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Lithological and structural controls on the genesis of the Candelaria-Punta

del Cobre Iron Oxide Copper Gold district, Northern Chile

Article  in  Ore Geology Reviews · August 2018

DOI: 10.1016/j.oregeorev.2018.08.034

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 Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx

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Lithological and structural controls on the genesis of the Candelaria-Punta T

del Cobre Iron Oxide Copper Gold district, Northern Chile
⁎
Irene del Reala, , John F.H. Thompsona, Jorge Carriedob
a
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Cornell University, Snee Hall, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
b
Lundin Mining Corporation, 150 King Street, Toronto, ON M5H1J9, Canada

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The Candelaria-Punta del Cobre district is the largest Iron-Oxide Cu and Au (IOCG) district in the Chilean IOCG
Andean IOCG deposits belt with more than 13 Mt of contained copper. Candelaria is the most important deposit in the district, which
Candelaria-Punta del Cobre district includes seven other smaller producers (Carola, Punta del Cobre, Mantos de Cobre, Candelaria Norte, Granate,
Geochronology Alcaparrosa, Atacama Kozan, Las Pintadas). The district, which is characterized by an Early-Cretaceous volcanic-
Ore controls
sedimentary arc sequence (∼135–132 Ma; Punta del Cobre Formation) overlain by the marine-sedimentary
Evolving hydrothermal system
Chañarcillo Group, formed in an extensional back-arc basin (∼132–130 Ma). The Copiapó batholith, which
occupies the western side of the district, was emplaced between ∼118 and 110 Ma during the change from
extensional to transpressional tectonics.
Mineralization is hosted predominately in the upper part of the Lower Andesite member and the overlying
Volcano-sedimentary and Dacite members all within the Punta del Cobre Formation. Mineralization is hosted by
fault zones, breccias, and specific lithologies. North-northwest faults are the dominant host for vertically ex-
tensive orebodies. Stratigraphically-controlled mineralization forms extensive stratabound ore bodies
(“mantos”). Textural evidence suggest that the hydrothermal system evolved and advanced upwards over time.
The earliest event was dominated by magnetite-actinolite in stratigraphically-controlled mantos and extensive
zones of disseminated magnetite-actinolite below Candelaria, which were subsequently overprinted by chalco-
pyrite-dominant mineralization with magnetite-actinolite-biotite-K-feldspar alteration. In addition to magnetite,
iron oxides include widespread mushketovite and hematite in the upper part of some deposits. Geochronological
data suggest that the main phase of mineralization occurred between ∼122 Ma and ∼115 Ma (U-Pb in zircon),
overlapping in age with the two major early phases of the Copiapó batholith. There is no field evidence to
indicate that exposed phases of the batholith were the source of mineralizing fluids. Alteration and miner-
alization in the earliest phase of the batholith (La Brea) occurs in structures and is minor compared to miner-
alization in the Punta del Cobre Formation. Later phases of the batholith cut the main stage of mineralization.
The extent of IOCG mineralization in the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre district reflects a combination of factors
including changing regional kinematics and related fault architecture, multiple intrusive events, fluid access to
permeable and reactive lithologies, vertical changes in redox conditions, and the potential role of multiple fluids.

1. Introduction mines and deposits in the coastal belt of the Andes in northern Chile
and southern Peru (Sillitoe, 2003).
Iron oxide copper-gold (IOCG) deposits are an important source of IOCG deposits are highly variable in terms of size, geometry, mi-
Cu, Au, and may contain economically significant levels of U and REE neralogy, and metal content, and several contrasting models have been
and elevated levels of many other elements (e.g., Mo, Ni, Co, Zn, F, Ba). proposed to explain their genesis, distribution and metallogenic sig-
The most important examples of IOCG deposits include Olympic Dam nificance (Barton and Johnson, 2000; Hitzman, 2000; Sillitoe, 2003;
and Prominent Hill in South Australia, Ernest Henry in Queensland, Williams et al., 2005; Pollard, 2006; Knipping et al., 2015; Tornos et al.,
Australia, Salobo and Sossego in Carajas, Brazil, and Candelaria and 2016). The degree of variation, range of ages of major deposits, and the
Mantoverde in Chile. Candelaria and other deposits in the Punta del lack of consensus on the most appropriate genetic model contrasts with
Cobre district represent the most significant cluster of active IOCG porphyry deposits. Hitzman (2000) summarized the common

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: id92@cornell.edu (I. del Real).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2018.08.034
Received 2 April 2018; Received in revised form 14 August 2018; Accepted 26 August 2018
Available online 30 August 2018
0169-1368/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
I. del Real et al. Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx

characteristics of IOCG deposits as follows: (1) the age of formation for

major economic IOCG deposits can range from Archean (e.g. Salobo,
Brazil; Requia et al., 2003) to Cretaceous (e.g., Candelaria, Chile;
Marschik and Fontbote, 2001a; Mathur et al., 2002); (2) deposits are
spatially and temporally associated with significant magmatic events;
(3) many deposits show strong structural control commonly including
the presence of high- to low- angles faults; (4) the major deposits are
characterized by an abundance of Fe oxide minerals and a relative lack
of Fe sulfides; (5) the host rock sequences for most these deposits are
intensely altered at district and deposit scales including mineral as-
semblages that can be classified as sodic, sodic-calcic and potassic; and
finally, (6) the fluids responsible for mineralization and alteration ap-
pear to be relatively saline, oxidized and sulfur-poor.
Iron oxide–apatite (IOA) deposits and occurrences occur in most of
the major IOCG districts, and are the dominant style of economic mi-
neralization in some cases (e.g., Kiruna in northern Sweden; Geijer,
1910). Several IOA deposits are mined for Fe in northern Chile. A broad
genetic connection between IOA and IOCG deposits has been proposed,
with some authors interpreting IOA deposits as the deeper roots of
IOCG systems (Espinoza et al., 1996; Sillitoe, 2003; Knipping et al.,
2015; Corriveau et al., 2016; Reich et al., 2016; Barra et al., 2017; Ootes
et al., 2017). A direct link between specific IOA and IOCG mineraliza-
tion has been suggested in several areas based on textural and miner-
alogical evidence for an early IOA stage and a later, and in some cases
shallower, IOCG stage; e.g. Olympic Dam and Oak Dam in the Gawler
Province, South Australia (Oreskes and Einaudi, 1990; Davidson et al.,
2007a,b); Sossego in the Carajas district, Brazil (Monteiro et al., 2008);
the Great Bear district, Northwest Canada (Corriveau et al., 2016; Ootes
et al., 2017), and Los Colorados, northern Chile (Reich, et al., 2016).
The Candelaria-Punta del Cobre district occurs within the Andean
IOA-IOCG belt that extends from immediately north of Santiago to
northern Chile, just south from Antofagasta (Fig. 1) and continues from
the southern border of Peru to Lima for a total length of ∼2000 km. The
belt may be present between Antofagasta and the Chile-Peru border but
this area is largely covered by younger volcanic rocks. Deposit ages
range from ∼90 Ma to ∼165 Ma with El Espino being the youngest
(Table 1; Lopez et al., 2014; del Real and Arriagada, 2015) and Mon-
tecristo and Julia the oldest (Boric et al., 1990; Espinoza et al., 1996).
The combined northern Chile-Peru IOA-IOCG belt is the youngest cur-
rently identified in the world, and is arguably the best preserved and
the most exposed both in outcrop and through mining and drilling,
although complete profiles from shallow to deep parts of individual
systems are not common.
The Chilean IOA-IOCG belt and individual IOCG deposits have been
the focus of considerable research, while specific IOA deposits have
seen less attention. The Chilean IOA-IOCG belt formed in a well-defined
subduction-related continental margin setting which was active
throughout the Jurassic and Cretaceous period, and remains active
today (Dalziel et al., 1987; Ramos, 2009). Much of the research at the
deposit-scale has attempted to define broad deposit characteristics in-
cluding the age of mineralization, the extent and style of hydrothermal
alteration, the nature of the mineralizing fluids, and the processes re-
sponsible for mineralization (Barton and Johnson, 1996; Marschik and
Fontbote, 2001a; Mathur et al., 2002; Marschik et al., 2003; Sillitoe,
2003; Gelcich et al., 2005; Tornos et al., 2010; Daroch and Barton, Fig. 1. Location map of IOCG, IOA and porphyry deposits formed during the
2011; Rieger et al., 2012; Lopez et al., 2014; Marschik and Kendrick, Upper Jurassic–Lower Cretaceous in Northern Chile (Modified from Sillitoe
2015; Veloso et al., 2017). Two end-member models based on different 2003).
ore fluids have been proposed for IOCG deposits in Chile-Peru: large
scale circulation of oxidized saline brines derived from evaporates that
The Candelaria deposit, located in the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre
formed in continental back-arc basins in the Jurassic and Cretaceous
district, south of Copiapó, is the largest IOCG deposit currently known
(Barton and Johnson, 1996; Hitzman, 2000); or, upward flow of mag-
in Chile. In addition to Candelaria, the district contains nine other ac-
matic fluids derived from major intrusions that are present throughout
tive mines: Candelaria Norte, Santos, Alcaparrosa, Punta del Cobre,
the region and are broadly the same age as the IOA-IOCG deposits
Granate, Mantos de Cobre, Carola, Atacama Kozan and Las Pintadas,
(Marschik and Fontbote, 2001a; Sillitoe, 2003; Pollard, 2006). Hybrid
collectively constituting the most economically important IOCG district
models involving fluids from both sources have also been proposed
in Chile and one of the most significant in the world. Mineralization in
(Williams et al., 2002; Chiaradia et al., 2006).

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I. del Real et al. Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx

Table 1
Ages of the main IOA, IOCG and porphyry deposits formed between the Upper Jurassic and mid Cretaceous in northern Chile.
Deposit name Type Age Technique Reference

Boqueron Chañar IOA 128 ± 4 K-Ar on biotite Zentilli, 1974

Cerro Iman IOA 102 ± 3 K-Ar on greisen Zentilli, 1974
El Algarrobo IOA 115.6 ± 5.8 K-Ar whole rock Montecinos, 1985
El Romeral IOA 110 ± 3 K-Ar on biotite Munizaga et al., 1985
Los Colorados IOA 111 K-Ar whole rock Pichon, 1981

Tocopilla IOCG 165 ± 3 N/A Ruiz et al., 1965

Julia IOCG 164 ± 11 K-Ar Boric et al., 1990
Montecristo IOCG 164 ± 11 K-Ar Boric et al., 1990
Todos los Santos IOCG 117.8 ± 1.9 40Ar/39Ar Gelcich et al., 2005
Santo Domingo IOCG 124 U-Pb Daroch et al., 2015
40
Porvenir IOCG 104 ± 3 Ar/39Ar on actinolite Diaz et al., 2003
40
En Torno de Bella Ester IOCG 109.1 ± 1.5 Ar/39Ar on actinolite Diaz et al., 2003
Buenaventura IOCG 130 ± 4 K-Ar on sericite Diaz et al., 2003
Manto Verde IOCG 117 ± 3 K-Ar on sericite Vila (1996)
Las Animas IOCG 162 ± 4 N/A Gelcich et al., 1998
40
Lautaro 2 IOCG 111.8 ± 2 Ar/39Ar on actinolite Diaz et al., 2003
Candelaria IOCG 115.2 ± 0.6 Re-Os on Molybdenite Mathur et al., 2002
Panulcillo IOCG 115 ± 3 N/A Ardila, 1993
Productora IOCG 128.9 ± 0.6 Re-Os on Molybdenite Marquardt et al., 2015
40
El Espino IOCG 88.4 ± 1.2 Ar/39Ar on actinolite Lopez et al., 2014

Carmen de Andacollo Cu-Au porphyry 104 ± 3 K-Ar whole rock Reyes, 1991
Antucoya Cu-Au porphyry 141.9 ± 1.4 U-Pb on zircon Maksaev et al., 2006
Buey Muerto Cu-Au porphyry 132.4 ± 4 K-Ar on biotite Perelló et al., 2003
Los Negritos Cu-Au porphyry 106.6 ± 0.5 Re-Os on molybdenite Montes, 2016
Colliguay Cu-Au porphyry 129 K-Ar whole rock Maksaev et al., 2010
40
Llahuin Cu-Au porphyry 92 Ar/39Ar on biotite Maksaev et al., 2010
Dos Amigos Cu-Au porphyry 106.1 ± 3.5 U-Pb on zircon Maksaev et al., 2010
Porteña Cu-Au porphyry 92.5 ± 1.4 U-Pb on zircon Maksaev et al., 2006

most of the deposits is concentrated in a relatively restricted strati- deposit helps to refine genetic models and potential reasons for the
graphic section that includes the upper part of the Lower Andesite scale and importance of the region.
member, the overlying Volcanic-sedimentary and Dacite members, and
the lower part of the Upper Andesite member, all within the Punta del 1.1. Mineral resources and mineral reserves of the mines in the Candelaria-
Cobre Formation. Mineralization also occurs at deeper levels in the Punta del Cobre district
Lower Andesite member but is not fully defined, and also, at strati-
graphically higher levels within sedimentary units that overlie the Lundin Mining operates the Candelaria, Candelaria Norte, Alcaparrosa
Punta del Cobre Formation. Mineralization occurs in two main styles. and Santos mines. Published open pit mineral reserves total proved and
Disseminated, patchy sulfide mineralization is commonly hosted by probable for Candelaria are 315.892 Mt at 0.53% Cu, and underground
distinct stratigraphic horizons, which vary in character and strati- mineral reserves total proved and probable include 65.697 Mt at 0.89% Cu
graphic position among deposits. In contrast, vein and cross-cutting for Candelaria Norte, 13.295 Mt at 0.94% Cu at Santos, and 10.215 at
breccia-hosted mineralization forms in structural corridors, faults, and 0.77% Cu at Alcaparrosa (Couture et al., 2017). For the other mines in the
fracture zones. district, a mineral reserves of 30 Mt at 1.5% Cu at is reported for Atacama
Over the last decade, mining and the development of new deposits Kozan (Ichii et al., 2007), and mineral resources include 60.7 Mt at 1.16%
or zones in the district has resulted in numerous new drill holes, and Cu at Carola (Carola staff; personal communication); 180 Mt at 0.9% Cu at
surface and underground access for geological mapping. In 2014, Punta del Cobre; 16 Mt at 0.85 Cu at Mantos de Cobre, and 15 Mt at 0.8%
Candelaria and Ojos del Salado (the Santos and Alcaparrosa mines) Cu at Granate (Pucobre staff; personal communication). Marschik and
were acquired by Lundin Mining. Lundin Mining initiated a major new Fontbote (2001a) reported a mineral reserve of 4 Mt at 1.0–1.5% Cu for Las
exploration program that included a compilation of all data in a 3D Pintadas which remains in operation today, but no current resource figures
geological database, extensive drilling, including several deep holes, are available. The cumulative past production, mineral reserves and mineral
and the first 43-101 technical report in the district containing resource resources for the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre district is estimated to be
and reserve data for Candelaria, Candelaria Norte, Santos and approximately > 13 Mt of contained Cu, confirming the district significance
Alcaparrosa (Couture et al., 2017). as one of the most important IOCG districts in the world.
This paper presents new information based on district-scale map-
ping, drill core logging, petrology and geochemistry of the volcanic and
2. Regional setting
intrusive rocks, and geochronology. The methodology and analytical
techniques for all new data can be found in the Appendix. The new data
IOCG deposits in southern Peru and northern Chile formed in the
build on previous work and further define the geological framework of
Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous (∼163–100 Ma), a period character-
the district, including the spatial, temporal, lithological and petrolo-
ized by two cycles of volcanic arc magmatism and associated back-arc
gical variation among the members of the Punta del Cobre formation.
extension that resulted in several back-arc basins. Several porphyry Cu-
The variations in style, and the controls for IOCG mineralization are
Au deposits of varying size formed mainly towards the end of this
discussed, and new data that constrains the timing of the main event of
period (e.g. Carmen de Andacollo, Antucoya, Los Negritos, Tovaku and
IOCG mineralization in the district is presented. The improved frame-
Colliguay among others; Fig. 1 and Table 1; Maksaev et al., 2006,
work for the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre district and the Candelaria
2010). The better known and more significant porphyry Cu deposits in

3
I. del Real et al. Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx

Fig. 2. Candelaria-Punta del Cobre geological map with the main deposits and prospects of the district. Section A–A′ is shown in Fig. 4 (Modified from Arévalo (1999)
and Tilling (1976)).

Chile formed in subsequent magmatic belts that young progressively to IOA deposit (2.0 ± 0.3 Ma; Gardeweg and Ramírez, 1985), younger
the east. No significant IOA-IOCG deposits are known in the major than all known porphyry deposits, and one of the youngest example of
porphyry belts. The El Laco iron deposit is interpreted to be a Pliocene IOA mineralization currently recognized in the world.

4
I. del Real et al. Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx

2.1. Tectonic setting occurred due to the detachment of South America from Africa. The back-arc
basins along the Andean margin closed, the South American plate stopped
Rupturing of the Pangea-Gondwana super continent began in the rotating in a clockwise motion and started moving towards the Nazca plate.
Late Jurassic with the opening of the Atlantic ocean (Dalziel and Brown, Convergence rates related to subduction on the western Andean margin
1987; Ramos, 2009). At approximately the same time, an extensional increased, and compression began in the upper plate and has been relatively
subduction-related tectonic regime was established on the western continuous since then (Royden, 1993; Scheuber et al., 1994; Amilibia et al.,
margin of South America (Ramos, 2009). The extensional regime was 2008; Ramos, 2009). Compression resulted in the inversion and closure of
characterized by the development of a roughly north-south orientated back-arc basins with associated uplift of the Late Jurassic and Early Cre-
magmatic arc along the present-day Coastal Cordillera and a back-arc taceous formations (Charrier et al., 2007; Ramos, 2009; Chen et al., 2013).
basin to the east of the arc (Coira et al., 1982; Dalziel et al., 1987; Stern Subsequently, during ongoing tectonics, subduction erosion has removed
et al., 1991; Atherton and Aguirre, 1992). the western part of the Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous arc, and therefore the
The Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous period can be divided into two full width and character of the arc remains uncertain (Kay and Kay, 1991;
distinct stages: (1) Pliensbachian to Kimmeridgian (∼180–157 Ma) Stern, 1991).
magmatic activity in the arc and the development of a transgressive-
regressive marine cycle in the back-arc basin and; (2) Kimmeridgian to 2.2. Structural controls on IOCG deposits in Chile: The Atacama Fault
Aptian-Albian (157–100 Ma) reduced magmatic activity in the arc, at System
least in some regions, and a second transgressive-regressive marine
cycle in the back-arc basin (Charrier et al., 2007). By the Cenomanian Deformation contemporaneous with the formation of the magmatic
(∼94–100 Ma), the tectonic setting became predominantly transten- arc and back-arc basins was mainly concentrated in the Atacama Fault
sional (Brown et al., 1993; Arévalo et al., 2003) and was characterized System (Arabasz, 1971). The Atacama Fault System is a continental-
by episodic volcanism and sediment deposition in intra-arc and back- scale, trench parallel series of interconnected, dominantly strike-slip
arc shallow marine and continental basins (Morata and Aguirre, 2003). faults located along the Coastal Cordillera, that can be traced for more
During the first stage in the Late Jurassic, the marine Arequipa- than 1000 km. The fault system has been subdivided into three major
Tarapacá basin east of the volcanic arc was characterized by inter- segments from north to south: Salar del Carmen, Paposo, and El Sala-
connected sub-basins that were continuous from central Peru to central do–Vallenar (Thiele and Pinchiera, 1984; Naranjo, 1987; Brown et al.,
Chile (Vicente, 2006). Sedimentary units related to basin formation in 1993; Marinovic et al., 1995; Arévalo et al., 2003). A complex kine-
central-southern Peru are assigned to the Chunumayo and Socosani matic evolution has been documented consisting of ductile dip-slip and
Formations (Megard, 1968; Westermann et al., 1980; Vicente, 1981), sinistral strike-slip displacement that predominated during the Early
while in northern Chile similar units are separated into different for- Cretaceous evolving to a brittle sinistral strike-slip deformation during
mations from north to south: Livilcar (Lower Member), Quinchamale the mid-Cretaceous (Brown et al., 1993; Scheuber et al., 1995;
(Lower Member), Montardón, Lautaro and Tres Cruces (Charrier et al., Dallmeyer et al., 1996; Scheuber and Gonzalez, 1999; Grocott and
2007). The back-arc basins of the second sub-stage in Peru are marine Taylor, 2002).
and correspond to the Inca and Arcurquina Formations (Jaillard, 1995). IOCG deposits such as Mantoverde and several IOA deposits in the
In northern Chile, the back-arc basins of this stage are continental in the Chilean iron belt are hosted by faults within the Atacama Fault System
most northern segment (in the Antofagasta area) and units form the (Espinoza, 1990; Grocott et al., 1994; Wilson and Grocott, 1999;
upper member of the Quinchamale formation and San Manuel Beds Grocott and Taylor, 2002). In other areas IOCG deposits show a spatial
Formation, whereas further south, the back-arc basin is marine and and temporal association with north-northwest and west-northwest-
consists of the Chañarcillo Group, and the Río Tascadero and Quebrada striking sinistral strike-slip fault zones (e.g. Candelaria, Carola, Teresa
Marquesa Formations (Charrier et al., 2007). de Colmo; Arévalo et al., 2006; Cembrano et al., 2009; Marquardt et al.,
In the Early Cretaceous, extension associated with basin formation 2009). Some of the north-northeast-striking faults are interpreted to be
shifted diachronously to transtension beginning in the in the north second-order faults directly related to the Atacama Fault System,
during the Barremian (∼130 Ma) and reaching its maximum in the however, in other cases, faults show evidence for fault motion pre-
Aptian–Albian (∼125–110 Ma; Charrier et al., 2007). Plutonism oc- dating the development of the Atacama Fault System (Grocott and
curred during both stages of basin formation and spanned the change Taylor, 2002).
from extensional to transtensional tectonics. Crustal-scale fault zones
evolved into the Atacama Fault System in the Valanginian–Barremian 3. Geology of the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre district
(∼132–125 Ma) during the change in tectonic style, and plutonism was
associated temporally with the developing sinistral strike-slip fault The Candelaria-Punta del Cobre district is dominated by the vol-
system (Brown et al., 1993) canic rocks of the Punta del Cobre Formation and the overlying sedi-
In the Atacama region, where the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre dis- mentary rocks of the Chañarcillo Group (Fig. 3), both of which are
trict is located, volcanic rocks that formed in the Late Jurassic, during intruded by the Copiapó batholith towards the west (Fig. 2). To the
the first sub-stage arc magmatism and basin formation, are assigned to west and northwest of the district, volcanic rocks that are strati-
La Negra Formation (Naranjo, 1978; Godoy and Lara, 1998), while in graphically equivalent to the Chañarcillo Group are assigned to the
southeast of the district, similar volcanic units are termed the Sierra de Bandurrias Group. Table 2 and Fig. 3 summarize the main geological
Fraga Formation (Iriarte et al., 1996) which interfingers to the east with units in the area together with their ages based on previously published
sedimentary units in the back-arc basin that belongs to the Lautaro geochronological and paleontological data, and new geochronological
Formation (Jensen, 1976; Soffia, 1989). Throughout much of the re- results presented herein. Methodologies for new geochronological ages
gion, the second sub-stage of arc volcanic rocks correspond to the Punta presented in this research (such as concordia plots and value tables) can
del Cobre Formation and Bandurrias Group (Segerstrom, 1960; be found in Appendix 1.
Segerstrom and Ruiz, 1962; Moscoso et al., 1982). The Punta del Cobre The dominant strike of the volcanic and sedimentary units is north-
Formation underlies sedimentary Formations of the Chañarcillo Group, northeast with dips to the west and east that define the major Tierra
whereas volcanic rocks of the Bandurrias Group interfinger with sedi- Amarilla anticlinorium in the central part of the district (Figs. 2 and 4),
mentary units of the Chañarcillo Group, and are therefore interpreted to and similar subordinate structures elsewhere. The Paipote fault is lo-
be younger than the Punta del Cobre Formation (Figs. 2 and 3; cated at the contact of the Copiapó batholith and the Punta del Cobre
Segerstrom and Ruiz, 1962; Marschik and Fontbote, 2001a; b). Formation/Chañarcillo Group rocks, and has been interpreted to be a
From the Late Cretaceous, significant paleogeographic reorganization west verging thrust fault that formed during mid-Cretaceous inversion

