneous potential is composed of
contributions that are electrochemical (arise from electrical interactions
between the various chemical constituents of the rocks and fluids), and
electrokinetic arise from the movement of electrically charged ions in the
fluid relative to the fixed rock).

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Figure 22- Electromotive components of the spontaneous potential.

Electrochemical Components

These components arise from the electrochemical interaction of ions in

the mud filtrate and formation fluids.

The electrochemical contribution, itself, consists of two effects:

1. The diffusion potential (sometimes called the liquid-junction

potential). This potential exists at the junction between the invaded and
the non-invaded zone, and is the direct result of the difference in salinity
between the mud filtrate and the formation fluid. Assume that the
formation fluid is more saline than the mud filtrate for a moment, and that
the only dissolved ions in the system are Na+ and Cl-, as NaCl. The
chloride ions have a higher mobility than the sodium ions. When the two
fluids come into contact across the interface between the invaded and
non-invaded zones, diffusion will occur. Ions from the high salinity mud
filtrate will diffuse into the invaded zone to try to balance the salinities

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out. The chloride ions are more mobile and so more of them diffuse into
the invaded zone than sodiums. The net result is a flow of negative charge
into the invaded zone, which sets up a charge imbalance (potential
difference) called the diffusion potential. The diffusion potential causes a
current to flow (from negative to positive) from the invaded zone into the
non-invaded zone. This scenario is illustrated in Fig. 23 for an analogue
system, and is applied to the borehole environment in Fig. 24. Of course,
if the mud filtrate has a higher salinity than the formation fluid, the same
argument applies but in reverse, and leads to a reverse diffusion potential
and current flow. The same arguments also apply for more complex fluid
compositions because some ions always have a greater mobility than
others. For NaCl solutions at 25C, the diffusion potential, Ed, is given by;
Ed = -11.81´log(R1/R2), where R1 is the resistivity of the diluter
solution, and R2 is the resistivity of the more saline solution.

Figure 23- Laboratory demonstration of the diffusion potential.

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Figure 24 The diffusion potential in a borehole.

The membrane potential (sometimes called the shale potential). This

potential exists at the junction between the non-invaded zone and the
shale (or other impermeable rock) sandwiching the permeable bed. These
beds are usually shale, and the argument that follows applies mainly to
shales, but is also valid to a less extent for other low permeability rocks.

Shales have the property that they can preferentially retard the passage of
anions. This is called anionic permselectivity or electronegative
permselectivity and is a property of membranes. It is due to an electrical
double layer that exists at the rock-fluid interface, and that has the ability
to exclude anions from the smaller pores in the rock (sometimes called
anion exclusion). The strength of this effect depends upon the shale
mineralogy, the fluid concentration and the fluid pH. Most other rocks
exhibit the same behaviour but to a lower degree for geologically feasible
fluid concentrations and pHs, but cationic permselectivity is possible, if
rare. Most subsurface shales are such efficient anionic permselecting
membranes that they repel almost all anions (say, chloride ions). This
results in the shale being more positive than the non-invaded zone, and
hence there is an electrical membrane potential, which causes current to
flow from the invaded zone into the shale (and hence borehole). This
scenario is illustrated in Fig. 25 for an analogue system, and is applied to
the borehole environment in Fig. 26 For NaCl solutions at 25oC, the

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membrane potential, Em, is given by; Ed = 59.15´log(R1/R2,) where R1
is the resistivity of the diluter solution, and R2 is the resistivity of the
more saline solution.

Figure 25- Laboratory demonstration of the membrane potential.

Figure 26- The membrane potential in a borehole.

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The total electrochemical component of the SP at 25oC for NaCl
solutions is therefore;

for our situation where the mud filtrate is lower salinity than the
formation fluid. Equation above can be generalized by the formula;

where; K is a coefficient that depends upon temperature, Aw is the

activity of the formation water, and Amf is the activity of the mud filtrate.
This relationship breaks down for very saline solutions (Rmf < 0.08
Wm), when corrected formation and mud filtrate resistivities must be
obtained from charts. In this circumstance Eq above is rewritten as

where Rmf and Rmfe are corrected resistivities obtainable from charts.

18.2.2 Electrokinetic Components

These components arise from the movement of fluids containing

conducting ions. The electrokinetic contribution, itself, consists of two
effects, which are usually very small and act in opposite ways such that
they cancel each other out. Electrokinetic Potential (can be neglected)

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Fig.27

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Electrochemical Potential

Fig.28

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Measurement Tools

The tool is extremely simple, consisting of a single electrode that is

connected to a good surface earthing point via a galvanometer for the
measurement of DC potential (Fig. 29). A small 1.5 V battery is also
included commonly to ensure that the overall signal is measured on the
correct scale.

The simplicity of the log means that it is extremely cheap, and therefore
give tremendous value for money. Only relative changes in potential are
measured because the absolute value of the SP is meaningless. Changes
of the order of 50 mV are typical. For the log to be good, a good earth is
necessary, which is often a metal spike driven 1 m into the ground.

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Figure 29- The SP tool arrangement.

Log Presentation

SP is shown in millivolts in Track 1, with negative deflections to the left

and positive ones to the right Figure 30- shows the general presentation of
the SP log, shows a schematic diagram of typical SP log responses. In
reading the SP log it is best to first define a shale base line. This is the
typical SP level for shales and can be found by comparing the SP log with
the GR log response. Permeable formations will then have excursions of
variable intensity to the left or right of this line, depending upon the
relative salinities of the formation water and the mud filtrate. It is useful
to know the salinity or resistivity of the mud filtrate from the log header,

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if available, as this will indicate whether the formation water is likely to
fall at a higher or lower salinity. For example, if the mud filtrate is known
to be very fresh, the likelihood is that that the formation water will be
saltier, and the SP will likely kick left.

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Figure 30-Typical responses of the SP log.

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The Amplitude of the SP Deflection

Several factors govern the amplitude of the SP deflection opposite a

permeable bed. This is because the size of the deflection and the change
in the SP curve between beds depends upon the distribution of the current
flux and the potential drops taking place in each part of the formation.
The following parameters are important:

· The thickness of the permeable bed, h.

