' I I -

Physical Asp~cts of lrfadillfion . ) (

/Recommendations ofthe Intetnationat Commission~'OD

/ / ,' " ( /- '- ';~ - ' - . - '---- _)

Radiological~ Units and Measui:ements 1

Handbook 85 -~-
I/"',

United States: Depa~tment of ~ommerce ~-

, ' -

NationaLBurea-q
~ -
of Standards.
\ / \ -

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084

by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE • Luther H. HodQes, Secretary
NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS • A. V. Aatin, Director

Physical Aspects of Irradiation

Recommendations of the International Commission on
Radiological Units and Measurements (ICR U)
Report lOb 1962

National Bureau of Standards Handbook 85

Issued March 31, 1964

(This publication supersedes parts of H78. Handbooks 84 throuah 89 extend and largely replace H78. For an
explanation, see the Foreword. Also, for a list of these titles, see paae 3 of cover.)

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084

by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 Library of Con~ress Cataloll Card Number: 63-6007

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084

by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 Foreword
The reports of The International Commission on Radiological Units and
Measurements for a number of years have been published by the National
Bureau of Standards in the Handbook series. In the past, each of the triennial
reports of the ICRU represented a complete restatement of the recommenda-
tions of the Commission. Because of the increasing scope of its activities,
however, the Commission in 1962 decided to modify the previous practice. It
will issue a series of reports presenting the current recommendations of the
Commission. Each report will cover a particular portion of the area of interest
to the ICRU. This procedure will facilitate revision of ICRU recommenda-
tions and also spread out in time the workload of the Commission. This
Handbook is one of the new series presenting the recommendations of the
Commission on one aspect of the field with which the Commission is concerned.
It presents recommendations agreed upon at the meeting of the Commission
held in Montreux, Switzerland, in April 1962.
The National Bureau of Standards is pleased with its continuing oppor-
tunity of increasing the usefulness of these important reports by providing the
publication outlet.
A. V. AsTIN, Director.

iii
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 Contents
Page Page
Preface_______________________________________ v III. Practical measurement of exposure __ - - - - - - - - 59
I. The determination of absorbed dose _______ - _ A. Definitions ____________ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 59
A. Theory of ionization methods ____ - - - - - _ - _ B. Field instrument requirements ___ - - - - - - - - 59
1. General considerations ______________ _ C. Instrument calibration _________________ _ 59
2. Stopping powers of electrons for use 1. Exposure meters used for a few kv to
with cavity chambers______________ 7 about 0.5 Mv x rays ______________ _ 60
3. Average energy per ion pair, W _- _ - - - _ 11 2. Exposure meters used for 0.5 to a few
4. Saturation in ionization measurements_ 12 l\f ev______ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 61
B. Calorimetric methods___________________ 13 3. Exposure-rate meters ________ - - - - - - - - 62
C. Chemical dosimetry_____________________ 14 4. Testing procedures associated with
1. Ferrous sulphate dosimeter (Fricke calibration ________ - - - ___ - - - - - - - - - - 62
dosimeter)________________________ 14 D. Instrument performance __ - ___ - - - - - - - - - - 63
2. Ceric sulphate dosimeter _______ - ___ - _ 16 1. Requirements ______ ---------------- 63
3. Other chemical systems______________ 17 2. Performance of reference instruments __ 63
D. Photographic dosimetry_________________ 19 E. Measurement techniques __ - _ - - - - - - - - - - - - 64
1. Energy . transfer to a photographic 1. Composition of the radiation beam __ - - 64
em uls1on_ _ __ _ ___ _ _ __ _ __ _ __ __ __ __ _ 19 2. Field and point of measurement__ - - - - - 64
2. Response to x and gamma radiation___ 19 3. Special problems relating to low-volt-
3. Response to monoenergetic electrons age x rays __________ - _____ - - - - - - - - 65
and to beta rays___________________ 19 4. Output measurement technique ______ _ 66
4. Response to heavy charged particles F. Exposure distribution in beam ___ - - - - - - - - 66
and to neutrons _____________ - _ - _ - - 19 1. Gamma beam equipment ____________ _ 66
E. Dose-rate measurements by scintillation 2. Transmission x-ray targets ___________ _ 66
techniques__________________________ 20 3. Reflection x-ray targets __________ - - - - 67
F. Solid-state dosimetry _________ - ___ - - - - - - 21 4. Desirable distribution of exposure rate
1. Optical density methods______________ 21 in a~---------------------------- 68
2. Radiation-induced photoluminescence__ 22 IV. The specification and measurement of radi-
3. Radiation-induced thermoluminescence_ 23 ation quality _________ - _ - - - ___ - - - - - - - - - - 69
4. Conductivity induced by ionizing radi- A. Introduction ________________________ - _ 69
ation____________________________ 24
5. Bibliography _____________________ - - 24 B. Quality of the incident beam expressed in
terms of potential, half value layer and
G. Methods of fast-neutron and mixed-field other parameters _______________ - - - - - - 69
dosimetry___________________________ 26
1. Specification of quality by a single
1. Calculation of absorbed dose in tissue parameter _______________________ _ 69
exposed to fast-neutron radiation. _ - - 26 2. Specificatio~ of quality by two param-_
2. The measurement of absorbed dose in a eters ____________________________ 70
medium exposed to both neutron·and 3. Specification of quality in terms of depth
x or gamma radiation, and the distribu- dose in tissue _______ - ______ - - - - - - - 70
tion of absorbed dose with respect to
LET_____________________________ 27 4. Distribution of quality over field area
in air ______________________ _ 71
II. Standards, instruments and measurement 5. Choice of appropriate quality specifi-
techniques for x rays, gamma rays and cation ___________________________ _ 72
neutrons_______________________________ 30 6. The measurement of HVL ____ - - - - - - - - 72
A. X- and gamma-ray standards and transfer C. Spectra of x and gamma radiation __ - - - - - - 76
instruments _________________ - _ - - - - - - 30 1. Introduction __ - - - - - . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 76
1. For a few kv to about 0.5 Mv x ravs___ 30 2. Methods of determining photon spectra_ 76
2. For about 0.5 Mv x rays to a few -Mev 3. Spectra of primary radiation ____ - - - - - - 77
gamma rays______________________ 32 4. Spectra of secondary radiation __ - - - - - - 83
3. For energies above a few Mev_________ 33 86
D. Electron spectra in an irradiated medium_
B. Measurement of neutron flux density and
neutron sources ________________ - _- - - _ 37 R~ferences ___________________________________ _ 86
1. Measurement of neutron flux density___ 37
2. Neutron sources_____________________ 49 Appendix I. Radiation quantities and units_ - - - - - - 99

iv
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 Preface
A. Scope is inadvisable from a long-term viewpoint; it
endeavors to base its decisions on the long-range
The International Commission on Radiological advantages to be expected.
Units and ~leasurements (ICRU), since its incep- In 1955 the Commission entered into an official
tion in 1925, has had as its principal objective the relationship with the World Health Organization
development of internationally acceptable recom- (WHO). In this relationship, the ICRU will be
mendations regarding: looked to for primary guidance in matters of radia-
(1) Quantities and units of radiation and radio- tion units and measurements, and in turn the
activity, WHO will undertake the worldwide dissemination
(2) Procedures suitable for the measurement of the Commission's recommendations. In 1960 the
and application of these quantities in clinical ICRU entered into consultative status with the
radiology and radiobiology, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).
(3) Physical data needed in the application of The above relations with other international
these procedures, the use of which tends to assure bodies do not affect the basic affiliation of the
uniformity in reporting. Commission with the International Society of
The Commission also considers and makes Radiology.
recommendations on radiation quantities, units The ICRU invites and welcomes constructive
and measurements in the field of radiation pro- comments and suggestions regarding its recom-
tection. In this connection, its work is carried mendations and reports. These may be trans-
out in close cooperation with the International mitted to the Chairman.
Commission on Radiological Protection.
C. Current Program
B. Policy
A two-week meeting of the ICRU was held in
The ICRU endeavors to collect and evaluate Montreux, Switzerland, April 2 to April 14,
the latest data and information pertinent to the 1962. This meeting included the Main Commis-
problems of radiation measurement and dosimetry sion and all the Committees that had reports
and to recommend the most acceptable values for prepared for final approval. Some 70 persons
current use. attended. An additional meeting of the Commis-
Recognizing the confusion that exists in the sion and Committee Officers was held in Ottawa
evaluation of different radiological equipment and from August 21 to August 23, 1962, for the principal
materials, the ICRU is studying standard methods purposes of the preparation of the status report
of determination of characteristic data for the for the Xth International Congress of Radiology
equipment and materials used in diagnostic and and the outlining of program objectives for the
therapeutic radiology. This activity is confined next several ·years.
to methods of measurement and does not include Several meetings of committees or committee
the standardization of radiological equipment or task groups have been held during the past 3
parts thereof. years. There were meetings of various task
The Commission's recommendations are kept groups of the Committee on Standards and Meas-
under continual review in order to keep abreast·of urement of Radiological Exposure-Paris in Jan-
the rapidly expanding uses of radiation. uary 1961 and London in April and September
The ICRU feels it is the responsibility of 1961. The Committee on Radiobiological Dosim-
national organizations to introduce their own etry also held a meeting in April 1961. The
detailed ~echnical procedures for the development ICRU was also represented at a meeting of the
and mamtenance of . standards. However, it Consultative Committee on Ionizing Radiation of
urges that all countries adhere as closely as the International Committee of Weights and
possible to the internationally recommended basic ~feasures at Sevres in October 1961.
concepts of radiation quantities and units. As noted in the last report, two joint Commit-
The 9ommission feels its responsibility lies in tees had been established between the ICRU and
developmg a system of quantities and units having the ICRP. The Joint Committee on RBE has
t~ie widest possible range of applicability. Situa- met twice with ICRU participation. The Com-
t10ns may arise from time to time when an expe- mittee on Methods and Instruments for Radiation
dient solution of a current problem may seem Protection has not met.
advisable. Generally speaking, however, the Upon the request of the United Natio~s
Commission feels that action based on expediency Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic
v

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084

by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 Radiations, the ICRU and the ICRP agreed to of the section on quantities and units. This
undertake a second study dealing with the ~1edical revision resulted from the thorough study by the
and Physical Parameters in Clinical Dosimetry. Ad Hoc Committee on Quantities and Units
This committee met in New York for one week mentioned above. It includes new names for
in September 1959 and for a week in Stockholm certain quantities and clarified definitions for
in June 1960. A report of this study entitled others. It presents a system of concepts and a
"Exposure of :\fan to Ionizing Radiation Arising set of definitions which is internally consistent
from :\fedical Procedures with Special Reference and yet of sufficient generality to cover present
to Radiation Induced Diseases, An Inquiry into requirements and such future requirements as can
Methods of Evaluation", was published in Physics be foreseen.
in :Vfedicine and Biology, 6, No. 2, 199 (Taylor
and Francis, Ltd., London, England, Oct. 1961). Radioactivity (Report lOc)-The portions of the
Reports and recommendations of the ICRU report dealing with direct and relative measure-
originally designed for medical applications, have ments of radioactivity and the availability and
come into common use in other fields of science, requirements for radioactivity standards, and the
particularly where "dosimetric" considerations are parts dealing with the techniques and measure-
involved. For this reason the committees have ments of radioactivity in hospitals and biological
included in their membership some scientists hav- laboratories are revisions of the 1959 report,
ing competence outside of the medical radiology embracing a review of the developments that have
field. :Vfaterial in the reports is designed to meet occurred since that report and bringing up to
physical, biological, and medical requirements date the material included. In addition, a new
wherever possible. section on low level radioactivity in materials as
This has introduced a small problem in termi- related to the problems of radiological measure-
nology. The name of the Commission includes the ments has been added. This topic is important
term "radiological". In many European countries because of the problems arising from the con-
the term "radiological" is taken as inclusive of tamination, or possible contamination, in the last
both the physical and biological sciences. In decade of a great many of the materials used in
other countries, the United States, for example, the construction of counting equipment, shields,
"radiological" appears to carry the primary con- and in the reagent chemicals employed in radio-
notation of relationship to medicine. It therefore activity measurements.
may be desirable to change the name of the
Commission from "Radiological" to "Radiation". Clinical Dosimetry (Report 10d)-.'.\1uch of the
It is believed that this would be properly under- Commission's work on clinical dosimetry is
stood by all concerned. The question has been brought together in this report. Included is an
debated by the Commission, but final action is extensive discussion of practical calibration pro-
being delayed for future consideration. cedures and the determination of dose along the
central ray. Depth dose data relative to sta-
tionary- and moving-field therapy have been ex-
D. The. Current Series of Reports tended as have the conversion data necessary to
relate ionization measurements to absorbed dose.
Hitherto, the triennial reports of the ICRU have The principal effort has been toward the defini-
been published in single volumes. However the tion of nomenclature and the indication of
reports are now becoming too extensive, and in methods. While some examples are given and
some cases too specialized, to make a single publi- data are provided for these, in general the reader
cation practicable. Beginning with this 1962 is referred to other published data. The report
series, the ICRU reports will be issued in smaller considers ways of increasing the accuracy and
entities, each dealing with a limited range of topics. comparability in clinical dosimetry. The dis-
The 1959 Report will not be reprinted. Re- cussion includes not only the physical aspects of
v1s10ns of the 1962 series will be undertaken dose measurement but also the wider subject of
individually as circumstances warrant. A full planning treatment in such a way as to deliver the
listing of ICRU recommendations, including the prescribed absorbed dose to a defined "target
present series, is given on page iii of the cover volume". It also includes comments upon the
of this report. common sources of error in clinical dosimetry
The current report series includes revisions of and discusses the information which should be
much of the material that appeared in the 1959 recorded during treatment and that which should
report in addition to a number of new topics. The be reported about any• new treatment technique.
following summary indicates some of the highlights Appendices to this report include pertinent
of the current report series. material taken from other reports in this series.
Radiation Quantities and Units (Report lOa)- Radiobiological Dosimetry (Report lOe)-This
One of the most important changes is the revision report deals primarily with radiobiological dosime-

Vl

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084

by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 try, and considers methods of improving the The most substantial contribution to the work
accuracy and intercomparability of absorbed dose of the ICRU has come from the Ford Foundation
measurements in radiobiology. It is in effect a through the particular efforts of Dr. Paul Pears?n.
handbook for the experimental radiobiologist. Effective in December 1960, the Ford Foundation
It emphasizes the great importance of planning made available to the Commission the sum of
the experimental work in a way which makes the $37 ,000 per year for a period of fi_ve years. This
dosimetry easier and more accurate and it illus- money is to be used for such items as travel
trates how this can be done. expenses to meetings, for secretarial services and
other operating expenses. To a large extent, it
Methods of Evaluating Radiological Equipment is because of this grant that the Commission has
and :Vfaterials (Report lOf)-This is the first of a been able to hold the several meetings considered
new group of ICRU reports dealing with methods to be necessary to move forward actively with its
of evaluating radiological equipment and mate- program.
rials. It includes a revised discussion on the meas- The International Atomic Energy Agency has
urement of focal spots and new sections on grids, allocated the sum of $6,000 per year for use by
image intensifiers and body section equipment. the ICRU. It is expected that this sum will be
allocated annually at least for the next several
E. Operating Funds years.
A valuable indirect contribution has been made
Throughout most of its existence, the ICRU by the U.S. National Bureau of Standards where
has operated essentially on a voluntary basis, with the Secretariat has resided. The Bureau has
the travel and operating costs being borne by the provided substantial secretarial services, pub-
parent organizations of the participants. (Only lication services and travel costs in the amount of
token assistance was available from the ISR.) several thousands of dollars.
Rrcognizing the impracticability of continuing this The Commission wishes to express its deep
mode of operation on an indefinite basis, operating appreciation to all o~ these an_d other organi~a­
funds were sought from various sources in addition tions that have contnbuted so unportantly to its
to those supplied by the International Society of work.
Radiology.
Prior to 1959, the principal financial assistance
to the ICRU had been provided by the Rockefeller F. Composition of the ICRU
Foundation which supplied some $11,000 to make
possible various meetings. In 1959 the Inter- (a) It is of interest to note that the membership
national Society of Radiology increased its con- of the Commission and its committees for the
tribution to the Commission to $3,000 to cover period 1959-62 totals 139 persons drawn from 18
the period until the Xth Congress. In 1960 the countries. This gives some indication of the
Rockefeller Foundation supplied an additional extent to which the ICRU has achieved inter-
sum of some $4,000 making possible a meeting of national breadth of membership within its basic
the Quantity and Units Committee in 1960. selection requirement of high technical competence
In 1960 and 1961 the World Health Organiza- of individual members.
tion contributed the sum of $3,000 each_ year to (b) The membership of the Main Commission
the Commission for carrying forward its work. during the preparation of this report was as follows:
This was increased to $4,000 in 1962. It is
expected that this sum will be allocated annually, LAURISTON S. TAYLOR, Chairman_ United States.
L. H. GRAY, Vice-chairman _____ United Kingdom.
at least for the next several years. In addition H. 0. WYCKOFF, Secretary ______ United States.
the WHO has provided substantial assistance to K. K. AGLINTSEV ______________ U.S.S.R.
the Commission in providing meeting space, A. ALLISY ______ ·-·-----------France.
secretarial services, etc., for the meetings held in R.H. CHAMBERLAIN ___________ United States.
F. ELLIS_ _ _ _ __ __ _ _ . _ . _ ___ __ _ United Kingdom.
Geneva and .:V1ontreux. H. FR.ii.NZ ____________________ Federal Republic of
In connection with the Commission's Joint Germany.
Study with the ICRP, the United Nations allo- H. E. JoHNS---- _______ ·- ·- -- Canada.
cated the sum of $10,000 for the joint use of the W. J. OosTERKAMP __ . _________ Netherlands.
B. RAJEWSKY ___ . _ . _ . _ ___ __ _ _ _ Federal Republic of
two Commissions for the purpose of carrying out Germany.
their second study. This fund has been admin- H. H. Rossr_ _________________ United States.
istered by the ICRP. M. TuBIANA ____________ ·- ---- France.

vii
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 G. Composition of ICRU Committees E. D. TROUT
G. N. WHYTE
Appointed To Draft This Report C. w. WILSON
s. J. WRIGHT
ICRU Committee II, Standards and Measurement of H. 0. WYCKOFF
Radiological Exposure Dose
ICRU Committee III, Measurement of Absorbed Dose
A. ALLISY, Chairman and Clinical Dosimetry-J. W. BoAG, Chairman
A. SoMERWIL, Vice Chairman (x and -y rays)
R. S. CASWELL, Vice Chairman (neutrons) Committee III-A, Measurement of Absorbed Dose-F. H.
ATTIX, Chairman
K. K. AGLTNTSEV
G. H. ASTON K. K. AGLINTSEV
E. J. AXTON E. H. BELCHER
C. B. BRAESTRUP E. J. HART
M. CmozzoTTO G. s.
HURST
G. VON DROSTE w. C. ROESCH
c. GARRETT G. N. WHYTE
W. HUBNER K. G. ZIMMER
K. E. LARSSON J. S. LAUGHLIN (Consultant)
J. S. LAUGHLIN
K. LIDEN
F. NETTER
Z. REFEROWSKI H. The Present Report
R. THORAEUS

Consultants This report deals broadly with the physical

aspects of irradiation with a considerable amount
H. BERGER of new material added since the 1959 report. It
R. BRUCE
D. v. CORMACK includes an extensive discussion of the various
A. DE TROYER techniques for the measurement of absorbed dose
J. DEWIRE as well as exposure. Characteristics of radiation
R. D. EDGE instrumentation are covered in some detail in-
K. w. GEIGER
J. R. GREENING cluding the more sophisticated work on standards.
W. N. HESS The section on spectra has been up-dated and a
G. HETTINGER new section added on neutron measurements and
Y. IBARAKI standards. Available data for stopping power
R.F.FARR
\V. A. JENNINGS ratios and the average energy CW) required to
D. E. A. JONES produce an ion pair in a gas have been reviewed.
W. PvHLIT On the basis of this review it has been necessary to
J. PRUITT modify the previous ICRU tables for these factors.
K. REINSMA
S. W. SMITH This modification amounts to about 1 or 2 percent
J. SPAEPEN change in stopping power ratios and up to 1
E. TERANISHI percent in W.

viii
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 Physical Aspects of Irradiation

International Commission on Radiolo~ical Units and Measurements (ICRU) Report 10b (1962)

I. The Determination of Absorbed Dose gram of the gas, Jm, by the equation
There are three methods of determining ab- D=JmWsm (IAI)
sorbed dose which can be used as reliable stand- where
ards of comparison between different labora-
tories, or as reference methods within any one W =the average energy in ergs 1 expended by
laboratory. These are, respectively, the ioniza- the ionizing particles crossing the
tion method, the calorimetric method, and the cavity per ion pair formed, and
chemical method. The ionization method is still, Sm=the effective value of the ratio of the
for mariy purposes, the most accurate and con- mass stopping power of the medium
venient standard of reference. Calorimetry, as a to that of the cavity gas for these
method of absorbed dose measurement in x-ray or ionizing particles. 2
gamma-ray beams at conventional dose rates, is To obtain the absorbed dose, D, in rad eq IAI
too difficult a technique to be recommended for can be rewritten as
routine work. The standard chemical methods
are now well understood and their calibration (IA2)
constants (G values) are known with good ac-
curacy. At least for hard radia.tion, they may be The following paragraphs suggest convenient
used as a standard of reference. ways of applying the cavity relation to the meas-
All the other methods described are secondary urement of absorbed dose. However, before pro-
and many of them require frequent calibration if ceeding further it will be worthwhile to define
reasonable accuracy is to be maintained. It has what is meant by the term "charged particle
been considered useful to present below a broad equilibrium" (CPE) as applied to x rays, 'Y rays
survey of possible methods, some of which have and neutrons, and to describe the conditions neces-
not yet been extensively employed and to discuss sary for its achievement.
their special features such as small size, high sensi- b. Charged-particle equilibrium (GP E) condi-
tivity, or permanent storage of information which tions for x rays, 'Y rays and neutrons. Charged
may make a particular method suitable in some particle equilibrium would exist at a point within
special situation. a medium under irradiation if (a) the intensity
and energy spectrum of the primary radiation were
A. Theory of Ionization Methods constant throughout a region extending in all
directions from the point, to a distance at least
1. General Considerations as great as the maximum range of the secondary
charged particles generated by the primary radia-
Although it is clearly recognized that the meas- tion, and (b) the energy absorption coefficient
urement of ionization is not the only approach for the primary radiation (see subsection IAld)
by which the absorbed dose in rads can be deter- and the stopping power for the secondary charged
mined, it nevertheless is the most common method particles were constant in the medium throughout
now in use. This section is an attempt to sum- the same region as in (a).
marize the usual techniques employed in such If these two conditions could be fulfilled, then
measurements, and to tabulate some of the data on the average for every secondary charged particle
needed in carrying out the related calculations. leaving an infinitesimal volume surrounding the
These are selections from the current literature. point, another secondary charged particle of prac-
It is anticipated that future experimental work tically the same energy would enter. Thus, the
will improve the accuracy with which some of energy dissipated within the volume would be
these data are known. The ICRU plans to equal to that which would have been dissipated
publish revised figures from time to time. if all the secondary charged particles originating
a. The Bragg-Gray relation. In general, ab- there had spent their entire energy within that
sorbed dose may be estimated by application of volume. This is, therefore, an alternative defini-
the relation between the ionization produced in a tion of strict CPE. The presence of a small
gas-filled cavity at the place of interest in the mate- amount of foreign material at or near the point of
rial irradiated, and the energy imparted to unit interest (such as the air within a cavity ionization
mass of the material (Gray, 1936). When the chamber) will not significantly upset CPE pro-
cavity is sufficiently small the gas will be subjected
to the same flow of ionizing particles as the mate- 1 Wis often expressed in ev, where 1 ev=l.602Xl0- 12 erg. Wis fully
rial under consideration. Then the absorbed dose, discussed in section IA3. For air, W has a value of 33.7 ev per ion pair for
electrons of energy greater than 20 kev. .
D, in ergs imparted per gram of the material, is 2 This factor is a function of the charged particle energy at the pomt of
interest, the material and the gas, and to a smaller extent of the cavity dimen-
related to the number of ion pairs formed per sions. Values of Sm are discussed in subsection 1.\2.