5
I. del Real et al. Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx

Fig. 3. Stratigraphic column of the district with the main geocrhonological and paleontological ages. Ages from the Cerrillos formation are from Maksaev et al.
(2009), ages from the Punta del Cobre formation are from this study. Stratigraphic column modified from Arévalo (1999).

(Fig. 2; Arévalo, et al., 2006). A number of faults with similar strike made by Godoy and Lara (1998) in the region suggest the Lower An-
have been mapped west of the Copiapó valley with both normal and desite has a transitional and poorly defined contact with the underlying
reverse senses of displacement. All units described with the exception of La Negra Formation. Geochronological data obtained during this study
the upper formations of the Chañarcillo Group and Cerrillos formations indicate that the upper part of this member has an U-Pb zircon age of
are incipiently to pervasively altered (as observed in Fig. 5), and their 135.3 ± 1.0 Ma (Appendix 1).
alteration facies will be described in a subsequent section.
3.1.2 Dacite member
3.1. Punta del Cobre formation Massive and brecciated dacite bodies locally conformably overlie
the Lower Andesite. Dacite typically has a porphyritic texture with
Defined originally by Segerstrom and Ruiz (1962), the Punta del phenocrysts of plagioclase and lesser biotite. Breccias commonly occur
Cobre Formation comprises several Lower Cretaceous volcanic and at the upper and lower contacts of individual dacite bodies (Fig. 5B).
volcaniclastic members, which in the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre dis- The best outcrop of this member is located in the Melendez valley east
trict are defined from older to younger as: (1) Lower Andesite; (2) of the Copiapó River, and close to the Alcaparrosa mine west of the
Dacite; (3) Volcanic-sedimentary, and (4) Upper Andesite (Fig. 3; Copiapó river. Drilling has also intersected this member below the
Marschik and Fontbote, 2001b) Copiapó valley, west from the Melendez Valley. Thickness of the dacite
varies significantly from a few meters to more 200 m. Marschik et al.,
3.1.1 Lower Andesite member (1997) proposed that the Dacite formed as a series of lava domes above
Massive volcanic rocks dominate the Lower Andesite varying from the Lower Andesite. The highly variable thickness of the Dacite and the
fine to medium-grained andesite separated by flow autobreccias, block presence of breccias above, below and lateral to massive units is con-
and ash flows, and reworked volcanic sediments. Phenocrysts consists sistent with flow domes (Heiken and Wohletz, 1987), and related car-
of plagioclase, hornblende and minor pyroxene (Fig. 5A). The base of apace and distal breccia facies. The Dacite is commonly intensely al-
the member is not exposed in the district but exploration drilling in- tered to a white to pale pink albite, hence the use of the field term
dicates that it is > 800 m thick. Below 700 m from the upper contact, “Albitófiro” (Table 2). Geochronological data obtained during this
the member contains sedimentary intercalations including polimictic study indicate that this member has an U-Pb zircon age of
matrix supported breccias and finely layered sediments. Observations 132.0 ± 1.3 Ma (Appendix 1).

6
 Table 2
Description and ages of the main lithologies observed in the Punta del Cobre district. Ages from the Cerrilos formation were taken from Maksaev et al., (2009), ages from the Copiapó Batholith were taken by Marschik and
Söllner (2006) and ages from pre-mineralization dacite dikes were taken from Pop et al. (2000).
I. del Real et al.

Formation/Group Member/Formation Other names Description Age

Punta del Cobre

Lower Andesite Geraldo Negro Medium-grained andesite with a porphyritic texture and phenocrysts of plagioclase, 135.3 ± 1.0 Ma, U-Pb on zircon
hornblende and minor pyroxene. Andesite flows are intercalated with autobreccias
Dacite Melendez Dacite, Dacite with porphyritic texture with phenocrysts of plagioclase and biotite. The top and bottom 132.0 ± 1.3 Ma, U-Pb on Zircon
Albitófiro of this unit is brecciated. Units is interpreted to be a lava dome (or more than one) above the
Lower Andesite
Volcanic sediments Black Tuff, Trinidad Litholohy of this units varies spatially from a polimictic breccia on the east side of the Copiapó
Siltstone Valley to a well-layered fine grained sedimentary rock with tuffaceous intercalations on the
western side of the Copiapó Valley. Stratigraphically it correlates with the top breccia of the
Dacite intrusion.
Upper Andesite Algarrobo Discontinous horizon of basaltic andesites with plagioclase phenocrysts and aphanitic basaltic 132.4 ± 2.9 Ma, U-Pb on zircon
lavas. Basaltic andesites locally occur as pillow lavas.

Chañarcillo Group
Abundancia Laminated mudstones interbedded with arkoses. Towards the base of the unit it can have
intercalations of the Upper Andesite
Nantoco Homogenous gray mudstones towards de base which changes to a calcareous breccia with an Olcostephanus and Acanthidiscus fossils (Late Valenginian –
evaporitic matrix towards the top. Early Hauterivian)
Totoralillo Composed largely by calcareous silstones, locally, the lower beds are pisolitic. Crioceras andinum Gerth fossils (Neocomian)
Pabellón Composed by cherts, limestones and calcareous sandstones. Its upper strata is composed by
shallow marine sediments
Bandurrias Group Andesite to trachyte coarse porphyric lava flows that interfingers with the Chañarcillo Group
Cerrillos Sucession of red conglomerate beds and volcanic rocks. 110.7 ± 1.7–99.7 ± 1.6 Ma, U-Pb on zircon

7
Formation/Group Intrusive phase Other names Description Age

Intrusive units
Copiapó Batholith
La Brea Largest unit of the Copiapó Batholith, it varies gradationally from a coarse-grained pyroxene 118 ± 1 Ma, U-Pb in zircon
diorite to meium- to coarse-grained hornblende diorite. The hornblende diorite is the
predominant lithology observed in this unit.
Adamelite Quartz-monzonite porphyry with phenocrysts of plagioclase and lesser amphibole. Outcrops 116.3 ± 0.4 Ma, U-Pb in zircon
northwest of the Candelaria deposit.
San Gregorio Medium- to coarse-grained monzodiorite with equigranular texture. Outcrops north of the 115.5 ± 0.4 Ma, U-Pb in zircon
Candelaria deposit and has a sharp northwest trend.
Los Lirios Varies from a granodiorite to a tonalite in composition. Located of the Las Pintadas deposit. 110.7 ± 0.4 Ma. U-Pb in zircon
Granodiorite Medium-grained equigranular granodiorite with plagioclase, orthoclase, quartz, amphibole
and biotite. Located at Sierra el Granate.
Dacite dikes Dikes have a porphyrytic texture with phenocrysts of plagioclase and amphibole. Dikes are 115.2 ± 1.8 and 112.8 ± 1.3 Ma, U-Pb in zircon
observed in deep district exploration holes south of the Candelaria deposit.

Pre-mineralization intrusives
Granodiorite Medium- to fine-grained equigranular granodiorite composed by plagioclase, k-feldspar, quartz 135.2 ± 1.3 Ma, U-Pb in zircon
and biotite. This intrusion is located in the Alcaparrosa deposit
Dacite dikes Dacite dikes with porphyritic texture and phenocrysts of plagioclase. These dikes are found in 124.9 ± 0.4 Ma and 121.9 ± 2.4 Ma, U-Pb in Zr
drill holes in Carola, Punta del Cobre and Santos deposits.

Post-mineralization units
Lamprophyre dikes Dikes with porphyritic texture and phenocrysts of amphibole. Observed in Carola, Punta del 63.2 ± 2.5 Ma, Ar-K whole rock
Cobre and Santos deposits. They can also be observed outcropping on surface cutting the
sediments of the Chañarcillo group.
Dacite dikes Dacite dikes with a porphyritic texture and phenocrysts of plagioclase and amphibole. These 47.3 ± 3.9 Ma. U-Pb in zircon
dikes appear cutting all previous units and can be observed on surface southe of the Candelaria
Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx

deposit and cutting the Kaiser prospect.

I. del Real et al. Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx

Fig. 4. Schematic cross section of the district (A–A′ from Fig. 2). The drill holes logged in this study are depicted in grey and measured dips are shown in red. The
geological interpretation is based on integrated surface and drill core data.

3.1.3 Volcanic-sedimentary member limestones and calcareous sandstones (Pabellón Formation). The upper
In the absence of the Dacite, the Lower Andesite is conformably part of the Pabellón Formation formed in the regressive stage of the
overlain by a volcano-sedimentary sequence, termed the Volcanic-se- marine sedimentary sequence (Cisternas and Diaz, 1990; Mourgues,
dimentary member, that varies from volcanic breccias (Fig. 5C) on the 2004).
east side of the Copiapó valley to well-layered fine grained sedimentary
rocks with tuffaceous intercalations to the west (Fig. 5D). The Volcanic- 3.3. Bandurrias Group
sedimentary member overlies the Dacite, when present, but is also lo-
cally present below the Dacite where it is disrupted by it. The Volcanic- The Badurrias Group contains basaltic andesite to andesite and
sedimentary and the Dacite members are therefore interpreted to be trachyandesite, mixed with continental volcaniclastic sediments and
largely contemporaneous. Volcanic breccias in the east are polymictic, tuffs with intercalations of shallow marine limestones and sandstones
clast supported and contain variable mixtures of andesite, dacite, (Segerstrom, 1960, 1967). This group interfingers with the Chañarcillo
limestone and chert clasts. The matrix of the breccias is commonly red Group towards the north of the district indicating that these formations
due to fine earthy hematite which is interpreted as primary volcanic are temporally equivalent. The Bandurrias Group becomes predominant
oxidation. In the western part of the district, the member is dominated towards the north, reaching a thickness of 2500–3000 m.
by dark biotite-rich (Fig. 5E), fine grained and banded sedimentary
layers (Fig. 5D), and typically lacks coarse clastic or breccia facies, and
3.4. Cerrillos Formation
hematite. The thickness of this member varies from ∼20 m on the east
side of the valley to more than 150 m north from the Candelaria de-
The Cerrillos Formation overlies the Chañarcillo Group and consists
posit.
of a succession of coarse continental alluvial red clastic sedimentary
and volcanic rocks (Segerstrom and Parker, 1959; Fig. 3) reflecting an
3.1.4 Upper Andesite member abrupt change to non-marine conditions (Arévalo, 1999; Mourgues,
The upper member of the Punta del Cobre Formation consists of 2004). Coarse clastic units contain limestone clasts from the Nantoco
discontinuous lenses of plagioclase-phyric basaltic-andesite with local Formation (Amilibia, 2009), indicating that the Cerrillos Formation
flow autobreccia facies (Fig. 5F) and aphanitic basaltic lavas. The Upper included material eroded from the underlying Chañarcillo Group, fol-
Andesite conformably overlies the Volcanic-sedimentary and Dacite lowing uplift related to inversion (Amilibia, 2009). Volcanic inter-
members. Thickness of the Upper Andesite is variable. South of Can- calations in the conglomerates have been dated using U-Pb on zircon
delaria, it can be up to ∼600 m thick but thins significantly to the north yielding ages of 110.7 ± 1.7 and 99.7 ± 1.6 Ma (Maksaev et al.,
and east (10–50 m). The basalt occurs locally as pillows (Fig. 5G), ty- 2009).
pically 0.5–1 m across, and contains amygdules in an aphanitic
groundmass. Basaltic-andesite lenses are locally intercalated with 3.5. Intrusions
breccias, volcano-sedimentary rocks, and sandstones and limestones
towards the top of the member, which is overlain conformably by the The most important intrusions in the district belong to the Copiapó
sedimentary rocks of the Chañarcillo basin (Abundancia Formation). composite batholith. These intrusions range in composition from diorite
Geochronological data obtained during this study indicate that this to quartz monzonite (SiO2 50–68 wt%; Marschik and Fontbote, 2001a).
member has an U-Pb zircon age of 132.4 ± 2.9 Ma. Smaller intrusive bodies, dikes and sills are also present in the area with
varying temporal relations to the Copiapó batholith, deformation and
3.2. Chañarcillo Group mineralization (Table 2).

The Chañarcillo Group overlies the Punta del Cobre Formation and 3.5.1. Early intrusions
includes a mixed package of sedimentary rocks (Segerstrom and Parker, A small granodiorite body is exposed close to the Alcaparrosa de-
1959; Segerstrom and Ruiz, 1962) that are divided into four formations posit intruding the Lower Andesite. The intrusion displays medium to
(from bottom to top): Abundancia, Nantoco, Totoralillo and Pabellón fine-grained equigranular textures and is composed of plagioclase, K-
(Fig. 3). The Chañarcillo Group varies from mudstones, arkoses and feldspar, quartz and biotite. The intrusion is altered to albite and
minor volcanic layers at its base (Abundancia Formation), through magnetite towards its margins where it also contains rare chalcopyrite-
mudstones and calcareous breccias with an evaporitic matrix (Nantoco pyrite veins. Geochronological data obtained during this study indicate
Formation) and calcareous siltstones (Totaralilo Formation), and cherts, that this unit has a U-Pb zircon age of 135.2 ± 1.3 Ma. The

8
I. del Real et al. Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx

Fig. 5. Representative photos of the main lithologies

that form part of the Punta del Cobre formation: (A)
Lower Andesite lava flow, photo from the Candelaria
deposit; B) Dacite monomictic breccia, aphanitic
matrix altered to hematite, clasts display an albite
alteration, outcrop in the Santos deposit area; (C)
Polimictic breccia outcrop from the Volcanic-sedi-
mentary member, clasts are a mixture of andesite,
dacite, limestones and cherts, the matrix is aphanitic
and altered to hematite, photo in the Santos deposit
area; (D) Layered sedimentary rock of the Volcanic-
sedimentary member, layers display pervasive and
layer selective biotite–quartz–magnetite alteration
with some epidote alteration patches, photo from the
Sierra Granate area; (E) Tuffaecous intercalation in
the Volcanic-sedimentary member, with a pervasive
fine grained biotite alteration together with pink
garnet alteration concentrated in the individual beds,
photo from the Alcaparrosa deposit; (F) Upper
Andesite lava flow with pervasive
actinolite–biotite–K-feldspar alteration, photo from
the Candelaria deposit; (G) Outcrop of pillow Basalts
corresponding to the Upper Andesite member in
contact with the Abundancia Formation, photo from
the Santos deposit area.

granodioritic intrusion is interpreted to be subvolcanic body related to and cross-cutting chalcopyrite–magnetite ± actinolite veins. Neither
the Lower Andesite of the Punta del Cobre Formation. Although syn- set of dikes cut mineralization and therefore interpreted as entirely pre-
volcanic in age, mineralization and pervasive alteration is limited to the mineral. Two of the dacite dikes in the Carola deposit were dated using
margin of the intrusion presumably due to the competent nature of the U-Pb zircon returning ages of 124.9 ± 0.4 Ma and 121.9 ± 2.4 Ma
intrusion and the lack of cross-cutting structures. (Pop et al., 2000).
A series of dacite and dioritic dikes are exposed in the Candelaria
Norte, Carola, Punta del Cobre and Santos mines. The dacite dikes ex- 3.5.2. Copiapó batholith
hibit a porphyritic texture with phenocrysts of plagioclase in an apha- The main phases of the Copiapó batholith are defined as La Brea
nitic groundmass and have a north-northwest orientation, and cut diorite, San Gregorio monzodiorite, and Los Lirios granodiorite to to-
massive dacite of the Dacite member (Carola staff; personal commu- nalite (Table 2; Tilling, 1976; Arévalo, 1999; Marschik and Söllner,
nication). The diorite dikes are fine-grained, equigranular, and domi- 2006). Two smaller intrusions have also been mapped in the batholith,
nated by hornblende and biotite, and have a north-northwest to north- the Adamelite porphyry and an unnamed granodiorite.
west orientation where observed in the Candelaria Norte mine. Both La Brea, the largest and dominant phase in the Copiapó batholith,
types of dikes display moderate magnetite–biotite–actinolite alteration varies gradationally from pyroxene diorite with coarse-grained