· The true resistivity of the permeable bed, Rt.

· The diameter of the invaded zone, di.

· The resistivity of the invaded zone, RXO.

· The resistivity of the bounding formations.

· The resistivity of the mud, Rm.

· The diameter of the borehole, dh.

· The relative salinities of the mud filtrate and the formation fluids.

The recorded SP log represents the potential drop in the borehole, only.
To use the SP curve quantitatively, a value for the total potential drop
around the circuit must be derived. This is called the static spontaneous
potential (SSP). This value may be derived from correction charts.
However, a direct reading of the SSP may be obtained directly from the
SP log opposite thick, clean, shale-free, 100% water-bearing formations.
The SSP is the value in millivolts of the difference between the SP log at
the shale base line and that in the centre of the thick clean formation, as
shown in Fig. 31

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Figure 31- Definition of SSP.

The SP deflection obtained for homogeneous shaly formations or thin

shaly beds after correction for bed thickness is called the pseudo-static
spontaneous potential (PSP). The SSP is the value in millivolts of the
difference between the SP log at the shale base line and that in the centre
of the thick homogeneous shaly formation, or a thinner bed if a bed
thickness correction has been carried out.

If there is a proportion of shale in the permeable bed, the SP deflection is

reduced from what it would be if the bed were clean and contained the
same fluids. Hydrocarbon saturation also decreases SP deflections.

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Uses of the Spontaneous Potential Log

The main uses of this log are:

· The detection of permeable beds.

· The determination of Rw.

· The indication of the shaliness of a formation.

· Correlation.

Calculation of Rw

This is one of two quantitative use of the SP log. However, it is extremely

useful when no formation water samples or water-bearing sands are
available to otherwise obtain Rw from during an analysis for OOIP.

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SHALE VOLUME CALCULATION

The volume of shale in a sand can be used in the

evaluation of shaly sand reservoirs (Chapter 6) and as

a mapping parameter for both sandstone and carbonate

facies analysis (Chapter 7). The SP log can be used to

calculate the volume of shale in a permeable zone by

the following formula:

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Resistivity Logs
GENERAL
Resistivity logs are used to:
• determine hydrocarbon-bearing versus water bearing zones
• indicate permeable zones
• determine porosity
By far the most important use of resistivity logs is the determination of
hydrocarbon-bearing versus water-bearing zones. Because the rock’s
matrix or grains are nonconductive and any hydrocarbons in the pores are
also nonconductive, the ability of the rock to transmit a current is almost
entirely a function of water in the pores. As the hydrocarbon saturation of
the pores increases (as the water saturation decreases), the formation’s
resistivity increases. As the salinity of the water in the pores decreases (as
Rw increases), the rock’s resistivity also increases. A geologist, by
knowing (or determining) several parameters (a, m, n, and Rw), and by
determining from logs the porosity (φ) and formation bulk, or true,
resistivity (Rt), can determine the formation’s water saturation (Sw) from
the Archie equation:

Resistivity logs produce a current in the adjacent formation and measure

the response of the formation to that current. The current can be produced
and measured by either of two methods. Electrode tools (also called
galvanic devices or, for presently available versions, laterologs) have

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electrodes on the surface of the tool to emit current and measure the
resistivity of the formation. Induction tools use coils to induce a current
and measure the formation’s conductivity. These two types of tools have
many variations, which are summarized in Table 5.1.

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CONVENTIONAL ELECTRIC (ES) LOGS
INTRODUCTION
In 1927, two French brothers introduced a new logging method called
“electric coring”. Accurate interpretation from these logs is often
difficult, but relatively good estimates of resistivity can be made. Newer
logs are easier to read and can detect thin beds more easily. The induction
log, introduced in the 50’s, utilized one or more of these conventional
electric logs as a shallow investigation device. For these reasons, a short
discussion on conventional electric logs is warranted.

RESISTIVITY LOGGING DEVICES

The basic principle of a conventional electric log is that a current is

passed through a formation via some electrodes and the voltage between
other electrodes is measured. From this reading, resistivity is determined.
The conventional electric log can only be run in a conductive mud (i.e.
not oil or air-filled holes).

Normal Device
A surface electrode (B) passes a constant current to an electrode (A),
downhole on the tool (Figure). The potential difference is measured
between another electrode (M) on the tool and one at the surface (N). The
spacing of a short normal is usually 16 inches and the long normal is 64
inches. The normal log works best in soft sediments and can sense about
twice its spacing into the formation. The short normal typically senses
only the flushed zone.

Lateral Device
A constant current is passed from a surface electrode (B) to one on the
cable (A) (Figure). On the tool are two potential electrodes (M and N).
Here the spacing is defined as the distance between the electrode on the
cable (A) and the midpoint between the two potential electrodes (0). This
distance is usually 18’ 8”. The best interpretation using this tool is in
thick, homogeneous sediments. It runs approximately a three foot average
on the resistivity and has a depth of investigation around 19’.

FACTORS AFFECTING MEASUREMENT

Many factors affect the reading of a conventional electric log. The
equation and relationships are most correct in homogeneous, uniform
material. Since the material surrounding the electrode system is not
uniform, the logs read only an apparent resistivity. Other factors which
affect the log readings are:

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 Hole diameter - d
 Mud resistivity - Rm
 Bed thickness
 Resistivity of surrounding bed - Rs
 Resistivity of invaded zone - Ri
 True resistivity of zone - Rt
 Diameter of invaded zone - di

Conventional Electric Log Presentation

The log is presented starting with the third track. The scale is linear and
often goes from 0- 01and then 0-100. The units for resistivity are W -
m2/m or ohm-meter (W - m). Typically speaking, the deep dashed line, if
present, is the deepest reading curve. Sometimes there is an expanded
scale for the short normal. This is used to help pick bed boundaries.