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084

by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 vided that the quantity of material is so small other measuring instrument that has been cali-
that a negligible part of the energy absorbed brated in roentgens (against a standard free-air
within it results from direct interaction of the chamber or by other suitable means) records
primary radiation with the atoms of the foreign under conditions of electronic equilibrium in the
material. The only situation in which true CPE wall of the chamber an exposure of X roentgens
can exist in a rigorous sense is in an infinite medium in any situation, then Dair in rad is given b:v
containing a uniformly distributed radioactive
material. When the primary photon or neutron (IA4)
source is external to the irradiated material, the
secondary particle flux at a point of interest may d. Absorbed dose in tissue or other material
differ appreciably from the true equilibrium value. exposed to x or gamma radiation. The estimation
However, for primary photon energies below a of absorbed dose presents two somewhat different
few Mev and for neutrons, the difference between problems dependent upon whether or not elec-
the actual secondary particle flux and the true tronic equilibrium may be assumed. These will
equilibrium value may not be important for many be treated separately.
applications. Case I. Electronic equilibrium.
The energy spectrum of charged particles exist- (1) Using an ionization chamber calibrated in
ing at a point under CPE conditions is called an roentgens. The absorbed dose at some point
equilibrium spectrum. If the charged particles within an irradiated medium can be measured
involved are electrons, CPE is often referred to as indirectly by means of a roentgen-calibrated
"electronic equilibrium". ionization chamber which can be positioned at
Some typical situations where CPE conditions the point within the medium. The calibration of
do not exist are (i) near a source of radiation, the chamber should be correct for the spectrum of
where the intensity of the primary radiation is x rays present at the point in the medium, and
changing rapidly with distance; (ii) near bound- the chamber walls thick enough to exclude elec-
aries between materials of differing composition, trons generated in the medium.
such as bone-tissue or air-tissue boundaries (see In position, the chamber measures a perturbed
ICRU Report lOd); and (iii) at high energy where exposure X'. The exposure which would exist at
the primary radiation is appreciably attenuated the point in the absence of the chamber is
in the absorbing medium over a distance equal
to the mean range of the secondary particles X=.A.X' (IA5)
produced. In this latter case we may speak of
the attainment of "transient equilibrium" (by where A is a correction factor which accounts for
analogy with transient equilibrium in, e.g., Ra A all effects causing X and X' to differ, mainly (i)
decay) at a depth where the ratio of primaries to attenuation and scattering of x rays in that
secondaries reaches a constant value. amount of medium which is displaced by insertion
c. Absorbed dose in air exposed to x or gamma of the chamber, and (ii) x-ray scattering from the
radiation. The absorbed dose at a point in air chamber connecting lead if one is used. (Modern
or "air-equivalent" material that is surrounded ionization chambers can be made so small that A
on all sides by such material to a thickness at is very nearly equal to 1. See ICRU Report
least equal to the range of the secondary electrons lOd, subsection IVB, for additional discussion.)
and uniformly exposed to 1 roentgen 3 of x or Having thus established X at the point in roent-
gamma radiation is equal to gens, the absorbed dose in the medium, Dmed in
rad is obtained from the following relation,
1 esu .
( 0.001293 g air
)x(2 .0E: 2 X 109 electron)
esu
assuming electronic equilibrium to exist,

Dmed=0.869 [(µ.n/P)med] X=JX (IA6)

x(33.7 ev )x(l.602X 10- 12 erg) (µen/ P )air
electron ev
(or ion pair) where (µ. 0 /p) is the mass energy-absorption
coefficient 4 of the medium or of air, eval-
1 rad ) - 3
(IA3) uated for the total spectrum of x or 'Y radiation
X ( 100 erg/g -0.86 9 rad
arriving at the point of interest.
Table IAl gives values of the mass energy ab-
for all x or gamma radiation with quantum energies sorption coefficient for a number of elements and
greater than 20 kev, the energy range over which for water, air, bone, muscle, and some plastics.
Wis assumed constant. Table IAl also contains values of j in water,
Dair will be referred to as the absorbed dose at
• (r /p), (q /p), ancl r.,./p) arc the mass energy·ahsorption coefficients for
a point in an extended mass of air under CPE
photei~ctric eir';.et, C'om1;ton effect, and pair production respectively. (µ,./p)
conditions. is the sum of these three terms. For present purposes these coefficients are
It follows that if any ionization chamber or appropriatr, sinee they in('ludr corrections for energy losses through brems·
strahlunl! production by ttw Plectrnns as they slow down, as well as losses in
the form of fluorcseeneP x ravs and annihilation radiation. Such corrections
are described hv Farro (195J) and in ICRU Report !Oa (1962). Their total
effect ts small ior the encr~y range considered here. The data in table IA!
' See appendix I for definitions. (Berger, 1961), include these corrections.

2
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 TABLE !Al. Values of the rnass energy-absorption coefficients • and of the factor f

Mass energy-absorption coefficient, (µ,./p), cm•/g /=0. 86, (µ,n/p)m•d

(µenfp)air

Photon -·
energy
Poly-
Perspex,
plexi- Poly- Bakelite Com- I Water
Com-
pact Muscle
H c N 0 Na Mg Al p s A K Ca styrene
(CsHs)n
glass,
Incite
ethylene
(CH2)n
(CnHas01) Water Air pact Muscle
bone h
h ---
Air
I-
bone
-
h ---
Air
(CoHs02) Air
- - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ---
MeP
0.010 0. 0099 I. 94 3. 42 5.50 15. 4 20.9 26. 5 40.1 49. 7 62.0 77. 0 89.8 I. 79 2. 92 1.66 2. 43 4. 89 4. 66 19. 0 4. 96 0. 912 3 . .54 0.1
. 015 . Oil(} 0. 517 0. 9Hl 1.49 4. 43 6.09 7.65 11.9 15. 2 19. 4 24. 6 28.9 0.478 0. 788 0. 444 0.651 I. 32 I. 29 5. 89 1.36 .889 3. 97 .I
.020 . 0133 .203
.030 .0186 .0592 . 102
.360 0. 587 I. 77 2.47 3.16 5.00 6. 41 8. 31 10. 5 12.5 .188 . 311 .176 . 257 0. 523 0. 516 2.51 o. 544 . 881 4. 23 .I
.163
. 040 .0230 . 0306 . 0465 . 0700
0. 482 0.6M
.194 . 274
0.880 I. 45 1.85 2.46 3.12
. 351 0. 570 0. 731 o. 974 I. 25
3. 75 . 0561 . 0892 . 0534 . 0743 .147 . 147 0. 743 .154 . llh9 4. 39 .~
1.52 .0300 .0426 . 0295 .0368 . 0647 . 0640 .305 .0677 • 878 4.14 .{

. 050 .0270 . 0226 .0299 .0410 .0996 .140 .176 . 282 .361 . 484 0.626 0. 764 .0229 .0288 .0232 .0259 . 0394 .0384 .158 .0409 . 892 3. 58 •g
.060 . 0005 .0203 .0:.144 . 0304 .0637 .0845 .104 .166 .214 .284 .367 ,443 .0211 . 0243 .0218 .0226 . 0304 .0292 .0979 .0312 . 905 ~. 91 •g
.080 .0362 .0201 .0218 .0239 .0369 .0456 .0536 .0780 .0071 .124 .158 .191 .0213 .0226 .0224 0217 . 0253 .0236 .0520 .0255 .932 !. 91 •g
.10 .0406 .0213 . 0222 . 0'232 .0288 .0334 .0372 .0500 .0599 .0725 .0909 . Ill .0228 .0235 .0241 .0227 . 0252 .0231 .0386 .0252 . 948 I. 45 •Q
.15 .0485 .0246 .0249 .0252 .0258 .0275 .0282 .0315 .0351 .0368 .0433 .0488 .0264 .0267 .0280 .0261 .0278 .0251 .0304 .0276 .962 I. 05 .g
. 20 .0.530 .0267 .0267 .0271 .0265 .0277 .0275 .0292 . 0310 .0302 .0339 .0367 .0287 .0289 .0305 .0283 .0300 .0268 .0302 .0297 .973 0. 979 .g
.30 .0573 . 0'288 .0289 .0289 . <l278 .0290 .0283 .0290 .0301 . Q278 .0304 .0319 .0310 . 0311 .0329 .0305 .0320 .0288 . 0311 .0317 . 966 .938 .~
. 40 . 0587 . 0'295 . 0296 .0296 . . 0283 .0295 .0287 .0290 .0301 .0274 .0299 .0308 .0317 .0319 .0337 .0312 . 0329 .0296 .0316 .0325 . 966 . 928 .{
. 50 .0589 .0297 . 0297 .0297 . 0284 .0293 .0287 .0288 .0300 .0271 .0294 .0304 .0319 .0320 .0339 .0314 .0330 .0297 .0316 .0327 .966 . 925 .I
.60 . 0588 .02'J6 . 0296 .0296 .0283 .0292 .0286 .0287 .0297 .0270 .0291 .0301 .0318 .0319 .0338 .0313 . 0329 .0296 . 0315 .0326 .9116 . 925 .[

. 80 . (}573 . 0288 .0289 .0289 . 0276 . 0285 . 0278 .0280 . 0287 .0261 .0282 .0290 .0310 .0311 .0329 .0305 . 0321 .0289 .0306 .0318 . 965 . 920 ,f 6
1.0 . 0555 .0279 .0280 .0280 .0267 . 0275 .0269 .0270 .0280 .0252 .0272 .0279 .0300 .0301 .0319 .0295 . 0311 . 0280 . 0297 .0308 .965 .922 .\ ,5
I. 5 .0507 . 0255' .0255 .0255 .0243 .0250 . 0~46 . 0245 .0254 .0228 .0247 .0253 .0274 .0275 .0291 .0270 .0283 .0255 . 0270 .0281 . 964 .920 .\ ,3
2.0 . 0464 .0234 . 0'234 .02.34 .0'225 . 0'2'J2 .0227 .0228 .0235 .0212 .0228 .0234 .0252 .0252 .0267 .0247 .0260 . 0234 .0248 .0257 .966 .921 .\ 54
3.0 . 0'.!98 .0204 .0205 .0206 .0199 .0206 .0201 .0204 .0210 .0193 .0208 .0213 .0219 .0220 .0232 .0216 .0227 . 0205 .0219 .0225 . 962 .928 .I 4
4. 0 .035{ . 0184 .0186 .0187 .0184 . 0191 .0188' .0192 .0199 .0182 .0199 .0204 .0197 .0198 .0208 .0194 .0205 .0186 .0199 . 0203 .958 .930 .I 8
5.0 . 0316 .0170 . 0172 .0174 .0173 .0181 .0180 . 0184 .0192 .0176 .0193 .0200 .0181 .0183 . 0191 .0179 . 0190 .0173 .0186 .0188 .954 .934 .I 4
6.0 .0288 .0160 .0162 .0166 .0166 . 0175 . 0174 . 0179 .0187 . 0175 .0190 .0198 .0170 .0172 .0178 . 0168 0180 . 0163 . 0178 . 0178 .960 .949 •g 9
8.0 .0249 .0145 .0148 .0154 .0158 . 0167 .ol69 .0175 .0184 .0172 .0190 .0197 .0153 . 0156 .0160 .0153 .0165 .0150 . 0165 .0163 .956 .I
.956 4
10. 0 .. 0222 .0137 .0142 . 0147 .0154 .0163 .0167 . 0174 .0183 .0173 .0191 .0201 .0144 .0147 .0149 .0144 . 0155 . 0144 . 0159 .01.54 .935 .960 .I :9

• See footnote 4.
h See footnote 5.

VJ

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084

by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 muscle, and bone for monoenergetic photons. 5 TABLE IA2. Mean conversion factor j in compact bone and
muscle for various x-ray spectra-Continued
Mean values, 7, of j integrated over several
typical primary x-ray spectra (some mensured
Tube
and some calculated by Kramers' rule, 1923), HVL poten- 7 Method
(see foot-
or directly measured are given m tnble IA2. tial
notes References
below)
For practical use, variations in fin terms of HVL mm mm Compact Muscle•
Al Cu kv bone• radlR
1For the purposes of calculation throughout this report the following per- rad/R
centage compositions hy weight were assumed for muscle and bone (from - - --- - - - ---- - - - ----1---------'
data of Joyet et al., (1953), except for the omission of the small amount of Cl):
. 65d 250 2. 56 0. 93, Hettinger, Stqrfelt
(1958a) .
. 86d 280 2. 21 Cormack et al.,
Element Muscle Compact (1958b).
(striated) bone (femur) l. 84 o. 942 Kolb and Heitzmann
- ------ l. 0 160
(private communi-
cation).
H--------------------------------------- 10.2 6. 4
c ______________________________________ _ 12. 3 27. 8 l. 74 0. 937 ICRU Report (19.16).
N ______________________________________ _ J.Od 250
3. 5 2. 7 l.07d 250 2. 11 0. 942 Hettinger, Lld<'n
Q ______________________________________ _ 72. 9 41. 0 (1960).
Na 0. 08 I. 07d 2RO 2.05 Cormack et el.,
Mg.. ------------------------------------_
_____________________________________ . 02 0. 2
p ______________________________________ _ (l958h).
.2 7. 0 l.17d 280 2. 00 --------- Do.
s _______________________________________ _ .5 0. 2 l. 2 200 1. 87 o. 94, Allisy, Astler (195R).
K ______________________________________ _ .3 l. 88 o. 94, Helle (1958).
Ca _____________________________________ _ .007 14. 7
l. 24 140 l 74 0. 940 Hettinger, Starfelt
(1958a).
Air was taken to he i5.5 percent N,, 23.2 percent 02. and 1.3 percent A, by I. 25d 250 l. 94 o. 942 Hettinger, Lidi'n
weight. (1960)
The values given in the literature for the calcium content of various hones I. 42d 21'0 l. 81 0. 942 Do.
vary greatly. For e'ample, D'Ans anrl Lax (1949) giw 20.2 percent C'a for I. 53 200 I. 55 0. 94, Kolb and Heitzmann
the skull, 14.5 percent for femur. and 1.5.2 percent for rihs. Geygy (19.S,5) (private communi-
gives 11 percent C'a for long hones and ribs. The data of Joyet et al., (19,13) cation).
were arhitrarily chosen as roughly representative of hones in general. The 280 l. 74 Cormack et al.,
errors resulting from this assumption are prohahly no greater than those (1958b).
resulting from (a) neglecting the scattered radiation in calculating/bone (see 250 l. 79 0. 942 Hettinger, Lid~n
table IA2) and (b) ignoring the nonhomogeneous structure of bone. (1960).

TABLE IA2. Mean conversion factor fin compact bone and l. 63d 250 l. 71 0. 952 Do.
l. 68d 250 l. 65 0. 91i2 Do.
muscle for various x-ray spectra l. 7 280 l. 43 0. 952 ICRU Report (1956).
l. 7Jd 280 l. 65 --------- Cormack et al.,
(1958b).
I Tube 1. 770 280 1. 64 Do.
HVL poten-
tial
7 Method
(see foot- ~- Od 250 l. 41 0. 952 ICRU Report (1956).
------- - - - - - - - - - - notes References Cormack et al.,
below) 2.07d 280 l. 52
(1958b).
mm mm Compact Muscle* I. 35 0. 95, Greening (1947).
Al Cu kv bone• rad/R 2.1° 220
2. J7d 280 l. 45 --------- Cormack et al.,
rad/R (1958b).
--- --- --- - - - - - - ---·1-------- 2. 24 170 l. 31 0. 94, Hettinger, Starfelt
Ehrlich (1956). (1958a).
50 4. 04 0.921 l. 21 o. 952 ICRU Report (1956).
50 4.06 0.92, Do. 2.50 280
2. 63° 280 l. 33 Cormack et al.,
50 4.08 0. 92, Do. (1958b).
o. 25• 50 4.15 0. 921 Do.
o. 01• Wang, et al., (1957a).
~:~
. 35° 50 0.923 l. 12 0. 951 (•) ICRU Report (1956).
.9° .03• 45 0. 923 Hettinger, Starfelt 3.1 280
(1958a). 3.14° 280 l. 17 --------- (•) Cormack et al.,
(1958h).
Altken, Dixon (1958). 3. 9 220 1.08 0. f•5• Hettinger, Starfelt
1.0• 30 4. 2tl 0. 922 (19b8a) .
1.2• . 03° 50 4. 22 0. 920 Ehrlich (1956). Johns et al., (1952b) .
l. 2• . ()tja 75 4. 11 0. 923 Hettlnrer, Starfelt 4.0 400 l. 07 0. 951
4.16 400 1.11 0. 961 TCRU Report (1956).
(l95Ra).
40 4. 26 0. 921 Altken, Dixon (1958) . 4.8d 250 1.00 o. 963 Hettinger, Starfelt
(1958a).
50 4. 22 0 921 Do.
60 4.19 0. !r.1 Do.
l. 8• 70 4. 12 0. 92, Do. •see footnote 5.
1.8• RO 4. 00 0. 92s Do. •Ratios calculated from spectral distribution.
2. 5 . 08 Allisy, Astler (1958). hRatlos measured by method of gas equivalents (Astler and Allisy, 1959) .
60 4.13 0. 917 •HVL celculeted from the spectral distrihution of the Primary beam.
4.16 0. 9J, Hrlle (1958).
3. 90 0. 920 Allisy, Astler (1958). •HVL calculated from the spectral distribution of the be.<m in a water
3. ~7 0. 9lo Helle (1958). phantom.
•Ratio calculated from theoretical spectral distribution of Kramers (1923).
4. 2 . 18 100 3. f\3 0. 923 Alllsy, Astler (1958).
3. 47 0. 92, Helle (1958).
.18 100 3. 47 o. 930 Hettinger, Starfelt of some radiations have been plotted in fi<sure !Ala
(1958a).
140 2. 79 0. 93, Cormack et al., and !Alb. Table IA2 gives information about
.2 150 2. 67 0. 932
(1958a).
ICRU Reoort (1956).
kv and HVL for the plotted points .
.22 80 3. 54 0. 921 Kolb and Helt,mann (2) Using an absolute ionization chamber. In
(private communi-
cation). the event that no roentgen-calibrated ionization
. 25 100 3. 07 o. 93, ICRU Report (1956).
chamber is available, an air-filled cavity ionization
. 30 140 3. 12 o. 931 Hettinger, Starfelt chamber with nearly air-equivalent walls (e.g.,
(1958a).
. 39 170 2. 80 0. 933 Do . carbon) can be employed as an absolute device. 6
. 50 200 2. 03 0. 1142 ICRU Report (19.56) .
. 55 220 2. 44 0. 931 Hettinger, Starfelt
(1958a) .
. 59 100 2. 51 0. 932 Do.
1 It w!ll be assumed throughout this re iort, unless otherwise stated that
. 59 150 2. 53 0. 931 A!lisy, Astier (1958). the cavity walls are thick enough to exclude any externally produced elec-
2. 48 0. 931 Helle (1958). trons and that the cavity Is small In comparison with the ranges of most of
-·:r.o· --·-120·1 2. ~9 o. 93, Kolb and Heitzmann
(priv'te communi-
the electrons present. In the low-energy x-ray region, this latter requirement
is ditl\cult to fulfill, and the calibrated chamber method is preferable to the
cat.ion). use of the cavity as an absolute device.

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084

by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 1l[ITTT I I 1111 I I I 111

.5 ~4 ----- -------

rA~/ 0
<t

a: 94
I
-:;:: 0 ~:I--_-_-- --1------+- _ )H_·;
g
u ~

I -1-1+
~ I ' 6/ 0

. .
z /
0 I 0
iii __...-/ 0
a: --------o-- 1-~
w
> .92
z ~!,,.---'---'-.L-C..J....L~,----'-L-1-'--.w...J~,~.o----'---'----'---'-'-~,o
0
u HVL, mm Cu

FIGURE IAlb. Conversion factor j in bone from data of

.9 ' I I ' 'i 1· table IA2.
01 01 1.0 10
HVL, mm Cu .:\ ICRU 1956
O Calculated from primary spectra
FIGURE IAla. Conversion factor f in muscle from data of • Measured by means of gas equivalents
D Calculated from spectrum in phantom.
table JA2 .
.:\ ICRU 1956
O Calculated from primary spectra Case II. Electronic equilibrium conditions not
• Measured by means of gas equivalents
D Calculated from spectrum in phantom. satisfied (e.g., near tissue-air or bone-tissue
boundaries) .7
When such a chamber is centered at the point of The ionization in this case is measured at the
interest in the medium and the ionization is place of interest in an air-filled ionization chamber
measured, it gives the absorbed dose in a thin having walls that are very thin compared with
inner layer of its own wall material, through the range of the secondary electrons at the place
application of the Bragg-Gray relation eq (IAl). of interest. If the walls are so thin that they
Thus, in rad, make a negligible contribution to the total sec-
(IA7) ondary electron emission that ionizes the air in
the chamber, the material of which the walls are
where Q is the charge in esu carried by the ions composed is not important. But because this
of either sign produced per 0.001293g of air in the condition is difficult to fulfill, it may be found to be
cavity and Sm is the effective ratio of the mass advantageous •to make the walls of a material
stopping power in the wall material to that in air. that match fairly close in composition the im-
If the measurement had been made by means mediately surrounding medium. The depth of
of a small air-filled cavity in the medium itself, the ionization chamber should be small in the
Dmed would have been obtained instead. Dwall
direction of the gradient of the absorbed dose
differs from Dmed for two reasons: (i) The energy (see ICRU Report lOd (1962).
If a charge (,/, esu is carried by the ions of either
absorption coefficient in the actual chamber wall sign generated per 0.001293 g of air, then applying
differs from that in the medium for the x-ray the general cavity relation, Dm 00 , (in rad) is given by
spectrum at the point, and (ii) the x-ray intensity
at the point is altered by the introduction of the (IA9)
chamber. The main cause of intensity change is
usually the difference in x-ray attenuation in the where Sm is evaluated for the electron spectrum at
chamber wall and in the layer of medium it the point of interest.
displaces. Scattering of x rays by the chamber e. Absorbed dose in tissue or other material exposed
and its connections may also contribute slightly to fast electrons. For electrons, as for x rays,
to the change. the condition of electronic equilibrium may or
may not be satisfied. These cases will again be
Dmed and Dwau (in rad) are related as follows: discussed separately.
Case I. Electronic equilibrium. If a fJ-ray
D -B (µen/P)med D -0 86 Q B (µ.nf P)med emitter is homogeneously distributed throughout
med- ( / ) wall- · g Sm ( / ) a medium in which the absorbed dose is to be
µen P wall µen P wall
measured, the conditions for electronic equi-
(IA8) librium will be almost ideally satisfied except
near the boundaries of the medium. However,
where B is a correction factor for the effects noted contrary to the above procedures for x rays,
in (ii) above, which for a small chamber of small a thin-walled ionization chamber should be used,
wall thickness will have a value close to unity.
1 It should be pointed out that in such a region the spectral distribution
Note that B will be closer to 1.00 than will A (see of the electrons is not in equilibrium, and hence is not given by the reciprocal
subsection IAld) for identical cavity chambers. of the stopping power in the medium (neglecting ~ rays), as is usually
assumed (Spencer and Attix, 1955). However, because Sm for near-air-
The evaluation of the stopping power factor will equivalent materials does not vary rapidly with energy, it can be evaluated
approximately by assuming that the equilibrium conditions apply (see
be treated in section IA2. subsection !Alb).

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084

by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 as in the nonequilibrium x-ray case. The chamber g. Distribution of the absorbed enerw (concept
walls merely act as electron absorbers, and should of LET). The absorbed dose specifies the total
be minimized in thickness. However, the thick- energy imparted by ionizing particles per unit
ness should be varied in order to extrapolate mass of the irradiated material. The detailed
the ionization current to zero wall thickness. spatial distribution of this dose depends pri-
It is sometimes possible to eliminate the in- marily on the velocity and charge of the particles
serted cavity wall entirely, enclosing the air traversing the medium. Rather similar dis-
within walls of the medium itself. The inner tribution patterns may be produced by electrons
surface of these walls must be made electrically and protons of appropriate energies. Hence the
conducting (if not already so) by a thin coating "quality" of the radiation is best specified in
of a conducting material (e.g., graphite). Equa- terms of the type of tracks produced, rather
tion (IA.9) is used in calculating the absorbed dose. than in terms of the nature of the primary ra-
Case II. Electronic nonequilibrium. If a me- diation (x rays, neutrons, etc.), or of the second-
diurn is exposed to an externally applied beam of ary ionizing particles (electrons, protons, etc.).
electrons, the electron flux and spectrum will A full description of the type of track would
certainly vary from point to point within the require a knowledge of the number and spatial
medium, particularly in depth. Thus, the distribution of all the collision processes which
electronic-equilibrium conditions are not satisfied. occur and this is clearly impossible. A single
Here, again, a very thin- (or zero-) walled parameter which has been found useful for char-
chamber should be employed. However, one acterizing the track is the LET, and this param-
cannot assume that the spectral distribution is eter has been found in general to correlate well
the same as that for equilibrium, so values of with the biological effectiveness of the radiation.
the stopping power ratio for equilibrium may Even for a homogeneous primary radiation
not be applicable (see subsection IA2c). there will usually be a wide variation of LET
f. Absorbed dose in tissue exposed to fast neutron along the tracks of individual secondary particles
radiation. The theory of cavity ionization given and between tracks of differing initial energy.
above, and already discussed in some detail for The situation can, therefore, best be represented
gamma radiation, applies equally well to the by giving the distribution of LET throughout
dosimetry of neutron radiation. In nearly all the irradiated object. This can be done in two
practical devices the walls and gas have nearly ways-in relation to dose, or to track length.
identical atomic composition, hence, the question For all chemical and many biological effects,
of stopping power is not a critical one in neutron the chief interest lies in the proportion of the total
dosimetry. Consideration is given in subsection dose which is deposited in different LET intervals.
IA3 to the question of the appropriate W for This is the "distribution-in-LET" of the absorbed
neutron dosimetry. In section IG practical dose, and a typical spectrum of this kind is
methods of neutron dosimetry are discussed in detail. presented in figure IA2. An experimentally de-
.15

f-- Eo ~ 20 Mev
w
_J

IL
0
_J

~
a:
UJ
~ .10 -
f-
z::>
a:
UJ
a_

>-
"'a:
UJ
z
UJ

:;Los
"'a:
-- [
0
(/)

"'
<{
IL
0
z
0
~
u
<{

~ o[,.l.l...ll~l-,,J,,__::::t=:=:::;J;:~~~~~~~~...,.~~;;;;;;;;;;:M_~--J
0 w ~ w 00 ~
LINEAR ENERGY TRANSFER, kev I MICRON

FIGURE IA2. LET distribution for recoil protons produced in water by mono-
energetic neutrons, when fint collisions only are considered; i.e., when the
irradiated object is thin compared with the mean free path of the neutrons in it.
The ordinate gives the fraction of the total dose deposited per unit interval of LET. Additional
LET distribution curves for mixed energy neutron beams and for total absorption of the neutrons
in multiple collisions are given by Boag (1954).