9
I. del Real et al. Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx

equigranular to porphyritic textures, to a hornblende diorite which is the district, between the Candelaria deposit and the Kaiser prospect
medium- to coarse-grained with an equigranular texture. The pyroxene (Fig. 2), a series of porphyritic dacitic dikes with phenocrysts of pla-
diorite outcrops north of Candelaria and west of Alcaparrosa, while gioclase and an east-west orientation cut the Punta del Cobre Formation
hornblende diorite is the dominant lithology west, north and south of and the Chañarcillo Group. One of these dikes during this study re-
the Candelaria (Fig. 2). La Brea displays moderate to weak feld- turned an U-Pb zircon age of 47.3 ± 3.9 Ma (Table 2).
spar ± magnetite alteration (Marschik and Fontbote, 2001a; Kreiner
and Barton, 2009) and locally contains mineralized veins (see Miner- 4. Geochemistry
alized Centers section). Marschik and Söllner (2006) report a U-Pb
zircon age for La Brea hornblende diorite of 118 ± 1 Ma, the oldest age Whole rock major and trace element geochemistry was obtained
reported thus far for any phase of the Copiapó batholith. A series of from 76 samples from the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre district. Samples
unmineralized hornblende diorite dikes, are prominent in drill hole were collected from the Alcaparrosa (10 samples), Santos (15 samples),
ES067 south of the Candelaria. These dykes are petrographically and and Candelaria (14 samples) areas. The remainder came from district
geochemically similar to La Brea (see below). Lack of mineralization in exploration drill holes and surface outcrops throughout the area. All of
this drill hole limits any inference regarding the timing of these dikes the major lithological members at the Punta del Cobre Formation and
relative to mineralization. igneous rocks were sampled from multiple locations. Hydrothermal
A relatively small north-northwest oriented intrusion, termed the alteration is extensive throughout the district and collecting completely
Adamelite porphyry, outcrops northwest of the Candelaria deposit unaltered samples is difficult. As a result, much of the analysis pre-
(Fig. 2; Marschik et al., 2003; Marschik and Söllner, 2006). The intru- sented herein relies on relatively immobile Al2O3, TiO2 and trace ele-
sion is dominantly a quartz-monzonite porphyry containing pheno- ments for lithological discrimination (Zr, Nb and Th, all immobile,
crysts of plagioclase and lesser amphibole in an orthoclase and quartz- Appendix 1). Two methods were used to discard heavily altered sam-
rich matrix. Marschik and Söllner (2006) report an U-Pb zircon age of ples. The IOCG discriminant diagram (Montreuil et al., 2013) was used
116.3 ± 0.4 Ma for this intrusion. to identify altered samples and the predominant hydrothermal altera-
The San Gregorio intrusive phase is a medium- to coarse-grained tion predominated in the samples (Appendix 1). The Ishikawa Altera-
monzodiorite, typically with an equigranular texture. This intrusive tion Index (AI; Ishikawa et al., 1976) was used to discard samples that
phase outcrops north of the Candelaria mine and west of the pyroxene- had an AI higher than 50% (Appendix 1). Details on the methodology
diorite belonging to La Brea (Fig. 2). The San Gregorio intrusive phase used for obtaining whole rock geochemical data is in Appendix 1.
has a north-northwest elongation and is in fault contact with La Brea
pyroxene diorite to the east and the hornblende diorite to the west. The 4.1. Punta del Cobre formation
southern contact with the Punta del Cobre Formation and Chañarcillo
Group is characterized by a zone of deformation with a pronounced The Al2O3, TiO2, Zr, Nb and Th contents of least altered samples
foliation that defines the Ojancos Shear Zone (Arévalo et al., 2006). define the major stratigraphic members in the Punta del Cobre
Marschik and Söllner (2006) dated the San Gregorio intrusive phase at Formation, with the Upper Andesite being the most mafic and primitive
115.5 ± 0.4 Ma using U-Pb on Zircon. member, the Dacite being the most felsic and fractionated, and the
Los Lirios phase varies from granodiorite to tonalite in composition Lower Andesite intermediate between the Upper Andesite and Dacite
and has a north-northeast elongated trend (Arévalo, 1999; Tilling, (Table 3; Fig. 6).
1976). This phase cuts the Las Pintadas deposit and has a vertical in- REE normalized chondrite values for the Lower Andesite show two
trusive contact with La Brea diorite to the west and stratified rocks of distinctive geochemical groups within the member. The first group is
the Punta del Cobre and Chañacillo Formations to the east (Fig. 2; enriched in light rare earth elements (LREE; La/Sm ∼22.57; Fig. 7;
Arévalo et al., 2006). Los Lirios is the most felsic of the intrusive phases Table 3), has a Eu negative anomaly (Eu/Eu* ∼0.64) and is depleted in
of the Copiapó batholith and previous studies have reported local zones MREE. The second group displays a relatively flat REE pattern with
of porphyry-style alteration (Barton et al., 2005). Marschik and Söllner weak enrichment in LREE (LREE; La/Sm ∼6.56; Fig. 7; Table 3), a
(2006) reported an U-Pb zircon age of 110.7 ± 0.4 Ma Los Lirios negative Eu anomaly (Eu/Eu* ∼0.52), and no MREE depletion. Samples
making it the youngest phase of the Copiapó batholith. from the first group were taken from shallow levels of the member in
Marschik et al. (2003) mapped a separate granodiorite intrusion the Alcaparrosa deposit and from deep district exploration holes south
extending northeast from the Los Lirios intrusive phase, southwest of of the Candelaria deposit, suggesting that this group is not spatially or
the Candelaria deposit (Fig. 2), The intrusion consists of medium- stratigraphically restricted in the Lower Andesite. In spite of the dif-
grained equigranular plagioclase, orthoclase, quartz, amphibole and ferent REE patterns, these samples do not show other distinct geo-
biotite. This intrusion is interpreted to belong to the Copiapó batholith chemical or petrographic characteristics. REE normalized chondrite
(Marschik et al., 2003) and may be related to the adjacent Los Lirios values for the Dacite have a slight enrichment in LREE (La/Sm ∼5.2;
phase, although there is insufficient evidence verify this association. Fig. 7; Table 3), a Eu negative anomaly (Eu/Eu* ∼0.614) and a slight
A series of dacite dikes with porphyritic textures and phenocrysts of depletion in MREE. REE normalized chondrite values for the Upper
plagioclase and amphibole were observed in outcrop and in a deep drill Andesite have a small LREE enrichment (La/Sm ∼3.4; Fig. 7; Table 3),
hole (drill hole ES064) south of the Candelaria deposit where exposed a less pronounced Eu anomaly (Eu/Eu* ∼0.815) and no depletion in
they have a northwest orientation. The dacite dikes cut pervasive re- MREE.
placement and associated vein mineralization but host minor magnetite
and chalcopyrite veins suggesting that they were emplaced late in the 4.2. Intrusions
mineralizing event. Two of these dikes sampled during this study re-
turned U-Pb zircon ages of 115.2 ± 1.8 and 112.8 ± 1.3 Ma, corre- As discussed above, the Copiapó batholith consists of several dis-
lating with mid-range of ages from the Copiapó batholith. tinct intrusive phases spanning at least 8 m.y. Previous studies eval-
uated the geochemistry of these intrusions (Marschik et al., 2003;
3.5.3. Late intrusions Marschik and Söllner, 2006) and their data are included with new data
A suite of lamprophyric dikes cross-cut mineralization in the Santos, reported here (Fig. 8).
Punta del Cobre and Carola deposits, and can be traced from the Punta The majority of the batholith is relatively unaltered and generally
del Cobre Formation into the overlying sediments of the Chañarcillo shows increasing SiO2 values and decreasing TiO2 and Al2O3 values
Group. A single age whole rock K-Ar age of 63.2 ± 2.5 Ma for one of from La Brea to Los Lirios and the adjacent granodiorite (Table 3;
these dikes was reported by Pop et al. (2000). In the southern part of Fig. 8). The San Gregorio phase falls within the compositional range of

10
 Table 3
Representative normalized (to LOI) whole rock geochemical contents of lithological members of the Punta del Cobre formation and intrusive units of the area. The analyses were conducted in ALS Labs, Vancouver, British
Columbia (methodology described in Appendix 1).
I. del Real et al.

Punta del Cobre Formation Intrusive units

Sample AD0066-15 LD1493-18 DH1077-10 DH1077-12 LD1493-2 AD106-5 DH700-5 ES064 GC1 b.1 S.2.8 ES067 GC1 ES067 GC2 K.2
Lithology Lower Andesite Lower Andesite Dacite Dacite Upper Andesite Upper Andesite Pre-min dacite Late-min dacite La Brea La Brea Diorite dike Diorite dike Post-min
(suite 1) (suite 2) dike dike intrusive phase intrusive phase dacite dike
Location Alcaparrosa Candelaria Santos Santos Candelaria Alcaparrosa Santos district Surface north Surface exploration exploration Kaiser
exploration drill alcaparrosa drill hole drill hole
hole
UTM East 374377.60 373322.90 376284.89 376278.95 373363.17 374152.72 375752.19 368960.00 371337.99 372957.00 368896.07 368954.28 370299.00
UTM North 6962294.96 6956219.44 6961106.91 6961104.04 6956238.22 6962294.99 6959325.87 6954611.00 6962254.79 6961462.00 6952880.50 6952880.34 6948696.00
depth 298.01 343.50 435.35 416.58 745.14 362.40 448.40 813.00 745.00 779.00 −63.52 −406.98 792.00
(m.a.s.L) %

SiO2 58.24 55.99 64.67 66.28 50.30 48.14 65.61 70.07 58.57 57.70 61.65 59.54 59.70
Al2O3 14.81 13.49 15.61 15.22 15.09 15.45 14.35 15.07 17.23 20.17 16.93 17.82 18.22
Fe2O3 14.21 11.72 8.25 7.71 4.23 8.80 7.04 3.77 7.00 3.66 7.45 6.74 7.02
CaO 0.47 1.37 0.61 0.78 16.58 18.26 0.62 0.56 5.33 8.42 2.55 5.81 0.78
MgO 2.84 7.62 1.44 1.28 8.62 5.89 1.56 0.55 2.60 2.29 2.49 2.47 3.57
Na2O 0.83 0.33 4.15 4.15 1.42 1.02 1.67 6.56 3.93 5.40 5.52 4.65 6.30
K2 O 7.97 6.69 4.49 4.38 1.72 1.27 6.39 3.29 2.92 1.54 3.30 1.80 2.38
Cr2O3 < 0.01 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 0.06 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01
TiO2 0.67 0.60 0.47 0.44 0.91 0.89 0.58 0.28 0.75 0.81 0.47 0.53 0.43
MnO 0.07 0.13 0.08 0.06 0.34 0.66 0.07 0.01 0.14 0.11 0.07 0.10 0.11
P2O5 0.13 0.10 0.14 0.27 0.08 0.01 0.17 0.09 0.27 0.34 0.14 0.25 0.24
SrO 0.02 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 0.02 0.07 0.03 < 0.01 0.06 0.08 0.02 0.06 0.01
BaO 0.20 0.05 0.11 0.16 0.11 0.05 0.18 0.04 0.06 0.04 0.08 0.05 0.04

11
LOI 0.76 1.39 1.65 2.10 2.58 1.97 1.36 0.81 0.45 0.87 2.53 1.24 2.81
Total ppm 100.46 98.12 100.02 100.72 99.50 100.53 98.27 100.30 98.87 100.57 100.68 99.83 98.80

Ba 1914.48 578.19 1154.04 1583.01 1185.75 594.65 1597.10 379.06 559.55 320.77 753.95 443.51 323.19
Ce 139.56 8.22 50.84 133.79 28.13 46.51 5.78 12.90 51.74 55.68 36.72 41.11 32.53
Cr 20.15 71.01 20.34 30.64 503.04 112.20 10.14 10.08 10.05 20.17 20.52 10.13 10.29
Cs 4.61 3.51 0.45 1.52 0.46 1.09 2.96 0.18 3.14 1.86 0.29 1.30 0.44
Dy 2.51 1.00 4.52 7.26 3.59 2.14 3.18 1.65 4.34 3.91 2.52 3.15 2.63
Er 1.81 1.16 3.11 4.02 2.13 1.24 2.32 1.24 2.60 2.21 1.67 1.80 1.55
Eu 0.83 0.13 1.02 2.75 0.87 0.68 0.55 0.24 1.38 1.61 0.92 1.22 0.83
Ga 23.68 31.14 20.03 18.69 15.50 14.28 20.58 15.53 18.08 18.96 18.57 20.96 19.45
Gd 3.38 0.87 5.35 11.54 4.04 2.50 2.81 1.31 4.95 4.60 2.96 3.92 3.14
Hf 4.13 4.67 5.80 5.72 2.16 3.77 5.07 3.63 6.03 12.00 3.59 3.95 2.98
Ho 0.57 0.27 1.05 1.42 0.76 0.43 0.69 0.39 0.86 0.76 0.54 0.65 0.60
La 105.30 4.46 24.81 68.73 11.40 22.44 1.62 4.84 23.71 26.13 18.26 20.15 14.00
Lu 0.48 0.37 0.51 0.51 0.29 0.14 0.51 0.26 0.42 0.36 0.30 0.34 0.32
Nb 4.64 4.56 7.83 7.97 2.67 10.51 6.19 4.54 8.54 7.57 3.69 3.95 2.88
Nd 37.89 3.75 24.91 64.34 16.84 16.93 7.00 6.65 28.93 27.34 18.36 21.97 17.09
Pr 11.94 0.90 6.19 15.68 3.59 4.99 1.12 1.69 6.62 6.71 4.49 5.28 4.00
Rb 179.86 206.93 76.66 66.89 62.01 55.90 170.36 47.38 91.72 39.34 70.27 63.18 45.19
Sm 4.67 0.68 4.94 12.20 3.50 2.66 2.45 1.44 6.33 5.98 3.48 4.55 3.40
Sn 2.02 2.03 1.02 2.04 2.05 1.02 4.06 1.01 1.00 2.02 1.03 1.01 1.03
Sr 174.82 52.75 36.81 44.22 259.73 695.63 213.96 52.62 461.10 651.64 188.23 577.17 100.97
Ta 0.50 0.51 0.71 0.71 0.21 0.61 0.51 0.30 0.60 0.50 0.31 0.30 0.21
Tb 0.49 0.16 0.80 1.56 0.67 0.41 0.51 0.23 0.77 0.70 0.46 0.58 0.46
Th 4.96 6.92 6.01 6.40 1.48 3.97 6.40 5.34 7.24 7.84 3.29 3.38 2.50
Tm 0.31 0.24 0.50 0.55 0.32 0.19 0.38 0.20 0.37 0.31 0.24 0.29 0.25
U 5.04 3.01 1.84 2.52 1.45 4.40 3.20 2.96 1.52 3.31 1.47 1.12 0.84
V 69.53 117.67 33.55 40.85 214.56 86.70 32.45 41.33 170.78 151.31 122.07 143.79 100.87
W 3.02 1.01 4.07 5.11 9.24 1.02 2.03 1.01 1.00 1.01 1.03 <1 <1
Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx

(continued on next page)

 Table 3 (continued)

Punta del Cobre Formation Intrusive units

I. del Real et al.

Sample AD0066-15 LD1493-18 DH1077-10 DH1077-12 LD1493-2 AD106-5 DH700-5 ES064 GC1 b.1 S.2.8 ES067 GC1 ES067 GC2 K.2
Lithology Lower Andesite Lower Andesite Dacite Dacite Upper Andesite Upper Andesite Pre-min dacite Late-min dacite La Brea La Brea Diorite dike Diorite dike Post-min
(suite 1) (suite 2) dike dike intrusive phase intrusive phase dacite dike
Location Alcaparrosa Candelaria Santos Santos Candelaria Alcaparrosa Santos district Surface north Surface exploration exploration Kaiser
exploration drill alcaparrosa drill hole drill hole
hole
UTM East 374377.60 373322.90 376284.89 376278.95 373363.17 374152.72 375752.19 368960.00 371337.99 372957.00 368896.07 368954.28 370299.00
UTM North 6962294.96 6956219.44 6961106.91 6961104.04 6956238.22 6962294.99 6959325.87 6954611.00 6962254.79 6961462.00 6952880.50 6952880.34 6948696.00
depth 298.01 343.50 435.35 416.58 745.14 362.40 448.40 813.00 745.00 779.00 −63.52 −406.98 792.00
(m.a.s.L) %

Y 14.71 9.94 28.88 37.28 21.87 12.34 19.88 10.99 24.61 21.18 14.98 18.63 15.44
Yb 2.56 1.77 2.95 3.51 1.99 1.14 2.64 1.48 2.61 2.27 1.63 1.86 1.77
Zr 159.20 177.51 218.61 209.37 83.16 157.08 202.81 146.18 243.11 485.20 128.22 156.95 118.37
Ag < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5
As 8.06 10.14 8.13 38.81 11.29 23.46 5.07 <5 <5 9.08 <5 5.06 6.18
Cd < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5
Co 14.11 14.20 3.05 25.53 8.21 13.26 2.03 17.14 16.07 8.07 3.08 15.19 11.32
Cu 91.69 214.03 20.34 23.49 9.24 30.60 134.87 20.16 95.43 66.58 18.46 120.50 15.44
Li 50.38 20.29 10.17 10.21 51.33 30.60 10.14 < 10 10.05 10.09 < 10 10.13 10.29
Mo 3.02 1.01 1.02 1.02 49.28 1.02 1.01 3.02 3.01 1.01 2.05 <1 <1
Ni 10.08 15.22 2.03 7.15 29.77 12.24 4.06 2.02 5.02 4.03 5.13 3.04 3.09
Pb 4.03 2.03 4.07 3.06 <2 11.22 <2 <2 6.03 6.05 5.13 9.11 <2
Sc 15.11 12.17 8.13 9.19 32.85 21.42 13.18 4.03 15.07 11.10 10.26 9.11 6.18
Tl < 10 < 10 < 10 < 10 < 10 < 10 < 10 < 10 < 10 < 10 10.26 < 10 < 10
Zn 25.19 52.75 26.44 31.66 89.32 145.86 8.14 3.02 66.30 34.30 29.75 36.45 37.05

12
Eu/Eu* 0.64 0.52 0.60 0.71 0.71 0.81 1.01 0.54 0.75 0.94 0.88 0.88 0.86
La/Sm 22.57 6.57 5.02 5.63 3.26 8.43 1.71 3.36 3.75 4.37 5.25 4.43 4.12
Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx
I. del Real et al. Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx

Fig. 6. Whole rock geochemical diagrams of immobile trace and major elements of igneous members from the Punta del Cobre formation. Samples were taken from
the Candelaria, Santos and Alcaparrosa deposits together with samples from district exploration drill holes.

La Brea. Immobile trace element (Nb, Zr, Th) contents vary among the overlaps the range of values from the Copiapó batholith (Table 3). REE
phases of the batholith increasing from La Brea to the San Gregorio chondrite normalized values of these pre-mineralization dacite dikes
phases but being lowest in the Los Lirios phase (Table 3; Fig. 8). The have little to no LREE enrichment (La/Sm ∼1.71; Fig. 7; Table 3), a
granodiorite intrusion is more similar to Los Lirios than La Brea or San negative Eu anomaly (Eu/Eu* ∼0.636; Fig. 7) and a slight enrichment
Gregorio, consistent with its location adjacent to Los Lirios. REE in HREE.
chondrite normalized values for the different intrusive phases of the
Copiapó batholith all display a slight LREE enrichment (La/Sm ∼4.856;
4.3. Petrological implications
Fig. 7; Table 3), no depletion in MREE, and slight to no Eu negative
anomaly (Eu/Eu* ∼0.890).
Trace elements of the Punta del Cobre Formation suggest that the
The suite of dacite dikes dated in this study at 112–115 Ma (within
Lower Andesite and Dacite members were related by fractionation, best
the range of the Copiapó batholith) have higher SiO2 and lower TiO2
illustrated by TiO2, Zr and Nb (Fig. 6). Trace elements, however, sug-
and Al2O3 values than all phases of the batholith while Zr, Nb and Th
gest that the Upper Andesite is more mafic and primitive than the
values fall within the range of the batholith and are most similar to La
Lower Andesite, with higher values of TiO2, lower Zr and Th (Fig. 6),
Brea. While also having similar LREE and MREE signatures to the
together with lower values of Rb and Cs (Table 3; Jakeš and White,
batholith, these dikes have a pronounced negative Eu anomaly (Eu/Eu*
1972). Previous authors have suggested a transition from Medium-K
∼0.537; Fig. 7), suggesting a different magma or crystallization path
(Lower Andesite) to Low-K (Upper Andesite) magmas (Marschik and
involving plagioclase segregation during magma ascent. Hornblende
Fontbote 2001b). Our data supports a transition from less primitive to
diorite dikes intersected at depth in hole ES067 display geochemical
more primitive magma in the Punta del Cobre Formation, similar to
values, including REE, similar to those of La Brea (Fig. 7), and are
what has been observed in several Chilean margin volcanic suites of
therefore probably related.
Lower Cretaceous age (Dostap et al., 1977).
Early pre-mineralization dacite dikes at Santos are petrologically
Hydrothermal alteration limits the validity of extended trace element
similar to the previously dated dacite dike suite (120–125 Ma) that
plots since some of the elements used in these are highly mobile. REE
occur at the Punta del Cobre and Carola deposits, and have a limited
normalized to chondrite diagrams of the Punta del Cobre Formation appear
range of TiO2, Al2O3, Zr, Nb and Th contents that only partially
to be relatively consistent and indicate that the Lower Andesite is composed

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I. del Real et al. Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx

Fig. 7. REE diagrams normalized to chondrite values (Sun and McDonough, 1989) of the main igneous members of the Punta del Cobre formation, dikes in the area,
and the Copiapó batholith.

by two sub-members, where one sub-member has a strong arc signature Harker diagrams of the Copiapó batholith using TiO2 and Al2O3
(enriched LREE, Eu anomaly and depletion in MREE; Fig. 7; Davidson et al., show a general fractionation trend from La Brea to the granodiorite
2007b) and the other sub-member is more similar to the Upper Andesite phase. Late mineralization dacite dikes (∼112–115 Ma) that overlap
(similar REE patterns; Fig. 7). Pre mineralization dacite dikes have an REE temporally with the San Gregorio phase are more fractionated than the
pattern similar to those of the Punta del Cobre Formation, but with a slight rest of the batholith. Diorite dikes from south of the Candelaria deposit
depletion in MREE (Fig. 7), although geochronological data indicate that fall compositionally between La Brea and San Gregorio intrusive
these are part of a separate event. phases. The geochemistry of the Copiapó batholith displayed by Al2O3