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Normal Device Responses

Since the short normal was often used in conjunction with the induction
log, a short discussion on its responses is needed. The short normal is
used for correlation, defining bed boundaries, and recording resistivity at
a shallow depth of investigation, near a borehole.
In a resistive bed thicker than the spacing, the curve is symmetrical with
the maximum resistivity at the centre of the bed (upper-left Figure,
below). The actual bed thickness is equal to the apparent thickness plus
the spacing distance. If the resistive beds are thinner, then the
symmetrical curve reverses forming peaks at each end of the bed (lower-
left Figure, below). The bed’s thickness is the distance between the peaks
minus the spacing length.

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Normal Log Responses in Both Resistive (Left) and Conductive
(Right) Beds
In a conductive (thick or thin) zone, the curves are symmetrical with no
reversals. The bed thickness is equal to the apparent bed thickness minus
the spacing.

Lateral Device Responses

Reading the lateral curve takes experience. Since the log has become
completely obsolete, a discussion on the lateral log responses will not be
Presented. By viewing the Figure opposite, one can see how the curve is
not symmetrical about the bed centre and no sharp changes at bed
boundaries. The curve is distorted by adjacent beds and thin beds. To read
the apparent resistivity (Ra) the reading should be taken near the bottom
of the curve. The truest reading of resistivity is achieved if the formation
is at least forty feet thick.

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SUMMARY OF CONVENTIONAL ELECTRIC LOGS

1) Basically, the principle of the conventional electric log is: A

current is generated between two electrodes and the potential
difference between two others is measured. This potential
difference can be related to the resistivity of the surrounding
material. The change in the potential difference, (resistivity), is
plotted versus depth. A well is logged starting from the deepest
point first.
2) There must be conductive fluid in the borehole for the tool to
function properly. So this tool does not work in oil or air-filled
holes.
3) The spacings for the two normal devices typically are 16” and 64”.
The lateral device typically has an 18’ 8” spacing.
4) The normal device can see about twice its spacing into the
formation. The lateral device has a depth of investigation close to
19’.
5) The normal curves are symmetrical about the bed centre, but the
lateral curves are asymmetrical.
6) Reading from normal log, a thick, resistive bed’s thickness is the
apparent thickness plus the spacing. In a thin, resistive bed, the
curve is reversed and two horns or peaks appear. Subtract the
spacing length from the distance between the two peaks and the
result will be the true bed thickness. In a conductive zone with thin
or thick beds, subtracting the spacing length from the apparent bed
thickness summary of conventional Electric Logs will yield the
true bed thickness.
7) The maximum resistivity is located at the bed centre of a normal
curve and near the bottom of a lateral curve.
8) The normal curve is used in correlations from well to well, locating
bed boundaries, and for measuring the resistivity near the borehole.

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NON-FOCUSED CONTACT LOGS

These logs fall under different names depending upon the logging
company, i.e., microlog (Schlumberger), minilog (Atlas) and contact log
(Haliburton, HLS). Their purpose is to read the resistivity in the flushed
zone (Rxo), obtain a detailed bed definition and show where zones of
permeability exist from mud-cake build-up. If Rxo could be determined,
Rmf was known, and the Archie or Humble relationship assumed,
porosity could be calculated.

This can only work, however, if Rxo represents a zone saturated with
100% mud filtrate. In a hydrocarbon bearing zone, residual saturations
result in an error in computed porosity.
Under these circumstances a full inversion of the Archie equation with
Sor or Sgr accounted for can be used.

MICROLOG (MINILOG, ETC.)

Three electrodes are spaced one inch apart in a rubber pad which is
pressed against the borehole wall. A one inch spaced micro-inverse (1 1/2
inch on the minilog) and a two-inch spaced micro-normal are recorded.
The depth of investigation is shallow (4 inches) and is greatly affected by
the mudcake resistivity and flushed zone resistivity.
Other factors which affect the resistivity are: not enough or excessive
mudcake thickness, too shallow invasion, presence of residual oil in the
flushed zone, or a rugose borehole which does not allow the pad to
conform to the wall of the borehole. The non-focused contact logs work
best if porosity is greater than 15%, mudcake thickness is 1/2 inch or less,
and fresh mud is in the borehole. The The log is presented on a linear
scale. The one-inch spaced log (micro-inverse) is represented by a solid
line and the two-inch spaced log (micro-normal) is recorded as a dotted
line. The two-inch spaced log reads deeper than the one-inch so it is less
influenced by the mudcake. When the two readings separate, it indicates a
mudcake has built-up and therefore a permeable formation is present.

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Focused Electrode Logs

The responses of conventional electrical logging systems can be greatly

affected by the borehole and adjacent formations. These influences are
minimised by a family of resistivity tools that uses focusing currents to
control the path taken by the measure current. These currents are emitted
from special electrodes on the sondes. The focusing electrode tools
include the laterolog and SFL* spherically focused devices. These tools
are much superior to the ES devices for large Rt/Rm values (salt muds
and/or highly resistive formations) and for large resistivity contrasts with
adjacent beds (Rt/Rs or Rs/Rt). They are also better for resolution of thin
to moderately thick beds. Focusing electrode systems are available with
deep, medium, and shallow depths of investigation. Devices using this
principle are used to determine Rt and Rxo.
The deep-reading devices include:
The laterolog 7
The laterolog 3 and
The deep laterolog of the DLL* dual laterolog tool
The medium-to shallow-reading devices, all integral with combination
tools, are:
The Laterolog 8 of the DIL* dual induction-laterolog tool
The shallow laterolog of the DLL tool and The SFL of the ISF and DIL-
SFL combinations Laterologs 3, 7, and 8.
.
Laterolog 7

The LL7 device comprises a centre electrode, A0, and three pairs of
electrodes: M1 and M2; M’1 and M’2; and A1 and A2 (Figure 22). The
electrodes of each pair are symmetrically located with respect to A0 and
are electrically connected to each other by short-circuiting wire. A
constant current, io, is emitted from A0. Through bucking electrodes, A1
and A2 , an adjustable current is emitted; the bucking current intensity is
adjusted automatically so that the two pairs of monitoring electrodes, M1
and M2 and M’1 and M’2, are brought to the same potential.