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084

by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 termined distribution is given for comparison in or to a mean value of LET with respect to dose,
figure IA3. The experimental curves differ from or with respect to path length. The fuller in-
the theoretical ones in part, because they include formation conveyed by a distribution curve,
recoiling heavier nuclei that are not included in however approximate, is much more valuable
the theoretical treatment; however, the main than a single mean value. For a fuller discussion
source of disagreement is due to the fact that an of LET distribution, see the original papers
actual energy-loss distribution, no matter how (Burch, 1957; Cormack, 1956; Cormack et al.,
obtained, must include fluctuations in energy 1957; Howard-Flanders, 1958, and Schneider and
deposition by particles of given nature and energy. Cormack, 1959).
Such fluctuations are ignored in the theoretical
treatment. 2. Stopping Powers of Electrons for Use
It is important to note that figure IA2 repre- with Cavity Chambers
sents a distribution with respect to dE/dx meas-
ured along the track of the recoil protons; and a. Electronic equilibrium in media exposed to x
that the energy loss dE is obtained by including or gamma radiation. The value of the stopping
all energy transfers between the moving particle power ratio, sm, is usually obtained from calcula-
and the molecules encountered within a path tions based on the Bethe stopping power formula.
length dx. Some of these energy transfers will be This formula contains a constant I, the mean ex-
large enough to give rise to independent delta-ray citation potential, which is adjusted to fit the
tracks, and the energy communicated in such a equation to experimental data. The values of Sm
transfer is not dissipated locally along dx, but given below were calculated using values of I
along the delta ray. If delta rays above an which were selected by a Study Group of the U.S.
arbitrary initial energy are considered as inde- National Committee on Radiation Protection
pendent tracks, a different LET distribution will (NCRP, 1961) as best representing the experi-
be obtained. mental situation in the field of stopping power
For certain biological effects depending upon measurements. These values are listed in table
the transit of secondary particles across small IA3. There is some experimental disagreement
biological structures, the interest lies in the pro- between I values for heavy elements determined
portion of the total track length which falls into with low energy and with high energy protons.
different LET intervals, i.e., the "distribution- It has been suggested (Brandt, 1958) that the low
in-LET", of the track length. When a mean energy data need a further correction arising from
value of LET is quoted, instead of a distribution, the binding of the electrons in the atoms of the
it is necessary to specify exactly how this mean irradiated medium. This led the NCRP Study
has been taken, i.e., whether it refers to the LET Group to accept as correct the I values obtained
of a particle of the mean energy of the secondaries, with high energy protons. Work appearing since
the completion of the NCRP report (Bichsel,
~ .06i,----i,----,---~---~-- 1961; Burlin, 1961, 1962) supports this choice.
These I values differ from those used in the 1959

!: "J~_J -~=1~
Report of the ICRU; the latter were obtained
from the relation I= 13 Z. The resulting changes
in Sm for the light elements are in the range of one
to two percent.
TABLE IA3. Selected values of the mean excitation potential
z
~
.75 I' DIAMETER
Mean
0:: Element excitation Notes
w potential
a. .03 -· (ev)
>-
<!)
0::
w 20. 7 Liquid.
z 1 H---------------- { 17. 6 Saturated.
w 14.8 Unsaturated.
0 .02 3 LL_. _____________ _ 38
w 4 Be _______________ _ 67
CD 78.4 Graphite.
0::
0 6 c _________________ { 77. 3 Saturated.
CJ) 75.1 Unsaturated.
CD 64.8 Highly chlorinated.
~ .011---+.-l-+-4-- 99. 5 Amines, nitrates.
u. 85.1 Liquid.
0 7 N.---------------{ 76.8 Ring.
z Air ________________ _ 85 Gas.
0 98. 5 -0-.
0 01~_-J-_ __j__ _:::t=:==:=:l====~
so _________________ { 98.3 Liquid.
: 0 w ~ w ~ 00 88.9 0=
13 AL ____________ _ 164
u. LINEAR ENERGY TRANSFER, kev/MICRON 170
26 CL-------------
17 Fe ______________ _ 264
29 Cu _____________ _ 306
FIGURE IA3. Experimentally determined LET 47 Ag _____________ _ 462
50 Sn ______________ _ 517
distributions. 74W ______________ _ 750
82Pb _____________ _ 812
These were determined for nearly monoenergetic neutrons of the 92 u ______________ _
indicated energies and for a test sphere corresponding to a diameter 945
of 0.75 µin soft ti"8ue (Rosenzweig and Rossi. 1959).

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084

by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 In the Bragg-Gray theory the charged particles for the light elements with adequate accuracy; if a
were assumed to lose energy continuously along significant number of photoelectrons or pair-
their tracks and the ratio of the stopping powers electrons are produced, however, Sm has to be
in two media was assumed to be independent of found by taking a weighted mean of the values for
particle energy. Laurence (1937) took into ac- Compton, photo- and pair electrons using as
count the energy-dependence of the ratio. Spen- Weighting factors <Jen/ µen 1 Ten/ µen 1 and Ken/ µen 1
cer and Attix (1955) and Burch (1955) allowed respectively. Photoelectrons are practically mono-
both for the energy dependence of the ratio and energetic and electron pair energies are fairly
for the fact that charged particles do not lose symmetrically distributed about their mean, so
energy continuously but in discrete amounts, i.e., in both cases one may take values from tables
that delta rays are produced. The latter theories IA4 and IA5 for these contributions. T?or com-
show that to obtain Sm it is necessary to calculate pounds, a weighted average of the values in tables
the integral of the ratio of the mass stopping IA4 and IA5 or IA6 and IA7, or the value cor-
power of the cavity gas to that of the wall mate- rected for photo and pair electrons is used; the
rial over the energy of each particle, and over the
spectrum of starting energies of all the particles
TABLE IA5. Mean mass stopping power ratios, Sm, relative
and that Sm is the reciprocal of this mean value. to air and corrected for polarization effect, for electrontc
If Sm is calculated in this way for each element equilibrium spectra generated by monoenergetic initial
present, then the effective value for the given electrons
compound or mixture of elements comprising the
wall material is obtained from Bragg's law: that Initial
p
energy Graphite Al Ca Cu Sn Pb
is by multiplying Sm for each element by the pro- Mev
portion by weight of the element in the wall --------
material, and summing over all constituents. 0. 1 !. 014 o. 859 0.875 0. 852 0. 711 0. 555 0. 468
.2 !. 013 . 870 . 886 . 869 . 734 . 595 508
Thompson (1952) has shown that Bragg's law .3 !. 011 . 876 .891 . 876 . 745 . 614 . 5i6
holds with great accuracy if the stopping power .327
.4
1.010
1.009
.877
. 879
. 892
.894
.878
. 882
. 747
. 752
. 617
. 625
. 530
. 53 9
of hydrogen is assumed to be different in satu- .5 1.007 . 881 . 896 .885 . 757 . 633 . 548
.6 !. 005 . 882 . 898 . 887 . 761 . 639 . 555
rated and unsaturated compounds and a few
similar changes are made in the values for other .654
.7
!. 004
1.003
.883
.883
. 899
. 899
. 889
. 890
. 762
. 764
. 642
. 645
. 55 7
. 560
light elements. Thompson's rules are reflected .8 1.001 . 884 . 901 . 892 . 767 . 649 . 56 5
1.0 0. 998 . 885 . 902 . 895 . 771 . 655 . 572
in the series of values quoted in tables IA3 to !. 2 0. 995 . 885 . 904 . 898 . 775 . 660 . 578
IA6. A more detailed theory of Sm is given m 1.308 0. 993 . 885 . 905 . 899 . 775 . 663 . 581
the NCRP report (1961).
!. 5 ------------ -------- . 907 . 902 -------- . 666 . 584

Tables IA4 and IA5 give the values of Sm

relative to air obtained for electrons in a region
where electronic equilibrium exists and where all TABLE IA6. Mean mass stopping power ratios, Sm, relative
to air and corrected Jo r the polarization effect, for electronic
the electrons are emitted with the same energy T 0
•
equilibrium spectra generated by Compton recoil electrons
These values were calculated by the Laurence
method. Tables IA6 and IA7 give values of Sm Element and state of molecular binding
that have, in addition, been averaged over the
spectrum of Compton recoil electrons. For many »
I
practical purposes this value of sn1 may be used Gamma
ray I 'O
E
'O
E :;:i'O
.~~ 0
I
·"" " ...
·ai
"" i: I II

.,,,.
energy c"'
,,~ E .0 " c· ,;-gi .,; 0

Mev "'"'
0 ..."'""'~
·ai
§t:; ·"
c~ c·.S
_g.S ~.Sf "' c·
.8i;::i~
0"'
'"" .a»"!fl '""' .o~
"'"'
~-§ "'» "'»"'
"'" z~~:a z
'O ~
TABLE IA4.
1'vfean mass stopping power rat1'.os, sm, relative » g; ... .o
to air and corrected for the polarization effect, for electronic :i: :i:
><
0 ""'
><
0 C,) C,) C,)

equilibrium spectra generated by monoenergetic initial --------------------

electrons 0.15 2. 73 2.85 1. 020 !. 027 !. 058 0. 970 !. 022 0. 972 0. 99
.25 2. 62 2. 72 !. 017 !. 022 !. 050 . 974 1. 019 . 976 . 99
.4 2. 55 2. 63 1. 016 1.020 !. 045 . 977 1.017 . 978 . 99.
I Element and state of molecular binding .6 2. 50 2. 57 I. 014 I. 018 !. 040 . 979 !. 016 . 980 . 99

1.0 2. 44 2.50 !. 008 !. 012 !. 032 . 977 I. 009 . 978 . 991

Initial I 'O 'O 'O
!. 5 2. 39 2. 4511. 001 I. 005 !. 023 . 972 !. 003
o. 995
. 973 .98
e%_r;; 1 §·'O
E
E
·al
c ...
'O
E
E
i: E .. ., ,,. 0
I

0
II 2. 0
2. 5
2. 36
2. 32
2. 42 0. 994
2. 37 . 987
0. 997
.990
I. 014
I. 007
. 966 I
I o. 988
. 967
. 962
. 978
. 973
"'2 ~ ~.8 c·ai... ·"
c~ =~~.§ " c "'"
,,.,~
c·
I . 960

'O
»
:i:
~
E~
'O
»"
:i::
c 0"
.o~

'""
"'"'
C,)
0"'
H
C,)
.8........
C,)
'§:.9,.c
~..c:: <:,.;
0
b£

z
c"
0·- "'
"""'
z
M

~~~ ~·2 "'»><"'

0
"'"'"'
»
><
-- - - - - - - - - --- --- -- TABLE IA7. Mean mass stopping power ratios, Sm, relative
0.1 . 52 2. 59 !. 016 1.021 !. 047 0. 976 !. 018 0. 978 o. 994 to air and corrected for the polarization effect, for electronic
.2 . 52
.3
. 327
.4
. 48
. 48
. 46
2. 59
2. 55
2. 54
2. 53
, "" I'"'" !. 043
1.014 1.018 1.040
1.014 1.018 1.040
!. 014 !. 018 !. 038
. 978 !. 016
. 979 !. 016
. 979 !. 015
. 979
. 981
. 981
. 995
. 995
. 995
equilibrium spectra generated by Compton recoil electrons

. 980 1.015 . 981 . 996 Gamma

.5 . 44 2. 51 !. 013 1. 017 !. 037 . 980 1.015 . 982 . 9!16 ray energy Graphite Al p Ca Cu Sn Pb
6 . 44 2. 50 1.012 1.016 1.035 . 980 !. 013 . 981 . 995 Mev
. 654 2. 43 2. 49 1.011 1.014 1.034 . 979 1.012 . 981 . 994
---- -------- ~---

.7 2 . 42 2. 48 1.010 !. 013 !. 033 . 978 !. 011 . 980 . 993 0.15 !. 017 0. 835 0. 823 0. 776 0. 657 0. 458 0. 380
.8 2. 40 2. 46 1.009 !. 012 I. 031 . 978 !. 010 . 979 . 992 . 25 1. 015 . 853 . 850 . 816 . 696 . 538 . 443
I. 0 2. 39 2. 44 1.004 !. 008 1.026 . 977 . 988 .4 I. 013 . 866 . 867 . 842 . 723 . 575 . 487
I. 2 2 . 37 2. 42 !. 001 1.004 I. 022 . 97511. 005
. 973 !. 002 . 974 . 985 .6 I. 011 . R74 . 879 . 85i . 740 . 605 . 518
I. 308 2 2. 42 0. 99911. 002 1.019 . 971 !. 000 . 972 . 983 1.0 I. 005 . 881 . 888 . 873 . 758 . 634 . 548
I. 5 361
2 . 35 2. 39 . 995 0. 998 1.015 . 967 0. 996 . 969 . 980 1. 5 0. 999 . 883 . 894 .883 . 768 . 650 . 567

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084

by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 weighting factors are the parts by weight of the Some calculations of stopping power ratios are
elements in the compounds (Bragg's law). In available which use the Spencer-Attix theory and
table IA8 values of Sm are presented for a these have been compared with results of the
few compounds and a few particular gamma-ray- Laurence theory. It is characteristic of the
emitting isotopes. theories that allow for delta ray effects that Sm is a
The Sm values in tables IA4 to IA7 include function of cavity size. The NCRP report
corrections for the polarization effect (also called gives (in their fig. 3.a-3.e) the ratio of the Sm
the density effect) (Whyte, 1954). Sternheimer values calculated according to the Laurence and
(1952, 1956) and Nelms (1958) calculated polar- the Spencer-Attix theories as a function of
ization corrections to certain stopping powers. chamber size. The difference is less than 20
Unfortunately, many of those data were in- percent in the very worst case considered, that of
appropriate for use in calculating tables IA4 to a small lead-wall chamber filled with air. Such
IA7 because they were based on other I values a wide difference in atomic number of the wall
than those given in table IA3. In view of this and gas is hardly ever needed in practical
and because the polarization corrections for applications of cavity chambers. The review
water and the other organic compounds considered made by the NCRP Study Group (1961) showed
are very similar, an average correction for Sm was that most of the experimental data for walls of
calculated and applied in tables IA4 and IA6. low atomic number agree with the Laurence
The error in Sm expected from using this average theory to within the experimental uncertainties.
correction is less than about one-quarter percent. These uncertainties are generally about 1 to 2
These average corrections are given in table IA9. percent, although under special conditions they
In tables IA5 and IA7, only graphite and may be as low as 0.5 percent.
aluminium have been corrected for the polarization If it becomes necessary to use chamber walls
effect; the correction is negligible for the heavier of high atomic number, the information in the
elements. figures in the NCRP report together with the
information in the present tables can be useful
in interpreting results. In such cases, however,
it·frequently happens that still another correction
TABLE IA8. Mean mass stopping power ratios, s.n, relative is needed. All the theories for Sm published so far
to air and corrected for the polarization effect, and absorbed assume that the cavity is small enough not to
dose per esu/0.001.'293 g air for selected materials and
gamma rays (for electronic equilibrium spectra) perturb appreciably the flux of secondary electrons
in the vicinity of the cavity. When the wall and
gas of the chamber differ considerably in atomic
Gamma ray
emitter
Gamma
ray
energy
Poly·
ethyl-
ene
I I I
Water Tissue• Poly-
sty- \ Lucite Graph-
rene
ite I number, this is likely to be incorrect. No
Mev theories have yet been published that deal with
8m
such cavity perturbations. The NCRP Study
Group found an empirical method of extrapolating
Au-198 ....... 0. 41 1.013 to zero chamber size and thus removing the
1. 2331 1.1491 1.1491 1.1391 11241
Cs-137 .......
Co--00 ........
. 67
1. 25
1. 225
1. 209
1.145
1.135
1. 145
1.133
1.133
1. 120
1.120
1.109
1.010
1.002
perturbation; this method can be studied in their
report (NCRP, 1961).
Rads per esu/0.001293 g air** b. Electronic equilibrium in media exposed to
beta rays. If a beta-ray emitter is uniformly
Au-198 .......
Cs-137 .......
Co--00 ........
o. 41
1.. 671
25
1.071
1.064
1. 051
I I I o.wo I
O.W8
.W5
. 986
0.W8
.W5
.985
.985
. 973
0.. 973
9771
. 964
0.880
. 878
.871
distributed throughout a medium in which the
absorbed dose is to be measured, the conditions for
electronic equilibrium will be almost ideally
•Assuming the composition given in footnote 5 for muscle and air and that satisfied except near the boundaries of the medium.
10 percent of the bonds are unsaturated or O=.
••Assuming W = 33. 7 ev, so that an exposure of 1 R will produce an absorbed sm should be obtained by averaging over the
dose m air of 0.86' rad under conditions of charged particle equilibrium. electron spectrum existing in the medium. It has
been found, however, that for electronic equilib-
rium conditions, Sm will be practically the same
as for Compton recoil electrons whose average
TABLE IA9. Average polarization coirection to Sm for water energy on emission is the same as the average
and organic materials
energy of the emitted beta rays (NCRP, 1961).
For the Compton electrons this average energy is
Monoenergetic Compton
electrons recoil electrons (<Ta/<T)hv, see figure IA4. For the beta rays, the
average energy is about one-third the maximum
Initial
energy Correction
Photon
energy Correction
beta-ray energy.
Mev Mev c. Electronic non-equilibrium conditions. Sm
should always be obtained by averaging over the
0.6 0.001 1.0 0.005 electron spectrum existing in the medium 11:t the
. 654 .002 1. 5 .011
.7 .003 2.0 .018 point of interest. There is seldom much infor-
.8 .004 2. 5 .025 mation about this electron spectrum for non-
1. 0 .008 ------------ ------------ equilibrium. In such cases, the best that can be
1. 2 .011 ------------ ------------
1. 308 .013 ------------ ------------ done may be to use the Sm appropriate to electronic
1. 5 .017 ------------ ------------
equilibrium conditions.
9
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 ,/
/
.
>
:::;;

r---+-~-+--*l/-+-++++----+--+~1--1--+-+-~1'~---+--+- -+--V'+--l-H------jr------r---1' --+---1-"-+-+-+-i

J i /

l.0~---+-1''--,,____,___,--+-+-+--+-1---- ·----1-----+--+-+-+-+-++---r ---+___,,...__,--+-+-+-+-1-----+--'-~-t-+--+c-+-i-+-il.O

I I /
I I /

r--~;f-t-'--+---+--+-+-+1-+-+-+-----+--~--+-+-+-J /
\ I \ ! IJ/

I I I I :-~.J,
I I i iii!
yf
I

I I II ,-~11+--------+-~-+-++++--------+--+--+--+-+-+--t-H
0.1~--"-----'~-'---'--L..J.....W.-'----'---'--'W....-'---'-LL.U...---L--'---'---'--'-.l-l.-LI.----'--'----'---'--'-...J...Ju..J0.I
.OI .10 1.0 10 100
PHOTON ENERGY (hll), Mev

FIGURE IA4. Graph of (u 0 /u) hv, the mean initial energy of the Compton recoil electrons produced by monochromatic 'Y rays of
quantum energy hv.

1_
t---t---+--+-+-+-++<-+----+---+--t--1---i-+-++~----

----=- - tt .
---i-+--+-+-+-+-++---+~+---j--t--+-++tt----l-T--.of-+-i--+-++l

. -- -
;/
r--+---+--+--~t-rl-+----+---+-+-+-+++++---

t-----t---t---<r+-+-+-+++-----+---+--+-+--+-c+++---- --+ ~- - //
--+---+--+++++l--1+--+-+-t-+-t-+H

~ ----+-l--'<--t-~<-++.,,__-4---

1.-

•>
lE

I"'
! /v

drl==i==!:$1=!ii~=l==t=t:tt:lm~--~/=t:31W:lt==:1==l:*t=ttm:==t=s==m~
v
I/
t-----+--+--+-·+·+-H-W"'/
,,,,--
.Ol~-~~L....-""-'_._.._._....,.,_ __,_-'---.........-'-'-'"-'-''---'---'-........-W..U.'----'---'-_._._._.....,....,___.....__.__._~~
.0001 .001 .01 .10 1.0 I()
ELECTRON RANGE IN AIR, glcm 2

FIGURE IA5. Approximate maximum r-ange-ver'sus-energy curve for electrons in air, calculated by
Nelms (1956).
10
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 In the case of an externally applied beam of two exceptinns, the different figures for a given
monoenergetic electrons penetrating a thin foil, gas show a satisfactory consist ency. The final
all the electrons will have very nearly their column of the table lists weighted mean vahws for
incident energy and the ratio of the mass stopping each gas, based on the stn,ndard deviations quoted
powers at that energy may be used for Sm· The by the authors. (For the purposes of this calcula-
same will be true near the surface of thicker tion, the standard deviation in the results of Jesse
absorbers. At greater depths in a thick absorber and Sadauskis (1955) was assumed to be 0.5 ev.)
the average energy of the electrons can be esti- The standard deviations rerorded for the mean
mated from the range-energy relation (see fig. IA5) values are derived from the individual standard
and Sm for an equilibr~um spectrum of that same deviations. In most cases they arc consistent
average energy used. with the spread in values among different
experiments.
3. Average Energy per Ion Pair, W Table IA12 lists W values for a particles with
initial energies between 5 and 6 ~Icv, based on
The average energy expended by a charged the total ionization collected when the full enPrgy
particle in a gas per ion pair produced will be is expended in the gas. No results for cxperiilwnts
designated by W. It is usually expressed in based on fast collection of electrons havr' lwen
electron volts (ev). It varies from gas to gas and, included, since these appear to givP higher cil11es
to a small extent, for different kinds of particle. than experiments based on ion colll'('tion (llt"·wig
The dependence on energy is negligible for elec- and l\Iiller, 19M). (ln dosimetric problems t lli'
trons in all gases (at least above 20 kev) and for collection time is usually long and the inns im·
a particles in the noble gases; there is a small collected.) Since absolute measureIHPnts "it b n
dependence for the low-energy a particles in air particles present fewer difficulties tha11 t ltn..;e with
(see below). electrons, no attempt has been made to re-
Absolute measurements of "' for electrons are normali.ze the results. The last column again pre-
difficult to make accurately, but a number of sents weighted mean values, with standard
recent measurements for air, based on a variety of
techniques, are reasonably consistent. The re-
sults are listed in table IAIO, along with a mean TABLE IAl.O. W values for electrons in air
value derived from them. (It should be noted
that all of these values are derived, directly or
Reference Radiation W(ev)
indirectly, from calorimetric determinations of
energy.) In sets of measurements on different (•) 2 Mv x ray 33. 9±0.8
gases made with the same apparatus, the relative (b) sasp rays 33. 6±0.3
(•) sasp rays 33. 7±0. 3
values obtained are probably more reliable than (d) Cs137-y rays 33. 9±0. 5
the absolute values. Table IAl 1 presents a (•) c 81ar & Co60'Y rays 33. 8±0. 4
(') Co&oil rays 33. 84±0. 34
number of such sets. \Vhere possible, they have
been normalized to the mean value of 33.73 ev Weighted Mean=33.73±0.15 ev
derived from the absolute measurements in air.
Values depending on stopping-power ratios have •Weiss and Bernstein (1956).
b Gross et al., (1957).
been recalculated on the basis of data in a report •Bay et al., (1957).
by the National Committee on Radiation Pro- d Goodwin (1959).
•Reid and Johns (1961).
tection and ~Ieasurernents (1961). With one or r Myers et al., (1961).

TABLE IAll. ·w values for electrons (ev.)

a*t g* h*t i' j kt

Reference Radiation 2 Mev x rays A1 7, HIB rays 2 Mev x rays Ni''. nap rays S"P rays 1-34 Mev elec- Weighted mean
trons

Gas
n,_________________________ __________________ 36.6±0.1 36.3±0.7 35.9 -·---------------- 38.l±0.7 36.6±0.3

~f /- ~;:ff ~!!
Kr .. _______________________ ________ ______ ____ _____ __ _____ ______
H!~!i
~ti!~:~
~l§~:~ "~~·
:::::::::::::::::r::::::: ::::: :: ::
. . .i::~:..... ~l~f
~t~!~:~
Xe ________________________ J_________________
AlL.-----------------------1 (33.73)
__________________
(33.73) I
21.9±0.4
(33.73)
21.8
(33.73) ------ ----------- ------------------[
I I Zl.\Hc0.3
33.73±11.15

rn'.-- -------------- i ~~-~;~·: -----;;9·1±06____ ~~:b -_:2~-~-:1,: ~5· : :_~:~_-_: :_:_:_:_=:-:~-=-: Htf~:1
8:U!~~:::::~~~:~:~~::~~~~~:l~=-:~~:~~o:~:-::_~:_:_~-~~~~--~:::J~-:~~~"?~~t~:~l__}~1 E~~~S.-il
I -------------- 1,---.:_: __ ±;_:_-60)_:_·!_-:_:_::_-_-111 ___ ___ __: ___:_:_-_:_:_::_:_:I

J ·-· v - - - - - - - - _____

*Norrna1izrd to"\\' =33.i3 for air. Yalentim and Curran (1952).

tStopping-power factor revised. \Veiss and Bernstein (1956).
**Tlw low value of reference g is not includPd. Yalm'S for helium an• nTy Jesse and ~acbrnskis (1955).
sensitin' to impuritiPs. Jesse (195~)
•Weiss and Bernstein (195.5). Barl>er (1~55).

11
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 TABLE IA12. W values for a particles (ev)

Reference (s) (') (m) (•) (P) (o) (•) (') Weighted
mean

Oas
H,_________ 37. 0±0. 7 36. 3 ------------ -------------- 35. 96±0.15 37.0±0. 13 36. 2±0. 2
He'------- 31. 7±0.6 42. 7 ------------ 29. 6±0. 3 -------------- 46. 0±0. 5
N,_________ 36. 0±0. 7 36.6 36. 4±0. 4 36. 30±0. 15 36. 50±0. 15 36. 3±0. 4 36. 39±0. 07 36. 38±0. 07 ------------ 36. 6±0. 5 36. 39±0. 04
o,_________ 32. 2±0. 6 32. 5 32. 9±0. 3 32. 17±0. 15 -------------- 32. 2±0. 3 32. 3±0.1
Ne ________ ------------ 36. 8 36. 8
A__________ 25. 9±0. 5 26.4 26. 3±0.1
Kr ________ ------------ 24. 1 24. 1

Xe ________ ------------ 21.9 -----··------ ------------ ------------ 21. 9

Air________ 35 2±0. 1 35. 5 --35~6±0~4- :::::::::::::: --34~95±o~is- ---35~o±o~ii-- --34~96±o~o7- - 34. 91±0. 01 ____________ 35 5±o 5 34. 98±0. 05
co, ___________________ 34.5 34.2±0.3 33.5±0.3 34.3±0.3 34.3±0.3 ______________ 34.04±0.1 34.0±0.3 ___________ _ 34.1±0.1
CH,_______ 29. 0±0. 6 29. 2 29. 1±0. 4 -------------- 29. 00±0. 15 29. 4±0. 3 ----------- ·-- -------------- ------------ ------------ 29.1±0.1
C1H1- ----- ------------ 27.5 ------------ -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- ------------ ------------ 27. 5
28. 03±0. 05
~~~:::::: :::::::::::: --~~~-- :::::::::::: :::::::::::::: ::ii:i~6:~::: ---~~~:~~~-- ::~~:~~~~:~~: :::::::::::::: :::::::::::: =:::::::::::1 26. 6
35. 6±0. 3