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I. del Real et al. Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx

Fig. 8. Whole rock geochemical diagrams of immobile trace and major elements of the main plutons of the Copiapó batholith. Data obtained for this research was
integrated with data previously published by Marshik et al. (2003).

vs TiO2, or Zr or Nb vs TiO2 (Fig. 8) suggest two different slopes, se- kinematic indicators are however relatively rare. Five styles of faults
parating samples from La Brea from those of San Gregorio. This could are described in the district based on interpreted offsets and available
be interpreted as more than one source or crystallization path for the exposures (Marschik and Fontbote, 2001a; Arévalo et al., 2006;
different phases in the batholith (although the REE patterns are all si- Amilibia, 2009; Martínez et al., 2013; this study): 1) early normal faults
milar). The hornblende diorite dikes have REE values that are similar to related to extension and the formation of the Chañarcillo basin
the batholith while late mineralization dacite dikes are slightly different (Fig. 9A); 2) strike-slip faults coincident with regional sinistral trans-
to the rest of the batholith with a more prominent Eu anomaly. pressional deformation; 3) low angle shear zones which occur at li-
thological contacts (Candelaria shear zone; e.g., the Lower Andesite and
Volcanic-sedimentary member); 4) the high angle Ojancos shear zone
5. Structural geology
which roughly follows the contact between the San Gregorio phase of
the Copiapó batholith and the sedimentary rocks of the Chañarcillo
Several structural events have been recognized in the Candelaria-
Group; and, 5) open to locally recumbent folds and reverse faults re-
Punta del Cobre district and are interpreted to reflect early extension lated to compression and the tectonic inversion of the basin (Fig. 9B).
and basin formation, followed by a change to transtensional deforma-
Normal faults are locally visible and widely interpreted within the
tion, and subsequent inversion of the basin with related faulting and Punta del Cobre Formation. Most of these faults are difficult to follow
folding (Arévalo et al., 2006). The relationship of mineralization to due to scarce outcrop, and complex volcanic stratigraphy that includes
these structural events, and the potential influence on the character and primary variations in the thickness of units and facies changes. Where
distribution of mineralization, is important in terms of models for ore mapped these faults have east-west, east-northeast and west-northwest
formation and exploration. strikes and can display horizontal to subvertical slickensides. Normal
Large-scale and minor structures have been mapped and interpreted faults are more apparent in the overlying sedimentary units where
throughout the district. Exposures of faults preserving unambiguous

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I. del Real et al. Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx

Fig. 9. Structural styles in the district: (A) Normal east-west faults which formed the architecture of the Chañarcillo marine-sedimentary basin, close-up of photo
shows in more detail fault contact between the Upper Andesite and sedimentary strata, photo from the Mantos de Cobre area; (B) Fold associated with thrust faulting
and basin inversion; photo from La Espanola area, just south of the Candelaria deposit.

offsets in the basal part of the Abundancia Formation are on the order of Drill hole ES064 provides a complete intersection through this zone.
tens of meters (e.g. above the Mantos de Cobre deposit; Fig. 9A). Similar The Volcanic-sedimentary member is the predominant host lithology
faults, particularly with north-northeast strike, are interpreted to have for this style of deformation, particularly within fine grained tuffaceous
controlled the deposition in the Chañarcillo basin (Martínez et al., sediments, where a moderated fabric is developed in the fine grained
2013). biotite-rich matrix while volcanic clasts show minimal deformation.
Left lateral strike-slip motion has been documented in some north- The exact timing of shearing in this zone is uncertain.
northwest trending faults in the area (Arévalo et al., 2006). A number of A more significant shear zone occurs at the contact between the San
these faults extend into the sedimentary rocks of the Abundancia For- Gregorio intrusive phase and the sedimentary formations of the
mation, where visible offsets are present. Major faults of this type in- Chañarcillo Group (Fig. 2), and extends south where it is inferred to
clude the Lar fault (which cuts the Candelaria deposit) and Rocío fault form the eastern contact of La Brea intrusive phase. The shear zone,
and Ojancos fault, both of which extend for kilometers (Fig. 2). In the termed the Ojancos shear zone by Arévalo et al. (2006), extends for at
case of the Lar fault, horizontal slickensides dominate but vertical least 5 km in a roughly north-northeast orientation and is interpreted to
slickenslides are also observed. be a syn-intrusion structure related the emplacement of the Copiapó
Arévalo et al. (2006) documented a low angle shear zone in the batholith (Arévalo et al., 2006). Approaching the shear zone from the
Candelaria deposit termed the Candelaria shear zone. The Candelaria east, the strata of the Chañarcillo Group steepen and eventually forms a
shear zone develops and follows the contact of the Lower Andesite and steep to locally overturned anticline against the shear zone. Where in-
the Volcanic-sedimentary member, and extends south from the deposit. tersected in drill core, the steep shear fabric is parallel to the steeply

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I. del Real et al. Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx

Fig. 10. (1) Photos of mineralization pre, syn and post-deformation in the Ojancos shear zone: (A) Early wavy quartz vein stretched in the direction of foliation and
cut by a partially boudinages magnetite–quartz–pyrite vein. Pyrite in magnetite–quartz vein concentrated around the edges of broken magnetite grains, photo from
Lower Andesite within the Ojancos shear zone; (B) Deformed chalcopyrite–pyrrhotine veins parallel to foliation in magnetite-biotite altered Volcanic-sedimentary
member in the Ojancos shear zone photo from the Candelaria Norte mine; (C) Undeformed specularite–pyrite–chalcopyrite vein cutting the foliated San Gregorio
intrusive phase in the Ojancos shear zone. (2) Photo of post-mineralization in the Candelaria deposit: (D) Deformed sedimentary layer pervasively replaced to
quartz–pyrite–actinolite–biotite–magnetite in the the Volcanic-sedimentary member.

dipping strata. Shearing overlapped mineralization; where pre-shearing and Volcanic-sedimentary members exhibit normal displacement, down
(Fig. 10A), potentially syn-shearing (Fig. 10B) and post shearing to the east, and some units show thickness variation across the fault
(Fig. 10C) mineralization is documented. suggesting early basin-related extensional faulting. The Lar fault ap-
Folding and reverse to locally thrust faulting is present throughout pears to be cross-cut and overprinted by the magnetite-rich alteration
the area. High-angle reverse faults strike north-south and northeast- zone (“magnetite breccia” – see below) that dips to the east at around
southwest. (e.g. Paipote fault; Arévalo et al., 2009). The Tierra Amarilla 50 degrees. This apparent relationship is consistent with a dominantly
anticlinorium is a significant map-scale structure with an axis that pre-mineral timing for movement on the Lar fault. Fault gauge within
trends more or less north-south in the valley but swings to a more the fault zone, however, locally contains chalcopyrite clasts indicating
northeasterly trend in the Candelaria deposit (Fig. 2). High angle re- some post-mineral movement. Slickenslides suggest late motion in-
verse faults, such as the San Gregorio fault just south of the Candelaria volved both vertical and lateral displacements. The exact timing of the
deposit, are associated with asymmetric folds (Fig. 9B), and have been regional folding is difficult to constrain, particularly for the important
interrpreted to be reactivated normal faults (Martínez et al., 2013). Tierra Amarilla anticlinorium, but textures in the Ojancos shear zones
Similar small folds are present in the Candelaria deposit locally de- suggest syn-mineral deformation (Fig. 10).
forming the previously altered and mineralized host rock (Fig. 10D).
Structure plays an important role in determining and controlling
6. Mineralized centers
mineralized zones in the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre district. In some of
the deposits, particularly in the eastern part of the district, miner-
Ten major mineralized centers are being actively mined in the dis-
alization occurs in vein structures with kilometer-scale strike lengths
trict – Candelaria, Candelaria Norte, Santos, Granate, Alcaparrosa,
and north-south to north-northwest strikes. These structures pre-
Carola, Punta del Cobre, Mantos de Cobre, Atacama Kozan and Las
dominantly record sinistral strike-slip kinematics during vein-filling. In
Pintadas (Table 4), and there are many small workings, prospects and
some deposits, disseminated and replacement ore zones defined by
minor deposits some of which are also being mined at a small scale.
grade contours are elongated with similar orientations to the faults that
This study is focused on the Candelaria, Alcaparrosa and Santos de-
host mineralization, and mineralized fractures within these zones also
posits (Figs. 11 and 12), but comparisons are made to other deposits
show similar orientations.
and occurrences in the district.
The central part of the Candelaria deposit is dissected by the major
Figs. 13–15 show detailed mineralogical logs completed during this
north-northwest trending Lar fault, and similar subsidiary faults occur
study for representative drill holes selected from Candelaria (Fig. 13),
to the east and west. The timing of movement on the Lar fault is un-
Santos (Fig. 14) and Alcaparrosa (Fig. 15). Drill hole logs show the
certain. Sedimentary units, and the contact between the Lower Andesite
lithologies, Cu content, and a range of alteration minerals. The graphic

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Table 4
Styles of mineralization and host rocks of the main deposits and prospects in the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre district.
Deposit Setting/ host rocks Style/timing

Candelaria Lower Andesite and in Volcanic-sedimentary members Mineralized zones consist of massive magnetite replacement and superimposed chalcopyrite
at a continous stratigraphic horizon (manto) within and surrounding the Volcanic-
sedimentary, and extensive disseminated magentite-chalcopyrite mineralization extending
for ∼500 m below the manto in the Lower Andesite
Alcaparrosa Upper part of the Lower Andesite and in basal brecciated parts Main mineralized zone occurs as disseminated magnetite-sulfide patches and breccia filing in
of the dacitic dome, Dacite member the basal part of the dacitic dome, with superimposed chalcopyrite veins
Santos Upper part of the Lower Andesite and in brecciated zones Mienralized zones include mineralized structures with chalcopyrite-rich veins, and
around and within the dacitic dome of the Dacite member disseminated and breccia filling magnetite-sulfide in the basal part of the daciteic dome and
an irregular pipe-like body that cuts through the center of the dacitic dome
Carola Contact of Lower Andesite with the Volcanic-sedimentary Main mineralization zone occurs as disseminated stringer magnetite/hematite-chalcopyrite
member and and in structural zones veins in fault zones and at the intersection of these with the upper limit of the Lower Andesite
Punta del Cobre Upper part of the Lower Andesite and in brecciated dacitic Main mienralization zone occurs as patches, disseminations of magnetite/hematite-
dome of the Dacite member chalcopyrite and breccia filing within the base and top of the dacitic dome and assoiated
corss-cutting sulfide veins
Mantos de Cobre Contact of Lower Andesite with the Volcanic-sedimentary Main mineralization zone occurs as magnetite/hematite-chalcopyrite patches and
member and cross-cutting structures disseminations in faults concetrated in the upper part of the Lower Andesite
Atacama Kozan Upper part of the Lower Andesite and the Volcanic- The mineralized zone represents the continuation of the stratigraphic manto horizon east
sedimentary member from the Candelaria deposit and is broadly similar
Candelaria Norte Upper part of the Lower Andesite and the Volcanic- Continuation of stratigraphic manto horizon towards the north of the Candelaria deposit
sedimentary member
Las Pintadas Upper limit of the Upper Andesite sediments of the Mineralization occurs in several zones of dissemination chalcopyrite-pyrite replacing
Abundancia formation selective levels of strata in the base of the Chañarcillo basin and the upper part of the
underlying volcanic rocks
Manolete Bedded calcareous sediments of Nantoco formation Massive magnetite replacement of selective sediment horizons of the base of the Chañarcillo
basin

mineral logs allow visual correlation of alteration mineralogy with Cu concentrated within an east dipping zone, termed the “magnetite
grade and lithologies. These drill holes, together with historical data breccia” that is characterized by intense magnetite–actinolite–bio-
from the mines and past work, were used to construct representative tite–K-feldspar alteration and disseminated and fracture-controlled
alteration cross sections for each deposit. K-feldspar was not mapped chalcopyrite–pyrite (Fig. 13B).
since visual recognition was not possible during core logging is not
possible. Follow-up staining and petrography demonstrates that K- 6.1.1 Stratigraphicaly controlled mineralization
feldspar is very fine grained and albite is commonly pink, but these Stratabound replacement-type mineralization is the most laterally ex-
characteristics are not uniform. Staining and petrography assisted mi- tensive and highest grade ore type at Candelaria, covering an area of ap-
neral identification and paragenetic relationships discussed below. proximately 1 × 2.5 km, and extending north as a variably mineralized
sheet to Alcaparrosa. Mineralized zones commonly grade > 1% Cu and >
6.1. Candelaria deposit 0.2 g/t Au and are dominated by a pervasive alteration assemblage char-
acterized by magnetite–actinolite–biotite–K-feldspar–quartz and dis-
Candelaria was discovered by Phelps Dodge Corporation in 1987 seminated chalcopyrite–pyrrhotite ± pyrite mineralization subsequently
(Matthews and Jenkins, 1997) at a time when the importance of Iron- overprinted by veins and disseminations of magnetite–biotite–chalcopyr-
oxide Cu-Au (IOCG) mineralization was becoming more widely appre- ite–pyrrhotite ± pyrite ± sphalerite ± mushketovite (specular hematite
ciated. The size and geometry of Candelaria supported the development partially to completely replaced by magnetite; Fig. 16A and B). Zones
of the first major open pit in the district; a number of other deposits characterized by magnetite–actinolite only at Candelaria and elsewhere in
were exploited by small pits both before and after the discovery of the district do not contain significant Cu-Au mineralization.
Candelaria, but the majority of operations in the district have been
underground mines. 6.1.2. Structurally controlled mineralization
Mineralization and related alteration is hosted mainly by the Lower The low-medium grade (typically around 0.5% Cu) mineralization that
Andesite to depths in excess of 800 m and in the overlying Volcanic- makes up the bulk of the previously mined ore in the open pit was struc-
sedimentary member, with lesser mineralization in the Upper Andesite turally controlled within the Lower Andesite. This mineralization is domi-
and lower part of the Abundancia Formation (Fig. 12). Mineralization nated by disseminated and fracture-controlled chalcopyrite with lesser
that was originally mined in the current location of Candelaria at the pyrite, commonly intimately associated with an alteration characterized by
small Lar and Bronce mines exploited stratigraphically controlled Cu- magnetite–actinolite–biotite–K-feldspar, and lesser mushketovite. In the
Au ore bodies in the Abundancia Formation. Mineralization extends deeper parts of the deposit, chalcopyrite-rich mineralization forms a discrete
north to Candelaria Norte, and south, particularly within the Volcanic- zone that overprints and partially replaces the east plunging “magnetite
sedimentary member, which hosts so called “manto”, and associated breccia” (Fig. 12 and Fig. 13B). While brecciation in this body is locally
breccia and fracture-controlled mineralization. important, much of this zone is characterized by pervasive, texturally de-
The two main ore zones at Candelaria display distinct styles of structive replacement of the Lower Andesite by albite–epidote patches that
mineralization and alteration (Figs. 12 and 13) across a mineralized transition to fine-grained pervasive magnetite–actinolite–biotite–K-feld-
body which is up to 400 m thick in the central part and thins towards spar ± quartz alteration (Fig. 13A). The extent of Cu mineralization in the
the margins (Fig. 13B; Marschik and Fontbote, 2001a). Stratabound central part of the magnetite breccia appears to decrease at depth,
mineralization (“manto”) occurs within the Volcanic-sedimentary 400–500 m below surface, although the depth extent has not been fully
member and the immediately overlying Upper Andesite and underlying defined by drilling. Fracture-controlled chalcopyrite-rich mineralization
Lower Andesite. The deeper and more extensive zone of disseminated extends upwards through the Volcanic-sedimentary member and locally
and fracture controlled mineralization is hosted entirely within the continues for over several tens of meters into the base of the Upper Ande-
Lower Andesite. Mineralization in the deeper segment of the deposit is site. Multiple, cross-cutting sets of small to moderate (0.5–1.5 cm thick)

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Fig. 11. The main ore bodies (red shapes) projected to surface using available mine data up to date in the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre district, includes the
Candelaria, Granate, Alcaparrosa, Mantos de Cobre, Punta del Cobre, Santos and Carola deposits (ore body projections from Lundin projects were obtained by
Couture et al. (2017); ore body projections from other deposits and projects were provided by personal communication from geologists of Carola and Pucobre). Cross
sections through Candelaria, Santos and Alcaparrosa are shown in Figs. 12–15.

sulfide veins are common throughout the Lower Andesite. Sulfide vein major fault and fracture controlled veins; disseminated with intense
density is variable but correlates directly the grade of mineralization due to magnetite–actinolite–biotite–K-feldspar alteration, similar to the stra-
the presence of disseminated and replacement chalcopyrite. tabound ore bodies in Candelaria, but lacking the stratigraphic con-
tinuity that characterizes Candelaria; and, within a breccia body that
cuts through the Dacite. Stratabound mineralized bodies have thick-
6.2. Santos deposit nesses that vary between 30 and 80 m and exhibit a strong north-
northwest orientation.
Located on the east side of the Copiapó valley (Fig. 11), the Santos
deposit has been in production since 1929. Mineralization in this de-
posit is hosted mainly in the Lower Andesite, the base of the Dacite, the 6.2.1. Stratigraphically controlled mineralization
Volcanic-sedimentary member and in a breccia body that cuts the Da- Stratigraphically-controlled mineralization at Santos has limited
cite (Figs. 12 and 14). Mineralization occurs in three different styles: in lateral extent of up to 100 m, largely because the dominant host is the

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I. del Real et al. Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx

Fig. 12. Geological cross sections through the Candelaria, Santos and Alcaparrosa deposits. Geological interpretations were done using previous sections made by
geologists of the Ojos del Salado and Candelaria team.

brecciated base of the Dacite and minor intercalated sediments, which 6.2.2. Structurally controlled mineralization
are highly irregular and lack continuity. Mineralization is disseminated A major north-northwest trending fault zone, 200 m west of the
in the matrix of the breccia, typically surrounding clasts, and has grades major dacite body (Dacite member) and associated mineralization,
of approximately 1% Cu (Fig. 14A and Fig. 16C). The mineralized zones hosts the significant Isabel Vein, which is over 1 km long and 30–40 m
are characterized by extensive magnetite–actinolite alteration, which is wide (Fig. 11). Mineralized structures also occur below the zones of
overprinted by magnetite–actinolite–biotite ± K-feldspar alteration disseminated mineralization and are informally called “feeders”. Within
with chalcopyrite–pyrite mineralization. The stratigraphically-con- these structures, intense magnetite–actinolite alteration is overprinted
trolled mineralization occurs in three main areas, where structures with by magnetite–actinolite–biotite ± K-feldspar with chalcopyrite–pyrite
an overall north-northwest orientation intersect the base of the Dacite mineralization which is hosted in veinlets and irregular patches
(Fig. 11). (Fig. 16D), and can have grades above 1% Cu locally (Fig. 14A). The

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Fig. 13. (A) Representative drill core logs from the Candelaria deposit showing distribution of the main alteration minerals integrated with copper grades, lithology
and faults. Feldspar alteration mapping includes both pink albite and K-feldspar, which were not differenciated during core logging. (B) Representative cross section
of the Candelaria deposit showing the distribution of the major hydrothermal alteration styles in the deposit.

central dacite body in the Santos deposit contains a cross-cutting Lower Andesite, Dacite and the Volcanic-sedimentary members are all
breccia body with a north-northwest orientation. This breccia is present in the polymictic breccia. Mineralization occurs in the matrix of
monomictic with angular dacite clasts that are partially broken and both monomictic and polymictic breccia surrounding and partially
abraded in the core of the body but transition to jigsaw textures towards mineralizing the margins of clasts. Cu grades are consistently above 2%
the base and margins. The breccia becomes increasingly polimictic and reach their peak in the transition from monomictic to polimictic
upwards where it forms a carapace for the dacite dome. Clasts from the breccia (Fig. 14A). The breccia zone in the dacite has a north-northwest

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Fig. 14. (A) Representative drill core logs from the Santos deposit showing distribution of the main alteration minerals integrated with copper grades, lithology and
faults. Feldspar alteration mapping includes both pink albite and K-feldspar, which were not differenciated during core logging. (B) Representative cross section of
the Santos deposit showing the distribution of the major hydrothermal alteration styles in the deposit.

orientation that extends for ∼400 m and transitions at depth into one of is hosted mainly in the Lower Andesite and Dacite, with lesser miner-
the structures (or “feeders”) that occur in the Lower Andesite (Fig. 14B) alization in the Volcanic-sedimentary member (Fig. 12 and Fig. 15).
Lithological units in the Alcaparrosa deposit dip towards the west,
6.3. Alcaparrosa consistent with its location on the western flank of the Tierra Amarilla
Anticlinorium. Mineralization in the deposit is mainly stratigraphically
The Alcaparrosa deposit is located on the west side of the Copiapó controlled and the density of Cu sulfide veins is significantly lower than
Valley (Fig. 11) and has been in production since 1996. Mineralization at Santos and the deeper parts of the Candelaria deposit.