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Figure 22 shows the distribution of current lines when the sonde is in a

homogeneous medium; the “sheet” of io current retains a fairly constant
thickness up to a distance from the borehole somewhat greater than the
total length A1A2 of the sonde. Experiments have shown that the sheet of
io current retains substantially the same shape opposite thin resistive
beds. The thickness of the io current sheet is approximately 32 in.
(distance O1O2 on Figure 22), and the length A1A2 of the sonde is 80 in.

Laterolog 3
The LL3 also uses currents from bucking electrodes to focus the
measuring current into a horizontal sheet penetrating into the formation
(Figure 22). Symmetrically placed on either side of the central A0
electrode are two very long (about 5-ft)
electrodes, A1 and A2, which are shorted to each other. A current, io,
flows from the A0 electrode, whose potential is fixed. From A1 and A2
flows a bucking current, which is automatically adjusted to maintain A1
and A2 at the potential of Ao. As a result, the LL3 tool had a better
vertical resolution and shows more detail than did the LL7 tool.
Furthermore, the influences of the borehole and of the invaded zone were
slightly less.

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Laterolog 8

The shallow-investigation LL8 measurement is recorded with small

electrodes on the dual induction-laterolog sonde. The device is similar in
principle to the LL7 tool except for its shorter spacings. The thickness of
the i0 current sheet is 14 in., and the distance between the two bucking
electrodes is somewhat less than 40 in. The currentreturn electrode is
located a relatively short distance from A0. With this configuration, the
LL8 device gives sharp vertical detail, and the readings are more
influenced by the borehole and the invaded zone than those of the LL7
and LL3 tools.

Dual Laterolog

The objective of any deep-reading resistivity device is to measure the true

formation resistivity, Rt. Deep-reading resistivity tools were designed so
that, as much as possible, their response is determined by the resistivity of
the virgin formation beyond the invaded zone. Unfortunately, no single
measurement has yet succeeded in entirely eliminating the effects of the
invaded zone. A solution is to measure the resistivity with several arrays
having different depths of investigation. Measurements responding to
three appropriately chosen depths of investigation usually approximate
the invasion profile well enough to determine Rt.
For best interpretation accuracy such a combination system should have
certain desirable features:
• Borehole effects should be small and/or correctable
• Vertical resolutions of the devices should be similar
• Radial investigations should be well distributed; i.e., one reading as
deep as practical, one reading very shallow, and the third reading in
between This need resulted in the development of the DLL dual
laterolog-MicroSFL tool with simultaneous recording. Figure 23 is a
sketch of the tool showing the electrode array used for the two laterolog
devices. Both use the same electrodes and have the range than covered by
previous laterolog devices.Both use the same electrodes and have the
same current-beam thickness, but have different focusing to provide their
different depth of investigation characteristics. Figure 24 illustrates the
focusing used by the deep laterolog device (left) and by the shallow
laterolog device.

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The DLL tool has a response range of 0.2 to 40,000 ohm-m, which is a
much wider than that covered by previous laterolog devices.
To achieve accuracy at both high and low resistivities, a “constant-
power” measuring system is employed. In this system, both measure
current (I0) and measure voltage (Vo) are varied and measured, but the
product of the two (i.e., power), i0Vo , is held constant.
The deep laterolog measurement (LLD) of the DLL tool has a deeper
depth of investigation than previous laterolog tools and extends the range
of formation conditions in which reliable determinations of Rt are
possible.

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The shallow laterolog measurement (LLS) has the same vertical
resolution as the deep laterolog device (2 ft), but it responds more
strongly to that region around the borehole normally affected by invasion.
It uses a type of focusing called “pseudolaterolog,” wherein the focusing
current is returned to nearby electrodes instead of to a remote electrode.

Spherically Focused Log

The Spherically Focused Log SFL device measures the conductivity of

the formation near the borehole and provides the relatively shallow
investigation required to evaluate the effects of invasion on deeper
resistivity measurements. It is the short-spacing device now used on the
DIL-SFL tool—developed to replace the 16-in. normal and LL8 devices.
The SFL system differs from previous focused electrode devices.
Whereas the LL7 and LL8 systems attempt to focus the current into
planar discs, the SFL system establishes essentially constant potential
shells around the current electrode.

INDUCTION LOGS

Unlike the original (unfocused) electrode logs and laterologs, induction

logs measure formation conductivity rather than resistivity. Formation
conductivity is related to formation resistivity through the following
equation:

where:
C = conductivity in millimho/m (= milliSiemens)
R = resistivity in ohm-m

The induction logging tool was originally developed to measure

formation resistivity in boreholes containing oil-base muds and in air-
drilled boreholes. Electrode devices did not work in these no-non-
conductive muds, and attempts to use wall-scratcher
electrodes were unsatisfactory. Experience soon demonstrated that the
induction log had many advantages over the conventional ES log when
used for logging wells drilled with water-base muds. Designed for deep
investigation, induction logs can be focused in order to minimize the
influences of the borehole, the surrounding formations, and the invaded
zone.

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Todays induction tools have many transmitter and receiver coils.
However, the principle can be understood by considering a sonde with
only one transmitter coil and one receiver coil (Figure 25).

A high frequency alternating current of constant intensity is sent through

a transmitter coil. The alternating magnetic field created induces currents
in the formation surrounding the borehole. These currents flow in circular
ground loops coaxial with the transmitter coil and create, in turn, a
magnetic field that induces a voltage in the receiver coil.
Because of the alternating current in the transmitter coil is of constant
frequency and amplitude, the ground loop currents are directly
proportional to the formation conductivity. The voltage induced in the
receiver coil is proportional to the ground loop currents and, therefore, to
the conductivity of the formation. There is also a direct coupling between
the transmitter and receiver coils. The signal originating from the
coupling is eliminated by using “bucking” coils. The induction tool works
best when the borehole is filled with an insulator – even air or gas. The
tool also works well when the borehole contains conductive mud

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unless the mud is too salty, the formations are too resistive, or the
borehole diameter is too large.

several types of equipment have been developed and used.