'Values for helium are very sensitive to impurities. That of Bortner and • Biber et al., (1955).
Hurst (1954) probably corresponds most closely to pure helium. o Bortner and Hurst (1954).
•Valentine and Curran (1952). •Jesse (1960).
1 Jesse and Sadauskis (1953). 'Bay et al., (1961).
m Sharpe (1952). •Widder and Huber (1958).
0 Haeberli et al., (1953). • Genin (1956).

deviations derived from the stated errors of the 4. Saturation in Ionization Measurements
authors.
The results for the noble gases except helium Failure to collect all the ions produced in an
appear consistent with the assumption that the ionization chamber may be due to either initial
W values are the same for a particles and elec- or general recombination. The amount of initial
trons. Note that this is not true for air and a recombination depends upon the LET of the
number of other gases. ionizing particle and upon the strength of the
_For neu~ron dosimetry, W values for protons collecting field and its direction in relation to the
with energies up to several Mev are of interest. particle track. The best treatment of initial
For the noble gases these should be the same as recombination is that by Jaffe (1929) with modi-
for a particles and electrons. The variation with fications by Zanstra (1935), and that by Kara-
ene~gy _for low-energy a particles in air (e.g., Michailova and Lea (1940). Initial recombination
Ishiwan et al., 1956) and the difference between does not depend upon dose rate and is usually
the values for a particles and electrons in many only troublesome for slow particles or high gas
g~ses sug~est. that in these gaseB W increases pressures.
slightly with mcreasing specific ionization. The General recombination can be treated theoreti-
values for protons would therefore be expected to cally in simple cases but it must be stressed that
lie between those for electrons and those for a difficulty in achieving saturation is often due
particles. The few measurements that have been principally to inappropriate design of the ioniza-
made in the energy range of interest (e.g., tion chamber. If there are regions in the chamber
J~ntschke? 1940; Larson, 1958) tend to give values where the field strength is much lower than the
slightly higher than those for a particles. Using maximum, it will be difficult to achieve saturation
the same values for protons as for a particles in these regions without exceeding, in other parts
should not involve errors of more than a few of the chamber, the field strength at which multi-
percent in the worst case. plication of ions by collision can begin.
The _W value for a mixture of gases must be For plane parallel ionization chambers uni-
determmed experimentally· it is not in general formly irradiated at constant dose rate, a satura-
equal to the weighted mea~ of the values for the tion curve can be drawn (Boag, 1956) as a function
components of the mixture. Information for a of the dimensionless variable ~=m(d 2 -{i/V) where d
number of mixtures is provided by Bortner and is the spacing (cm), V the collecting voltage (volts),
Hurst (1954); Moe, et al., (1957); and Valentine q the charge density production rate (esu/cm 3-sec)
and Curran (1958). and m is a constant depending upon the type and
In the previous report it was recommended that density of the gas. This curve is illustrated in
a W value of 34 ev be used for calculations con- figure IA6, where FW =collection efficiency,
cerning x and gamma radiation of quantum and it can be represented with adequate accuracy
energy greater than 20 kev. It was realized at by the formula F(~)=2/(l+Ji+~2 ). For air at
that time that the value might actually be some- 760 mm and 20° C, the constant m has the value
wha~ lower, but the evidence was incomplete. 30.
In view of the more extensive evidence now avail- For cylindrical or spherical geometry in the
able (table IA10), a value of 33.7 ev has been ionization chamber the foregoing saturation curve
u_sed throu~hout this report in calculating quanti- still applies, but instead of d, one must insert
ties dependmg upon it. K(a-b), where (a-b) is the radial spacing of the
12
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 electrodes, and K is a shape factor whose values 1.00
r-- r-.... 0.9
are given in figure IA7.
The foregoing curve and formula for F(I;) apply
to continuous radiation. In the case of instan-
"
~
>-
~ 0.96
0.98
\ \
0.8

0.7
taneous pulses of radiation (Boag, 1956) whose w
0
\ \
duration is short compared with the time required
to collect the ions, the appropriate dimensionless
variable is u=µ(d 2r/V), where r is the charge
density per pulse (esu/cm3). In this case the col-
~
Lt..
w
z 0.92
0
0.94
- \ -
\
0.6

0,5
F(~)

~ 0.90 0.4
lection efficiency, F(u) = (1/u) log (1 +u). For w \
air at 760 mm and 20° C, µ= 1000. F(u) is given ...J
c5 0.88 0,3
graphically in figure IA8 for plane geometry. u
\

The extension to cylindrical and spherical geom- '

0,05 0.1 0.5 1.0 5 10
etry again involves the shape factors Keyl and K•Ph
from figure IA 7. -~-
When an x-ray tube is run on a pulsating FIGURE IA6. Collection efficiency in an ionization chamber
potential supply, the x-ray output occurs in exposed to continuous radiation.
pulses whose duration may be long compared with The curve is broken into two parts for greater accuracy in reading. The
the collection time of the ions in the ionization left-hand ordinate scale applies to the left-hand portion of the c.1rve, and
the right-hand ordinate scale to the remainder of the curve (Boag, 1956).
chamber. In this case, the collection efficiency
depends upon the average dose rate during the
pulse, and, as in the case of instantaneous pulses, " 6
t,5
it is independent of the pulse repetition frequency. .I
Saturation curves taken with a pulsating x-ray v
J
output agree well with those taken with continu- 1.4 5
ous output when the average intensity during the kcy1/ J

pulse is the parameter used.

Chambers that inc!~itle regions of plane, cylin- 1.3
/ /
I
4
drical, and spherical geometry can be dealt with / J
Ksph
Keyl
by considering the collection efficiency in each of 1.2
/ .I /ksph
3
the regions separately and adding together the I
/
currents from all regions. These formulas and
curves should be regarded as a guide to the vari- I.I
,, / 2
ables which determine saturation but not as a /v
substitute for accurate experimental checks on ~ .."'.'.'.'. ""'"' ....
1.0
saturation conditions in a particular chamber. 50 100
2 5 10 20
B. Calorimetric Methods a/b

For most absorbing materials all but a few per- FIGURE IA7. Factors for calculating the equivalent qap
cent of the energy absorbed from a radiation field length in cylindrical and spherical ionization chambers.
The a and bare external and internal radii of the chamber, respectively.
ultimately appears as heat. Therefore, a calori- Equivalent .gap Jength=K"1(a-b) for cylindrical geometry. Equivalent
metric measurement of this energy is, in principle, gap Jength=K, 0 b(a-b) for spherical geometry (Boag, 1956).
a very direct approach although one that requires
considerable experimental refinement. Calori- 1,00 0,9
metric systems have been devised which measure r-...._ 'I\
I'-, '
intensity and others which measure absorbed-dose u::" 0.98 ~
0.8
rate. These systems operate by absorbing energy >-
r-..
~ ~
from the radiation field, retaining this energy until 0

it is degraded to thermal energy, and evaluating ~0.96 0.7

this heat by measuring the rise in temperature of

the system. The heat capacity of the system can
u
Lt..
~ 0.94
~ ~ 1\---
\
0.6 F(u)
be determined very accurately by introducing
known electrical power. The loss of absorbed
radiation energy to forms other than heat is a
z
0
j:: 0.92
u
\ \
\
0.5
w \
fundamental difficulty in calorimetric measure- ...J
I
c5 0.90 0.4
ments. Intensity measurements will be in error if
energy is carried away by bremsstrahlung or by
neutrons; in absorbed-dose measurements on the
u
\ ~
~

other hand such escape should be permitted. Con-

version of energy into a chemical form will produce
an error, however. At the present time it seems
0.01 0.05 0.1
-u- 0.5 1.0 5 10

FIGURE IA8. Collection efficiency of an ionization chamber

that the uncertainty due to lack of knowledge exposed to pulsed radiation.
about these losses to chemical energy in many sub- The curve has been broken Into two parts for accuracy in reading. Ex-
stances is at least as large as the uncertainty in amples: For u=0.2, F(u)=0.91; for n=2, F(u) =0.55 ( Boag, 1956).

13
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 ionization me1ts11rements due to lack of accuracy under steady irradiation conditions, there is no
in \Y. net loss to chemical reactions (Brynjolfsson,
Tlw calorimetric measurement of absorbed dose 1960). The standard deviation of measurements
at Hll,V point within an extended medium under made with these calorimeters at a rate of 50 rad/
irrndiation im·olves measurement of the tempera- min was one percent. The accompanying table,
ture rise in a small thermally-insulated mass of IBl, gives a synopsis of work done with calori-
material centered at that point. Such thermal in- metric dosimeters.
sulation must not significantly perturb the absorp- Comparisons of calorimetric measurements with
tion or the spectral distribution of the radiation correspondin;; measurements by ionization or
fiehl. The temperature sensors and heaters must chemical methods have provided values of Wair
cons ti tu te only a relatively small fraction of the (ev expended in air per ion pair formed), and of G
mass of the thermally-insulated material. Suc- (molecules reacting per 100 ev absorbed) for cer-
cessful measurements of this type for both copper tain reactions. These results are reported in some
and polvstvrene media have been described bv of the references included in the table.
Genna and ·Laughlin (1956) for Cobalt-60 gamm·a
C. Chemical Dosimetry
rays.
Chemical dosimetry is based on the principle
Measurements of the energy absorbed from Co 60 that c.ertain quantitative oxidation and reduction
gamma radiation in small pieces of Dural and of reactions take place upon irradiation, to an extent
graphite suspended in an evacuated glass tube
have been carried out (Bernier et al., 1956; Reid directly proportional to the absorbed dose. Of all
and Johns, 1961) and the ionization in chambers of the chemical systems available for dosimetry, only
ferrous sulfate is reliable enough for routine use
similar materials and geometry measured under but other systems are readily calibrated by refer-
ide~tical conditions for comparison. Similar ex-
penments were done with graphite irradiated by ence to it. Ceric sulfate is next in usefulness and
reliability and it is followed by a group of systems
Co 60 gamma rays (Hart et al., 1958), and by x rays included in this report primarily because of their
of 22. M vp (~karsgard et al., 1957). All of these utility in extending the range of the ferrous sulfate
expenments mvolve measurements of absorbed dosimeter. The ferrous sulfate and eerie sulfate
dose in a small isolated mass, not in a segment of systems are capable of measuring absorbed dose
an extended medium as would be necessary in with standard analytical techniques to within one
plotting fields within a phantom.
percent. Absolute calibration of the ferrous
Endothermic radiation-induced chemical reac- sulfate dosimeter to absorbed dose has been made
tions may occur in many materials. Measure- by calorimetry.
~ents made wi.th the Fricke ferrous sulphate do-
suneter and with an absorbed dose calorimeter 1. Ferrous Sulfate Dosimeter
under identical geometrical conditions indicated (Fricke Dosimeter)
that in polyethylene irradiated by Co 60 gamma The chemical reaction which has been most
rays, 3 percent of the energy went into chemical extensively used as a standard of reference for dose
change (.Milvy et al., 1958). In later work en- is the oxidation of ferrous sulfate in 0.1 to 0.8 N
do.therrnic chemical reactions were avoided by sulfuric acid solution. This reaction was first
usmg pure carbon as the absorber in the calorim- studied by Fricke and Morse (Hl29). The repro-
eter, (Milvy et al., 1960). In pure water also, ducibility and ease of measurement are good
TABLE IBl. Experiments in calorimetric dosimetry
I
Precision
Minimum practical under
Reference Calorimeter type Type of radia tlon rate described Column 4 Comments

!
conditions
(±3)

Laughlin and Beattie (1951). Total beam _______ 130 kvp x rays ___________
Laughlin rt al., (1953). 200 kvp x rays __________ _
Laughlin and Genna (1956). 250 kvp x rays ___________ 50R/min_ ---------------
400 kvp x rays __________ _
Cobalt-60 'I rays ________ _
Edwards and Kerst (1953). _____ do_----------- 22.5MMvp x rays _________ 0.5 milliwatts/cm'-------
-- 150 • vp x rays ___ ------}
200Mvpxrays_________ . .
250 Mvp x rays _________ 10 m11l1watts/cm 2 ------- 2
McFlhinney et al., (19.17). _____ do.----------- 300 Mvp xx rays
1.4 Mvp rays___________
- - ------ ~20R/min _____________ _
1.8
Dolphin and Innes (1956). do {500 kvp x rays ___________ SOR/min _______________ _ •1
Goodwin (1959)__________ :::::do::::::::::: ~~~J'rri'.[gl~;.,;;.-s-:::::: 1~~)~l~-
Genna and Laughlin (19(;[;· Absorbed dose ___ Cobalt-60'/rays ________ 50rads/min ____________ _
:::::::::::::: I. 5
I
In segment located in extended me-
-0. 1
1956). • dium: (copper, polystyrene) endo-
Milvy et al., (1958). thermic chemical reaction in poly-
styrene.

~E~=~:;:·!J~~t1~~n~:::::::: :::JL_:_::_::::::: :~:~~~ 1~ :~~~:,;~:::::-_-

Carbon, no chemical energy loss.
, , -_- -_- -_- -_- ·30-radJ,1n;ii1:::::::::::::
30 rads/min ____________ _ } 0. 6 Small isolated mass (dural, graphite).
Reid and Johns (1961). ____ ____ ____ do {Cobalt-60 'I rays________ 80 rads/min ____________ _ 0.4 Small isolated mass (aluminum, graph-

::::~s:: ~~~~;~:::::::::::\· : : : : _: _:: _: : : _~-~~:~~ ~ ~-~~~~~·~~:~_:·

6
3

__ -__ :_ ~~if:!f~fuin:-::::::::::
2x10' rads/min __________ _
0.5
0.15
o. 5
<0.1
ite).
Small isolated mass (carbon).
Ice-water ·system.

14
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 Disadvantages lie in the variation of the yield with dosP ratP at which thP system can be used with
the LET of the incident radiation, and in the rP- a<·<·uracy.
quirement that the concentration of dissolved StantLml procedure for taking this thermal
oxygen in the solution be kept above a certain reaction into account is to measure the difference
limit throughout the exposure. The mechanism in fPrric io11 coneent ration bet ween the irradiated
of the reaction is now well understood, even in solution and the unirradiated solution which has
detail (Allen and Rothschild, 1957; Allen et al., been stored in an identical vessel for the same
1957). In the light of present knowledge of its length of time.
behavior the following standard procedure can The analysis of thP ferrir· ion is most readily
be recommended. undertaken by direct spectrophotometry on the
A solution is prepared, which is about 1 m}11 in dosimeter solution at :rn4 5 mµ. The extinction
ferrous sulfate or ferrous ammonium sulfate, 1 mAf coefficient varies so mew hat with temperature
in sodium chloride (to counteract the effect of (0.69 percent per degree in the rnnge 20-30 °C, at
possible organic impurities originally present in 304 mµ (Scharf and Lee, HHi I)), so that for high
the water or introduced by the irradiation cell), precision a constant temperature cell holder is
and 0.8 Nin sulfuric acid (Dewhurst, 1952; Wiess advisable. Recent determinations of the molar
et al., 1956). The water is distilled beforehand extinction coefficient are in agreement when
from alkaline permanganate solution in an all- corrected to 25 °C by the above temperature
glass system; further purification is unnecessary. coefficient. The values are: 2193 ± 6 (Schuler
Pyrex or silica irradiation cells are preferred, and Allen, 1956), 2197±10 (Lazo, et al., 1954),
although cells constructed from polystyrene or 2187 ±5 (Holm et al., 1961) and 2196±5 (Scharf
polyethylene have been successfully used. Irradi- and Lee, 1961), all in 0.8 N sulfuric acid. The
ation cells made from plasticized polymers are to sensitivity of this method can be doubled by
be avoided (Hall and Oliver, 1961). Chemicals measuring the absorbance at the 224 111µ ferric
of analytical grade may be used without further ion peak instead of at :rn4 mµ. Two advantages
purification. Using a solution initially in equilib- accrue. At the shorter wavelength the molar
rium with the atmosphere, a dose of between extinction coefficient is 4565 liter mole- 1cm- 1
5,000 and 50,000 rads of x, gamma or fast-electron compared with 2196 and the temperature coeffi-
radiation may be measured, but to avoid deple- cient of the extinction coefficient in the range
tion of the oxygen content of the solution the upper 20-30 °C is only 0.13 percent per degree (Scharf
limit should not be exceeded. Higher doses of x, and Lee, 1961). If a spectrophotometer is not
gamma or fast-electron radiation up to 200,000 available, an alternative colorimetric method of
rads may be measured if the solution is saturated determining ferrous ion as the complex with
beforehand with oxygen, if care is taken not to o-phenanthroline is simple and reliable (:i.Iiller,
introduce additional impurities during equili- 1956; Bouzigues et al., 1961).
bration with this gas, and if higher initial ferrous The ferrous sulfate system is less useful with
ion concentration (4m,'1) is used. With radiations electromagnetic radiation of such quality that
of higher LET, the consumption of oxygen is less photoelectric absorption or pair formation pro-
rapid and somewhat higher doses may be given cesses take place to an appreciable extent in
without oxygen depletion if the solution is welf stir- aqueous solutions. With Co 60 gamma rays, the
red during irradiation to maintain the oxygen ratio of the doses absorbed in 0.8 N sulfuric acid
concentration in the irradiated zone. and in water exposed to the same quantity of
The temperature coefficient of the gamma-ray radiation can usually be taken as equal to the ratio
induced oxidation is low (0.04±0.03 percent °C of the electron densities of the two media, that is
between 0 and 70 °C, Schwarz, 1954) 1 and the 1.024, but at lower photon energy this is, of course,
yield is independent of dose rate between 6 rad/min no longer the case, and a detailed calculation re-
and 10 10 rad/min (Schuler and Allen, 1956 · Glazunov quires a knowledge of the spectral distribution.
and Pikayev, 1960; Anderson, 1962). With radi- The sulfuric acid concentration can be lowered to
ations of high LET, a slight dependence of vield on a minimum of 0.1 N with only a 2 percent fall in
ferrous ion concentration is observed. For ex- the ferric yield observed with Co 60 gamma rays
ample, with the recoiling radiations from the B 10 (Allen et al., 1957), but at lower concentrations
(n, a)Li 6 process, the ferric yield in 10 mM ferrous of acid the gamma ray yield falls, and the mecha-
solutions is about 4 percent higher than in 1 mM nism of the reaction ceases to be simple. It can
(Schuler and Barr, 1956); with deuterons, about be taken, therefore, that a concentration of 0.1 N
1.5 percent (Schuler and Allen, 1957); but with sulfuric acid is the lowest that can be used for
gamma rays, the difference is negligible. reproducible dosimetry. From the analytical
In the absence of radiation, aerated ferrous point of view the use of other acidities in this
sulfate' solutions are slowlv oxidized in a thermal range introduces no complication since the ex-
re~cti~n w~th dissolv~d oxygen. The rate of this tinction coefficient of the ferric ion shows little
ox1dat1011 is proport10nal to the square of the variation with acidity in the region 0.1 to 0.8 N
ferrous ion concentration and the first power of (Haybittle et al., 1956). Adjustment of low-acidity
the oxygen concentration (Huffman and Davidson, ferrous sulfate solutions to 0.8 N sulfuric acid is,
1956). In 10 mllf ferrous solutions this spon- however, recommended before the spectrophoto-
taneous oxidation proceeds to the extent of about metric measurement is made.
2 µ.\1/liter day at 25 °C, and sets a lower limit of Even in 0.1 N acid, however, it may in some
15
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 conditions be difficult to correct for photoelectric property of aqueous systems. At dose rates of
absorption precisely; moreover the ferric yield 109 rads/se~ and higher the h:ydrogen. and hy-
at constant acidity falls with increasing LET droxyl radicals are generated m the irradiated
(Back and Miller, 1957). Accurate dosimetry of solution at such high concentrations that radical-
radiations of 200 kev and lower is thus difficult to radical reactions compete with the oxidation
attain. Similar complications exist with very reactions which take place at lower intensities.
hard radiation on account of pair production, but The result is a decrease in G(Fea+) which becomes
few studies of the system with such radiation more pronounced as the dose rate increases.
have been made (Laughlin et al., 1957; Minder,
1961). 2. Ceric Sulfate Dosimeter
Curve A of figure ICl is a plot of G(Fea+) as a For doses higher than ""'5 X 104 rads which is
function of· the initial LET of the particles con- the upper limit for aerated ferrous sulf at~ solutions
cerned. The yields are integrated over the whole only the eerie sulfate dosimeter may be regarded
particle tracks, i.e., they are values of the ratio as a standard of reference for dosimetry. The
t:,,.M/E 11 where t:,,.M is the total number of ferric eerie sulfate dosimeter may be used in the range
ions formed by each ionizing particle, and E 1 the 105 to 108 rads (Taimuty et al., 1959; Harlan and
mean initial energy of the particles in units of 100 Hart, 1959).
ev. Curve A illustrates the trend and the con- Ceric sulfate dissolved in 0.1 to 0.8 N sulfuric
sistency of the results which are detailed ih table acid is reduced to cerous ion with evolution of
ICI. An interpolation in this curve will provide oxygen by all types of ionizing radiation. Anal-
G(Fea+) for radiations not listed. Where more ysis can be carried out spectrophotometricallv
recent work may be considered to have super- using the eerie absorption at 320 mµ at which
seded earlier measurements the latter are omitted. wavelength the molar extinction coefficient is
It will be noted that a consistent picture of the temperature-independent but varies somewhat
behavior of the system has emerged, though with pH. Recent values are 5000±50 in 0.1 N
some anomalies remain, such as between the sets sulfuric acid (Johnson and Weiss, 1957), and 5580
of results 6 and 7 (fig. ICl), both obtained with (Hochanadel and Ghormley, 1953; Medalia and
deuterons from a cyclotron. Byrne, 1951), 5600±50 (Johnson and Weiss,
For electron pulses at dose rate up to 2X10 8 1957) in 0.8 N acid. For eerie sulfate solutions
rads/sec., G(Fea+) is independent of dose rate but above 0.01 M, titration with standard ferrous
above ""'5X10 8 rads/sec., G(Fea+) diminishes with sulfate using 0.001 ~I ferroin as the indicator is
increasing dose rate (Anderson, 1962; Glazunov preferable to spectrophotometric measurements
and Pikayev, 1960; Rotblat and Sutton, 1960). (Harlan and Hart, 1959). Higher standards of
Accurate and consistent yields are not available purity than those applying to the ferrous sulfate
but somerecent data are assembled in table IC2. dosimeter are needed for this system to behave
Here it is shown that G(Fea+) decreases from 15.6 reproducibly. The water must be triply distilled,
to 11.3±0.5 at 2.2Xl09 rads/sec. (Anderson with the first two distillations from a reagent solu-
1962). Consequently the Fricke dosimeter be~ tion such as alkaline permanganate or acid eerie
comes less reliable at these high dose rates since sulfate. All glassware must be thoroughly cleaned,
calibration curves of G(Fea+) versus dose-rate and before use allowed to stand for some days
are necessary. filled with a eerie sulfate solution. The dosimeter
The drop in G(Fea+) at dose rates greater than solution itself must stand for about a week; in
5X10 8 rads/sec is a manifestation of a general making dilutions from a concentrated stock solu-
16 tion, it is desirable to use a very dilute ( :::::50 µM)
;i'-r- J eerie sulfate solution rather than water which has
' not previously been standing with eerie ion.
:; 12
f --t aJ,.
r"- Precision of ± 1 percent is possible with great
g ,.,~
A care (Taimuty et al., 1959). There is some evi-
'
dence of a surface effect in the 'Y-ray induced re-
"-
U)
LU
~.\•
'

action in that the ,cerous yield is considerably

s 8 ~·
I I
enhanced in vessels packed with glass beads. It
~ '11!~
u !
0
LU
_J
.... 1
! is not certain that this is genuine as it may merely
~
!'""" reflect the great difficulty in cleaning surfaces to
..; I --........... ..,,.
4
I the necessary extent.
B I ,. I ! '! ~
" Increasing concentrations of cerous ion reduce