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I. del Real et al. Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx

Fig. 15. (A) Representative drill core logs from the Alcaparrosa deposit showing distribution of the main alteration minerals integrated with copper grades, lithology
and faults. Feldspar alteration mapping includes both pink albite and K-feldspar, which were not differenciated during core logging. (B) Representative cross section
of the Alcaparrosa deposit showing the distribution of the major hydrothermal alteration styles in the deposit.

6.3.1. Stratigraphically controlled mineralization 6.3.2. Structurally controlled mineralization

The “manto” at Alcaparrosa is a continuation northward of the main Mineralized structures do not play a major role in the Alcaparrosa
manto ore body at Candelaria. The manto at Alcaparrosa extends > 1 deposit. Veins in the deposit are mainly on the cm scale and cut the
km in a north–south direction, and is up to ∼350 m wide (Fig. 11). stratigraphically controlled mineralization.
Mineralization typically grades > 0.95% Cu and is dominated by
chalcopyrite (Fig. 12 and Fig. 15A). The majority of the strati- 6.4. Other mineralized centers
graphically controlled mineralization is hosted within the Dacite
(Fig. 15B), which is dominated by breccia facies, with the breccia Other mineralized centers in the area are hosted in the same stra-
matrix being partially replaced by magnetite–actinolite–biotite altera- tigraphic interval as at Candelaria, Santos and Alcaparrosa, including
tion with chalcopyrite–pyrite mineralization. Even though the Dacite in the upper part of the Lower Andesite, the Volcanic-sedimentary, and
the deposit is predominantly altered to albite–epidote–(chlorite), Dacite members, and to lesser extent, the Upper Andesite and the lower
magnetite–actinolite–biotite alteration is more important in miner- part of the overlying sedimentary sequence (Table 4).
alized zones. Deposits on the eastern side of the Copiapó valley (and on the eastern

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Fig. 16. Representative photos of the main hydrothermal alteration and mineralization styles of the district: (A) Stratigraphic controlled mineralization, photo from
the Candelaria deposit; (B) Vein of mushketovite (magnetite) after specular hematite with bladed crystal habit of specularite preserved, photo from the Santos
deposit; (C) Chalcopyrite mineralization hosted in the matrix of monomictic breccia formed at the base of the Dacite, photo from the Melendez area; (D)
Chalcopyrite–pyrite–magnetite veinlet cutting early actinolite–magnetite alteration phase, photo from the Alcaparrosa deposit; (E) Chalcopyrite–pyrite patch cutting
early magnetite–actinolite alteration, photo from the Candelaria deposit (F) Early quartz observed in wavy irregular veins with diffused borders, photo from the
Candelaria deposit; (G) Pink feldspar (interpreted to be albite) alteration in the clasts of the monomictic breccia formed at the base of the Dacite unit, photo from the
Santos deposit; (H) Chalcopyrite–actinolite–magnetite veins with diffuse borders cut early albite alteration in the Volcanic-sedimentary member, photo from district
exploration drill hole (I) brown garnet–scapolite–K-feldspar–diopside–actinolite alteration in the Abundancia formation, photo from the Candelaria deposit; (L)
Specularite–chalcopyrite vein cuts early alteration stage, photo from the Candelaria Norte deposit.

limb of the Tierra Amarilla Anticlinorium) such as Carola, Punta del Cobre, Deposits on the western side of the valley at Candelaria Norte,
and Mantos de Cobre are predominantly structurally controlled. Atacama Kozan and Granate are predominantly stratigraphically con-
Mineralization occurs in high grade, complex north-northwest trending vein trolled (Table 4). Mineralization is mainly hosted in the basal part of
systems with strike extents locally exceeding 100 m. In the Punta del Cobre the Volcanic-sedimentary member, with mineralogical and textural
deposit, ore zones are largely hosted in breccias at the base and upper characteristics that are similar to the main Candelaria manto. The
contact of the Dacite, and in north-northwest oriented faults that cross-cut Candelaria Norte and Atacama Kozan mineralized zones represent semi-
the dacitic flow dome. In the Carola and Mantos de Cobre deposits, mi- continuous extensions of the Candelaria manto to the north and east
neralization is hosted dominantly within structures with a north-northwest respectively.
strike, and locally within the Volcanic-sedimentary member where inter- In the southwestern part of the district, Las Pintadas deposit (Fig. 2)
sected by these structures (Table 4). shows significant differences from deposits in the core of the district.

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I. del Real et al. Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx

veins and is hosted by individual beds and units forming a series of

stacked manto horizons. The deposit is cut by anastomosing un-
mineralized dikes that are interpreted to be part of the adjacent Los
Lirios pluton (Fig. 17A). The stratigraphic position of Las Pintadas is
similar to the Lar and Los Bronces deposits that were located in sedi-
mentary rocks above the Candelaria deposit.
The Manolete Fe prospect is located approximately 1 km north of
Las Pintadas (Fig. 2), and consists of calcareous siltstone beds of the
base of the Chañarcillo basin rocks completely replaced by magnetite-
only, interbedded with partially replaced clay-rich siltstone-shale beds
(Fig. 17B). The Manolete prospect was previously interpreted to have a
syn-sedimentary origin (Espinoza, 1986), however, the nature of the
variably replaced units, and the extent of magnetite mantos throughout
the Candelaria district, strongly suggest that Manolete has a similar
origin without overprinting containing Cu mineralization. Las Pintadas
and Manolete confirm the existence of, and potential, for mineralization
higher in the stratigraphy in the southern part of the district.
As discussed previously, The Copiapó batholith consists of multiple
phases with ages spanning a range from 118 to 110 Ma. The oldest
phase of the batholith, La Brea, hosts numerous small vein systems with
a north-northeast to northeast strike, the largest of which can be traced
over 5 km with widths up to 5 m, and reported depth extents of >
500 m below surface (e.g. El Tránsito and La Tigresa; Kreiner and
Barton, 2009). Vein systems display a predominant scapolite–albite–e-
pidote overprinted by main phase magnetite–actinolite–K-feldspar hy-
drothermal alteration and chalcopyrite–pyrite mineralization, similar
to the main IOCG copper deposits in the district (Fig. 17C; Kreiner and
Barton, 2009). The youngest and most felsic phase of the batholith, Los
Lirios, hosts minor zones of Cu mineralization associated with quartz
stockwork veins, aplite and pegmatite dikes, and alteration showing
similarities to porphyry-style mineralization (Barton et al., 2005). Lo-
calized zones of hydrothermal alteration consisting of quartz–biotite–K-
feldspar with trace chalcopyrite are widespread within Los Lirios phase,
particularly at the northern end of the exposed intrusion.

6.5. Alteration and mineralization

The mineral assemblages related to alteration and mineralization in

the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre district deposits reflect fluid evolution and
fluid-rock reactions resulting in mineral assemblages that have been re-
cognized in many other IOCG districts (e.g., Belperio et al., 2007; Monteiro
et al., 2008; Oliver et al., 2008; Montreuil et al., 2013; Corriveau et al.,
2016). Hydrothermal alteration in the district evolves in time from: (1)
early Na to Na-Ca alteration extendedly mapped regionally in the district
(Marschik and Fontbote, 2001a) characterized by scapolite–albite–brown
garnet followed by; (2) barren Ca-Fe alteration characterized by early
pervasive magnetite–actinolite alteration which is overprinted by; (3)
mineralized K-Fe to Ca-K-Fe alteration characterized by magnetite–acti-
nolite–biotite–K-feldspar ± quartz ( ± anhydrite ± mushketovite) with
chalcopyrite–pyrite ± pyrrhotite mineralization; overprinted by; (4) Ca-
Fe-Mg alteration characterized by epidote–chlorite veins or patches and,
(5) late K-Fe-CO2 alteration characterized by the presence of specularite
instead of magnetite together with carbonate and minor K-feldspar. The
Fig. 17. Mineralization styles in other mineralized centers: A) Oxidized Cu
mineralization in the Abundancia sediments in Las Pintadas deposit which are
influence of lithology on the predominant hydrothermal alteration ob-
cut by Los Lirios intrusive phase; B) Massive magnetite replacement of sedi- served in the host rocks is shown in Figs. 13–15 and Table 5, where de-
mentary layering of the Abundancia Formation in Los Manoletes prospect; C) tailed mineral mapping demonstrates the variation in alteration miner-
Veining styles within the La Brea intrusive phase. alogy and associated mineralization with depth and lithology within the
individual deposits that are the focus of this study.
In the mineralized zones, the Volcanic-sedimentary and Lower
Las Pintadas is hosted predominantly in the lower part of the calcareous
Andesite members host early magnetite-actinolite alteration over-
sediments at the base of the Chañarcillo Group, and the underlying
printed by intense magnetite–actinolite–biotite–K-feldspar–quartz al-
Upper Andesite, which appears to be much thicker than in areas to the
teration, especially at the contact between these members (Fig. 13;
north. Mineralization at Las Pintadas occurs as copper oxides near
Table 5), and within individual fine grained beds in the Volcanic-se-
surface (e.g., atacamite–malaquite–bronchantite–azurite; Fig. 17A) and
dimentary member, which may also contain pink garnets in the western
chalcopyrite–pyrite below the level of oxidation (∼50 m below the
part of the district (Fig. 5E and Fig. 13A). Magnetite–actinolite–bio-
current pit). Mineralization, is characterized by specularite dominant
tite–K-feldspar–quartz alteration is pervasive in the stratigraphically-

25
 Table 5
Variation of alteration and mineralization styles in district respect to time (pre-, syn-, late-mineralization) and space (lateral and vertical/lithological). Abbreviations used correspond to: act = actinolite; alb = albite;
bt = biotite, carb = carbonate; chl = chlorite; cpy = chalcopyrite; diop = diopside; ep = epidote; grt = garnet; hem = hematite; Kspar = K-feldspar; mt = magnetite; mshk = mushketovite; po = pyrrhotite;
py = pyrite; qtz = quartz; scap = scapolite; spec = specularite.
I. del Real et al.

Timing Pre-mineral Main stage Cu Late-mineral

Stratigraphic association East West East West East West

Charnacillo Abudancia Minor local Na-Ca alteration Minor hem-mt-act-bt-Kspar-cpy-py veins Ca-K-Fe to K-Fe alteration – stratabound zones Minor to rare K-Fe-carbonate Minor K-Fe-carbonate
Group Formation alteration dominated by alb–ep. and patches of hem/spec-mt-Kspar-bt +/-cpy–py veins and alteration – alteration –
Zones of Pervasive patches spec-Kspar-carb ± cpy-py veins spec-Kspar-carb ± cpy-py
scap–grt–diop alteration veins
replacing individual beds;
widely scattered garnets
in more calcareous unit;
alteration intensity
increases towards the
Copiapó batholith

Punta del Upper Minor local Ca-Fe alteration - mt-act Ca-K-Fe alteration characterized by minor Ca-K-Fe to K-Fe alteration – Minor Ca-Mg-Fe alteration – Minor K-Fe-carbonate
Cobre Andesite alteration in structures and weakly mt-hemt-actt-bt-Kspar-cpy-py veins and mt-act-Kspar-bt ± minor cpy-py veins and patches of ep-chl; rare alteration –
Formati- mineralized zones patches patches spec-Kspar-carb ± cpy-py veins spec-Kspar-carb ± cpy-py
on becoming less intense at veins
depth; surrounded by Na-
Ca alteration dominated
by albwith local
scap–grt–diop -pervasive
in places
Dacite – Ca-Fe alteration – Ca-Fe alteration – mt–act Ca-K-Fe to K-Fe alteration – mt Ca-K-Fe to K-Fe alteration - mt Ca-Mg-Fe alteration – Ca-Mg-Fe alteration -

26
Volcanic- mt–act, alteration, disseminated (+mshk)-act-bt-Kspar-qtz-cpy-py, (+mshk)-act-bt-Kspar-qtz + cpy-po ± py), chl-ep ± py) in patches or veins. chl-ep ± py in patches or
sedimentary disseminated and and pervasive, replacing pervasive and disseminated cut by veins pervasive and disseminated alteration cut by Minor veins; minor spec/heme-
and upper pervasive, individual beds in the hosting the same mineral assemblage; veins hosting the same mineral assemblage. spec/hem-carb-Kspar ± py-cpy carb- Kspar ± py-cpy veins
part of the replacing volcanic-sedimentary Pervasive alteration is concentrated in the Pervasive alteration is concentrated in the veins
Lower individual beds unit; surrounded by Na- brecciated base of the Dacite and in north- contact between Lower Andesite and Volcanic
Andesite and breccias; Ca: alb-ep alteration northwest structural corridors Sedimentary member forming stratabound ore
matrix of becoming more extensive bodies (“manto”)
breaccias (top of at the top of main
Dacite) stratabound magnetite-
pervasively actinolite zone -manto.
altered to spc in
places; locally
overprinted by
cp-py-mt with K-
Fe alteration
Lower Ca-Fe alteration – Ca-Fe alteration – mt–act Ca-K-Fe to K-Fe alteration – patches and Ca-K-Fe to K-Fe alteration – patches and veins of Ca-Mg-Fe alteration – Ca-Mg-Fe alteration -
Andesite mt–act, alteration, disseminated veins of mt(+mshk)-act-bt-Kspar-qtz-py ± anh-cpy. chl-ep ± py in patches or veins. chl-ep ± py in patches or
disseminated and and pervasive; extends for mt(+mshk)-act-bt-Kspar-qtz ± py-anh- Minor spec/hem-Kspar ± py-cpy veins; minor
pervasive; more at least 1000 m below the cpy concentrated in structural corridors veins spec/hem-Kspar ± py-cpy
intense manto alteration – main veins
(texturally ore zones; locally contains
destructive) in wavy quartz veins
structural
corridors; hostsw
wavy quartz
veins; locally
overprinted by
cp-py-mt with K-
Fe alteration
Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx
I. del Real et al. Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx

controlled mineralization and in parts of the structurally-controlled occur also in the Copiapó batholith. There is no depth restriction on this
mineralized bodies (e.g magnetite breccia in Candelaria or the “feeders” vein set, being documented at shallow and deep levels in the system.
in Santos; Fig. 13B and 15B; Table 5). Disseminated magnetite–bioti- These veins also cut the foliation observed in the Ojancos shear zone
te–actinolite–K-feldspar is overprinted by patches and veins of magne- (Fig. 10D). Finally, carbonate-only veins with or without specularite
tite–biotite–actinolite–K-feldspar–quartz (Fig. 16E). In some areas ac- can be observed occurring on the shallower parts of the hydrothermal
tinolite or biotite alteration can predominate over magnetite, mostly in system cutting all previous vein sets (Table 5).
the Volcanic-sedimentary member but also locally in the Lower Ande-
site. While disseminated euhedral and massive magnetite are the 7. Discussion
dominant form of iron oxide throughout most of the deposits, mush-
ketovite occurs locally throughout the deposits in small patches or in Mineralization in the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre district is hosted
veins together with actinolite-biotite and sulfides implicating that largely in the Punta del Cobre Formation, predominantly immediately
specularite formed earlier in the system (Fig. 16B). Pink albite with above and below the upper contact of the Lower Andesite member. New
epidote is common below the stratigraphically controlled mineraliza- U-Pb ages as part of this study demonstrate that the age of formation of
tion, surrounding the magnetic breccia, and as halos to magneti- the Punta del Cobre Formation ranges from 135 ± 1.0 Ma (Lower
te–actinolite–biotite–sulfide veins. K-feldspar in the deposit is difficult Andesite) to 132.4 ± 2.9 Ma (Upper Andesite). The Candelaria-Punta
to observe on a macroscopic scale (recognized only through staining), del Cobre district was intruded by extensive dikes and the multi-phase
as it is fine-grained and disseminated. Historically pink albite has been Copiapó batholith. The earliest post-volcanic event consists of a suite of
mistakenly mapped as K-feldspar in the district, leading to different pre-mineralization dacite dikes exposed in the Carola mine with ages
interpretations alteration patterns and paragenesis. Early quartz al- between 124.9 ± 0.4 Ma and 121.9 ± 2.4 Ma (Pop et al., 2000).
teration is present in the Lower Andesite occurring as irregular patches These dikes are altered and mineralized, particularly in their marginal
and wavy veins with diffuse borders (Fig. 16F). zones. Phases of the Copiapó batholith were emplaced from approxi-
Alteration in the massive Dacite is dominated by albite alteration mately 118 to 110 Ma (Marschik and Söllner, 2006). The oldest phase,
with medium to weak actinolite–magnetite alteration, both overprinted La Brea, hosts a number of discrete veins with mineralogy that is similar
by a chlorite-epidote alteration. In the Dacite-hosted breccias, clasts are to the mineralization elsewhere in the district. The youngest intrusive
altered to a distinctive pink albite (Fig. 16G) with epidote patches, phase of the Copiapó batholith, Los Lirios, cuts major mineralized
while magnetite-actinolite-biotite alteration with chalcopyrite-pyrite zones, but contains minor weak Cu mineralization including zones that
mineralization is concentrated in the matrix of the breccia and at the show some similarities to porphyry-style mineralization (Barton et al.,
margins of clasts. The brecciated structure that cuts through the Dacite 2005).
in the Santos deposit displays two different styles of alteration: In the The major economic zones in the district represent two distinct
monomictic breccia with dacite clasts, alteration in the matrix is forms and styles of mineralization. The first is characterized by al-
dominated by magnetite-actinolite-biotite with albite and epidote in the teration and mineralization in specific stratigraphic horizons, while the
clasts, while in the polymictic breccias, the matrix is dominated by second is dominated by structurally controlled mineralization. In both
magnetite-hematite, and clasts are also locally altered to magnetite ± cases, extensive early magnetite-dominant alteration is overprinted by
hematite. Cu-rich mineralization with additional magnetite, hematite or mush-
Alteration in the Upper Andesite member and the overlying ketovite. Individual deposits in the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre district
Abundancia Formation on the western side of the valley (e.g. at may contain one or both styles of mineralization.
Candelaria and Alcaparrosa and areas to the west of these deposits) is
characterized by scapolite–diopside–actinolite–K-feldspar–brown 7.1. Regional framework
garnet (Fig. 16I, Fig. 13A and C; Table 5). This alteration varies from
fine grained massive replacement to selective replacement of individual The Punta del Cobre formation has been historically interpreted as
beds (Fig. 16I) with widely disseminated brown garnet. On the eastern an Early Cretaceous arc (Moscoso et al., 1982). The formation consists
side of the valley (e.g. Santos, Carola and Punta del Cobre deposits), the of four members from oldest to youngest:
Abundancia formation and Upper Andesite member display little to no The Lower Andesite varies between andesite flows and autobreccia
hydrothermal alteration while to the west the intensity of the alteration facies in the upper 800 m, with increasing sedimentary intercalations at
described above increases towards the Copiapó batholith greater depth. The majority of the Lower Andesite appears to be a single
Vein assemblages in the district are characterized by a sequence of petrologic unit, but a few samples have distinct geochemistry (steep
early quartz veins (Fig. 16F) and magnetite stringer veins, which are cut LREE patterns) suggesting a different magmatic source. There is in-
by main phase magnetite ± actinolite ± biotite ± k-feldspar ± sufficient data to determine the character, distribution and origin of this
chalcopyrite ± pyrite ( ± anhydrite ± quartz ± mushketovite) second andesite.
veins, which commonly have albite–epidote ± chlorite envelopes, and The Dacite members consists of several discrete extrusive to in-
chalcopyrite–pyrite stringer veins. Main phase veins are commonly trusive domes (cryptodomes) that overlie the Lower Andesite. Whole
3 mm to 5 cm wide, and are the most common vein type observed in the rock geochemistry suggests that the Dacite is related to the Lower
district. These veins have wavy diffuse margins or well defined parallel Andesite by fractionation, a relatively common progression in many
straight margins (Fig. 16H). There is no clear cross-cutting relationships volcanic systems (e.g. Lascar volcano, northern Chile; Gardeweg et al.,
between diffuse and straight margin veins to define temporal re- 1998). The base and top of many of the domes consist of variable
lationships, although the brittle nature of the straight veins suggest that thicknesses of monomictic breccias (autobreccia) that transitions up-
are later, at least locally. These veins, and discontinuous chalcopyr- wards and outwards into polymictic breccias containing andesitic, da-
ite–pyrrhotite–pyrite–magnetite veins that cut the manto horizon citic, and sedimentary clasts. These relationships support the conclusion
(Fig. 16F), show mutually cross-cutting relationships suggesting a si- that the domes were dominantly extrusive. Tuffaceous fragmental rocks
milar timing. As expected, the density of sulfide-rich veins is higher in exposed on the western side of the Copiapó Valley (in the Candelaria
structurally controlled mineralized bodies compared to replacement and Alcaparrosa areas) above the Lower Andesite may represent distal
stratigraphically controlled mineralization. In the deeper parts of the explosive and reworked volcanic material related to dome extrusion, a
deposits, mineralization in veinlets is still observed but the vein density typical facies transition in dome fields (e.g., Heiken and Wohletz,
decreases significantly (Fig. 13A and B). The last sulfide vein event 1987).
corresponds to magnetite–specularite–carbonate–pyrite–chalcopyrite The Volcanic-sedimentary member overlies the Lower Andesite and
veins, which cut all the previous alteration assemblages (Fig. 16J), and the dacite domes, but is locally present below some domes, and is