1. The 6FF40 induction-electrical survey (IES) tool included a six-coil
focused induction device of 40-in. nominal spacing (hence, the
nomenclature, 6FF40), a 16- in. normal, and an SP electrode. The tool
was first introduced in the late 1950’s and was the standard induction tool
throughout the 1960’s. It has since been replaced by improved tools.
2. The DIL-LL8 system used a deep-reading induction device (the ID,
which was similar to the 6FF40), a medium induction device (the IM), an
LL8 device (which replaces the 16-in. normal), and an SP electrode.
The IM device has a vertical resolution similar to that of the 6FF40 (and
ID) but only about half the depth of investigation. The LL8 was a
focused, shallow-investigation device with better thin-bed resolution and
less borehole in influence than the 16-in. normal. It was also void of some
disturbing characteristics of normal devices such
as reversals in thin resistive beds.
3. The induction-SFL (ISF) tool incorporated a deep induction device
similar to the 6FF40, the SFL device, and an SP electrode. The tool was
combinable with the borehole compensated sonic tool and with a gamma
ray (GR) device. The combination offered, in certain geological horizons,
the ability to evaluate the hydrocarbon potential of the well in a single
logging run. The sonic log provided porosity evaluation and the ISF log
provided saturation evaluation.
4. The DIL-SFL tool is similar to the DIL-LL8 tool except that the SFL
has replaced the LL8 as the shallow-investigation device. The SFL
measurement is less influenced by the borehole than is the LL8
measurement.
6. The 6FF28 IES tool (25/8 -in. diameter) is a scaled-down version of
the 6FF40 device, having a 28-in. primary coil spacing, and includes a
standard 16-in. normal device and an SP electrode. It is used for logging
in small holes and for throughdrillpipe operations.

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Microresistivity Devices

Microresistivity devices are used to measure the resistivity of the flushed

zone Rxo, and to delineate permeable beds by detecting the presence of
mudcake. Measurements of Rxo are important for several reasons. When
invasion is moderate to deep, a knowledge of Rxo allows the deep
resistivity measurement to be corrected to true formation resistivity. Also,
some methods for computing saturation require the Rxo/Rt ratio. In clean
formations, a value of F can be computed from Rxo and Rmf if Sxo is
known or can be estimated.
To measure Rxo, the tool must have a very shallow depth of investigation
because the flushed zone may extend only a few inches beyond the
borehole wall. Since the reading should not be affected by the borehole, a
sidewall-pad tool is used. The pad, carrying short-spaced electrode
devices, is pressed against the formation and reduces the short-circuiting
effect of the mud. Currents from the electrodes on the pad must pass
through the mudcake to reach the flushed zone.
Microresistivity readings are affected by mudcake; the effect depends on
mudcake resistivity, Rmc, and thickness, hmc. Moreover, mudcakes can
be anisotropic, with mudcake resistivity parallel to the borehole wall less
than that across the mudcake. Mudcake anisotropy increases the mudcake
effect on microresistivity readings so that the effective, or electrical,
mudcake thickness is greater than that indicated by
the caliper.

Microlaterolog

The microlaterolog tool was designed to determine Rxo accurately for

higher values of Rxo/Rmc where the microlog interpretation lacks
resolution. The microlaterolog pad is shown in Figure 26. A small
electrode, A0, and three concentric circular electrodes are embedded in a
rubber pad applied against the hole wall. A constant current, io, is emitted
through A0. Through the outer electrode ring, A1, a varying current is
emitted and automatically adjusted so that the potential difference
between the two monitoring electrode rings, M1 and M2, is maintained
essentially equal to zero.. The microlaterolog resistivity reading is
influenced mainly by the formation within this narrow beam.

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Figure 26 Microlaterolo pad showing electrodes (left) and schematic

current lines (right)

Proximity Log

The proximity tool is similar in principle to the microlaterolog device.

The electrodes are mounted on a wider pad, which is applied to the wall
of the borehole; the system is automatically focused by monitoring
electrodes. Pad and electrode design are such that isotropic mudcakes up
to 3/4 in. have very little effect on the measurements (see Chart Rxo-2,
bottom). The Proximity tool has a significantly deeper depth of
investigation than does the microlog or microlaterolog tools. Thus, if the
invasion is very shallow, the Proximity measurement may be influenced
by Rt. The resistivity measured can be expresses as :

Rp = Jxo Rxo + (1 - Jxo) Rt ,

where Rp is resistivity measured by the Proximity log and Jxo is the
pseudogeometrical factor of the flushed zone. Jxo depends, to some
extent, on the diameter of the borehole and on the ratio Rxo/Rt.
If di is greater than 40 in., Jxo is very close to unity; accordingly, the
Proximity log
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measures Rxo directly. If di is less than 40 in., Rp is between Rxo and Rt,
usually much closer to Rxo than to Rt. Rp can be fairly close to Rt only if
the invasion is nonexistent or extremely shallow; of course, when Rxo
and Rt are similar, the value of Rp depends very little on di.
The resolution of the Proximity log is about 6 in. Corrections for the
effect of adjacent beds are unnecessary for bed thickness greater than 1 ft.

MicroSFL

The MicroSSFL is a pad-mounted spherically focused logging device that

has replaced the microlaterolog and Proximity tools. It has two distinct
advantages over the other Rxo devices. The first is its combinability with
other logging tools, including the DIL and DLL tools. This eliminates the
need for a separate logging run to obtain Rxo information. The second
improvement is in the tool’s response to shallow Rxo zones in the
presence of mudcake. The chief limitation of the microlaterolog
measurement is its sensitivity to mudcakes.
When mudcake thickness exceeds about 3/8 in., the log readings are
severely influenced at high Rxo/Rmc contrasts. The Proximity log, on the
other hand, is relatively insensitive to mudcakes, but it requires an
invaded zone with a di of about 40 in. in order to provide direct
approximations of Rxo.
The solution was found in an adaptation of the principle of spherical
focusing in a sidewall-pad device. By careful selection of electrode
spacings and bucking-current controls, the MicroSFL measurement was
designed for minimum mudcake effect without an undue increase in the
depth of investigation (see Chart Rxo-3). Figure 28 illustrates,
schematically, the electrode arrangement (right) and the current patterns

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(left) of the MicroSFL tool.