0
-·r.
'
c
"I
I ·rnl·
I'• I I

I
" ~
the cerous yield by scavenging OH radicals from
the particle tracks (Sworski, 1956; Harlan and
0.1 1.0 10 100 Hart, 1959). Because G(Cea+) depends on both
(dE/dxli, ev/A eerie and cerous ion concentration, the use of
eerie sulfate at concentrations above 0.1 M requires
FIGURE !Cl. Oxidation and reduction yields in dosimeter
solutions as a function of the initial LET of the irradiating the use of an empirical equation correcting for the
particles. variable G(Cea+). The equation for 0.39 M eerie
Curve A: Ferric yields in aerated ferrous sulfate solutions In 0.8N sulfuric
acid; B: Cerous yields In aerated eerie sulfate solutions In 0.8N sulfuric
sulfate is
acid; C: Ferric yields In aerated solutions 1 mM In ferrous sulfate and D=-2.32Xl08 log10 (1-1.16 OeH)
10 mM in cupric sulfate, in O.OIN sulfuric acid.
Details as to the points indicated by numbers lire recorded In table !Cl. where D is the absorbed dose in rad in the solution
16
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 TABLE !Cl. Aqueous solutions for dosimetry

Reference on figure IC 1 Type of radia tlon Mode of energy measurement 0

Init. Fe•+
cone.en tra-
I reference
Footnote
t10n below
I
Curve A. Ferrous sulfate solutions