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I. del Real et al. Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx

intercalated with the polymictic breccias surrounding the domes. It is hydrothermal alteration characterization was able to target areas of
therefore interpreted to be co-temporal with the Dacite member. The more intense alteration, but not necessary those associated to economic
Volcanic-sedimentary member varies from a thick black tuffaceous copper-enrichment.
shale in the west to a thinner member of mixed sediments and dacite- The majority of economic Cu mineralization of all styles in the
rich breccias in the east that also includes red hematite-rich cross- Candelaria-Punta del Cobre district is focused over a stratigraphic in-
bedded sands and cherts. The facies variation suggests shallow or terval of approximately 500 m including the upper part of the Lower
emergent conditions in the east, with potentially deeper water basinal Andesite, the Volcanic-sedimentary, and the Dacite members
conditions in the west. Determining the character of the member in the (Fig. 18A). Mineralization is present locally in the Upper Andesite and
west is hindered by extensive and pervasive hydrothermal alteration, the overlying calcareous sedimentary Abundancia Formation at the
and local bedding-parallel shearing. With the exception of dacite ex- base of the Chañarcillo Group, particularly in the southern part of the
trusion, this period may represent reduced volcanism and associated district, and in the sedimentary rocks that were present pre-mining
reworking of exposed volcanic strata. overlying the main Candelaria deposit. The absolute depth extent of
Volcanism returned with the Upper Andesite, which is interpreted to mineralization is poorly constrained with magnetite-rich alteration and
be petrologically similar to the Lower Andesite and the Dacite, with a minor Cu present, contained in scattered main stage veins in some of
slightly more mafic and primitive signature. Pillow lavas are present in the deepest drill holes in the district, > 1000 m below surface. The
part of the Upper Andesite indicating subaqueous conditions. The upper limit for much of the significant mineralization is the top of the
Upper Andesite shows considerable variation in thickness, with much Volcanic-sedimentary member. Mineralization typically declines ra-
thicker sections to south and west, similar to the thickening of the pidly above this contact over a maximum 20–50 m (Fig. 13A). This
Volcanic-sedimentary member. Thickness variations are consistent with apparent stratigraphic control on Cu mineralization may reflect proxi-
an irregular pre-eruptive topography, including a deeper basin to the mity to the paleosurface under hydrostatic to lithostatic conditions, the
southwest, potentially reflecting the onset of extension and subsequent influence of wallrock reactions and alteration at the interface between
basin formation. the volcanic succession and overlying carbonate rocks, or mixing of
The Chañarcillo Group, and its volcanic equivalent, Bandurrias deep hydrothermal fluids with oxidized brines within the Chañarcillo
Group, were deposited in the Chañarcillo basin during extension. The basin at this interface. In addition, deformation focused in the Volcanic-
Chañarcillo Group is dominated by limestones, and calcareous sand- sedimentary member may have focused hydrothermal fluids. These
stones and siltstones that were deposited during the Late Valanginian to alternatives are discussed in more detail below.
Late Hauterivian in the Early Cretaceous (a maximum range of Lithologically-controlled mineralization occurs as a replacement of
133–130 Ma). Evidence for extensional basin faulting, including thick- favorable host rocks, particularly at the base of the Volcanic-sedimen-
ness variations of sedimentary units across faults, is present in the tary member, and in the matrix of breccias associated with dacite
Candelaria-Punta del Cobre district. The lithological and structural ar- domes of the Dacite member (Fig. 18B). Laterally extensive manto-style
chitecture of the extensional basin influenced subsequent inversion- mineralization is best developed in the fine-grained Volcanic-sedi-
related structures, and also provided the lithological and structural mentary member over areas of approximately 1 × 2.5 km centered on
framework for mineralization. Candelaria, and small areas to the north at Candelaria Norte and Al-
The Copiapó batholith is characterized by three main intrusive caparrosa. Manto mineralization is locally developed in basal breccias
phases; La Brea (118 ± 1 Ma), San Gregorio (115.5 ± 0.4) and Los and sediments below dacite domes (e.g., Santos), but these zones are
Lirios (110.7 ± 0.4). The batholith evolved from more mafic to more irregular and have limited lateral extent. Manto zones are characterized
felsic compositions in the younger phases, although trace elements by early, locally massive magnetite-actinolite alteration, that is re-
suggest more than one magma type. Previous research has suggested a placed and cut by later magnetite–actinolite–biotite ± K-feldspar ±
subduction fluid-modified primitive parental magma source for the hematite ± mushketovite alteration with chalcopyrite-rich miner-
Copiapó batholith based on isotopic signatures (Marschik et al., 2003), alization. There are no constraints on the time gap between the early
which is consistent with its REE patterns. Similar geochemical and magnetite and Cu sulfide stages.
isotopic signatures are present in the Illapel batholith, approximately The Ojancos shear zone occurs on the west side of Candelaria at the
∼600 km south of Copiapó, where a similar modified primitive mantle contact between the San Gregorio phase of the Copiapó batholith and
source has been proposed (Parada et al., 1999). Primitive mantle the Punta del Cobre Formation. In the shear zone, Cu-Fe sulfide-oxide
sourced magmas in convergent margins may reflect steepening of the blebs and stringers appear to be deformed in the foliated fabric of the
subduction zone during slab roll-back (Pankhurst et al., 1988). Volcanic-sedimentary member, but also occur in brittle fracture that cut
Previous research has suggested that an extensional environment foliation. Copper mineralization, therefore, appears to be pre-, possibly
associated with detachment faulting influenced the emplacement of the syn- and certainly post-deformation in the shear zone (Fig. 10). The
Copiapó batholith (Oyarzún et al., 1999). A transtensional to trans- shear zone is interpreted to have formed during emplacement of the San
pressional setting is, however, more consistent with reactivation of Gregorio phase at 115 Ma, and therefore, mineralization occurred be-
basin boundary faults during pluton emplacement. Evidence for in- fore and after that time.
version is more or less coincident with the range of ages for the Copiapó Manto mineralization in the Volcano-sedimentary member also
batholith (Grocott and Taylor, 2002; Arévalo et al., 2006). shows evidence for formation pre- and post-development of bedding
parallel foliation in the Candelaria shear zone. It is possible, therefore,
7.2. Controls on mineralization that deformation focused at this horizon enhanced permeability and
permitted extensive fluid access into the Volcanic-sedimentary member.
IOCG mineralization in Chile and elsewhere exhibits a wide variety Post-formation of massive magnetite, fracture-controlled permeability
of styles and controls including structures, breccias, and replacement was clearly an important control for the bulk of the Cu mineralization in
zones that may be focused in specific lithologies (e.g. Mantoverde, the mantos. Given the timing of deformation documented above, it is
Dominga, Santo Domingo, Cerro Negro, El Espino; Sillitoe, 2003; possible that fracture permeability formed during deformation and
Benavides et al., 2008; Rieger et al., 2010; Daroch and Barton, 2011; folding of the Punta del Cobre Formation, with enhanced deformation
Lopez et al., 2014; Veloso et al., 2017). All three of these styles are focused in the incompetent Volcanic sedimentary member sandwiched
important in the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre district. Characterization between the more competent andesitic members.
of the different stages of hydrothermal alteration proved to be im- Mineralization at the base of the dacite domes within the Dacite
portant for understanding the evolution of the hydrothermal system. member appears to be controlled by primary permeability within the
Similar to what Benavides et al. (2008) concluded for Mantoverde, matrix of the volcanic breccias (Fig. 18B) with significantly less

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I. del Real et al. Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx

Fig. 18. Schematic picture of favorable host rocks for mineralization, (A) main types of host rocks observed in the Punta del Cobre district (not in scale), (B) favorable
horizons and host rocks for the deposition of ore bodies and their connection to the deposit styles found in the district (not in scale).

alteration and mineralization in clasts. Mineralization of this style is mineralization at Candelaria, however, is restricted to the eastern limb
important at Alcaparrosa and locally at Santos (Figs. 14 and 15). In of the anticline, and therefore, the axis of the anticline did not appear to
some cases, mineralization in breccias at the base of dacite domes control mineralization. Similarly, there is no evidence that the Lar fault
transitions to replacement mineralization in the Volcanic-sedimentary directly controlled mineralization although a precursor structure may
member. Mineralization also occurs in structurally-controlled breccia have influenced the location of the steep east dipping magnetite-
bodies that cross-cut the dacite domes, and in the polymictic breccias dominant replacement body.
that overlie the domes, both being locally important at Santos (Fig. 14). Structurally controlled ore bodies occur in narrow structural zones
Although, there appears to be multiple breccia types, the style of matrix (< 100 m), typically with a north-northwest orientation, that can ex-
alteration and mineralization is similar in all breccias. tend for up to 2 km (e.g. Carola, Punta del Cobre, Santos, Mantos de
Alteration and mineralization in the deeper part of the Candelaria Cobre; Fig. 11). North-northwest structures associated with miner-
deposit is hosted by the Lower Andesite and forms a thick body dipping alization show left-lateral strike-slip movement consistent with trans-
at 60–70 degrees to the east (“magnetite breccia”; Figs. 12 and 13B). pressional tectonics (Arévalo et al., 2006).
Breccia textures are present locally but are subordinate to pervasive The regional kinematic framework for the Candelaria-Punta del
replacement. No cross-cutting relationship is observed between the Cobre district is complex with both extension and transpression being
magnetite breccia and the manto and it is inferred that they were more proposed at the time of mineralization (Oyarzún et al., 1999; Arévalo
or less coeval. et al., 2006). As discussed above, the Ojancos shear zone on the eastern
The Candelaria deposit is significantly larger than any other ore margin of the San Gregorio phase of the Copiapó batholith may have
body in the district and is underlain by the extensive magnetite-acti- formed during batholith emplacement (Arévalo et al., 2006). Similar
nolite replacement body in the Lower Andesite. The full extent of this marginal shear zones have been reported adjacent to other batholiths
body is unknown. Copper mineralization occurs within parts of the and have been interpreted to have formed during batholith emplace-
magnetite replacement/breccia body and is well-developed in the lat- ment under compressional/transpressional conditions (e.g., Boulder
erally extensive manto body, which overlies the replacement body on batholith in the Sevier fold-and-thrust belt in Southwest Montana, USA;
the east side of Candelaria (Fig. 13B). Candelaria is located west of the Kalakay et al., 2001). If correct, batholith emplacement and miner-
Tierra Amarilla anticlinorium and is dissected by the Lar fault. The alization probably occurred during transpression when, as suggested
spatial association of the crest of the anticlinorium with the Lar fault previously, the principal stress direction would have been northwest-
suggests a potential relationship. Variations in unit thickness across the southeast, which in turn would be consistent with development of
Lar fault suggests an early extensional origin, with potential reactiva- north-northwest left-lateral strike-slip faults (Bott, 1959), the host mi-
tion focusing development of the anticline during contraction and neralized vein structures in the eastern part of the district (Fig. 11).
folding, probably related to inversion of the Chañarcillo Basin. As dis-
cussed above, this timing may be broadly synchronous with the em-
7.3. Temporal and spatial variation
placement of the Copiapó batholith, and the timing of mineralization. It
is possible, therefore, that the anticline may have influenced fracture
Most deposits in the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre district have an
development and fluid flow, as documented in other mineralizing and
early magnetite-actinolite, Cu-poor stage. At Candelaria, this early
hydrocarbon systems (Hubber, 1953; Cox et al., 1991). The majority of
stage formed much of the extensive massive and breccia-related

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magnetite and the laterally continuous manto within the Volcanic-se- evaporitic protoliths (Kwak, 1977; Moine et al., 1981), but evaporites
dimentary member extending semi-continuously from Candelaria to have not been documented in unaltered basal formations of the Cha-
Alcaparrosa. Layers of massive magnetite at the Manolete Fe prospect in ñarcillo Group. Similarly, the composition of these sedimentary for-
the southwest part of the district are interpreted to be part of this early mations is not consistent with the formation of garnet, diopside, and
alteration stage, although there is no direct evidence for the timing of actinolite during isochemical contact metamorphism. As previously
this zone and there is no overprinting Cu mineralization. If correct, the suggested by Marschik and Fontbote (2001a), the scapolite–brown
implication is that fluids responsible for early magnetite reached the garnet–diopside–actinolite assemblage likely formed by metasomatism
Abundancia and Nantoco Formations in the southern part of the dis- related to hydrothermal alteration although potentially influenced by
trict, and were not restricted to the Punta del Cobre Formation. the thermal gradient surrounding the Copiapó batholith.
Mineralization also occurs in the Upper Andesite and the overlying
Abundancia Formation, both in structures on the east side of the district 7.4. Timing of mineralization
and as replacement mantos at Las Pintadas in the southwest. Copper
mineralization at higher stratigraphic levels is commonly associated The timing of mineralization in the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre
with specularite–(pyrite–chalcopyrite–carbonate) veins. district has been debated for several decades with both syn-volcanic
In all of the major deposits, the major stage of Cu sulfide miner- and syn-batholith ages being proposed (Camus, 1980; Oyarzún et al.,
alization overprints early magnetite-actinolite alteration and is asso- 1999; Marschik and Fontbote, 2001a; Arévalo et al., 2006). Geochro-
ciated with chalcopyrite–pyrite–magnetite–actinolite ± biotite ± K- nological data from this research integrated with previous published
feldspar ± quartz ± pyrrhotite ( ± anhydrite ± mushketovite) with ages indicate that volcanism occurred in the district between ∼135 and
albite–epidote ± chlorite envelopes around veins and fractures. Early 132 Ma (Fig. 19A), sedimentation of the Chañarcillo basin occurred
quartz and sulfide-oxide veins can display wavy diffuse margins, while between ∼132 and 130 Ma (Late Hauterivian, based on fossil data;
other veins have parallel straight margins. These vein characteristics Fig. 3; Fig. 19A) and emplacement of the Copiapó batholith occurred
are similar to those seen porphyry systems, which are interpreted to between ∼118 and 110 Ma (∼118 Ma La Brea, ∼115 Ma San Gregorio,
represent decreasing temperature in the transition from ductile to ∼110 Ma Los Lirios; Fig. 19B and C; Marschik and Söllner, 2006). A
brittle conditions (e.g., Gustafson and Hunt, 1975; Rusk and Reed, series of dacite dikes documented in some of the deposits with U-Pb
2002). Interpretation of conditions of vein formation in the Candelaria- ages of 124.9 ± 0.4 and 121.9 ± 2.4 Ma (Fig. 19B; Pop et al., 2000)
Punta del Cobre district is hindered by limited examples of cross-cutting indicate a magmatic event that postdates volcanism related to the Punta
vein relationships, although wavy veins are clearly deformed in some del Cobre Formation and most of the sedimentation in the Chañarcillo
areas whereas straight veins cut foliation. Although these relations are basin, but predates the emplacement of the Copiapó batholith. The
not common, they are consistent with a transition from ductile to brittle dikes are locally altered and mineralized with the main phase of Cu
conditions. sulfide mineralization, hence providing a maximum age for the mi-
The copper sulfide stage contains significant amounts of iron oxides, neralizing event. A second group of dacite dikes with a north-northwest
predominantly magnetite with varying amounts of specular hematite or orientation were dated in 112.8 ± 1.3 Ma and 115.2 ± 1.8 Ma (this
mushketovite. Mushketovite is present in veins and patches throughout study). These dikes cut stratigraphically-controlled magnetite replace-
the mineralized centers in the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre district, and ment and Cu mineralization, but contain minor Cu-rich sulfide ±
its distribution does not appear to define vertical or lateral zoning magnetite veins. These dikes therefore suggest a minimum age for the
patterns. Mushketovite in hydrothermal environments forms by re- main Cu mineralizing event of approximately 115 Ma, but also indicate
ductive dissolution of hematite to Fe2+ or the addition of Fe2+ into the that late stage mineralization continued to at least 112 Ma (Fig. 19C).
system, followed by the transformation of hematite to magnetite (Otake These constraints are consistent with the relationships seen in the
et al., 2010). Alternative mechanisms for transforming hematite to Ojancos shear zone, which suggest that mineralization occurred both
magnetite have been proposed, but non-redox magnetite-hematite before and after the ∼115 Ma emplacement of the San Gregorio phase
transformation implies volume changes that are incompatible with the of the Copiapó batholith.
preservation of the pseudomorphic fabric of the mushketovite (Mücke Previous geochronolgical research has provided a Re-Os age from
and Cabral, 2005). Critically, the presence of mushketovite implies molybdenite of 114.2 ± 0.6 and 115.2 ± 0.6 Ma (Mathur et al.,
widespread early hematite, and therefore suggests that hydrothermal 2002). This age compares closely with the oldest 40Ar/39Ar alteration
fluids evolved from more oxidized (forming specularite) to more re- ages at Candelaria with a mean plateau age of 116.5 ± 0.26 Ma (bio-
duced (forming mushketovite). The local development of mushketovite tite; Marschik and Fontbote, 2001a) and 114.1 ± 0.7 Ma (amphibole;
over a considerable vertical range in the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre Ulrich et al., 2001). Both sets of ages are similar to ages of the late
district, further suggests that hematite alteration was more extensive mineral dacite dikes (above), and may therefore be recording the later
during early stages of hydrothermal alteration, but was replaced by stages of mineralization. The youngest 40Ar/39Ar alteration ages in the
mushketovite (magnetite) during the advance of more reduced fluids Candelaria deposit have a mean plateau of 110.7 ± 1.6 Ma (biotite;
into the upper parts of the system. Arévalo et al., 2006). These ages are similar to the youngest ages for the
Vertical changes in vein and alteration mineralogy in the district Copiapó batholith and may reflect cooling post batholith emplacement.
include the change from magnetite to hematite upwards in the eastern The overlap in ages of mineralization and the emplacement of the
part of the district, and that change from quartz veins that are dominant Copiapó batholith led previous authors to suggest that the batholith was
at depth to carbonate veins that are more important at shallower levels. the source of mineralizing fluids for the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre ore
Similarly, deep alteration is dominated by biotite–actinolite–k-feldspar bodies (Marschik and Fontbote, 2001a; Mathur et al., 2002; Arévalo
while albite–epidote–chlorite are more prevalent at upper levels, al- et al., 2006). Although La Brea hosts mineralized veins with the same
though present locally with mineralization throughout the deposits. mineralogy and paragenesis as the major deposits in the district, there is
Scapolite–brown garnet–diopside–actinolite alteration is dominant no direct evidence that the La Brea phase of the Copiapó batholith was a
in the Chañarcillo Group and Upper Andesite rocks on the western side major source of fluids, at least at current levels of exposure. La Brea
of the Copiapó valley, becoming more intense towards the contact with appears to be a passive host for localized mineralization in post-crys-
the Copiapó batholith. Scapolite–garnet–diopside–actinolite alteration tallization brittle structures. A similar case can be proposed for the San
has also been locally identified within the Lower Andesite in the Gregorio intrusive phase, considered a late mineral intrusion based on
Candelaria deposit (Barton, 2007, Freeport internal report). Scapolite mineralization observations in the Ojancos shear zone, and therefore
alteration observed in the Upper Andesite and Chañarcillo Group could not the major source of mineralization.
have formed during contact metamorphism, potentially involving The available data indicate that the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre

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Fig. 19. Timing and setting for mineralization in the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre district: (A) 135–130 Ma: volcanic and sedimentary units of the Punta del Cobre
Formation (135–132 Ma) and the conformably overlying sedimentary Chañarcillo Group (132–130 Ma) were deposited in an extensional basin; (B) 122–115: dacite
dikes were emplaced locally (122 Ma) followed by early magnetite alteration in stratigraphically-controlled zones and initial phases of copper mineralization
overprinted the magnetite. La Brea intrusive phase of the Copiapó batholith was emplaced at ∼118 Ma, but its timing relationship to stratigraphically-controlled
mineralization remains unclear; (C) 115–110 Ma: mineralization continued dominantly within structurally-controlled zones including areas within the La Brea phase;
at ∼115 Ma the San Gregorio intrusive phase was emplaced and the Ojancos shear zoned formed during horizontal shortening along the contact of this intrusion.
Mineralization in the Ojancos shear zone formed pre- and post-deformation. Similarly, dikes (115–112 Ma), possibly related to the San Gregorio phase cut miner-
alization, but are locally mineralized. Horizontal shortening during regional transpression inverted normal faults and north-northwest left-lateral strike-slip faults
formed. All mineralization is cut by the Los Lirios phase (110 Ma) in the southern part of the district. Same scale vertical and horizontal.