The surveying current flows outward from a central electrode, A0.

Bucking currents, passing between the electrodes, A0 and A1, flow in the
mudcake and, to some extent, in the formation. The measuring current, io,
is thereby confined to a path directly into the formation, where it quickly
“bells” out and returns to a remote electrode, B.
To achieve this, the bucking current is adjusted to make the monitor
voltage equal to zero. By forcing the measure current to flow directly into
the formation, the effect of mudcake resistivity on tool response is
minimised; yet, the tool still has a very shallow depth of investigation.
Synthetic microlog curves can be computed from MicroSFL parameters.
Since the measure current sees mostly the flushed zone and the bucking
current sees primarily the mudcake, it is possible to mathematically
derive micronormal and microinverse curves.

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Porosity logs

GENERAL
The next class of well logs to be considered is generally referred to as
porosity logs. Although each produces a porosity value from basic
measurements, none actually measures porosity directly. Two such logs,
the density and neutron, are nuclear measurements. A third log, the sonic,
uses acoustic measurements, and the fourth and newest log senses the
magnetic resonance of formation nuclei. When used individually, each of
the first three has a response to lithology which must be accounted for,
but when used in concert, two or three at a time, lithology can be
estimated and a more accurate porosity derived.

SONIC LOG
The sonic log is a porosity log that measures interval transit time (Δt,
delta t, or DT) of a compressional sound wave traveling through the
formation along the axis of the borehole. The sonic log device consists of
one or more ultrasonic transmitters and two or more receivers. Modern
sonic logs are borehole-compensated (BHC) devices. These devices are
designed to greatly reduce the spurious effects of borehole size variations
(Kobesh and Blizard, 1959) as well as errors due to tilt of the tool with
respect to the borehole axis (Schlumberger, 1972) by averaging signals
from different transmitter-receiver combinations over the same length of
borehole. Interval transit time (Δt) in microseconds per foot, µsec/ft (or
µsec/m) is the reciprocal of the velocity of a
compressional sound wave in feet per second (or meters per second).
Interval transit time (DT) is usually displayed in tracks 2 and 3 of a log
(Figure 4.1). A sonic-derived porosity curve (SPHI) is sometimes
displayed in tracks 2 and 3, along with the DT curve. Track 1 usually
contains a caliper (CALI), and a gamma ray (GR) or an SP. The interval
transit time (Δt) is dependent upon both lithology and porosity. Wyllie
time-average equation (Wyllie et al., 1958):

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Unconsolidated Formations

The Wyllie et al. (1958) formula for calculating sonic porosity can be
used to determine porosity in consolidated sandstones and carbonates
with intergranular porosity (grainstones) or intercrystalline porosity
(sucrosic dolomites). However, when sonic porosities of carbonates with
vuggy or fracture porosity are calculated by the Wyllie formula, porosity
values are too low. This happens because the sonic log only records
matrix porosity rather than vuggy or fracture secondary porosity. The
percentage of vuggy or fracture secondary porosity can be calculated by
subtracting sonic porosity from total porosity. Total porosity values are
obtained from one of the nuclear logs (i.e., density, neutron, or preferably
the combination of density and neutron). The percentage of secondary
porosity, called SPI or secondary porosity index, can be a useful mapping
parameter in carbonate exploration. Where a sonic log is used to
determine porosity in unconsolidated sands, an empirical compaction
factor (Cp) should be added to the Wyllie et al. (1958) equation:

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Hydrocarbon Effects

The interval transit time (Δt) of a formation is increased due to the

presence of hydrocarbons (i.e., hydrocarbon effect). If the effect of
hydrocarbons is not corrected, the sonic-derived porosity is too high.
Hilchie (1978) suggests the following empirical corrections
for hydrocarbon effect:

Shale effect
Using equation in the book to study the effect of shale on the sonic log

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DENSITY LOG
Density is measured in grams per cubic centimeter, g/cm3 (or Kg/m3 or
Mg/m3), and is indicated by the Greek letter Ø (rho). Two separate
density values are used by the density log: the bulk density (ρb or RHOB)
and the matrix density (ρma). The bulk density is the density of the entire
formation (solid and fluid parts) as measured by the logging tool. The
matrix density is the density of the solid framework of the rock. It may be
thought of as the density of a particular rock type (e.g., limestone or
sandstone) that has no porosity. Since the late 1970s, the density log has
also been used for the photoelectric-effect measurement (Pe, PE, or PEF)
to determine lithology of a formation. The density log can assist the
geologist to:
• identify evaporite minerals
• detect gas-bearing zones
• determine hydrocarbon density
• evaluate shaly-sand reservoirs and complex lithologies (Schlumberger,
1972) The density logging tool has a relatively shallow depth of
investigation, and as a result, is held against the side of the borehole
during logging to maximize its response to the formation. The tool is
comprised of a medium-energy gamma ray source (cobalt 60, cesium
137, or in some newer designs, an accelerator-based source). Two gamma
ray detectors provide some measure of compensation for borehole
conditions (similar to the sonic logging tool). When the emitted gamma
rays collide with electrons in the formation, the collisions result in a loss
of energy from the gamma ray particle.
The bulk-density curve (RHOB) is recorded in tracks 2 and 3. The
photoelectric-effect curve (Pe in barns per electron, b/e) is displayed in
either track 2 or track 3, with its placement set to minimize
its overlap with the bulk-density curve. A correction curve (DRHO in
g/cm3 or Kg/m3), is also displayed in either track 2 or track This curve
indicates how much correction has been added to the bulk-density curve
during processing due to borehole effects (primarily mudcake thickness)
and is used primarily as a quality-control indicator. Whenever the
correction curve (DRHO) exceeds 0.20 g/cm3, the value of the bulk
density obtained from the bulkdensity curve (RHOB) should be
considered suspect and possibly invalid. A density-derived porosity curve
(DPHI) is sometimes present in tracks 2 and 3 along with the bulk-density
(RHOB) and correction (DRHO) curves.
Formation bulk density (ρb) is a function of matrix density, porosity, and
density of the fluid in the pores (saltwater mud, freshwater mud, or
hydrocarbons). To determine density porosity, either by chart (Figure 4.4)
or by calculation, the matrix density (Table 4.2) and type of fluid in the
formation must be known. The formula
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for calculating density porosity is:

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NEUTRON LOG
Neutron logs are porosity logs that measure the hydrogen concentration in
a formation. In clean formations (i.e., shale-free) where the porosity is
filled with water or oil, the neutron log measures liquidfilled porosity
(ØN , PHIN, or NPHI). Neutrons are created from a chemical source in
the neutron logging tool. The chemical source is usually a mixture of
americium and beryllium which continuously emit neutrons. When these
neutrons collide with the nuclei of the formation the neutron loses some
of its energy. With enough collisions, the neutron is absorbed by a
nucleus and a gamma ray is emitted. Because the hydrogen atom is
almost equal in mass to the neutron, maximum energy loss occurs when
the neutron collides with a hydrogen atom. Therefore, the energy loss is
dominated by the formation’s hydrogen concentration. Because hydrogen
in a porous formation is concentrated in the fluid-filled pores, energy
loss can be related to the formation’s porosity. The neutron curves are
commonly displayed over tracks 2 and 3, in units referenced to a specific
lithology (usually either limestone or sandstone, depending on the
geologic environment expected to be encountered).

Neutron log responses vary, depending on:

• differences in detector types and what they detect (gamma rays and/or
neutrons of different energies)
• spacing between source and detector
• lithology (i.e., sandstone, limestone, and dolomite)
The first modern neutron log (where porosity was directly displayed) was
the sidewall neutron log. Like the density log (and for the same reason of
limited depth of investigation), the sidewall neutron log has both the
source and detector in a pad that is pushed against the side of the
borehole. Although the sidewall neutron log was relatively insensitive to
lithologic effects, it was sensitive to borehole effects, such as rugosity
(roughness) which caused measurement difficulties. The most commonly
used neutron log is the compensated neutron log CNL but other neutron
logs used to estimate porosity in rock such a GNT (Gamma ray
thermolized neutron log tool) and SNP side wall Neutron porosity log

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POROSITY MEASUREMENT COMBINATIONS

Although the advent of porosity logs provided a substantial improvement

in log interpretation, the significant change, from a geological viewpoint,
was the development of interpretive techniques that combined the
measurements from different porosity tools. With combinations of two or
three measurements, lithology could be interpreted (rather than having to
be known) and a better estimate of porosity produced. The interpretation
of lithology and porosity is accomplished through crossplots. These are x-
y plots of the quantities of interest, usually overlain with lines for “pure”
lithologies (normally sandstone, limestone, and dolomite) with porosity
indicated on each lithology line

Neutron-density Combination:
Quick-look Lithology and Porosity
The combination of the neutron and density measurements is probably the
most widely used porosity log combination. The neutron-density log
display consists of neutron-porosity (NPHI) and density-porosity (DPHI)
curves recorded in tracks 2 and 3 and a caliper (CALI) and gamma ray
(GR) in track 1. Both the neutron and density curves are normally
recorded in limestone porosity units, however, porosity referenced to
sandstone and dolomite can also be recorded. The extensive use of the
neutron-density combination may be due in part to the fact that they were
among the first logging tools that could be physically combined and their
data acquired in a single logging run. The response of the combination is
such that for reconnaissance evaluation one can forego the crossplot and
rely on recognition of the curve patterns (the position of the curves with
respect to each other) to quickly determine the most likely predominant
lithology and formation porosity.
The reconnaissance technique
works best with the following constraints:
• Both the neutron and density curves are in
porosity (decimal or percent) referenced to limestone
units.
• The formations are clean (no clays in the formations).
• There is no gas in the formations, only water or
oil.
Using only the neutron-porosity and density-porosity curves, single
lithologies can be predicted with little ambiguity. Adding the gamma ray
may help, as in identifying dolomite from shale. In mixed lithologies,
such as the sandy limestone and sandy dolomite shown, even the addition
of the gamma ray does not help. If the density log is of the newer litho or
spectral
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type and a photoelectric curve (Pe) is available, the ambiguity can be
further lessened, especially in the case of mixed lithologies. The value of
the Pe curve in mixed lithologies falls between the single lithology
value of each member, so some distinction can be made. Table 4.3
summarizes the patterns and values for common lithologies. The
estimation of porosity is equally straightforward: the formation porosity
can be estimated to within about 2 porosity units (0.02) by taking the
average of the neutron porosity and density porosity. In areas of the world
where sand and shale intervals predominate, the neutron and density are
referenced to sandstone rather than limestone to eliminate the need
for matrix conversion. (This also helps highlight the gas crossover effect
described below.)

Neutron-density Combination: Gas Detection

Another technique using the neutron and density logs and the
identification of curve patterns is that of gas identification. Gas in the
pores causes the density porosity to be too high (gas has a lower density
than oil or water) and causes the neutron porosity to be too low (there is a
lower concentration of hydrogen atoms in gas than in oil or water). Figure
4.10 shows an example of a gas zone. In that zone, the neutron porosity
is less than the density porosity, and the two porosity curves cross over
each other. This is called crossover. The magnitude of the crossover (the
amount of separation between the curves) is qualitatively related to the
gas saturation, however, the crossover is more strongly influenced (again
qualitatively) by the formation pressure. Low-pressure zones, either at
shallow
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depths or depleted from production, tend to show large crossover.