Fe3+ mM
(•)--·-------------------------- 30 Mev electrons ________ ------------------ Charge input_ _______ ------------------__ 16. 3±0. 3 1 1
(•) ____ ------------------------- 10 Mev electrons ____ ---------------------- _____ do ___________________ ---------------- 15. 7±0. 3 1 1
L _- --- --------------------- ___ 2 Mev electrons___________________________ ____ do ______ ---------------------------- 15. 45±0. 30 1-10 2
(•)_____________________________ P" IJ particles_____________________________ Absolute counting _________ ·---------____ 15. 4±0. 8 1 3
(•)_____________________________ Co"-, rays __ ------------------------------ Calorimetry _____ .. ___ ·------------------- 15. 6±0. 3 ------------ 4
(•) __________________________________ do ______ ---------------------------- _______ do _____ ------------------------------
(•) _____ ----------- ------------- _____ do __________ -------------------------- _____ do___________________________________
15. 8±0. 3
15. 68±0. 07
------------ 5
6
------------
2 ____ -------------------------- 100 kvp x rays_____________________________ Ionization_______________________________ 14. 7±0. 5 ------------ 7
3------------------------ _______ 60 kvp x rays __________________________________ do _____ -----------------------·------ 13. 1±0. 5 ------------ 7
8
~:;::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 8~1 kv
~~~xrays_
~ ~~~~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::~~::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ~n
------------
------------ 8
4 ______________________________ ------------------------------ ____ do_____________ ------------------ 13.4±0.6 ------------ 9
5 ____ --------------------------H• particles ______ ------------------------_ Counting and gas density_-------------- 12. 9±0. 2
6-6 (circles) ____________________
4-19 Mev deuterons _______________________ Charge input_ ___________________________ --------------
------------
10
10
11
7-7 (inverted triangles)________ 3. 5-21 deuterons _______________________________ do ________________________________________________ _ 1 12
10 12
E'.~~i:~~~'.~~l:-:~ ~ :::::::::::: :: i1.!?i~;,1~*Ze~~~--~:::::: :::: :: ::: ::: :::: :~~~~t~i~ ~:::: :::::: ::::: ::::: :: :: ::: :: :i:i ~~: ;&: :::
10-----------------------------1 BIO (n,a) LF recoil radiation _______________ i'\eutron llux measurement_ _____________ 4.38±0.08
10
10
10
11
13
14

Curve B. Cerlc sulfate solutions

Ce•+
lL __ -------------------------- Co"-, rays________________________________ Comparison with FeSO, __ -------------- 2. 45±0. 08 ------------ 15
______ do __________________________________________ do _____ ------------------------- _____ 2. 50±0. 04 _______ _____ 16
12 _________________ ------------- 2 Mev electrons _____ ---------------------- _____ do _____ ------------ ______ ------------ 2. 31 --------- --- 17
13_ - - ------- ------------------- 18 Mev deuterons_ ------------------------ _____ do _______________ ------------- _______ 2. 84 ------------ 17
14_ -- -------------------------- 8 Mev deuterons ______ -------------------- _____ do ________ ------------------------- __ 2. 83 ____ ________ 17
15 _____________________________ 32 Mev He ions ________________________________ do ___________________________________ 2.92 ------------ 17
16 ______________________________ Po2!0 a particles _______________________________ do _____ ·-----------------------------12.78 ------------ 18
17 _____________________________ BIO (n,a) LFrec~ilradiations ______________ l_____ do ... ______________________________._--_-_-1_2_._95_ _ _ _-_-_-_-_--_-_-_-_-__
_ --______17

Curve C. Ferrous-cupric solutions

Fe3+
18 ____________________________ _ Co".., rays ________________________________ Comparison with FeSO, ________________ o. 66±0.02 ------------ 19
19' (inverted triangles) _______ _ 12
20 (squares) __________________ _ t~=2M~~:~~~~~~~~::::::::::::::::::::::: -~~~~~e_'.~-~~~::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::::: :::::::::::: 12
20
21'---
22 -------------------------_ 3.4 Mev a particles _______________________ Comparison with FeSO, ________________ 2.3
____________________________
------------
19
B10 (n,a) Li' recoil rndiations_ ------------ _____ do _____ ------------------------------ 2. 0±0. 2 ------------1
•These results are not plotted in figure IC!.
'These results are plotted on the same basis of dosimetry as those for ferrous sulfate solutions in the same laboratory (7-7, fig. IC!).
'This represents the results of a comparison with the ferrous sulfate dosimeter using Po"' a particles which had passed through two mica absorbers. The
appropriate ferrous sulfate yield has merely been interpolated from figure IC!.
1 Minder, 1961. 11 Schuler and Allen, 1957.
' Schuler and Allen, 1956. 12 Hart et al., 1956.
1 Donaldson and Miller, 1955. u Trumbore 1958
• Hochanadel and Ghormley, 1953. 11 Schuler an'd BW.r, 1956.
' Lazo et al., 1954. u Johnson and Weiss, 1957.
' Holm et al., 1961. 11 Taimuty et al., 1959.
'Hayblttle et al. 1956. 11 Barr 1958
' Oevantman and Pestaner, 1959. 1• Ants and Halsstnsky, 1954.
'Cottln and Lefort, 1956. 11 Hart and Walsh, 1954.
10 McDonell and Hart, 1954. 20 Miller, 1958.

TABLE IC2. Effect of dose rate on G(Fea+) for fast electron and Cea+ is the cerous ion concentration (moles/
irradiations liter) after the solution is irradiated. A preci-
(Fe++) (CJ-)
sion of 2 percent is reported (Harlan and Hart,
E Pulse Dose rate
mM mM Mev length rad/sec O(Fe•+) Ref. 1959). Results are summarized in table I Cl and
,, sec
curve R of figure ICl.
1.0 1.0 1.0 Cont}
1.0 1.0 2.0 do 0.002Xl0' 15.6±0.5 3. Other Chemical Systems
3.0 4.0 1.7 9.6 XlO' 14.3 2
3.0 1.0 1.0-1.2 5.0 0.016X10' 15.0±1.6 3
3.0 1.0 1.0-1.2 5.0 0.18 XlO' 13.4±0.6 3 Many chemical systems have been proposed
3.0 1.0 1.0-1.2 5.0 0.75 X10 1 10.8±0.9 3
3.0 1.0 1.0-1.2 5.0 2.4 XlO' 10.1±0.5 3 for dosimetry. These systems, calibrated by
1.0 1. 0 15 1.4 0.091X10' 15.2±0.4 4
comparison with the Fricke dosimeter, have
1.0 1.0 15 1.4 0.69 Xl0 1 14.5±0.4 4 applications for which the Fricke dosimeter is less
1.0 1.0 15 1.4 2.26 x10• 11.3±0.5 4
1.0 1.0 15 1.4 2.92 XlO' 12.2±0.5 4 satisfactory or unsuitable. A comparison of some
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
15
15
1.4
1.4
8.0 XlO'
8.0 XlO'
11.8±0.5
13.0±0.4
5
5
of the more widely used systems with the Fricke
1.0 10.0 15 1.4 8.0 XlO' 8.0±0.5 5 and eerie dosimeters is given in table IC3.
An extension of the range of chemical dosim-
1 Schuler and Allen (1956).
• Keene (1957).
eters to doses below one kilorad has been possible
' Olazunov & Pikayev (1960). by the use of new systems and by increasing the
•Anderson (1962).
• Thomas (1962). sensitivity of the Fricke dosimeter. Doses as low
17
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 TABLE IC3. Comparison of chemical dosimeters for Co60 gamma rays

Dosimeter Dose range Precision Postirradia- G Compound measured Reference

(rads x 10-6) 3 tlon stability

Benzoic acid ____ --------------------- 0.000005+ ±5--------------------- Fair _________ -------------------- Fluorescence of oxida- 1
______________________________ _ tion products.
~uinine
.00001-.001 _____ do _______________________ do _______ 2.3 (max) _________ _ Decrease in fluorescence_ 2
richloroethylene __ . ________________ . _ .00001 to 0.005 _____ do _______________________ do_______ Variable ___ ------- HCL __________________ _ 3, 4
Ferrous sulfate + formic acid + o, __ .0003-0.003 ----_do _______________________ do_______ 225 _______________ _ Fea+ ____________________ _ 5
Chloroform _________________________ ._ .001-0.04 HCL __________________ _
_____ ---------------- _________ do_______ 25.8_ -------------- 6
Fricke _______ . ________ ---------------_ .004-0.04 ±!. ·------------------- Stable_______ 15.6_ -------------- Fea+ ____________________ _ 7
Formic acid+ 02 -·------------------ .001-0.10 ±5_ --------------- _____ Fair_________ 3.39±0.2 __________ _ H,o, ___________________ _ 8
Dyes in gels-------·------------------ .01--0.5 ·----·------------------- _____ do _______ 135 _______________ _ Dye ____________________ _ 9, 10
Ceric sulfate-------·------------------ .05-100 ±2_____________________ Stable _______ 2.50 __ ------------- Cet+ ___________________ _ 7
Ferrous sul•ate + eupric sulfate ______ _ .1-10 ±5- _____ --------------- Fair_________ 0.66 __ ------------ _ Fea+ ____________________ _ i
Oxalic acid--------------------------- UH60 ----·· ___ ----------------- Stable_______ 4.9 __ -------------- Oxalic acid _____________ _ 11
±5(±2 above 10• rads) _____ do _______ 0.58 ______________ _
~i~;~~io~J,;-_-:::: :::::::::::::::::::
0.1-1000 H2+02.----------·------ 12
.01-3000 ±5(±203above lO•rads) _____ do _______ 12 ________________ _ N2+02.----------------- 13
Polyisobutylene in heptane __________ _ .001-10000 ±4 (max) ___________________ do _______ Calibration curve_ Viscosity _______________ _ 14

1 Barr and Stark, (1958) s Hart, (1954).

'Barr and Stark, (1960) • Ge van tman, et al., (1957).
• Taplin, (1956). "Gevantman, (1960).
• Sigoloff, (1956, 1961). 11 Draganic, (1959).
• Hart, (1952). 12 Hart and Gordon, (1954).
• Teply & Bednar, (1958). " Harteck & Dondes, (1956).
1 See Table IC!. a Wiesner, (1961).

as 100 rads can be measured by using Fe 59 tracer eters, which can be cut into sections after irradia-
and extracting the ferric ion into isopropyl ether tion, offer obvious advantages in obtaining a
as its thiocvanate complex (Rudstam and Sved- picture of the dose distribution in a radiation
berg, 1953)°. Even the direct determination of field. If this distribution is to be related to that
small quantities of ferric ion in the Fricke dosim- in irradiated tissue, the medium bas to approach
eter by absorption at 305 mµ by the use of longer the chemical composition of tissue as nearly as
absorption cells extends its range downward to 300 possible. This requirement 1s met most closely
rad (Thiel ens, 1961). Many sensitizers of ferrous by the use of gels of aqueous gelatin or agar, con-
ion oxidation increase G(FeH) by factors of two taining dyes, which are decolorized on irradiation
to fifteen (Hart, 1952; Thielens, 1961), e.g., the (Day and Stein, 1950; Goldblith, Proctor and
ferrous sulfate + formic acid + oxygen dosimeter Hammerle, 1952; Andrews, Murphy and LeBrun,
of table IC3. Sensitive systems not relying on the 1957; Gevantman, 1960). The eerie sulfate, fer-
measurement of ferric ion are represented by the rous sulfate + cupric sulfate and oxalic acid
benzoic acid, quinine, trichloroethylene and chloro- systems extend chemical dosimetry reliably into
form systems. Benzoic acid is oxidized to hy- the range between 10 6 and about 10 8 rads. The
droxybenzoates which may be detected in quaii.- ferrous sulfate + cupric sulfate dosimeter is par-
tities as low as 5x10- 11 i\1 by fiuorimetry. In ticularly valuable when used in conjunction with
this way, doses as low as 0.5 rad can be detected the Fricke dosimeter to monitor mixed gamma-ray
and a dose of 5 rad can be determined to ± 5 and heavy ionizing particle radiations (Hart and
percent precision (Barr and Stark, 1958). Sim- \Valsh, 1954). Some results for the ferrous-cupric
ilarly, by measuring the destruction of quinine in system are indicated in table ICl and curve C of
aqueous solutions by fiuorimetry, doses between figure I Cl.
10 and 1,000 rads can be measured conveniently The necessity for monitoring doses above 10 8
and reproducibly (Barr and Stark, 1960). Aque- rad is rare but the water, nitrous oxide and polyis0-
ous trichloroethylene and chloroform solutions butylene dosimeters are available. Of these the
release hydrochloric acid on irradiation. pH- water dosimeter has practically no upper limit of
sensitive indicator dyes are used as detectors of dose provided that steps are taken to remove the
hydrochloric acid and an estimate of the dose may decomposition products, hydrogen and oxygen,
be obtained from the change in color (Taplin, 1956; from the radiation field and subsequently to meas,...
Sigoloff, 1956, 1961). ure them. (Hart and Gordon, 1954; Gordon and
A second group of systems covering various Hart, 1958; Hart and Walsh, 1958.) Neutron
sections of the range above the Fricke dosimeter fluxes may be measured too by adding boric acid
to an upper limit of about 108 rads, consists of the or borates to the water. Nitrous oxide gas decom-
formic acid + oxygen, dye, eerie sulfate, ferrous poses into nitrogen, oxygen and nitrogen dioxide
sulfate + cupric sulfate and oxalic acid dosimeters. and the dose is obtained by the measurement of
These dosimeters cover a variety of applications. these gases (Harteck and Dondes, 1956). Anoth~r
Formic acid + oxygen liberates hydrogen perox- dosimeter useful over a wide range of doses is
ide, carbon dioxide and hydrogen (Hart, 1954). polyisobutylene dissolved in heptane (Wiesner,
By measuring hydrogen peroxide, doses as low as 1961). On irradiation, depolymerization takes
1,000 rads can be estimated and if all the products place and the dose is estimated from v~scosity
are analyzed, this system may be used for mixed calibration curves. Concentrated solut10ns of
gamma-ray and neutron dosimetry (Hart and low molecular weight polymers are used for high
Walsh, 1958). Dyes m gels have been used for doses, whereas dilute solutions of high molecular
depth dose measurements. Rigid chemical dosim- weight polymers are better for the low doses.
18
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 D. Photographic Dosimetry Photoelectric absorption in the elements of
relatively high atomic number contained in the
The photographic emulsion is one of the oldest emulsion causes the ratio of photographic effect
detectors of ionizing radiation. Although the to exposure to be up to 30 and more times
accuracy of photographic dosimetry is relatively higher for 40-kev photons than for 1-Mev photons.
lo~v (5 to 10 percent, at best), the method is still For dosimetry in the photon energy ranges up to
widely use~ for personnel monitoring (Dudley, about 200 kev, suitable arrangements of metallic
1956:. Ehrl~ch, 1954; Rotblat, 1950). Photo- filters aid in reducing this energy denendence and
graphic dosunetry is also used for measurements facilitate the determination of tl1e parti~ular
of total exposures up to 10 4 R and more under radiation energy (Langendorff, et al., 1952). For
?onditions for which ruggedness and low ~ost arc higher energies, film response roughly parallels
impor~ant factors, and for mapping of high-energy
exposure, provided that electronic equilibrium is
radiat10n fields in clinical applicatfons. Recentlv established at the film in air-equirnlent materials.
a method was developed by which the range of No rate dependence effects have as yet been
photographic dosimetry can be extended to demonstrated for the film types usually employed
1X108 R through the use of conventional monitor- in _do~irnetry ~hen exposed to low-energy x
ing film wit~out de:velopment (McLaughlin, 1959). radrnt10n (Ehrlich, 1956), unless the films were
Photographic dosimetry has been discussed in used in contact with scintillators (Ehrlich and
detail in the literature (Griffith, 1958). Only McLaughlin, 1959). However, some rate depend-
some of the more general features will be outlined ence seems to be present for x-ray energies of
here. around .1 Mev. Such rate dependence is partic-
ularly likely when the films are processed in weak
1. Energy Transfer to a Photographic Emulsion developers which react mainly with the surface of
The energy t:ansferred by ionizing radiation to the silver halide grains.
the photographic emulsion initiates the reduction
of the sil:'er ~nlide crystals (grains) of the emulsion 3. Response to lV1onoenergPtic Electrons and
to aton~ic si~ver. The microscopic silver specks to Beta Rays
formed m this. wa~ are re~erred to as latent image.
Upon ~rocessmg m special developing solutions, Photographic dosimetry of monoenergetic elec-
these _silver specks then serve as nuclei for a t~ons an_d beta ray~ is complicated by the rela-
redu~t10n process, lending to the formation of tively l11gh absorpt10n of electrons both in the
massive silver aggregates which increase the light-tigh_t wrapping mi~terial usually surrounding
opacity of the developed photographic emulsion. commercrnl photographic film and in the emulsion
For very l:li:ge radi~ti~m exposures, the reduction proper. Actually, the ranges of electrons of ener-
by the 10mzmg radrn t10n. alone is large enough to gies below about 100 kev are smaller than the
make ll!JY furth~r processmg unnecessary. thick~ess of the average commercial photographic
T~e mcr~nse. m emulsion opacity (or in optical emuls10n. As a consequence, the photographic
dens~ty, w.hich is equal to the decadic logarithm of effect increases with incrensing energy up to about
opacity) is usually measured by photoelectric 100 kev and also depends strongly on the direction
mei~ns. By .appropriate calibration procedures, of electron incidence. At higher energies, the
optical density ca~ ~e related to exposure, photographic effect changes only relatively little
absorbed dose, or mcident fluence. with radiation energy and direction of radiation
. Charge~ particl~s tran~fer their energy to the incidence.
silve.r halide gr~tms mamly through collisions In some of the photographic emulsions used for
leadmg to atonnc excitation and to ionization electron investigations, a rate dependence has
along. the path~ of the particles. The photo- been found (Digby et al., 1953).
graphic effect of charged particles increases with If elements are introduced over the film surface
the. range of the particles in the emulsion and--for w~ich become beta active upon bombnr<lment
a giv~n ra~ge-wi~h tlwir specific ionization, until with thermal neutrons (such as for instance
one s~ngle mteract10n .with 1~ silver halide grain is rhodium), the beta-ray response of suitably cali-
sufficien~ to mnl~e this gram developnble. Any brated films can also be utilized for thermal-
further i!lcrease m specific ionization lends to a neutron dosimetry.
c;Iecrease 1_n th2 number of grains made developable
tor any giv_en amount of energy dissipated within 4. Response to Heavy Charged Particles and to
the emuls10n. Photons, neutrons, and other Neutrons
uncha.rged particles lose their energy to the
emuls1?n largely through the ionization produced Because of their large specific ionization and the
by their charged secondaries. associated waste in energy dissipation on already
developable grains, the photographic effect of
2. Response to X and Ganrnrn Radiation heavy charged particles is smaller by orders of
magnitude than that of x ravs and electrons.
The photo~rapl~ic latent imngt' is produced bv Where the particle ranges are small compared to
e1.1ergy depos1 ted Ill the grains hv secondary an cl the emulsion thickness, the effect is also strongly
~11g'1Pr <.))'(!Pr eJect rons from x- ·and gamn~a-ray ?el?endent on the energ~· and the direction of the
mteract10ns \nth the material in the vicinity. mc1dent particles. Furthermore, in some of the
19
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 emulsions, the photographic effect is rate depend- material. (Griffith and Swindell, 1951, Glocker
ent. For these reasons, track analysis on nuclear and Breitling 1952; Cole et al., 1952, 1953; Belcher,
plat.es, which provides for a detailed study of 1953; Fowler, 1955; Rm:man and Zimmer, 1956b,
individual events, is the preferred method of Herbert, 1956; Robson and Gregg, 1956; Shalek
photographic dosimetry of heavy charged particles and Cole, 1958; Henriksen, 1958; Blanks and
and also of fast neutrons, whose photographic Rohrer, 1960).
action is largely due to proton recoils produced in In many such instruments, a solid rod of methyl
the hydrogenous gelatine. Track analysis for methacrylate or quartz is used as a light guide to
personnel dosimetry of fast neutrons can be sim- provide optical coupling between the scintillator
plified by the use of a nuclear-track plate sur- and the multiplier phototube. This arrangement
rounded by essentially tissue-equivalent materials is satisfactory in measurements at low photon
of such thickness that the number of tracks pro- energies, but at energies above 200 kev visible
duced in the emulsion per unit absorbed dose is Cerenkov radiation emitted by secondary electrons
essentially independent of neutron energy (Cheka, in the light guide may be a source of error; the use
1954). In the 30-micron Eastman NTA emulsion, of an internally polished metal tube to provide
this method yields about 5 or 6 tracks in an area of optical coupling is then preferable (Cole et al..
2X10- 4 cm 2 after the maximum permissible 1953; Belcher, 1953; Fowler, 1955; Henriksen,
neutron irradiation for a period of 13 wee~s, i.e., a 1958).
dose equivalent of 3 rems. The insertion of a wavelength shifter such as a
Analysis of the proton tracks produced by the mixture of anthracene and tetracene between the
reaction of thermal neutrons on the nitrogen of scintillator and light guide to transform the blue
the gelatine, or of alpha tracks in lithium- or light emitted by the scintillator to yellow-green,
boron-loaded emulsions, can be used for thermal- followed by yellow-green filters at both ends of the
neutron dosimetry. The protons produced by light guide to exclude the greater part of the
the reaction of thermal neutrons on nitrogen pro- Cerenkov radiation provides another method of
duce a slightly larger number of tracks per unit area overcoming this difficulty (Zimmer, 1956; Jahns,
than the proton recoils from elastic scattering 1960).
of fast neutrons. The sensitivity of the lithium- In most scintillation dosimeters, the multiplier
or boron-loaded emulsions is about 200 times phototube colleetor current is measured by means
greater than ordinary emulsions for thermal of a DC microammeter, valve voltmeter or DC
neutrons. amplifier. Multiplier phototube dark current
and direct effects of radiation on the multiplier
E. Dose-rate Measurements by Scintillation
Techniques phototube, both of which contribute to the re-
corded current, may be sources of error in meas-
In the scintillation dosimeter, absorbed dose urements with such instruments, but the inclusion
rate is measured in terms of the intensity of lumi- of a small shutter interrupting the optical path
nescence excited within an irradiated scintillator. between the scintillator and the multiplier photo-
The latter is usually coupled optically to a multi- tube allows the zero to be set before a measurement
plier phototube, the increase in whose mean collec- is made, (Dealler, 1954; Fowler, 1955). In other
tor current above background level is usually instruments, a ruechanical light-chopping device
linearly related to the intensity of luminescence in the optical path provides an AC signal which
and hence to the absorbed dose rate. The method can subsequently be amplified by an AC amplifier
has been reviewed by Rosman and Zimmer (Herbert, 1956; Blanks and Rohrer, 1960); in
(1955, 1956a, 1957). these instruments, dark current and direct effects
The scintillation technique has been found of radiation on the multiplier phototube do not
useful in a number of practical dosimetric prob- contribute to the measured current although
lems, especially for the measurement of x and light emitted by the light guide may still be
gamma radiation. Scintillation dosimeters have recorded.
high sensitivity and a linear response over a The major disadvantage of scintillation dosim-
wide range of dose rates; they are less dependent eters for x and gamma radiation lies in their energ~·
on pressure and humidity than are non-sealed dependence. Provided that the dimensions of the
ionization chambers. They do however require scintillator are large compared with the maximum
frequent recalibration because of possible changes range of the secondary electrons, but small com-
in multiplier phototube gain and scintillator per- pared to l/µ 00 , the energ_\- absorbed in the scintil-
formance with time or radiation exposure. The lator of a scintillation dosimeter ean be related to
scintillator can be a small block of material that absorbed bv nn air-wall ionization ch am her
mounted at the end of a rigid or flexible light whose sensitive ~-olume has the same dimensions
guide which couples it optically to the multiplier as the scintilli1tor b~- an expression of the form:
phototube; such instruments are useful for the
measurement of radiation dose rate in cavities of
the human body or for the plotting of radiation
fields or isodose curves. Probe dosimeters of this
type, incorporating scintillators a few mm in whereµ en• µ' are the linear ener~y absorp.tion coeffi-
00

linear dimensions, can be used to measure dose cients of the scintillator and nu· respect1nly and t
rates down to 1 rad/hour b the scintillating is the thickness of the scintillator presented to the
20
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 incident radiation. (Brucker, 1952; Ittner and or liquid scintillators containing compounds of
Ter-Pogossian, 1952; Belcher, 1953.) boron in solution (Muehlhause and Thomas, 1953)
The variation of the above expression with may be used in detectors of slow neutrons. These
energy depends on the effective atomic number devices are not air- or tissue-equivalent and must
and hence on the atomic composition of the scintil- always be calibrated for neutrons of the energy
lator and on its thickness. Inorganic scintillators range to be measured. The uses of scintillation
such as calcium tungstate or alkali halides have a counting techniques for neutron flux measure-
response which falls steeply with increase in en- ments and for the dosimetry of mixed radiation
ergy (Brucker, 1952). Organic scintillators such fields of neutrons and gamma rays are discussed
as anthracene have a response which is nearly air- elsewhere in this report.
equivalent above 0.1 Mev (Smeltzer, 1950) but
F. Solid- State Dosimetry
which falls at lower energies (Brucker, 1952). By
choosing a suitable scintillator or combination of The methods to be discussed here are based
scintillators, the response can be made nearly air- upon the following radiation-induced phenomena:
or tissue-equivalent over a wide range of photoil (i) Optical density changes; . .
energies. Useful combinations include anthracene (ii) Photoluminescence (i.e., the mcrease m the
and calcium tungstate (Cole et al., 1952; Ittner ability of the material to fluoresce under ultra-
and Ter-Pogossian, 1952); terphenyl dissolved in violet light); . . . .
benzene and chlorobenzene (Breitling and Glocker, (iii) Thermolummescence (1.e., the emission of
1952); phenanthrene and chlorophenanthrene light upon heating after exposure to ionizing
(Glocker and Breitling, 1952); anthracene and radiation);
chloroanthracene (Mohr, 1957); polystyrene-based (iv) Conductivity changes (i.e., the temporary
plastic scintillator and calcium tungstate (Rosman increase in electrical conductivity during exposure
and Zimmer, 1956b), and polystyrene-based plastic to ionizing radiation).
scintillator and silver-activated zinc sulphide Several systems falling into these categories
(Belcher and Geilinger 1957). Using mixtures of an- will be briefly discussed in turn in the fo~lowing
thracene, chloroanthracene and calcium fluoride sections. They must, of course, be calibrated
in different proportions, Breitling et al., (1956) under appropriate conditions, since none of these
have produced combinations equivalent to fat, dosimetric systems is absolute.
muscle, and bone.
The above approach to the problem of energ~' 1. Optical Density Methods
dependence is invalid if the energy of the radiation
is so large that the range of the secondary elec- a. Glasses. The two types of glasses most
trons is comparable with the dimensions of the widely used for dosimetry by this method are
scintillator (Henriksen and Baarli, 1957). In such silver-activated phosphate glass (Schulman et al.,
situations, the effective atomic number of the 1955), and cobalt-activated borosilicate glass
scintillator depends on its dimensions as well as on (Kreidl and Blair, 1956b). Although there are
its atomic composition. However, by enclosing now several types of silver-activated phosphate
the scintillator in a sheath of suitable material and glass available, only the original "high-Z" glass
thickness, the response may still be made approxi- has been used so far in the optical density method.
mately air-equivalent over a limited energy range This phosphate glass is available in blocks
(Henriksen, 1958). 1 cmXl cmX3 mm polished on the square sur-
Scintillation dosimeters have also been used faces through which the light is passed during the
successfully for the measurement of (3 radiation. optical density measurement with a spectropho-
Probe dosimeters in which the scintillator is a thin tometer. At 3500A the dose range for linear re-
sheet of anthracene (Ittner and Ter-Pogossian, sponse extends from about 5X10 3 to 2X1.0~ ra~s
1954; Sinclair and Trott, 1956) or plastic scintil- in the glass. With care, 2 percent precision is
lator (Goodwin, 1956; Brannen and Olde, 1960; attainable. The response is independent of the
Olde and Brannen, 1961) have been used for sur- dose rate at least to 4X10 8 rads/hr (Davisson et
face and depth dose measurements on {3-rav al., 1956).
applicators. · Two undesirable features of this glass are the
Scintillation dosimeters incorporating homoge- fading of the coloration with time after radiation
neous inorganic or organic scintillators are rela- exposure, and the strong dependence of the re-
tively insensitive to fast neutrons, in the former sponse per roentgen upon gamma- or x-ray quan-
case because of the low hydrogen content and in tum energy. The coloration fades up to 20
the latter because of the low proton sensitivitv of percent in the first 24 hours after exposure. A
the scintillator. Dosimeters incorporating mix- short heat treatment (""' 130 °C for 10 min)
tures of powdered inorganic scintillators with hv- accelerates this initial fading and stabilizes the
drogenous materials are however efficient detecto.rs residual optical density (Schulman et al., 1955;
of fast neutrons (Hornyak, 1952; Skjoldebrand, Davisson et al., 1956). Alternatively, one can
1955;_Bro~_and Hooper, 1958). Similarly, in- delay the optical density measurement until some
org_amc. sc~nt1ll!1tors of th_e alkali halide type in arbitrary time (e.g. 24 hours after exposure) when
wluch hthmm 1s the alkah componeDt (Bernstein the fading rate is small .. Rabin and Price (1955)
and Schardt, 1952; Schenck and Heath, 1952), discuss corrections for fading during long exposure
21
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 times. The energy dependence of the glass will center not only absorbs ultra-voilet light but also
be treated in the section on radiophotolumines- emits orange fluorescent light continuously when
cence. exposed to ultra-violet light. The intensity of
Cohalt-activated horosilicate glass (Bausch and the fluorescence, as determined by a multiplier
Lomb type F-0621) is available in the form of phototube light-detector, serves as a measure of
small polished blocks 1.5 mm in thickness. Their the absorbed dose in the glass for a given type
radiation. induced optical density at 3500A in- of radiation. Reproducibility of measurements is
creases lmearly over the range 103-10 6 rads (in usually about ±5 percent, but with sufficient
glass), the sensitivity being somewhat lower than care 2-3 percent is attainable. The dose range
that of the phosphate glass. A precision of ± 2 covered linearly usually extends from about 10 rad
perce~t is nevertheless attainable. This glass is to 10,000 rads or more, depending upon the type
supen?r to the phosphate glass both with respect of fluorimeter used and the size of the piece of glass
to fadmg and energy dependence. The fading is (Lee et al, 1961; Schulman and Etzel, 1953; Barr
only about 2 percent in 24 hours. The atomic et al., 1961a; Degelman et al., 1957; Bausch and
numbers in the borosilicate glass are less than 14 Lomb Optical Co., 1959; Yokota et al., 1961).
except for the small cobalt content. Thus the The hmger the optical path of the ultra-violet and
photoelectric effect will be smaller than in the the orange light, the more readily the optical ab-
high - Z phosphate glass, although detailed experi- sorption begins to cause a saturation effect at the
mental data on energy dependence are not yet upper end of the response vs dose curve. Lee et al.,
available. (1961) have demonstrated that a post-irradia-
Other dosimetric glasses are described by tion annealing for 1 hour at 325 °C removes most
Kircher et al., (1958), Hedden et al., (1960), of the coloration but only a relatively small part
Paymal et al., (1960) and Bishay (1961). of the fluorescing centers. In this way they achieve
b. Plastics. Many transparent plastics can be nearly linear response up to at least 105 rads.