district deposits formed in an extensive hydrothermal system that lasted district in north-northwest structural zones are interpreted to have
for at least 6 m.y. (∼118–112 Ma). This is significantly longer than the formed during transpressive deformation, and similarly, pre- and post-
usually attributed to major porphyry copper deposits, even when deformation mineralization in the Ojancos shear zone also suggests
multiple intrusive phases are recognized (Chiaradia and Caricchi, formation during compression or transpression. Emplacement of the
2017). Copiapó batholith took place at this time under similar kinematic
The controls and distribution of mineralization in the Candelaria- conditions. Evidence for compressive or transpressive conditions sug-
Punta del Cobre district reflect the regional structural framework, and gests that inversion of the Charñacillo basin began during this period.
potentially, active deformation. Major veins in the eastern part of the The timing of basin inversion was proposed by previous workers to be

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I. del Real et al. Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx

approximately 110 Ma (Maksaev et al., 2009) based on the age of the et al., 2010; Daroch and Barton, 2011; Veloso et al., 2017). Similarly,
continental Cerrillos formation. This age is similar to the age of the several IOA deposits exhibit late-stage pyrite with associated chalco-
youngest phase of the Copiapó batholith (e.g. Los Lirios pluton, pyrite (e.g. Los Colorados, Marcona, El Romeral, Cerro Negro Norte;
Marschik and Söllner, 2006). A compressive/transpressive structural Bookstrom, 1977; Vivallo et al., 1995; Sillitoe, 2003; Knipping et al.,
conditions for the emplacement of the San Gregorio intrusive phase 2015; Reich et al., 2016).
suggests that inversion may have started earlier at ∼115 Ma (Fig. 19C). The Andean belt is unusual in having significant numbers of both
This conclusion is consistent with the previous work of Amilibia (2009), IOA and IOCG deposits. Other IOCG belts and districts tend to be
who suggested that mineralization formed during basin inversion in the dominated by one or other type, e.g., IOA dominant in the Kiruna re-
Candelaria-Punta del Cobre area. gion of Sweden and IOCG dominant in the Conclurry area of northern
Queensland, Australia. The relationships between IOA and IOCG are
7.5. Constraints on the IOCG model less clear in the Gawler craton, Australia, the host to Olympic Dam and
other IOCG deposits, and in Carajas, Brazil, largely due to cover that
The Candelaria-Punta del Cobre is the most important Cu-Au IOCG may conceal deposits and geological relationships.
district within the Andean IOCG belt. Mantoverde is the other major A variety of models have been proposed to explain the origin and
operating IOCG deposit in the belt and it shows important similarities concentration of magnetite in IOA deposits involving distinct mag-
and differences to Candelaria, with mineralization hosted pre- matic, magmatic-hydrothermal, or combined processes (Nyströem and
dominantly in breccias cemented by specularite and calcite that tran- Henriquez, 1994; Naslund et al., 2002; Sillitoe and Burrows, 2002;
sition downwards into magnetite-dominant breccias at depth (Rieger Barton, 2014; Knipping et al., 2015). Some of these models also include
et al., 2010, 2012). The major ore zones at Mantoverde are controlled a proposed connection to IOCG mineralization, with the high tem-
by a significant north-south to north-northwest structure that dips to perature fluid involved directly or indirectly with the deposition of
the east, and a subsidiary northeast trending fault that dips to the west. magnetite evolving and cooling before precipitating pyr-
These structures are part of the sinistral Atacama Fault System ite–chalcopyrite, typically at shallower levels (Sillitoe, 2003; Knipping
(Benavides et al., 2007). Mantoverde is hosted by Jurassic volcanic et al., 2015; Reich et al., 2016). This implies that a deep magmatic fluid
rocks of the La Negra Formation, and mineralization is slightly older was the major source of IOCG mineralization. Many models, however,
than Candelaria-Punta del Cobre (∼126 Ma; Gelcich et al., 2005). suggest that basinal brines were critical in IOCG deposit formation (e.g.
Several granodioritic intrusions are present in the district with crys- Olympic Damm; Haynes et al., 1995; Williams and Pollard, 2001;
tallization ages (120–135 Ma) that overlap with the age of mineraliza- Chiaradia et al., 2006). At Candelaria, the importance of basinal fluids
tion (Benavides et al., 2007). Similar temporal relationships between related to the Chañarcillo basin has been proposed (Barton and
mineralization and intrusions are present in other Andean IOCG dis- Johnson, 1996; Barton and Johnson, 2000; Hitzman, 2000; Benavides
tricts (e.g. Candelaria-Punta del Cobre and El Espino; Marschik and et al., 2007) and is supported by δ37Cl values and Cl/Br ratios from of
Fontbote, 2001a; Marschik and Söllner, 2006; Benavides et al., 2007; fluid inclusions indicative of an evaporitic contribution (Mathur et al.,
Lopez et al., 2014; del Real and Arriagada, 2015), but in all cases, the 2002; Chiaradia et al., 2006). The Os and Cl isotopic data from Can-
genetic relationship of mineralization to proximal intrusions is enig- delaria, however, also indicate a strong mantle signature (Chiaradia
matic. Mineralized veins are present in the Copiapó batholith and et al., 2006). Thus involvement of both deep magmatic and shallow
elsewhere (e.g. Tocopilla, Gatico, Montecristo, Julia, Las Animas; basinal fluids have been proposed for Candelaria, and also for other
Sillitoe, 2003), but in these cases, the intrusions appear to be a passive IOCG deposits, e.g., Sossego deposit in Brazil and Raúl-Condestable in
hosts for structures and mineralization. Peru (Chiaradia et al., 2006), although their relative contributions to
The structurally controlled nature of mineralization at Mantoverde ore forming processes and metal budgets remains poorly constrained.
is similar to deposits in the eastern part of the Punta del Cobre district, The Andean belt also contains significant manto Cu-Ag deposits
although the latter are hosted by several of subvertical structures with (e.g., Mantos Blancos and El Sodado; Klohn et al., 1990; Ramirez et al.,
limited strike extent. The main differences at Mantoverde compared to 2006). The deposits show structural and lithological controls that are
Candelaria are the older age of the host rocks, the lack of an im- similar to some IOCG deposits, but the associated sericite-chlorite-car-
mediately overlying sedimentary sequence, the absence of lithologi- bonate alteration mineralogy suggests lower temperatures of formation
cally-controlled mineralization within a discrete stratigraphic interval, compared to IOCG deposits. The range of ages for Andean manto Cu-Ag
and the limited extent of Na-Ca alteration. These features are important deposits are similar to the ages of IOCG deposits, but no direct re-
at Candelaria-Punta del Cobre, but Mantoverde demonstrates that they lationship has been demonstrated in the Andean belt.
are not prerequisites for the formation of a major IOCG deposit. Porphyry Cu-Au deposits also occur in the Andean IOCG belt (e.g.
The Andean Jurassic-Cretaceous belt that hosts deposits in northern Carmen de Andacollo, Antucoya, Los Negritos, Tovaku and Colliguay
Chile and southern Peru also contains several other types of mineral among others; Fig. 1 and Table 1; Maksaev et al., 2006, 2010). Al-
deposits including IOA, manto Cu-Ag, and porphyry Cu-Au. Most IOA though some porphyry deposits are in close proximity to IOCG deposits,
deposits occur broadly in the same regions as IOCG deposits, varying there is no evidence of a relationship between them, and the porphyry
from being adjacent to IOCG mineralization to being removed by a few deposits are generally younger than the majority of IOCG deposits. The
tens of kilometers. IOA deposits have ages that are similar to proximal evolution to porphyry mineralization in the mid-Cretaceous was fol-
IOCG mineralization, or distinctly different, usually older by up to lowed by the major Paleocene, Eocene and Miocene porphyry Cu belts
10–30 my. A number of researchers have proposed a genetic relation- that are characteristic of northern Chile and southern Peru. Richards
ship between IOA and IOCG mineralization in Chile, with IOCG deposits et al. (2017) suggested that IOCG deposits form from S-poor magmas
being viewed as the late-shallower end member (Espinoza et al., 1996; while porphyry deposits require S-rich magmas. Varying S content of
Sillitoe, 2003; Knipping et al., 2015; Reich et al., 2016; Barra et al., magmas may reflect the tectonic setting and type of arc, with S-poor
2017). This is supported by the existence of abundant early-deep magmas and associated IOCG mineralization being related to back-arc
magnetite alteration in most of the Andean IOCG deposits which is extensional settings (Richards et al., 2017). While appealing, this model
followed by Cu sulfide mineralization (e.g. Mantoverde, Candelaria, is inconsistent with both IOCG and porphyry mineralization in the
Santo Domingo and Dominga; Marschik and Fontbote, 2001a; Rieger Andean IOCG belt, and the evidence for horizontal shortening during

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mineralization in the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre district, also docu- (118–112 Ma) overlaps closely with the age of the first two major
mented in the Marcona-Mina Justa district in Northern Peru (Chen phases in the Copiapó batholith (La Brea and San Gregorio), while
et al., 2010). The change to compressional/transpressional deformation the final phase (Los Lirios) is post-mineral and hosts minor Cu mi-
and the associated inversion of the Chañacillo basin more or less at the neralization with porphyry characteristics. Evidence has also been
time of mineralization suggest that the change in deformation style may presented here for compressional or transpressional deformation
have been the trigger for releasing deep mantle and crustal fluids, and occurring synchronously with batholith emplacement and miner-
potentially also allowing the movement of basinal brines from the basin alization. Deformation may have enhanced local permeability in the
into structural zones that were the focus for upwelling magmatic mantle Volcanic-sedimentary member, for example in the Ojancos shear
fluids. zone and to a lesser extent in the Candelaria shear zone. The change
The IOCG ore deposit classification, the source of metals, and the to compressional/transpressional deformation more less at the time
exact ore forming processes continue to present challenges. Unlike of mineralization may coincide with inversion of the Chañarcillo
porphyry deposits, IOCG deposits formed periodically over more than basin which was previously interpreted to be approximately
2.5 By of earth history. Several of the major Early to Mid-Proterozoic ∼110 Ma (Maksaev et al., 2009). Inversion and deformation of the
IOCG districts have been affected by superimposed structural, mag- basin might have concentrated and enhanced the flow of basinal
matic and hydrothermal events and are partially to extensively covered. brines into structures and also deep upwelling magmatic high tem-
The Andean IOCG belt is both the youngest and best exposed, and some perature fluids. Although controversial, the potential importance of
of the critical relationships discussed in this paper place constraints on basin inversion has been proposed for other types of Cu and some
models for the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre district, and have to be Zn-Pb deposits (Gibson et al., 2017; Sillitoe et al., 2017), as well as
considered in global IOCG models. other IOCG deposits (e.g. Marcona; Chen et al., 2010).
• In addition to the variation observed in veining and mineralization
8. Conclusions we observe spatial variation in alteration mineralogy, which is
evident in the district with increasing Na-Ca alteration in the sedi-
The Candelaria-Punta del Cobre district is the most important IOCG mentary formations of the Chañarcillo Group towards the contact
district in the Andean belt, and all its deposits together represent one of with the Copiapó batholith. The garnet–scapolite–albite–actinolite
the most productive areas of this deposit type in the world. alteration is interpreted to be metasomatic, related to district-scale
Mineralization in the district has a strong host rock spatial control, hydrothermal alteration, but increasing temperatures towards the
concentrated mainly in the top of the Lower Andesitic member of the Copiapó batholith coincident with hydrothermal alteration likely
Punta del Cobre Formation and the overlying Volcanic-sedimentary and influenced the mineral assemblage.
Dacite members. The main phase of mineralization is cut by mid- to late • Spatial variation of alteration mineralogy is not only lateral, but also
phases of the Copiapó batholith, emplaced in the western side of the vertical. Most of the deposits in the district show vertical zonation
district. Host rock control on mineralization underlines the importance from deep magnetite with K-Ca-Fe ± Na alteration with fractures
of understanding the geological evolution and distribution of lithologies and veins dominated by quartz ± anhydrite, feldspar, chalcopyrite,
within the Punta del Cobre Formation. The key features of the epidote and carbonate, to shallow specular hematite with stronger
Candelaria-Punta del Cobre district that illustrate the IOCG classifica- Na-Ca alteration and calcite-rich veins. Mushketovite is common
tion and the critical questions related to the genesis of mineralization, over a range of depths in many deposits indicating that relatively
are summarized below. abundant early specularite was replaced by magnetite during the
evolution of the system. The depth extent of magnetite and asso-
• Similar mineralization and alteration occurs throughout the ciated alteration suggests a focused zone of upwelling fluid flow in
Candelaria-Punta del Cobre district although vein systems asso- the Candelaria area, which increased continuously, or in pulses,
ciated with structures are dominant in the east and lithologically overprinting specularite that formed in the upper parts of the early
controlled is more important in the west. established hydrothermal system.
• Lithologically controlled mineralization is concentrated over a re- • While there is abundant magmatic activity related to the Copiapó
stricted stratigraphic interval (∼100 m) at the top of the Lower batholith and extensive suites of dikes of variable composition, there
Andesite, in the dacite domes and related breccias of the Dacite is no direct evidence for a discrete syn-main stage mineralization
member, and in fine-grained beds within the Volcanic-sedimentary suite of intrusions, or a specific intrusive source for mineralizing
member. Mineralization in breccias above the Dacite and in mixed fluids. The early intrusive phases in the Copiapó batholith, and
reworked volcanic beds in the Volcanic-sedimentary member are many of the dikes host minor mineralization, but this is significantly
typically only tens of meters below calcareous sedimentary forma- less important than mineralization to the east of the batholith hosted
tions, a major lithological change from the volcanic-dominant Punta by specific lithologies and structures. The conclusion is that the
del Cobre Formation to the marine sedimentary formations de- intrusions are relatively unreceptive hosts for mineralization.
posited in the Chañarcillo basin. This is a significant compositional
change, but may also have provided access to oxidized basinal fluids This study has aimed to provide a district-scale approach to the
at the time of mineralization, as discussed in previous work (Barton Candelaria-Punta del Cobre area. Part of the work consisted of the in-
and Johnston, 2000). tegration and reinterpretation of previous research with new geochro-
• Geochronological constraints from previous work, augmented by nological, geochemical and mapping data. The importance of the li-
new U-Pb dates presented herein, indicate that IOCG mineralization thological control on mineralization has been previously mentioned at
formed over a maximum period 122–110 Ma. The upper limit is not the deposit scale, but this study examines and documents these re-
well constrained and mineralization may not have begun until lationships at the district scale, emphasizing the different styles of mi-
116–118 Ma. Mineralization continued post 112 Ma but likely fin- neralization. Our new U-Pb geochronological data has constrained the
ished before 110 Ma. The implied age range for most mineralization age of the Punta del Cobre Formation and mineralization, building on

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I. del Real et al. Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx

work and previous ages obtained in the area. Finally, our structural for their support and great discussions during and after field work.
interpretation of the area provides a new model for the district that Thanks to Carla Sepúlveda and Carla Dabner for their help with all the
correlates compressional deformation with IOCG mineralization. logistics concerning field work. Special thanks to Nicolae Pop, Stephan
Gonczi and Vicente Gainza from Minera Carola, and Radu Almasan and
Acknowledgments Luis Guerrero from Pucobre for their support in the field and great
geological discussions. Finally, Thanks to Richard Friedman of the
Lundin Mining is acknowledged and thanked for funding and field Pacific Centre of Isotopic and Geochemical Research (PCIGR) of the
support for the project. CONICYT with their scholarship program Becas University of British Columbia for U-Pb analysis. The manuscript was
Chile and Cornell University is acknowledged for funding. The staff of improved significantly based on reviews by Louise Corriveau and
the Candelaria exploration and Lundin exploration team including Tim anonymous reviewer.
Walmsley, Paula Brunetto and Mario Fuentes among others are thanked

Appendix 1:. Samples and analytical methods

Research was based on detailed field work, core logging followed by analytical work. Geochronological work was carried out at the University of
British Columbia (UBC), and whole rock analysis, was done at ALS Labs.

Drill core logging

More than 10,000 m of core from 30 diamond drill holes; eight holes from Candelaria, seven from Alcaparrosa, seven from Santos and 8 for
district exploration holes were logged during this study. Drill core examination included graphically documenting rock type, structure, alteration
assemblages, vein distribution and frequency, sulfide mineralogy and sulfide ratios and textures. This documentation was made by paper and color
pencil and was subsequently digitized in PDF format. Lithology and alteration were plotted and projected onto cross-sections. A geological cross-
section showing host rocks, alteration and mineralization was subsequently constructed on the basis of the author’s interpretations and those that
were previously made by Candelaria and Ojos del Salado geologists.

Whole rock geochemistry

Least-altered samples, identified petrographically, were selected for each lithological member of the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre district. The
mobility of K, Na and Ca during hydrothermal alteration precludes samples from the Punta del Cobre formation from being used for geochemical
classification and characterization of host rocks using major oxides. The Ishikawa alteration index (AI) was used for discarding samples with AI > 50
within the Punta del Cobre formation (Fig. A1). Out of 47 samples, 29 were identified as altered and were excluded from further petrogenetic

Fig. A1. Whole rock geochemical data from main host rocks of the Punta del Cobre formation, Samples with more than 50 Alteration Index were discarded for this
study as they were to altered for being used in discrimination diagrams.

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I. del Real et al. Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx

Fig. A2. Whole rock geochemical data from main host rocks of the Punta del Cobre district plotted in IOCG hydrothermal alteration discriminant diagram (Montreuil
et al., 2013).

discussion. Complementing the AI index also the IOCG discriminant diagram by Montreuil et al. (2013) which uses molar proportions of Na-Ca-Fe-K-
Mg-Mn-Si for classifying hydrothermal alteration stages (Fig. A2). Finally, we used binary plots with immobile elements (Zr, Th and Nb) to prove
their immobility and use them for host rock characterization (Fig. A3). Using these techniques combined we identified which elements were mobile
and which weren’t and could be used for petrological characterization of the main host rocks of the district. Fig. A1 displays AI vs TiO2 diagram, used
for selecting the lest altered samples. A2 shows host rock samples plotted using the IOCG hydrothermal alteration discriminant diagram. Fig. A3
shows Zr, Th and Nb binary plots, together with molar K/Al vs Na/Al diagram (Benavides et al., 2008) from the main host rocks of the area. Fig. A4
shows harker diagrams for major elements of the Punta del Cobre formation. Figure Intrusive rock samples display less hydrothermal alteration. The
sample suit consists of 30 samples, where 17 corresponds to dacite dikes (pre, syn and post mineralization), 6 samples correspond to La Brea pluton,
5 to late felsic intrusions, 1 to a granodiorite and 1 to an ocoiitic dike. Fig. A5 shows intrusive rocks plotted using the IOCG hydrothermal alteration
discriminant diagram. Fig. A6 shows Zr, Th and Nb binary plots, together with molar K/Al vs Na/Al diagram (Benavides et al., 2008) from the main
intrusive rocks of the area. A7 shows harker diagrams for major elements of the Copiapó batholith plutons Fig. A7.
Oxides were analyzed by inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES) and trace elements by inductively coupled plasma
mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS). Lithium metaborate fusion (ME-ICP06 and OA-GRA05) was applied to ensure complete dissolution of lithophile ele-
ments for major oxide results. Lithium metaborate/tetraborate fusion and nitric acid digestion (ME-MS81) were used for precious and base metal
assays. ALS Labs, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, analyzed the samples.

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I. del Real et al. Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx

Fig. A3. Zr vs Nb and Zr vs Th binary plots for host rocks in the district, correlation trends intercept the origin suggesting that these elements are conserved. Molar
element ratio analysis for host rocks of the district displaying the main processes of Na depletion and K-feldespathization of host rocks (diagram from Benavides et al.,
2008).

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I. del Real et al. Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx

Fig. A4. Examples of variation diagrams for rocks of the least altered intrusive host rocks of the Punta del Cobre formation using mobile and immobile elements.

37
I. del Real et al. Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx

Fig. A5. Whole rock geochemical data from intrusive rocks of the Punta del Cobre district plotted in IOCG hydrothermal alteration discriminant diagram (Montreuil
et al., 2013).

38
I. del Real et al. Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx

Fig. A6. Zr vs Nb and Zr vs Th binary plots for intrusive rocks in the district, correlation trends intercept the origin suggesting that these elements are conserved.
Molar element ratio analysis for intrusive rocks of the district displaying the main processes of Na depletion and K-feldespathizaion of host rocks (diagram from
Benavides et al., 2008).

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I. del Real et al. Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx

Fig. A7. Examples of variation diagrams for rocks of the Copiapó batholith using mobile and immobile elements, circles not filled correspond to data from Marschik
et al. (2003).