Neutron-density crossover can also be caused by lithologic effects, as

when the curves are displayed referenced to a lithology that is different
from the actual lithology of the formation.
The porosity of a gas-bearing formation can be

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Cross plot techniques
1- Determination of lithology

a- The Matrix Identification (MID) Plot

Identifications of lithology can be made by use of the MID (matrix

identification) plot. Determination of lithology is readily accomplished by
comparison of the apparent lithology values with the apparent density of
matrix ( ρmaa ), and apparent transit time in rock matrix (Δtmaa ).
logs are sensitive to lithology. The apparent total porosity (φta) must be
determined using the derived neutron-density. The values of the apparent
density of matrix (ρmaa) and the apparent transit time (Δtmaa) are
determined from the following equations

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b- Litho-porosity (or M vs. N) Crossplot

The demonstration procedure of this type of crossplots for mineral
identification was presented by Schlumberger. 62 It is a two-dimensional
display of all three porosity log responses in complex reservoir rocks. 35
An (M-N) crossplot can be used for lithology determination, gas
detection, clay minerals classification, etc. Each mineral has unique set of
(M, N) values, and the concept is applicable to binary and ternary
minerals models. Basically, however,

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2- Determination of Archie parameters using

Pickett's method
Archie coefficients or parameters, which are sensitive to pore type,
should be determined in order to apply Archie’s equation. Uncertainty
regarding the values of these coefficients causes many errors in saturation
evaluation especially in the determination of the volume of oil in place.
The cementation exponent (m) is the main factor, which causes error in
determining saturation Classic petrophysics holds that Archie's
parameters (a, m, and n) are constants for a given sample of a reservoir
rock. In effect, this presumed constancy formulates the basis for the
determination of hydrocarbon saturation from resistivity measurements
for a particular lithology. An increasing number of cases are being
encountered where the saturation exponent (n) has been observed to vary
from the common value of 2. Pickett's (1966) 66 suggested a method that
depends on a crossplot between Resistivity vs. porosity to calculate (m)
and/or (a) from well logs.
The following logic describes this method. According to Pickett (1966):

The logarithm of both sides of Eq. (4.20) yields:

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Equation (4.22) is an equation of a straight line on log-log plot, where

m is the slope and (a.Rw) is the intercept at φ=1. As Rw is known from
other sources, (a) may be easily found.
There are, however, some limitations regarding the application of
Archie’s formula that may be summarized as follow:
1- The method requires the presence of water zone.
2- The values of (m) and (a) are averaged for the selected formation.
Pickett's method is also very functional in calculating the saturation
exponent (n); the theoretical base can be derived as follows. According to
Pickett (1966)

Morris and Bigges (1968) 67 observed that the multiplicand of the water
saturation and the porosity for the levels that fall on the hyperbola in Sw
vs. φ
would have a constant value, i.e.: 67
(φ.SW) = Constant
Coates and Dumanoir (1974) 33 concluded from studies of core analysis
that the assumption of (n = m) in irreducible water levels is fair. If use is
made of this assumption, then with (m = n), Eq. (4.24) may be reduced
to:

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Equation (4.29) is an equation of a straight line on a log-log graph with

Rt on the y-axis and φ on the x-axis. The intercept is (SWi
n
.Rtirr) with a slope
of (n-m). The importance of this plot is to find (n) as (m) is known from
Pickett plot. It must be noted, however that as the derivation of Eq. (4.29)
depends on irreducible levels so only the levels of irreducible water
saturation
will be plotted on it. Of course, this requires additional work to detect the
levels of irreducible water saturation.
Morris and Bigges (1968) 67 stated, that can be done by plotting SW
against the porosity on a linear scale. Then, a hyperbola is drawn for the
minimum water saturation, and the levels that fall on this hyperbola,
which
represents the irreducible water saturation, are selected.

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3-Determination of Porosity

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Quick Look
Introduction
a.Reconnaissance interpretation techniques also called “quick look,”
“eyeball,” or “parameter “ techniques.
b.This technique is developed to present well log data calculations that
they may be scanned quickly & easily identify zones that warrant more
detailed analysis.
c.Technique was generated by service companies.
d.Most useful at well site, as it provides needed information quickly for
making decisions when time is essential.
e.Quick log don’t provide final interpretation, as In-depth log analysis
also needed for more knowledge of formation of interest.
f.Some reconnaissance interpretation methods can solve problems that
can’t be solved by conventional techniques.
g.As in this case reconnaissance techniques used to calculate numerical
parameters that reflect “Sw”, but doesn’t require missed information for
calculations.
h.Some of quick look techniques have general applicability while others
are designed for specific problem encountered in localized areas or
geological sections.

Introduction

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Rwa Technique

Rwa is the apparent Rw of a formation. The formation may contain

filtrate and hydrocarbons, but we can assume an Archie relationship and
solve the equation for Rw. Obviously in a water-sand Rwa would be the
actual formation Rw.

•Rwa is defined as,

Rt value from a deep resistivity tool, make the requisite environmental

corrections then either from known a and m, or from assumed Archie
values, and a measured porosity we compute F from the general formula:

Rwa to Rw Comparison Procedure:

Step 1: Determine f for a number of zones from porosity acoustic, density

or Neutron log.
Step 2: Determine F from Humble Formula
Step 3: Determine the resistivity Rt of the zones of interest from a deep
reading resistivity log
Step 4: Calculate Rwa from

Step 5: Determine the value of Rwa (assumed to be Rw) in clean water-

bearing zones.

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Step 6: Determine the values of Rwa in zones suspected on being
hydrocarbon bearing.
Step 7: Calculate Sw in the hydrocarbon bearing zones of interest

Rwa Technique
The Shale effect causes :

a)Reduction in “Rt” – high value in Δt and Ø

b)Causing an equivalent reduction in “F”

The gas effect causes :

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a)High sonic porosity , and

b)consequently low value of “F” and high value of “Raw”

Neutron logs is not recommended because the gas effect could result in a low
Øn and consequently high value of “F” , and low value of “Raw”, so some pay
potential zones may be overlooked.

Using the micro resistivity or micro spherically logs to get the formation
resistivity in the shallow invaded zone Rshallow.

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