u_sed. as radiation dosimeters by virtue of radia- Yokota et al., (1961) have recently devised a
t10n-mduced changes in optical densitv in the fluorimeter which, through the selection of optical
ultra-violet or visible spectral region. The useful filters and the enhanced red spectral response of
dose range of any particular material usually ex- the multiplier phototube, is reported to have ex-
tends over. about two decades, and these ranges tended the usable exposure range down to 50 mR.
generally he between 10 5 and 10 8 rads, except for They make use of a new low-Z type of silver-
polyethylene terephthalate, which can be used in activated phosphate glass which exhibits greater
6 µ thickness to measure doses up to 10 9 rads response to gamma rays than do the other avail-
(Ritz, 1961). able phosphate glasses.
The response per roentgen is generally constant Silver-activated phosphate glass of either low-Z
over a wide range of quantum energies, except or high-Z composition and suitable fluorimeters are
where high-atomic-number atoms are present as commercially available. Cylindrical rods of glass
in polyvinylchloride. ' 1-mm o.d. by 6-mm length, devised by Schulman
The main drawback with most plastic dosime- and Etzel (1953), are the most widely used form,
ters is the instability of the coloration change. particularly for application in vivo, and to provide
The ce_llophane-dye system (Henley, 1954; Henley a supplementary high-range dosimeter in film
and Richman, 1956) is the only one in which the badges (Gupton et al., 1961). Other shapes are
~o:or change is reported to be permanent, and it also available, e.g., blocks such as have been em-
is based upon a color-bleaching process. Of the ployed in "DT-60"-type casualty-range dosime-
?thers, polymethylmethacrylate (Boag et al., 1958) ters (Schulman et al., 1953) and for use in the
is the most stable, showing a slight rise in optical optical density method.
density ( <5 percent) in the first 24 hours after The photoluminescence of the irradiated glass is
exposure, and about 10 percent per month fading more stable than is the coloration. An initial rise
after that. of some 10-20 percent in the radiophotolumines-
. Pos~ible dependence upon dose rate has not been cence is observed in the first few hours after irradia-
mvest1gated for most of these dosimeters, but the tion, after which the signal is reported to be stable
polymethylmethacrylate was found to be inde- in the case of %in. x %in. x ~{ 6 in. blocks (as used in
pendent of rate at least to 3X10 8 rads/sec for 1 "DT-60" dosimeters) (Schulman et al., 1953).
µsec pulses of electrons from a linear acceler- Some evidence has indicated that a slow fading
ator (Boag et al., 1958). By contrast polyethylene ("" 1-3 percent per week) may exist in the glass
terephthalate does exhibit such a dependence (Ritz rods (Hodara et al., 1959; Kondo, 1961). The
1961), which limits its usefulness. glass rods have been employed by several investi-
gators for tissue implant dosimetry (Hodara et al.,
2. Radiation-Induced Photoluminescence 1959; Fulton et al., 1954; Malsky et al., 1961), and
The only practical dosimetry system based on have also been used for dosimetry in the gastro-
radiation-induced photoluminescence has been intestinal tract of anim.als (Nold et al., 1958).
silver-activated phosphate glass (Schulman, 1950; The energy dependence of the glass is regarded
Schulman et al., 1951, 1953). This glass develops as the main hindrance to its use for x-ray measure-
at least two types of centers upon gamma irradia- ments where the x-ray spectrum is unknown.
tion. One type is chiefly responsible for the colora- The rods of high-Z phosphate glass show 20 to 30
tion effect discussed earlier. The other type of times more response per roentgen at 60 kev than at
22
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 1 25 Mev (Co 60 ) (Schulman and Etzel, 1953). 3. Radiation-Induced Thermoluminescence
F or rods of the low-Z glass of Ginther and Sch~l­
0

When a thermoluminescent material is exposed

man (1960) the energy-dependence factor hes to ionizing radiation, the electrons released in the
between 7 a~d 13. Day (1956) first designed lead ionization process are trapped at lattice imper-
and gold shields to reduce the energy dependence fections throughout the crystalline solid. These
of the high-Z glass rods. Further progres~ has also electrons remain trapped more or less permanently
been reported (Malsky et al., 1961; Attix, 1961; at room temperature, but are released by thermal
Thornton and Auxier, 1960) indicating that the agitation at some elevated temperature. When
excessive response below 100 kev ca~ be elimi- thus released, they recombine with opposite charge
nated. With low-Z glass rods (Gmther and carriers and emit light in the process. The quan-
Schulman, 1960) and partial shields of s~lv~r tity of light emitted as the material is heated may
(Attix 1961) flat response per roentgen w1thm be measured and related to the absorbed dose in
±20-30 perdent down to 40 kev is probably the material. This heating process generally
attainable. "erases" the phosphor so that it is ready for
In spite of the energy-dependence of the glass, another exposure.
several studies have shown that, at least under Of the thermoluminescent phosphors which
narrow-beam conditions, the response of even the have been investigated to date (see general
high-Z glass rods follows fairly closely the response references at end of this section), the most promis-
of air-equivalent ion chambers or ferrous-sulfate ing are synthetic mai:iganese-activat~d calcium
dosimeters in depth-dose curves (Hodara et al., fluoride CaF2:Mn (Gmther and Kirk, 1956,
1959· Rie()'ert et al., 1956; Barr et al., 196la,b). 1957), and lithium fluoride, LiF (Cameron et al.,
The 'use ~f low-Z glass rods and metal shields 1961).
would be advisable, however, to minimize the CaF2:Mn must be enclosed in an evacuated or
possibility of erroneous measurements due to scat- inert-gas-filled envelope to avoid generation of
tered radiation, particularly under broad beam spurious thermoluminescent signals. The phos-
conditions. phor can be cemented to an ohmic heater within
The dose rate independence of the high-Z glass the envelope (Schulman et al., 1960b). The
has been verified at rates up to I0 5 rads/sec with thermoluminescence (blue-green in color) is meas-
respect to coloration (see subsection 1 abo~e, ured by placing the device in _front of ~ suitable
Optical Density Methods). _Howe:ver, the rad10- multiplier phototube, and passmg electric curr~nt
photoluminescence has been mvest1gated only up through the dosimeter heater element. With
to 50 rads/sec for continu?us radiation, or. 500 IOO mg of CaF2:Mn in the dosimeter, dos~s of the
rad/sec for a -y-ray pulse (Pierson, 1958; Ballmger order of I0- 4 rads are detectable and the hght out-
and Harris, 1959). Kondo (1961) observed a IO put is proportional to dose up to 3 X I0 5 rad. The
percent dose-rate saturation effect over the range response is independent of dose rate at least up to
from 4X10- 2 to 13 rads/sec. Further measure- rates of 4 X I0 5 rads/hr.
ments will be necessary to resolve this discrepancy. The storage of energy in CaF2:Mn is not
All of the three available types of silver-acti- entirelv stable with time at room temperature.
vated phosphate glass are s_ensiti~e tD therm~l Fading amounts to some IO percent during the
neutrons, the high-Z formulat10n bemg least sensi- first 16 hours after exposure, 1 percent per day
tive and the lithium-bearing glass of Yokota et al. for a few days thereafter, gradually slowing down
(1961) being most sensitive. The response to so that about two-thirds of the original signal
thermal neutrons also depends upon the size of the remains after 80 days of storage. The energy
piece of glass so long as it is comparable with the dependence (response/R) of CaF2:Mn is roughly
range of th~ beta-rays emitted by the radio- the same as that for low-Z silver-activated phos-
activated silver in the glass. The response of the phate glass and can be flattened by app~opriate
glass per rad in tissue is reported to range from shielding. Response to thermal neutrons is about
several-fold to IOO-fold greater for thermal neu- the same as that of the high-Z phosphate glass.
trons than for Co60 gamma rays. More details are Fast neutron response has not yet been deter-
given elsewhere (Attix, 1962). mined, but is expected to be low.
The fast-neutron response of the high-Z glass is LiF (Cameron et al., 1961) has several ad-
relatively small, being due chiefly to elastic c~l­ vantages over CaF2:Mn. It requires no enveloJ?e,
lisions. The fast-neutron response per rad m as it is relatively unaffected by atmosphere; its
tissue relative to the response per rad in tissue for stored signal does not fade ~t room te!lli;:ierature,
Co 60 gamma rays varies from 0.5 to 0.7 percent for and because of its low atomic number it is nearly
0.5-1.5 Mev neutrons (Bernard et al., 1961). At "air equivalent", exhibiting a response per roent-
14 Mev the corresponding figure is 3.5 percent gen only 30 percent greater at 40 kev than ~t
1,250 kev. The sensitivity of this phosphor is
(Kondo, 1960a). several-fold less than that of CaF2:Mn, and above
The response of the high-Z glass per rad has a few hundred rads the response rises more rapidly
been reported to be a function of the LET of the than linearly with dose becau~e _of an increase in
radiation, being only one-fifth as large for alpha sensitivity induced by the radiat10n.
particles and recoil protons as for fast electrons Neither the dose-rate dependence nor the
(Kondo, 1960 a, b, 1961). neutron sensitivity have been investigated, but
23
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 the latter would be expected to be high because ionization current by up to 4 orders of magnitude.
of the lithium content. Lucid discussions of the mechanisms involved in
Neither of these two phosphors is currently radiation-induced conductivity of CdS are given
available commercially. At present the tech- by Garlick (1960) 8 and by Clayton and Briggs
niques for manufacturing the special type of (1960). 8
CaF2 :Mn are better understood than for the LiF, A "good" CdS crystal can produce currents of
because the activators of the latter are not yet 1 µ amp or more in a Co60 gamma-ray field of 1
well-known. However, it is likely that both R/hr, with 100 volts imposed across the crystal.
phosphors (and perhaps complete dosimetry It is important to emphasize that as a rule typical
systems based upon them) will soon be available. CdS photoconductive cells, designed for light
detection, exhibit little or no gamma-ray sensitiv-
4. Conductivity Induced by Ionizing Radiation ity. Occasional exceptions are found which can
a. Semiconductor junction detectors. In opera- be used as gamma-ray detectors, but the problem
tion these devices behave much like solid-state of selection makes the effective cost per usable
ionization chambers. Although their effective crystal quite high. Three types of CdS photo-
volume is small (:::::: 0.1 cm3 or less), the solid conductive cells are commercially available; single
silicon of which they are usually made is some crystals, sintered layers, and microcrystalline
1,850 times as dense as air at atmospheric pressure. powder dispersed in a binder. The single crystal
Furthermore the value of "W", the . energy type generally gives the best gamma-ray per-
necessary to produce a pair of charge carriers, is formance. Crystals having gamma-ray induced
only about 3.5 ev, or 0.1 that necessary in air. currents of the order of 10-9 amp per R/hr at
Thus, per unit volume, the yield of charge carriers 100 v, together with reasonably short time con-
will be roughly 18,000 times that in an air-filled stants, have been regarded by most of the authors
cavity chamber. as satisfactory, and were obtained in most cases
Relatively few applications of semiconductor by selection from larger numbers of crystals.
junction detectors have been made in radiation Hollander (1956a) produced CdS crystals having
dosimetry thus far. Friedland et al., (1960) and photocurrents as high at 2X 10-5 amp per R/hr
Jones (1960) have described studies in the develop- of Co60 gamma rays at 100 v. The dark current
ment of alpha-, beta-, and gamma-ray survey meters was less than 10-7 amp. The times required to
having silicon p-n junction detectors. Brownell achieve a steady current at 1 R/hr rang~d from
(1961) has suggested useful medical applications, several minutes to hours, but were shortened
such as in the study of neutron capture reactions, considerably by continuous irradiation with a
employing nuclides such as B 10 , for brain tumor low intensity of radium gamma rays.
therapy. These semiconductor detectors should The response of CdS crystals is sometimes found
prove useful as x- and gamma-ray probes also, to be a function of the age of the crystal and of
for applications where space is at a premium and its prior radiation history.
the dose rate is sufficiently high that measurable The response per roentgen of CdS crystals to
ionization currents can be obtained. As a cough x rays below 100 kev can be as much as 100-fold
guide in gauging the sensitivity to gamma rays, greater than for Co 60 gamma radiation. Shield~
Jones (1960) reports that a 2-cm2 area silicon p-n of high-atomic-nm~ber materials can be employe~,
junction was found to have the same d-c sensi- as with other dosunetry systems, to reduce this
tivity to gamma radiation as a 300 cm3 air ion dependence.
chamber; i.e., about 10- 7 amp at 1 R/sec. This Recently, Franks (1961) has disclosed the
would indicate a depletion layer thickness of about development of ultrasensitive CdS gamma-ray
0.1 mm in this case. The lithium-diffused type detecting crystals which yield currents as great
silicon junction of Baily and Mayer (1961), and as 15 µ amp per R/hr of Co60 gamma rays at 100
Baily et al., (1961) should show even greater volts. He has found it possible to produce such
gamma-ray current response. Hertz and Grem- crystals, falling in the 2-5 µ amp range, routin~ly
melmaier (1960) have reported the application of and with relatively little selection necessary. Rise
a p-n junction of gallium-arsenide as an x-ray times are still in the several-minute range at 1
probe in body cavities; current yields of 2X10- 7 R/hr and represent the principal remaining short-
amp per R/sec were obtained. coming of these crystals. Nevertheless, they are
No attempt will be made here to list the ref- the best CdS gamma-ray detectors reported to
erences to existing literature on semiconductor date and are currently obtainable.
junction detectors. Since the initial work of
McKay (1951), hundreds of papers on the subject 5. Bibliography*
have appeared. A bibliography by Blankenship Optical Density Method
(1960) includes references to semiconductor de-
tectors of germanium, diamond, and CdS, as well Artandi C. and Stonehill, A. A. (1958). Polyvinyl
as silicon. chloride n~w high level dosimeter, Nucleonics 16 No.
5, 118.
b. Cadmium sulfide. Cadmium sulfide (CdS) Bauman, R. G. (1956). Glass slides help map gamma
crystals have been employed by a number of investi- fields, Nucleonics H, No. 6, 90.
gators as sensitive detectors of ionizing radiation •Symposium on Solid State Conductivity, Kings College Hospital, Sept.
(see the bibliography). Instead of behaving strictly 25, 1959. Physics in Medicine and Biology 4, 325 (!~).
•References mentioned in the text will he found 1n the references at the
as solid state ionization chambers, they amplify the end of this report.

24
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 Birnbaum, M., Schulman, J. H., and Seren, L. (1955). Radiation-Induced Thermoluminescences
Use of melamine as an x-radiation detector, Rev. Sci'
Inst. 26, 457. Arkangel'skaya, V. A., Vainberg, B. I., Kodyukov,
Day, M. J., and Stein, G. (1951). Effects of x rays upon V. M., and Razumova, T. K. (1960). Luminescence
plastics, Nature 168, 644. dosimeter based on a CaSiO,: Mn phosphor for gamma
Fowler, J. F., and Day, M. J. (1955). High-dose measure- rays. beta-particles and neutrons, Atomnaya Energiya,
ment by optical absorption, Nucleonics 13, No. 12, 52. 559.
Hart, E. J., Koch, H. W., Petree, B., Schulman, J. H., Burger, H., Lehmann, J., and Mayer, U. (1954). Die
Taimuty, S. I., and Wyckoff, H. 0. (1958). Measure- Anwendung der Simultandosimetrie bei der Intra-
ment systems for high level dosimetry, Proc. Second vaginalen Rontgenbestrahlung der Parametrien, Natur-
Intern. Conf. Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, wissenschaften it, No. 9, 209.
21, 188. Daniels, F., Boyd, C. A., and Saunders, D. F. (1953).
Henley, E. J.. and Miller, A. (1951). Gamma ray dosim- Thermoluminescence as a research tool, Science 117,
etry with polyvinyl chloride films, Nucleonics 9, No. 345.
6, 62. Daniels, F., and Rieman, W. P. (1954). The thermo-
Kreidl, N. J., and Blair, G. E. (1956a). A system of luminescence dosimeter, Final Report, Chemical Pro-
megaroentgen glass dosimetry, Nucleonics U, No. 1, curement Agency Contract No. DA18-108-CML-3069,
56. Project No. 4-12-80-001, Univ. Wisconsin.
Taimuty, S. I., Glass, R. A., and Deaver, B. S. Jr. (1958). Grogler, N., Houtermans, F. G., and Stauffer, H. (1958).
High level dosimetry of gamma and electron beam The use of thermoluminescence for dosimetry and in
sources, Proc. Second lntern. Conf. Peaceful Uses of research on the radiation and thermal history of solids,
Atomic Energy, Geneva, 21, 204. 2nd Intern. Conf. Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, 21,
226.
Radiation-Induced Photoluminescence Haring, N., and Schon, M. (1961). Dosimetry of ionizing
and neutron radiation by thermoluminescence, Ninth
Amato, C. G., and Malsky, S. J. (1961). Radiophoto- Intern. Congress of Radiology. Munich, 1959. 2,
luminescent gamma-ray dosimetry of mixed neutron 1388-91, B. Rajewsky, ed. Stuttgart, Georg Thieme
gamma-ray fields, Radiology 76, 290. Verlag (In German).
Amato, C. G., Malsky, S. J., Bond, V. P., Roswit, B., Houtermans, F. G., Jager, E., Schon, M., and Stauffer, H.
and Heinze, E. (1961). Multiple implant dosimetry (1957). Messungen der Thermolumineszenz als Mitte!
Radiology 76, 292. ' zur Untersuchung der thermischen und der Strah·
Amato, C. G., Malsky, S. J., and Roswit, B. (1961). lungsgeschichte von natiirlichen Mineralien unc
Solid state dosimetry, Trans. New Yark Acad. Sci., Gesteinen, Ann. Physik 20, No. 6, 283.
Series II, 23, 357. Kosse!, W., Mayer, U., and Wolf, H. C. (1954). Simul-
Brustad, T., and Henriksen, T. (1958). Glass dosimetry tandosimetrie von Strahlenfeldern am lebenden Objekt,
of soft x-rays, Brit. J. Radio!. 31, 163. Naturwissenschaften U, No. 9, 209.
Bryan, W. C., Annis, M. R., and Cowles, R. (1958). Luchner, K. (1957). Uber die Thermolumineszenz von
Some possible improvements of the DT-60/PD, CP- natiirlichem Flussspat, Z. Phys. H9, 435.
95.A/PD S)~tem, Air Force Special Weapons Center, Patterson, D. A., and Friedman, H. (1937). Milliroentgen
Klftland Alf Force Base, New Mexico. Rept. No. dosimetry with thermoluminescence, J. Opt. Soc. Am.
AFSWC-TN-58-24. n, 1136.
Bryan, W. C., and Schaus, W. P. (1961). Some recent Peter, H. (1960). Thermolumineszenz und Dosimetrie
?evelopments in rad.iophotoluminescent dosimetry, von Samarium-aktiviertem Kalziumsulfat, Atom-
m?ludmg te~t results, Alf Force Special Weapons Center, kernenergie 5, 453.
Kirtland Air Force Base, New Mexico. Rept. No. Schulman, J. H., Ginther, R. J., Kirk, R. D., and Goulart,
AFSWC-TN-61-4. H. S. (1959). Thermoluminescent dosimeter, U.S.
Caldwell, P. A. (1957). A dosimeter reader for phosphate Naval Research Laboratory Rept. No. 5326.
glass needle dosimeters, U.S. Naval Research Labora- Schulman, J. H., Ginther, R. J., Kirk, R. D., and Goulart,
tory Memorandum Rept. No. 715. H. S. (1960). Thermoluminescent dosimeter has
Etzel, H. W., Kirk, R. D., and Schulman, J. H. (1955).
Small volume dosimeter, Ra-Det 8, No. 2, 49 (Pub!. storage stability, linearity, Nucleonics 18, No. 3, 92.
Radiation Instruments Branch, Div. of Biol. & Med.
USAEC). ' Conductivity Induced by Ionizing Radiation
Klick, C. C. (1951). Battery-operated portable reader
for radiophotoluminescent glass dosimeters, U.S. Naval Becker, J., Scheer, K. E., and Kuber, A. (1952). Ein
Research Laboratory, Rept. No. 3878. neues Strahlenmessgerat mit einer biegsamen Kristall-
Kondo, S. (1960b). Simultaneous measurement of ther- messsonde und seine Anwendung in der Klinik, Strahlen-
mal neutron fluxes and gamma contamination dose by
silver-activated phosphate glass IAEA Symp. Radia- therapie 88, 34.
tion Dosimetry, Vienna. ' Hollander, Jr., L. E. (1956). Photoconductive dose-rate
Malsky, S. J., Amato, C. G., Roswit, B., Reid, C. B., indicator for ionizing radiations, Rept. No. AD 92397,
Unge~, S. M,., Spreckels, C., and Villazon, E. (1959). Armed Services Technical Information Agency (Arling-
In vivo dosimetry with miniature radioluminescent ton Hall Station, Arlington, Va., U.S.A.)
glass rods, Trans. New York Acad. Sci. 22, Series II, Hopton, R. L. (1960). A wrist-carried high range gamma-
No. 2, 104. detecting ratemeter, U.S. Naval Radiological Defense
Malsky S. J., Amato, C. G., and Reid, C. B. (July 1960).
A miniature versatile dosimeter, IRE Trans. Med. Laboratory, Rept. No. TR-488.
Electronics, ME-7, 193. Klick, C. C., Peake, H. J., Cole, P. T., Rabin, IL, and
Malsky, S. J., Roswit, B., Amato, C., Reid, C. B., Unger, Lambe, J. J. (1955). Simple fall-out meter uses CdS,
s., M.,. a_nd Spreckels, C. (1960). In vivo dosimetry Nucleonics 13, No. 12, 48.
wit~ m1mature glass rods, Rediology U, 107. Mauldon, G., and Martin, J. H. (1956). The use of cad-
Rosw1t, B., Malsky, S. J., Amato, C. G., Reid, C. B., mium sulphide crystals in probe and needle dose-
Maddal~ne, L., and Spreckels, C. (1961). An ideal in measuring systems, Brit. J. Radio!. 29, 427.
vivo. d.os1metry system for clinical and experimental Miller, L. D., and Jaske, A. J. (1960). Summary of the
rad1at1on therapy, Radiology 76, 295. investigation of the .·esponse of cadmium sulfide, U.S.
Schaffert, J. C. (1956). A portable reader for DT-60 Naval Radiological Defense Laboratory, Rept. No.
dosimeters, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory Rept No
4680. . . TR-491.
Schaffert, J. C. (1956). A pulsed-light reader for the Proceedings of the Second Conference on Nuclear Radia-
DT-60 glass dosimeter, U.S. Naval Research Labora- tion Effects in Semiconducting Devices, Sept. 17-18,
tory Rept. No. 4706. 1959. (Cowan Pub!. Corp., New York, N.Y.)
25
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 Proceedings of the Conference on Semiconductor Nuclear a. In applying eq (IGI), it is evident that
Particle Detectors, Ashville, N.C., Sept. 28-30, 1960. one must know the energy distribution of the
Natl. Acad. Sci., Natl. Res. Council Pub!. No. 871,
Washington, D.C. (1961). neutrons incident at a point of interest in the
Proceedings of the Conference on Solid State Radiation tissue. One will know this energy distribution
Detectors, Gatlinburg, Tenn., Oct. 3--5, 1960. IRE where the primary neutron flux incident upon the
Trans. Nuclear Sci., NS-8, No. 1 (Jan. 1961). tissue sample as a whole is known and is unper-
St. John, E.G., and Fish, E. (1960). The use of cadmium
sulfide crystals for the measurement of roentgen radia- turbed by the presence of the sample, i.e., where
tion, Am. J. Roentgenol. Rad. Ther. and Nuclear Med. the sample is small compared with the mean free
83, 156. path of the neutrons in tissue. Table IG 1 lists the
Semiconductor Detectors (1960). N ucleonics 18, No. 5, approximate neutron mean free path in tissue as a
98. Resume of papers on that subject presented at the
Seventh Scintillation Counter Symp., Washington, function of energy.
D.C. Feb. 25-26, 1960. The absorbed dose D; (rad) in a material oftypei
Symposium on Solid State Conductivity (1960). (Symp. of due to elastic scattering of fast neutrons of energy
six papers delivered at the Annual General Meeting of En and under conditions of secondary charged-
the Hospital Physicists' Association at Kings College
Hospital, 25 Sept. 1959), Phys. Medicine Biol. 4, 325. particle equilibrium is given by
Sessoms, III, 0. Van P., (1960). Photoconductivity in
CdS crystals as a mechanism for gamma ray dosimetry, D--19.3· I0- 9·<f>n·En-<11(En)·K1(En) (IGI)
Wright Air Development Division Tech. Rept. 60-576, ' (l+A;)2
Dayton, Ohio. where
Systems Based Upon Other Phenomena cf>n=neutron fluence (neutrons/cm 2),
Antonov-Romanovsky, V. V., Keirim-Marcus, I. B., <T 1(En) =total elastic cross section (barns per atom)
Poroshinam, M. S., and Trapeznikova, Z. A. (1956).
Dosimetry of ionizing radiation with the aid of infrared for neutrons of energy En (Mev),
sensitive phosphors, Conference of the Academy of <T 1(0, En) =differential elastic cross section (barns/
Science of the USSR on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic atom-steradian) for neutrons of initial
Energy, July 1-5, 1955. English translation by the energy En scattered at angle 0,
USAEC (U.S. Government Printing Office).
Attix, F. H. (1959). High level dosimetry by lumines- K 1(En) = f~[<T;(O, En)/<T 1(En)) (I-cos 0)27r sin OdO,
cent degradation, Nucleonics 17, No. 4, 142. A 1 =atomic weight of atoms of type i.
Attix, F. H. (1959). Luminescence degradation, Nu- To calculate the absorbed dose it is necessary
cleonics 17, No. 10, 60.
Attix, F. H. (1960). Dosimetry by luminescence degrada- to multiply the value of the dose from each type
tion in organics, Wright Air Development Division Rept. of atom by the fractional composition (by weight)
No. 60-563, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, of that type and sum the contributions of all types
U.S.A.
Birks, J. B. (1950). Scintillation efficiency of anthracene of atoms. Table IG2 lists the quotient, D;/cf>n,
crystals, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London) 63A, 1294. TABLE IGl. Range R(E), in tissue, o.f mo/JI energetic protons
Cassen, B., Crough, T., and Gass, H. (1955). Semi- generated by neutrons of energy E, and neutron mean free
conductor fast neutron dosimeter, Nucleonics 13, No. 3, path X(E), in tissue
58.
Loferski, J. J., and Rappaport, P. (1958). Radiation E R(E) :>.(E)
damage in Ge and Si detected by carrier lifetime changes: (Mev) (cm) (cm)
Damage thresholds, Phys. Rev. 111, 432.
Moody, J. W., Kendall, G. L., and Willardson, R. K. 0.1 0. 00017 0.83
(1958). Photovoltaic gamma-ray dosimeter, Nu- .3 .00060 1. 7
cleonics 16, No. 10, 101. 1.0 .0029 4. 2
Scharf, K. (1960). Photovoltaic effect produced in silicon 3.0 .016 6. 7
10.0 .14 17
solar cells by x- and gamma rays, NBS J. Research 30.0 1. 2 33
64A (Phys. & Chem.) No. 4, 297-307.
Schulman, J. H., Etzel, H. W., and Allard, J. G. (1957).
Application of luminescence changes in organic solids TABLE IG2. Absorbed dose· for fast neutrons in tissue
to dosimetry, J. Appl. Phys. 28, 792. calculated from kerma with the assumption of charged
particle equilibrium
G. Methods of Fast-Neutron and Mixed-Field
Dosimetry
Absorbed dose (rad)
1. Calculation of Absorbed Dose in Tissue Exposed Neutron Particle fluence, (neutron/cm•)
to Fast-Neutron Radiation energv --
(Mev)
The absorbed dose may be calculated by first DH/</> De/</> DN/</> Do/</> Dr(E)/q,
calculating the h.erma, and then taking advantage - - - - -- - ------ - - - - - - - -
,OJ 0.091XIO-• o. 001x10-• o.ooox10-• o.001x10-• O. 093XIO-•
of the fact that the kerma is equal to the absorbed . 02 . 172XIO-• . 002x10-• .ooox10-• .oo3x10-• . 177XlO-'.
dose (when expressed in the same units) under .03 . 244XIO-• .003XIO-•
. 005XIO-•
. 001x10-•
. 001x10-•
. 005XIO-•
.008XIO-•
. 253XIO-•
.383XIO-•
. 05 . 369XIO-•
conditions of charged particle equilibrium. In the . 07 . 472XIO-• . 006XIO-• . 001x10-• .010x10-• . 489XIO-•
case of tissue irradiated by fast neutrons, the . IO . 603XIO-• . 009XIO-• .001x10-• .015XIO-• . 628XlO-•
ranges of the heavy secondary charged particles . 20 . 914XIO-• . 017XIQ-• .002x10-•
.003XIO-•
.031XIO-•
.046XIO-•
. 964Xl0-•
1. 21 x10-•
. 30 1. 14 x10-• . 024XIO-•
(mainly protons) are short relative to the mean . 50 1. 47 x10-• .035XIO-• .003XIO-• . 011x10-• 1. 58 XlO-'
. 005XIO-• .081XIO-• 1.86 XIO-'
free paths of the neutrons, at least up to about 30 . 70 L 73 x10-• . 043XIO-•
Mev (see table IGl). Thus, within this ehergy I. 0 2. 06 XI0-9 . 053XIO-• .006XIO-• .354XIO-• 2. 47
2. 99
x10-•
x10-•
2.0 2. 78 x10-• . 068XIO-• . 010x10-• .135XlO-'
range one can assume that charged particle 3. 0 3. 26 x10-• . 078XIO-• .012x10-• .150XJO-• 3. so x10-•
.142XIO-• 4.12 x10-•
equilibrium exists at any point in a sample, so 5. 0
7. 0
3. 88
4. 22
x10-•
x10-•
.084XJO-•
. 071XIO-•
.009XIO-•
.010x10-• . 310XIO-• 4. 61 x10-•
Ion~ as the point is not closer to the sample's
10. 0 4. 48 x10-• .105XIO-• . onx10-• .395XIO-• 4. 99 x10-•
surt ace than the maximum proton range, as 14.0 4. 62 x10-• . 094XlO-• .014XIO-• . 466XlO-• s.19 x10-•
shown in table IGl.
26
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 for each of the important components of tissue as TABLE IG:3. 1\faxirnum k for a teflon-C0 2 chamber
well as their sum, IJ1 /<I>n. These are computed Neutron Observed Computed
from data in BNL 325 (1958, 1960), BNL 400 en~RY k k
(Me,·)
(1962) and AWRE 0-28/60 (1961) and for a
tissue corresponding to the ICRP Standard Man 0. 5 0.08 0. 11
(H=lO percent, "'=18 percent, N =3.0 percent 1.0 .08 .18
2.0 .09 . 13
and 0=65 percent-the other constituents make .3. 0 .12 .10
a negli~ible contribution to the dose). 4.0
6.0
.15
.20
.15
.16
b. When the size of the medium under con- 8.0 . 24 .20
sideration becomes comparable with the mean free
path of neutrons in the medium, multiple collision ing absorbed dose is 0.96 rad. The same ioniza-
calculations must be made to find the distribution tion will be produced in this chamber by an
of absorbed dose in the medium. Such calcula-
tions have been carried out for a tissue slab which absorbed dose of neutrons equal to : ;xo.96
is 30 cm thick in the direction of a collimated rad where W" and W ~ are the average energies
broad beam of neutrons (Snyder and Neufeld, required from an alpha particle and a beta ray
1955; NCRP Report, 1957). respectively to produce an ion pair in a gas. It is
2. The Measurement of Absorbed Dose in a assumed that the value of Win a gas is the same
Medium Exposed to Both Neutron and X or for alpha particles, protons and heavy particles.
Gamma Radiation, and the Distribution of The ratio of W values will depend slightly upon
Absorbed Dose With Respect to LET the gas mixture in the chamber, but will usually
a. Absorbed dose due to neutrons may be ac- lie in the range 1.03 to 1.06,
curately and conveniently determined with ioniza- Gas CHt air
tion cavities employing the Bragg-Gray relation
(Gray, 1936, 1944; Zimmer, 1938). The tissue-
equivalent ionization chamber (Failla and Rossi, :;=1.065 1.033 1.05 1.04
1950) may be used to determine the total absorbed
dose in tissue, and other instruments must be If we take the W ratio as 1.04, then the ratio,
used to evaluate the relative proportions of the T, of the ionization produced by r rads of hard
radiations making up this total dose. Its sensi- x rays and N rads of neutrons to the ionization
tivity to neutrons is within 10 percent of its sensi- produced in the same chamber by 1 R of hard
tivity to gamma rays, the difference being due x rays will be
to the difference in W for the two cases.
Approximate methods have been devised that
(IG2)
permit evaluation of a radiation field in terms of
its component primary radiations, especially with
regard to the separation of doses due to neutrons In the tefion-C0 2 chamber the ratio, C, of the
and gamma rays. Ionization chambers lined with ionization produced by the above mixed neutron
carbon or conducting tefion and filled with carbon and x-ray dose to that produced by 1 R of hard
dioxide (Rossi and Failla, 1956) may be expected x rays will be
to yield a good measure of the absorbed dose 0=1.04f+kN. (IG3)
delivered to tissue by electromagnetic radiations,
while being rather insensitive to neutrons. How- This procedure makes it possible to evaluatr the
ever, these devices do have a certain small neutron mixed radiation field on the basis of x-ray cali-
sensitivity, k. The coefficient k is defined as the brations of the two chambrrs. Direct calibrations
ratio of the reading of a tefion-C0 2 chamber may be performed on an absolute basis taking into
exposed to a neutron fluem~e whieh delivers 1 rad to account chamber volume, gas pressure, electrical
standard tissue, to the reading observed when the capacity, the voltage sensitivity of the detector,
cha:n her is exposed to 1 R of hard x rays. Ex- and W.
perunen tal and computed values of k are given A number of similar sch em rs (Gray rt al., 1940;
in table IG3 (NCRP Report, 1961). The former Dainty, 1959; Bre~scher and yrr!1ch: 1944; :\fari-