Geochronology

Seven samples were analyzed for geochronology data. The analyses were done in the PCIGR, at the University of British Columbia using LA-ICP-
MS. Zircons were analyzed using laser ablation (LA) ICP-MS methods, employing methods as described by Tafti et al. (2009). After rock samples have
undergone standard mineral separation procedures, zircons were handpicked in alcohol and mounted in epoxy, along with reference materials. Grain
mounts were then wet ground with carbide abrasive paper and polished with diamond paste. Next, cathodoluminescence (CL) imaging was carried
out on a Philips XL-30 scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipped with a Bruker Quanta 200 energy-dispersion X-ray microanalysis system at the
Electron Microbeam/X-Ray Diffraction Facility (EMXDF) at the University of British Columbia. An operating voltage of 15 kV was used, with a spot
diameter of 6 μm and peak count time of 30 s. After removal of the carbon coat the grain mount surface was washed with mild soap and rinsed with
high purity water. Prior to analysis the grain mount surface was cleaned with 3 N HNO3 acid and again rinsed with high purity water to remove any
surficial Pb contamination that could interfere with the early portions of the spot analyses.
Analyses were conducted using a Resonetics RESOlution M-50-LR, which contains a Class I laser device equipped with a UV excimer laser source
(Coherent COMPex Pro 110, 193 nm, pulse width of 4 ns) and a two-volume cell designed and developed by Laurin Technic Pty. Ltd. (Australia). This
sample chamber allowed for the investigation of several grain mounts within one analytical session. The laser path was fluxed by N2 to ensure better

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 I. del Real et al.

Table A1
Results from geochronological ages obtained from the main members of the Punta del Cobre formation.
Sample name Sample no. UTM Coordinates Isotopic Ratios Isotopic Ages

207 235 206 238 207 206 207 206 207

Analysis ID N E Pb/ U 2σ (abs) Pb/ U 2σ (abs) ρ Pb/ Pb 2σ (abs) Pb/235U 2σ (Ma) Pb/238U 2σ (Ma) Pb/206Pb 2σ (Ma)

Dacite 6,961,464 376,363

alb_1 0.138 0.005 0.0203 0.0006 0.33 0.049 0.002 131.6 4.6 129.6 3.6 160 69
alb_2 0.142 0.006 0.0205 0.0006 0.39 0.049 0.002 134.8 5.0 130.6 4.1 183 76
alb_3 0.148 0.007 0.0209 0.0007 0.55 0.051 0.002 139.7 6.0 133.5 4.4 251 80
alb_4 0.137 0.005 0.0206 0.0005 0.60 0.048 0.002 130.1 4.3 131.4 3.3 118 64
alb_5 0.140 0.005 0.0206 0.0006 0.27 0.049 0.002 132.9 4.7 131.5 3.8 156 79
alb_6 0.137 0.006 0.0202 0.0007 0.40 0.050 0.002 130.2 5.1 129.1 4.6 178 86
alb_9 0.147 0.006 0.0209 0.0006 0.55 0.051 0.002 138.6 4.9 133.0 4.0 226 78
alb_10 0.143 0.005 0.0212 0.0005 0.39 0.049 0.002 135.5 4.7 135.1 3.4 141 65
alb_11 0.141 0.005 0.0209 0.0006 0.48 0.048 0.002 133.5 4.6 133.5 3.6 132 64

Lower Andesite 6,956,575 372,854

candel_2 0.147 0.009 0.0210 0.0006 0.17 0.049 0.003 138.5 7.5 134.0 3.9 136 97
candel_3 0.147 0.006 0.0211 0.0006 0.27 0.050 0.002 138.7 5.2 134.7 3.7 199 74

41
candel_5 0.149 0.006 0.0216 0.0006 0.29 0.050 0.002 142.0 5.3 137.8 3.5 212 73
candel_7 0.151 0.009 0.0224 0.0008 0.04 0.050 0.003 142.9 8.0 143.0 4.8 230 120
candel_8 0.150 0.006 0.0211 0.0006 0.34 0.051 0.002 141.1 5.2 134.2 3.6 230 67
candel_9 0.140 0.005 0.0212 0.0005 0.21 0.048 0.002 133.3 4.8 135.1 3.4 132 70
candel_10 0.140 0.005 0.0211 0.0005 0.36 0.048 0.002 133.2 4.6 134.2 3.3 137 65
candel_11 0.135 0.010 0.0217 0.0010 0.02 0.048 0.003 127.0 8.8 134.6 6.1 121 78
candel_12 0.152 0.008 0.0215 0.0007 0.01 0.052 0.003 144.1 7.4 136.8 4.2 310 110
candel_13 0.148 0.007 0.0209 0.0006 0.07 0.052 0.003 139.8 6.3 133.5 3.9 252 97
candel_14 0.147 0.006 0.0217 0.0006 0.33 0.049 0.002 138.2 5.6 138.1 3.5 175 76
candel_15 0.154 0.008 0.0215 0.0007 0.39 0.053 0.002 144.7 6.6 137.0 4.3 308 94
candel_16 0.156 0.013 0.0224 0.0009 0.19 0.050 0.004 147.0 12.0 142.5 5.4 190 150
candel_17 0.144 0.006 0.0214 0.0006 0.18 0.050 0.002 136.0 5.4 136.1 3.5 208 79
candel_18 0.137 0.006 0.0212 0.0006 0.31 0.048 0.002 130.6 5.5 135.4 4.0 106 89
candel_19 0.136 0.006 0.0208 0.0006 0.27 0.049 0.002 130.0 5.0 132.6 3.5 129 72

Upper Andesite 6,957,802 376,895

ASUP_GC_1 0.311 0.028 0.0415 0.0016 0.089 0.052 0.004 277 22 262 10 280 190
ASUP_GC_2 0.123 0.021 0.0210 0.0006 0.188 0.042 0.008 116 19 133.9 3.5 −170 310
ASUP_GC_3 0.129 0.021 0.0205 0.0010 0.023 0.047 0.009 128 22 131 6.1 150 370
ASUP_GC_4 0.138 0.047 0.0197 0.0014 0.055 0.055 0.017 129 43 126 8.6 140 710
Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx
 Table A2
Results from geochronological ages obtained from intrusive unit samples in the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre district.
Sample name Sample no. UTM Coordinates Isotopic Ratios Isotopic Ages
I. del Real et al.

207 206 207 207 206 207

Analysis ID N E Pb/235U 2σ (abs) Pb/238U 2σ (abs) ρ Pb/206Pb 2σ (abs) Pb/235U 2σ (Ma) Pb/238U 2σ (Ma) Pb/206Pb 2σ (Ma)

Dacite dike 6,952,917 370,827

ESO_64_GC4_1 0.113 0.059 0.0182 0.0019 0.310 0.041 0.021 102.0 51.0 117.0 12.0 −410.0 770.0
ESO_64_GC4_2 0.130 0.040 0.0192 0.0012 0.063 0.051 0.016 119.0 36.0 122.3 7.8 −110.0 540.0
ESO_64_GC4_3 0.135 0.039 0.0186 0.0014 0.041 0.054 0.015 124.0 34.0 119.0 8.9 −40.0 490.0
ESO_64_GC4_4 0.126 0.042 0.0177 0.0010 0.035 0.047 0.015 114.0 36.0 113.1 6.5 −90.0 540.0
ESO_64_GC4_5 0.137 0.036 0.0180 0.0012 0.029 0.056 0.013 126.0 31.0 114.8 7.4 0.0 440.0
ESO_64_GC4_6 0.132 0.029 0.0189 0.0010 0.135 0.048 0.011 124.0 25.0 120.9 6.0 10.0 380.0
ESO_64_GC4_7 0.095 0.011 0.0158 0.0004 0.096 0.044 0.005 92.0 11.0 101.0 2.7 −90.0 230.0
ESO_64_GC4_8 0.092 0.035 0.0182 0.0012 0.071 0.034 0.012 87.0 31.0 116.1 7.3 −420.0 550.0
ESO_64_GC4_9 0.108 0.022 0.0182 0.0008 0.048 0.043 0.008 102.0 20.0 116.5 5.1 −220.0 320.0
ESO_64_GC4_10 0.116 0.014 0.0172 0.0004 0.131 0.047 0.005 111.0 12.0 109.8 2.7 0.0 220.0
ESO_64_GC4_11 0.121 0.029 0.0179 0.0007 0.064 0.049 0.011 114.0 25.0 114.0 4.7 20.0 360.0
ESO_64_GC4_12 0.139 0.031 0.0181 0.0009 0.087 0.054 0.011 128.0 26.0 115.5 5.7 90.0 380.0
ESO_64_GC4_13 0.140 0.026 0.0184 0.0009 0.083 0.056 0.011 131.0 23.0 117.8 5.4 170.0 350.0
ESO_64_GC4_14 0.128 0.031 0.0185 0.0010 0.254 0.048 0.012 119.0 29.0 118.3 6.2 −60.0 400.0
ESO_64_GC4_15 0.138 0.028 0.0185 0.0010 0.207 0.055 0.012 128.0 24.0 118.1 6.2 130.0 390.0
ESO_64_GC4_16 0.090 0.051 0.0181 0.0023 0.335 0.024 0.015 82.0 45.0 116.0 14.0 −880.0 650.0
ESO_64_GC4_18 0.139 0.045 0.0185 0.0010 0.303 0.051 0.017 124.0 38.0 118.3 6.3 −240.0 500.0
ESO_64_GC4_19 0.151 0.026 0.0183 0.0008 0.230 0.061 0.011 140.0 23.0 117.0 5.2 380.0 370.0
ESO_64_GC4_20 0.136 0.020 0.0182 0.0006 0.040 0.053 0.008 128.0 18.0 115.9 3.8 160.0 290.0

Dacite dike 6,952,917 370,850

ES64_GC3_1 0.1330 0.037 0.0183 0.0014 0.007 0.055 0.015 123.0 32.0 116.8 8.6 110.0 500.0
ES64_GC3_2 0.1100 0.020 0.0176 0.0007 0.130 0.046 0.008 105.0 18.0 112.2 4.1 −120.0 320.0

42
ES64_GC3_3 0.1070 0.027 0.0173 0.0007 0.167 0.046 0.012 101.0 25.0 110.6 4.7 −140.0 430.0
ES64_GC3_4 0.1310 0.042 0.0182 0.0012 0.201 0.056 0.019 119.0 36.0 116.4 7.6 −80.0 540.0
ES64_GC3_5 0.1250 0.023 0.0183 0.0007 0.099 0.050 0.008 118.0 20.0 117.1 4.6 70.0 330.0
ES64_GC3_7 0.1190 0.036 0.0173 0.0011 0.247 0.051 0.015 112.0 33.0 110.6 7.0 80.0 580.0
ES64_GC3_8 0.1320 0.025 0.0176 0.0008 0.133 0.056 0.010 124.0 23.0 112.2 4.8 320.0 410.0
ES64_GC3_9 0.1390 0.033 0.0177 0.0012 0.243 0.053 0.012 128.0 29.0 113.0 7.8 140.0 430.0
ES64_GC3_10 0.1190 0.036 0.0181 0.0015 0.197 0.052 0.017 109.0 32.0 115.5 9.3 −70.0 520.0
ES64_GC3_11 0.1360 0.030 0.0175 0.0010 0.299 0.056 0.011 127.0 26.0 112.1 6.5 240.0 410.0
ES64_GC3_12 0.1570 0.041 0.0174 0.0009 0.085 0.065 0.017 143.0 35.0 111.4 5.7 310.0 510.0
ES64_GC3_13 0.1160 0.037 0.0163 0.0012 0.029 0.049 0.016 109.0 33.0 104.5 7.4 40.0 570.0
ES64_GC3_14 0.1120 0.034 0.0177 0.0008 0.096 0.046 0.014 104.0 30.0 113.2 5.1 −170.0 470.0
ES64_GC3_15 0.1360 0.039 0.0173 0.0017 0.194 0.064 0.019 126.0 35.0 111.0 11.0 340.0 620.0
ES64_GC3_16 0.1120 0.022 0.0174 0.0007 0.046 0.045 0.008 106.0 20.0 111.4 4.7 −100.0 330.0
ES64_GC3_17 0.1230 0.030 0.0183 0.0008 0.004 0.046 0.010 114.0 26.0 117.0 4.9 −100.0 390.0
ES64_GC3_18 0.1260 0.033 0.0179 0.0012 0.261 0.055 0.015 117.0 29.0 114.6 7.7 20.0 490.0
ES64_GC3_19 0.1400 0.037 0.0171 0.0010 0.099 0.065 0.019 138.0 36.0 109.5 6.3 290.0 490.0
ES64_GC3_20 0.1210 0.033 0.0178 0.0010 0.010 0.047 0.013 112.0 29.0 113.4 6.2 −120.0 450.0

(continued on next page)

Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx
 Table A2 (continued)

Sample name Sample no. UTM Coordinates Isotopic Ratios Isotopic Ages

207 235 206 238 207 206 207 206 207

I. del Real et al.

Analysis ID N E Pb/ U 2σ (abs) Pb/ U 2σ (abs) ρ Pb/ Pb 2σ (abs) Pb/235U 2σ (Ma) Pb/238U 2σ (Ma) Pb/206Pb 2σ (Ma)

Granodiorite 6962331 374548

MICROD_1 0.141 0.013 0.0207 0.0008 0.34 0.048 0.003 134 11 132.1 5.3 110 110
MICROD_2 0.140 0.011 0.0209 0.0008 0.25 0.048 0.002 133 10 133.4 4.8 121 90
MICROD_3 0.136 0.011 0.0209 0.0008 0.23 0.047 0.002 129 10 133.6 4.8 69 92
MICROD_4 0.138 0.015 0.0212 0.0011 0.40 0.050 0.004 132 13 135.5 6.7 160 150
MICROD_5 0.136 0.012 0.0208 0.0009 0.25 0.048 0.003 129 11 132.6 5.6 130 110
MICROD_6 0.141 0.014 0.0213 0.0009 0.09 0.049 0.004 133 12 136.0 5.5 120 130
MICROD_7 0.142 0.012 0.0210 0.0008 0.17 0.049 0.003 134 10 134.2 4.7 167 97
MICROD_8 0.132 0.012 0.0205 0.0009 0.53 0.048 0.003 126 10 131.0 5.6 110 110
MICROD_9 0.144 0.013 0.0215 0.0008 0.18 0.050 0.003 138 12 137.2 5.3 180 120
MICROD_10 0.148 0.013 0.0211 0.0008 0.22 0.051 0.003 140 11 134.4 4.9 250 110
MICROD_11 0.141 0.012 0.0217 0.0008 0.37 0.048 0.002 134 10 138.6 5.1 118 94
MICROD_12 0.205 0.019 0.0227 0.0008 0.16 0.066 0.004 184 16 144.6 5.3 670 130
MICROD_13 0.143 0.012 0.0217 0.0008 0.23 0.049 0.003 135 11 138.5 5.0 130 110
MICROD_14 0.149 0.015 0.0213 0.0009 0.10 0.050 0.004 140 13 135.9 5.8 130 140
MICROD_15 0.143 0.012 0.0210 0.0008 0.17 0.050 0.002 135 10 134.2 4.8 180 89
MICROD_16 0.139 0.012 0.0215 0.0008 0.25 0.048 0.003 132 10 136.8 5.0 106 97
MICROD_17 0.138 0.011 0.0213 0.0008 0.25 0.048 0.002 132 9.8 135.9 5.0 109 92
MICROD_18 0.162 0.028 0.0226 0.0018 0.14 0.058 0.010 152 25 144.0 12.0 190 290
MICROD_19 0.156 0.014 0.0232 0.0009 0.12 0.051 0.003 147 12 147.9 5.6 240 110
MICROD_20 0.134 0.014 0.0219 0.0010 0.08 0.047 0.004 126 13 139.5 6.1 60 160

Dacite dike Kaiser 6948695 370315

K_3_GC_1 0.115 0.022 0.0161 0.0006 0.438 0.053 0.010 109.0 20.0 102.7 3.9 130.0 360.0

43
K_3_GC_2 1.645 0.140 0.1614 0.0039 0.210 0.073 0.006 981.0 53.0 964.0 22.0 960.0 170.0
K_3_GC_3 0.320 0.034 0.0387 0.0011 0.094 0.059 0.006 279.0 27.0 244.8 6.7 450.0 230.0
K_3_GC_4 0.285 0.039 0.0401 0.0011 0.080 0.051 0.007 251.0 31.0 253.5 6.5 150.0 270.0
K_3_GC_5 0.318 0.038 0.0412 0.0011 0.001 0.056 0.007 277.0 29.0 260.1 7.1 330.0 240.0
K_3_GC_6 0.212 0.028 0.0310 0.0009 0.177 0.049 0.006 193.0 23.0 196.6 5.6 80.0 250.0
K_3_GC_7 0.118 0.052 0.0194 0.0013 0.234 0.053 0.019 124.0 43.0 124.0 8.5 −110.0 550.0
K_3_GC_11 0.055 0.022 0.0089 0.0006 0.120 0.051 0.021 57.0 23.0 57.3 3.8 −390.0 610.0
K_3_GC_12 2.660 0.180 0.2183 0.0042 0.098 0.087 0.006 1314.0 50.0 1273.0 22.0 1340.0 120.0
K_3_GC_13 0.139 0.019 0.0173 0.0006 0.067 0.056 0.008 130.0 19.0 110.8 3.6 350.0 300.0
K_3_GC_14 0.110 0.015 0.0170 0.0005 0.041 0.047 0.006 105.0 13.0 108.7 3.2 10.0 250.0
K_3_GC_15 0.083 0.023 0.0103 0.0007 0.098 0.058 0.016 80.0 22.0 65.8 4.5 290.0 550.0
K_3_GC_16 0.069 0.035 0.0074 0.0006 0.152 0.069 0.030 66.0 30.0 47.3 3.9 380.0 560.0
K_3_GC_17 0.091 0.034 0.0102 0.0007 0.254 0.063 0.025 84.0 31.0 65.6 4.5 −150.0 610.0
K_3_GC_18 0.117 0.016 0.0161 0.0005 0.130 0.053 0.007 112.0 15.0 102.7 3.0 220.0 280.0
K_3_GC_19 0.137 0.041 0.0181 0.0012 0.179 0.055 0.016 124.0 35.0 115.8 7.6 40.0 540.0
K_3_GC_20 0.130 0.024 0.0201 0.0010 0.343 0.047 0.008 122.0 22.0 128.5 6.5 −50.0 330.0
Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx
I. del Real et al. Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx

Fig. A8. Concord diagrams for main members of the Punta del Cobre formation. (A) Lower Andesite, (B) Dacite, (C) Upper Andesite. Ellipses depicted in red are
zircon grains that were discarded from age calculations.

stability. Ablation was carried out in a cell with a volume of approximately 20 cm3 and a He gas stream that ensured better signal stability and lower
U-Pb fractionation (Eggins et al., 1998). The laser cell was connected via a Teflon squid to an Agilent 7700x quadrupole ICP-MS housed at PCIGR. A
pre-ablation shot was used to ensure that the spot area on grain surface was contamination-free. Samples and reference materials were analyzed for
202
Hg, Pb (204Pb, 206Pb, 207Pb, 208Pb), 232Th, and U (235U and 238U) with a dwell time of 0.02 s for each isotope. The settings for the laser were: spot
size of 34 μm with a total ablation time of 30 s, frequency of 5 Hz, fluence of 5 J/cm2, power of 7.8 mJ after attenuation, pit depths of approximately
15 μm, He flow rate of 800 mL/min, N2 flow rate of 2 mL/min, and a carrier gas (Ar) flow rate of 0.57 L/min.
Reference materials were analyzed throughout the sequence to allow for drift correction and to characterize downhole fractionation for U-Pb
isotopic ratios. For U-Pb analyses, natural zircon reference materials were used, including Plešovice (Sláma et al., 2008) or 91,500 (Wiedenbeck
et al., 2004, 1995) as the internal reference material and both Temora2 and/or 91,500 as monitoring reference materials; the zircon reference
materials were placed between the unknowns. Raw data was reduced using the Iolite 3.4 extension (Paton et al., 2011) for Igor Pro™ yielding U/Pb
ages, and their respective uncertainties. Final interpretation and plotting of the analytical results employed the ISOPLOT software of (Ludwig, 2001).
Results for geochronological data obtained during this research are displayed in Tables A1 and A2. Concordia plots of the members dated of the
Punta del Cobre formation are displayed in Fig. A8, concordia plots of intrusive units dated are displayed in Fig. A9.

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I. del Real et al. Ore Geology Reviews 102 (2018) xxx–xxx

Fig. A9. Concord diagrams for key intrusive units. (A) Granodiorite, (B) late-mineralization Dacite dike, (C) late-mineralization Dacite dike, (D) post-mineralization
Dacite dike from Kaiser prospect. Ellipses depicted in red are zircon grains that were discarded from age calculations.

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