were obtained with a chamber made of conductina nelli, 1953) mvolnng se,·ernl 10mzat10n rhn.mbers
tefion and filled with carbon dioxide gas, using have been devised in attempts to separate neutron
neutron beams having minimal gamma contami- and gamma doses.
nation. However, since the presence of gamma b. Proportional countrrs may br used ~o ad-
radiation cannot be excluded, these figures must vantage in measuring fast neutron dose m the
be considered as upper limits only. The computed presence of gai:1ma' ~ay~ (~ urst, ~ 954). The
values for k were obtained by calculations of the Bragg-Gray cavity pnnc1ple lS applied;. for ex-
t:v:pe given in KCRP Report (p. 82, 1961) and ample, ethylene gas and polyet_hylene lmer~ are
with the assumption that Wis the same for heavy satisfactory for fast neutrons smce the rat10 of
recoils as for protons. They are therefore, also energy deposited per gram of ethylene to en~rgy
upper limits. ' dissipated per gram of tissue ls substantia~ly
'Vhen a tissue equivalent chamber is exposed to independent of neutron energy. The essm_i.tial
1 R of gamma rays or hard x rays, the correspond- departure from the ionization chamber techrnque
27
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 is that the number of ion pairs produced m the ticular experimental conditions (Wagner and
gas is determined by a summation of pulse Hurst, 1959). Factors which govern the choice
heights, rather than an integration of charge or of B include the following: neutron energy, neutron
a current measurement. This fact enables one intensity, gamma-ray energy, and gamma-ray
to integrate only the pulses due to neutrons intensity. In any case the discrimination level at
while rejecting those due to gamma rays, if the which the results may be appreciably affected by
dimensions of the gas cavity and the pressure of gamma radiation may be determined directly for
the gas are chosen so that the pulses due to the particular experimental conditions. For ex-
electrons (from gamma-ray effects) are generally ample, for Co 60 gamma-ray dose rates of 1 R/hr
smaller than most of the pulses due to recoil or less the bias level required to discriminate
protons (from fast-neutron collisions). If the against gamma rays is about 0.20 Mev, and the
pulse height is proportional to the number of ion absorbed neutron energy which would be lost
pairs formed, this method of dosimetry is in every under this bias is about 10 percent for lmrad/hr
way equivalent to the ionization chamber, with Po-Be neutrons (see table IG4). On the other
the added advantage of being quite insensitive hand, if the gamma dose rate were as high as 25
to gamma radiation. R/hr, the bias level would have to be increased
The proportionality between pulse height and to about 0.36 Mev and the energy lost would be
number of ion pairs depends on two conditions: about 20 percent, however this may be estimated
(a) there must be no electron attachment, and (b) by extrapolating the count rate vs pulse height
the height of the pulse at the output of the linear curve for values of pulse height ::::; B and then
amplifier must not depend on track orientation. integrating the area under the entire curve. In
Condition (a) may be fulfilled by excluding from other words, the values for f given in table IG4
the counter such gases as water vapor, oxygen, do not necessarily represent errors in the measured
and some of the halogens, which have very large dose, but do represent the fraction of the total
electron attachment cross sections (Healey and dose which must be estimated by extrapolation.
Reed, 1941). Condition (b) may be fulfilled by A convenient instrument (Wagner and Hurst,
proper selection of the amplifier rise time and 19.58) utilizing the absolute counter has been
decay time (Hurst and Ritchie, 1953). A var- developed. In this instrumrnt, the pulse inte-
iation of the angle between the recoil proton grator is a simple four-stage binary circuit (Glass
trajectories and the center wire in a proportional and Hurst, 1952) which gives the area under the
counter causes a variation in the pulse profiles. integral pulse height curves with very good ac-
However, it has been shown (Hurst and Ritchie, curacy, considering the extreme simplicity of the
1953) that if the rise time and decay time con- circuit. When using this scheme of pulse height
stants (assumed to be equal, which is true for integration, the gamma response corrections men-
many good linear amplifiers, see Jordan and tioned above do not hold, but results for the case
Bell, 1947) are greater than the collection time of Co 60 have been reported by Wagner and Hurst
of electrons in the counter, the pulse height at (1958).
the output of the amplifier depends only slightly Proportional counters similar to the above have
on the rise time of the proportional counter been used to measure the fast neutron dose as
pulse. well as the total (neutron + gamma) dose in
Several variations of proportional counters mixed beams (Slater et al., 1958; Pott and Wagner,
following these principles have been designed. 1960).
One of these contains an internal alpha source c. A proportional counter may be used as a
for calibration. Since the sensitive volume is dosimeter for gamma rays in the presence of
determined by means of field tubes (Cockroft neutrons by pulse height integration of the small
and Curran, 19.51), the mass of gas is known and pulses due to gamma rays and rejection of the
hence the sensitivity of the detector can be de- large pulses due to neutrons (Caswell, 1960).
termined without using a known neutron source. This approach is opposite to that of the use of
Since dose is proportional to the summation the proportional counter for fast neutron dosim-
of pulse heights, it is also proportional to the etry. The instrument consists of a graphite wall,
area under the curve showing the number of He-C0 2 filled proportional counter operated at
pulses exceeding a given height. as a function low gas pressures (2 to 10 cm Hg). Large pulses
of height. The area may be · accurately de-
termined with a planimeter or the summation of TABLE IG4. Percent, f, of energy spent by recoils losing
pulse heights may be done directly with an less than the bias energy, B, in the counter
electronic pulse integrator (Glass and Hurst, 1952).
.T~e applica!ion of a bias energy, B, to dis-
crimmate agamst gamma radiation causes a
fraction, f, of the neutron energy to be lost under
Bgfe~~) 1----
J 0.5 LO
Fast neutron! energly (:\fel\")

. 2.0 3.5 4.8 14-

____ _
Po-B Po-B~
the bias. Values of J for rnrious values of the 1 1

bias, B, and neutron energy, E, are given in table --0.074 ~~~1~-~~~5 0.6 1.4
IG4. When using the absolute proportional . 14
- 21
19. 5
32. 0
9. 4
12. 9
4. 1
7. 6
3. 5
5. 6
2. 8
5. 9
8. 5
16. 2
2. 8
6. 5
4. 5
10. 1
counter with conwntional electronic equipment, . 28 li2. 6 23. 5112. 3 9. 1 9. 8 25. 8 9. 9 14. 4
. 36 73. 0 33. 3 18. 8 12. 8 16. 2 36. 9 15. 2 20. 5
the value of B may be chosen to suit the par-

28
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 due to heavy particle recoils, such as C recoils secondary electrons from gamma rays produce
from the walls and C, 0, and He recoils from the small pulses corresponding to the low energy per
gas, are discarded. Small pulses due to secondary unit track length. The small gamma-ray pulses
electrons produced by gamma rays are recorded may be discriminated against electronically. Em-
and their heights are integrated. Maximum pirical design of these detectors for measurement
pulse-height discrimination between neutrons and of dose in tissue has been discussed by Mucken-
gamma rays is obtained at or below pressures thaler (1957).
where the range of the C recoils is approximately f. Other detectors have been designed to have
the length of the sensitive volume of the counter. a response vs neutron energy similar to the dose
Gamma-ray response per roentgen is independ- in tissue while achieving high discrimination
ent of energy to within 5 percent from 1.25 Mev against gamma rays in mixed radiation fields.
(Co 60 ) to 200 kev and to within 20 percent down These include the hydrogenous proportional coun-
to 47 kev. Use of a graphite lining and a thin ter (Hurst et al., 1951; Dennis and Loosemore,
aluminum wall minimizes production of gamma 1957), the spherical scintillation detector (Skjol-
rays in the walls by inelastic scattering of the debrand, 1955), and the paraffin-moderated BF3
incident neutrons (which would enhance the counter (DePangher, 1957).
neutron sensitivity of the counter). Response g. The neutron contribution to the absorbed
in a 2.5- to 3~Mev H 2 (d, n) He 3 neutron field has dose may be calculated from measurements of the
been shown experimentally to be ~ 1 percent of number and length of the recoil proton tracks
the gamma-ray response for the same kerma in produced in photographic emulsion under con-
tissue. This type of instrument has relatively trolled conditions.
high sensitivity, and is therefore useful primarily h. The neutron absorbed dose rate in any
at gamma-ray exposure rates below 10-2 R/min. medium may be calculated from a knowledge of
d. Another device for measuring ionization the flux and energy spectrum of the neutron beam
which can distinguish between secondary electrons at the place of interest. These two quantities
from gamma rays and recoil nuclei from neutrons may be inferred from the induced activity of a
is the single ionization detector reported by series of "threshold detectors" of Pu 239 surrounded
Auxier, Hurst, and Zedler (1958). In this instru- by B 10 , Np 237 , U 238 , and S32 (Hurst et al., 1956;
ment, a cavity of very small linear dimensions Reinhardt and Davis, 1958).
and low gas pressure is used. The probability of i. A complete analysis of the radiation field for
an electron making an ionizing collision in the gas purposes of radiobiology and protection is one in
is low. The probability of more than one colli- which the dose delivered at each level of LET is
sion is correspondingly much lower. On the determined. Such an analysis is necessarily very
other hand, fast neutron recoils may lose a large complex and should be reserved for instances
amount of energy in the counter, producing many where great detail is needed.
ion pairs, but still producing only one count per A method has been developed in which this
event. The device is therefore very inefficient "LET spectrum of dose" may be determined
for neutron recoils. In this way discrimination experimentally (Rossi and Rosenzweig, 1955a).
against neutron radiation is achieved. The detector employed is a spherical proportional
The above general ideas have been applied in counter of tissue-equivalent plastic. The particle
the development of a very convenient, gamma- spectrum set up in the wall of such a counter will
ray dosimeter utilizing a commercially available be the same as the one occurring in tissue. The
Geiger-Mueller counter (Wagner and Hurst, 1961), energy deposited by individual charged particles
shielded with a filter made of Sn and Pb. The traversing the interior of the. counter depends
instrument measures the exposure in roentgens both on LET and the length of the track inter-
with nearly uniform response for effective x-ray cepted. However, the latter geometrical factor
energies above 200 kev and up to at least 1.2 Mev may be eliminated on a statistical basis with
gamma energies. Calculations show that the appropriate mathematical treatment of the pulse
fast neutron response is less than 0.15 percent of height curve that is obtained from the electronic
that for x or gamma radiation, and experiments equipment associated with the counter. The
confirm that this figure is certainly less than 0.5 analysis is correct only if (1) particles traversing
percent. The response to thermal neutrons is the cavity incur small change in LET, and (2)
also quite low; 5Xl09 n/cm 2 is equivalent to 1 R particle trajectories are essentially straight lines.
of gamma radiation. The first of these requirements may be attained
e. Discrimination between neutrons and gam- by filling the counter with tissue-equivalent gas
ma rays in mixed radiation fields may also be at low pressure. The second requirement limits
achieved with plastirs loaded with granular scin- the use of the instrument primarily to positively
tillating materials (Hornyak, 1952; Brown and charged nucleons and mesons. However, only
Hooper, 1958). Fast neutrons striking hydrog- for such particles can the RBE prescribed for
enous material in the detector button produce protection purposes 9 (NCRP Report, 1954) be
proton recoils; these in turn produce light when more than one. The mean LET of electrons is
they strike the phosphor grains, which is then considered to be less than 3.5 kev/µ of water for
detected by a multiplier phototube. Proton re- purposes of personnel protection. The actual
coils produce large light pulses corresponding to
large energy losses in the phosphor grains, whereas •The new term for this quantity is QF (see appendix I).

29
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 LET of electrons can attain values as high as II. Standards, Instruments and Measure-
20 kev / µ. However, the range of electrons ment Techniques for X Rays, Gamma Rays
having a LET of more than 5 kev / µ is so short and Neutrons
that traversal of the counter is impossible under
the operating conditions usually chosen. Simi- A. X- and Gamma-ray Standards and Transfer
larly, the total energy of such electrons is so low Instruments
that pulses produced by them disappear in the
noise. Because of the finite recovery time of the 1. For a Few Kv to About 0.5 Mv X Rays
proportional counter, the radiation intensity that
may be tolerated without undue "pile-up" is a. Definitions. The following terms are used
limited, particularly in the case of pulsed radiation in this ~report: i. Exposure standard is an ioniza-
sources, However, in the case of protection tion chamber and associated equipment, which
measurements the count rate recorded is usually allows the direct measurement of exposure. (Fr-e-
adequately low. quently referred to as a primary standard.) ii.
Since the instrument is functional for essentially Transfer instrument is an exposure meter of high
all charged particles having a RBE of more than stability for indirect comparison measurements
one, and since the total tissue dose may be deter- between two or more exposure standards.
mined, using a tissue-equivalent ionization b. Free-air standards: correction factors and
chamber, a combination of these instruments may errors. The free-air ionization chamber provides
be used for complete analysis of the radiation the exposure standard for the low- and medium-
field for purposes of protection. energy x-ray region in all national standardizing
Because of the principles of operation of this laboratories, though in two laboratories pres-
device, it is capable of a high degree of differen- surized air chambers are being used or investi-
tiation between particles of different LET. For gated for the upper end of this region (for x rays
particles of any given LET, only pulses corres- generated at potentials above 250 kv).
ponding to a major traversal need be counted The extensive reports on the design of free-air
with those imparted by pulses due to shorte; chambers for the measurement of exposures of
traversals being accurately predictable. This x rays up to 500 kv (Rajewsky et al., 1955;
almost entirely eliminates the need for a low bias Wyckoff and Attix, 1957) have been used in
and makes it possible to evaluate the dose delivered designing a number of new chambers, some of
by_ pulses that are normally lost in the electronic which are the first standards to be constructed
nmse. Proper mathematical evaluation of the by the particular national organizations and
p_ulse height spectrum usually permits determina- others of which are improved standards replacing
tion of the dose delivered between any two limits earlier ones now regarded as obsolete. Data
of LET. However, complications arise at neutron concerning the design of chambers for the low-
energies below about 200 kev because even if the energy region below 100 kv have been given by
instru~ent is operated at very low pressure, Ritz (1959, 1960) and by Allisy and Roux (1961).
appreciable numbers of particles may stop or The examination of the various corrections
start in the cavity. However, because of statis- required for free-air chamber measurements O"iven
tical fluctuations the whole concept of LET loses in these two extensive reports is still valid"' and
investigation of some of the corrections by a
its meaning for biological structures having number of laboratories in relation to their own
diameters less than lµ. chambers has produced results which do not
LET spectra obtained with this instrument differ significantly from those given in the reports.
(Rossi and Rosenzweig, 1955b) depend somewhat An errata sheet has been issued for the Wyckoff
on the gas pressure within it and all differ from and Attix report, giving revised values for the
LET spectra based on theoretical computations. secondary photon contribution, the new values
It has ?een sho~n (Rossi and Rosenzweig, 1956) making an addition to the correction for this
that tlns effect is due to statistical variations of effect of 0.1 to 0.3 percent, the revised values being
energy loss of charged secondaries and that such confirmed by Henry and Garrett (1960). A table
of corrections for humidity, based on a theoretical
va~iations do, in fact, result in LET spectra
investigation, has been published (Barnard et al.,
which depend on the size of the "biological 1960).
sample'_' to be evaluated. For purposes of An estimate of the maximum uncertainties
protection such variations are usually of little obtained under optimum conditions for each of
consequence. the principal factors il)volved in a free-air chamber
~limitation of the device is that with presently determination of the exposure in roentgens is
available models the maximum dose rate is of the given in table IIAl. The data in this table refers
order of 0.5 rad/hr. In addition, multichannel only to medium filtration x rays generated by
analyzers must be employed to obtain data from constant potentials of from 60 to 300 kv. The
sources having variable intensity. uncertainties may be larger outside of this range.
c. Details of naticnal standards. A list of
Further details on many of the methods dis- ~ational exposure standards in current use is given
cussed in tliis section may be found in an NCRP m table IIA2. It has been decided to include as
Report (1961). far as possible only the institution in each country
30
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 which holds the chambers having the status of d. Recent comparisons of national standards.
national standards and which thus takes part in The results of a direct comparison between free-
international comparisons. In a number of coun- air chambers of the National Research Council,
tries, there are other institutions also having free- Canada, and the U.S. National Bureau of Stand-
air chambers capable of absolute measurements of ards, carried out at Washington in 1959 (Aitken
exposure, though these are not regarded as national et al., 1962) are given in table IIA3.
standards. One set of indirect comparisons using two of
The literature references in the final column of the three-terminal cavity chambers (transfer in-
the table include only papers giving particulars of struments) described in the last ICRU Report
the chambers in current use. This replaces a (1959) has been completed. The results of these
similar table incorporated in the previous report comparisons are given in table IIA4 (Wyckoff et
(ICRU, 1959) which summarized the information al., 1963). The estimated maximum uncertainty
available at that time. of about 0.5 percent is somewhat larger than that
assigned to direct comparisons, though it is con-
TABLE IIAI. Estimated uncertainties for principal factors sidered that it should be possible to improve such
in free-air chamber determination of exposure in roentgens transfer instruments so that indirect comparisons
are almost as accurate as direct ones. Taking into
Experimental factor
Estimated
maximum
account the greater uncertainty in the indirect
uncertainty comparisons by the circulation of these transfer
(3)
instruments, the results of table IIA4 are con-
A. Charge (assumed measured by potentiometer and capacitor)_ ±0. 1
sistent, where comparable, with those of earlier
B. Air volume (includes errors in diaphragm area, rollecting comparisons (Aston and Attix, 1956; Allisy et al.,
plate width and allnement and field distortion resulting
from other causesl---------------------------------------- ±0. 3 1957).
C. Air density and humidity of air (includes pressure, tempera-
ture and humidity measurements and uncertainty in
e. Future comparisons of naticnal swndards.
humidity correction)_------------------------------------ ±0.1 The Bureau International des Poids et Mesures
D. Saturation of ion collection_________________________________ ±0. l
(BIPM) is taking responsibility for future inter-
E. Scattering of x rays by air in the chamber__________________ ±0.1 national comparisons of standards of exposure,
F. Inadequacy of plate separation for electron path length_____ ±0.1
G. Photon beam attenuation in air between diaphragm and
collector__________________________________________________ ±0. 2
and is making available to national standardizing
laboratories cavity chambers (transfer instru-

TABLE IIA2. National Exposure Standards

Standard Country Institute and custodian Radiation Type Literature reference

No. range

. kv
Australia___________ Commonwealth X-ray and Radium Lab., 30 to 200_ __ ___ Free-air, parallel plate _______ --
Melbourne, (D. J. Stevens). 50 to 250____________ do ________________________ Henry and Garrett (1960).
2a Canada _____________ National Research Council, Ottawa, (C.
Garrett). 10 to 50 _____________ do ______________________ - _
2b _____ do __ --------- _______ do __ ------------------------------------
3a Bundes-Republik Physikalisch-Technlsche - Bundesanstalt 50 to 400_______ I<'ree-air, cylindrlcaL__________ Rajewsky et al., (1905).
Deutschland. Braunschweig (W. Hilbner). '
3b _____ do ___________________ do __ ------------------------------------ 10 to 120_______ Free-air, parallel plate _________ Thoraeus et al., (1955).
3c _____ do ___________________ do __ ------------------------------------ 5 to 40--------- _____ do _______________________ _
4a France•------------ Laboratolre Central des Industries Electri- 50 to 250------- ____ _do _______________________ _
ques, Paris (P. Olmer). 50 to 250 ____________ do ________________________ Alllsy et al., (1957).
4b _____ do______________ f,aboratoire de DosimHrle1 Ecole Normale
Sup~rieure, Paris (A. All1sy).
4c _____ do ___________________ do ___ ----------- ________ ------------- __ _ 5 to 50--------- Free-air, parsllelplate (special Alllsy and Roux (1961).
design).
5 Italy_ ______________ Instituto Supcrlore di Saniti\, Rome (M. 50 to 300------- Free-air, parallel plate_________ Chiozzotto (1962).
· Chiozzotto). 40 to 250 ____________ do _______________________ _
6a Japan ______________ Electrotechnical Lab., Tokyo (Y. Inoue). Ito, T. and Ito, 0. (1941).
5 to 40______________ do _______________________ _ Naito et al., (1961).
6b _____ do __ ------------ _____ do __ ------------------"-----------------
6c _____ do __ ------------ _____ do __ ------------------------------------ 200 to soo______ 10 atm., parallel plate (under
r,onstruction).
7a Netherlands________ Rotterdamsch Radiotherapeut.lsch Inst. 50 to 250_______ Free-air, parallel plate_________ deWaardet al., (1958); Somer-
Rotterdam (A. Somerwll). wH (1959).
7b _____ do ______________ ---------------------------------------------- 10 to 50 _____________ do _______________________ -
8 New Zealand _______ Dominion X-ray Radium Lab. Christchurch 50 to 300 ____________ do _______________________ _
(0. E. Roth).
9 Poland _____________ G!owny Urzad Miar, Warsaw (Z. Referow- 50to2QO____________ do _______________________ _
ski).
lOa Sweden_____________ Inst. of Radiophysics, Stockholm (R. 50 to 250_______ Free-air, cylindrical___________ Thoraeus (1932, 1954).
Thoracus).
lOb _____ do ___________________ do ___________ --------- _________________ _ 8 to 50______________ do ________________________ Thoraeus {1932, 1954).
11 Union of South National Physical Research Lab., Pretoria 50 to 300 ______ Free-air, parallel plate (under
Africa. (M. L. dn Preez). investigation).
12a U.S.S.R ____________ Institute of D. I. Mendeleev, Leningrad ---------------- Free-air, cylindricaL__________ Balon (1957).
(K. K. Aglintsev).
12h _____ do ______________ ---------------------------------------------- 20 to 60-------- Free-air, parallel plate ________ _ A votina and Ostromukhova
(1961).
250 to 3000 _____ 20 atm., parallel plate ________ _ Aglintsev and Ostromu-
khova (1959, 1961).
13a United Kingdom. __ National Physical Lab. Teddington (G. H. 50 to 300_______ Free-air, parallel plate ________ _ Smith, E. E. (1955) Aston
Aston). and Attix (1956).
13b to 50 ____________ do _______________________ _
_____ do ______ ._·----- .... __ .do._------------------------------------ 605 to
14a United States ______ National Bureau of Standards, Washington, 250 ____________ do ________________________ Wyckoff et al.. (1954); Aston
D.C. (H. 0. Wyckoff). and Attix (1956).
14b _____ do ___________________ do _____________________________ ------- __ 20to100____________ do ________________________ Ritz (1961)).
I
• The French national standard is at Laboratolre Central des Industries Electrlques bnt at present a similar standard at Laboratoire de Doslm~trie Is used
In international comparisons.

31
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 ments) of the type designed by H. 0. Wyckoff, given in subsection IA2. Corrections for attenua-
National Bureau of Standards and of the type tion and scattering in the wall are required, and a
designed by A. Allisy, Laboratoire de Dosimetrie, correction should be made also for the radiation
Institut National D'Hygiene. As an interim scattered into the ionization chamber from the
measure until the BIPM has facilities for compari- stem. This latter correction can be determined
sons, a laboratory may request from the BIPM by bringing up a second "dummy" stem and ob-
a transfer instrument which has been calibrated at serving the increase in ionization current. Figure
another laboratory. It is thought. that eventually IIAl assists in picturing the method of correction
the best way of obtaining comparisons between for the photon attenuation in the wall of a cavity
national laboratories may be for each laboratory chamber. It is assumed that the cavity is small
to provide itself with its own transfer instrument. enough so that the number of ions produced by
All of these could be sent to BIPM at the same electrons generated in the air within it by the
time. The BIPM could then compare these in- photons is negligible, compared with the number
struments and return them to the originating of ions produced by the secondary electrons enter-
laboratories which would then check them for the ing the cavity. The ionization current in the
constancy of their calibrations. cavity initially increases with wall thickness, t,
2. For About 0.5 Mv X Rays to a Few as indicated by the curve AB. This initial por-
Mev Gamma Rays tion is followed by a broad maximum B, and a
decrease, DE. The slope of the latter portion is
a. Types of standards and their correction fac- controlled by the attenuation of the photon beam
tors. The standards which are used for exposure in the wall material. When t corresponds to a
measurement in this energy range are cavity ioni- thickness of wall within the range DE of figure
zation chambers and pressurized-air chambers. IIAl, the photon attenuation correction depends
The wall material of a cavity ionization chamber upon the distance, t', from the outer surface of
is never truly air equivalent; hence a stopping the wall to the mean position at which the elec-
power correction has to be applied in the calcula- trons that produce ionization in the cavity are
tion of exposure rate. Stopping power data are generated. For low-energy photons such elec-
trons are produced very near the inner surface so
TABLE IIA3. Results of comparison of NRC and NBS that t' ~ t and the ionization should be corrected
free-air chambers• for the attenuation in a thickness t. ln such
cases one usually assumes that the attenuation of
kv 60 75 100 150 200 250 the photons for the thickness t can be obtained by
------ ----
NRC exposure rate
extrapolating DE to zero wall thickness. For
NBS exposure rate l. OOls 1.0020 i. ooi. l. OOli 1.001, l. OOlo high energy photons the difference in attenuation
for a thickness t' and a thickness t becomes appre-
•The ratios given in this table differ from those in the quoted paper because ciable. This difference amounts to about 0 ..5
of an additional correction of +0.15 percent for lack of coplanarity of the percent for cobalt-60 gamma rays and 0.2 percent
NBS guard and collector plates. ·
for cesium-137 gamma rays (Wyckoff, 1960. See
TABLE IIA4. Results of indirect comparison of exposure Burlin, 1959, or Roesch, 1958, for formulation).
standards With increase in energy this difference increases.
Uncertainty in the determination of this difference
Ratio of calibration factor de- is one of the principal contributions to the uncer-
termined at stated laboratory
HVL kv Laboratory• to that determined at NBS tainty of measurements in the megavolt region
(mm Cu)
-- and tends to set a practical upper limit to such
Chamber II Chamber IX
----- measurements.
0.083 60 PTB o. 999 .999
Other authors (Tubiana and Dutreix, 1958, and
.089
.103
60 LD .996 ---------------- Barnard et al., 1959) have shown an alternative
80 NPL 1.008 1.004
. 11 75 PTB 1.000 1.000
.197 100 PTB 1.003 1.002
. 20 100 LD
.20 125 NPL
1.001 -------------- ----- D
. 25 125 NPL
---------------- 1.006
1.000 ---------------- B
.50 145 NPL 0. 995 l. 002
. 641 150 PTB . 998 1.004
>-
.65 150 LD 1.000 1-
1.02 180 NPL o. 997 ----------------
1.000 (/)
1.2 200 LD
l. 20, 200 PTB
. 999
.998
------------ z
1.53 250 NPL
0. 998 w
1.008 ---------------- 0
2.11 250 PTB 0. 997 0. 996 Z A
2.19 290 NPL 1.010 1.008
2. 55 250 NPL 0
3.13 250 PTB
1.002
0.996
----------------
o. 995
3. 4 290 NPL 1.000 1.009
3. 95 300 PTB (0. 992)b (0. 998) b
4. 74 350 PTB (0. 994) b (0. 997) b
WALL THICKNESS, t
• LD=Laboratoire de Dosimetrie, France.
NPL=National PhyEical Laboratory, United Kingdom.
PTB = Physikalisch-Technische Bundrsanstalt, Germanv. FIGURE IIAl. The variation in ionization
b Ratio uncertain as extrapolation of NBS data is involved. density with wall thickness.
32
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 TABLE 11A5. Type of standard in the different countries the time of interest. Other quantities such as
the energy fluence or the intensity can be derived
Country Basis for measurement from the TBE with the help of additional meas-
Canada _____________ _ Graphite cavity chamber.
urements. These x-ray beams are bremsstrahlung
Germany ___________ _ Sources of cobalt-60 and cesium-137 of known exposure beams, which are such that at high energies the
~ates, which were measured with NBS transfer
instruments.
ftuence usually varies over the beam cross section.
United Kingdom ___ _ Graphite cavity chamber. Moreover, the fluence rate (intensity) varies
Japan _________ ------- Do.
irregularly with time. The TBE is independent
Poland ______________ _ Graphite cavity chamber based on pressurized air of these variations, and for any irradiation, it
chamber of Institute of D. I. Mendeleev, Lenin-
grad.
Sweden _____________ _ Graphite cavity chamber based on NBS calibration
can be measured accurately in absolute units.
United States _______ _ Graprite cavity chambers. · The recommended unit of TBE is the joule
U.S.S.R ____________ _ Pressurized air chamber.
although the custom has arisen among nuclear
physicists . of expr~ssing it either in ergs (1
erg= 10- 7 1oules) or m Mev (1 Mev= 1.602X10- 13
approach to the wall attenuation correction. If a
value of t is chosen so that the ionization is a joules).
b. Methods of measurement. There are several
~aximum, B of figure IIAl, the proper attenuation
techniques which have been used to determine
is for this entire thickness. The two methods the TBE in absolute units; the most direct of
should give the same results. which is calorimetry (Laughlin and Beattie, 1951).
The attenuation in any portions of the chamber The usefulness of calorimeter measurements of
wall _that are ~early parallel to the radiation beam TBE is limited by low sensitivity and by the
reqmres special consideration. Attix and Ritz need to correct for energy escaping from the
(1957) found tha~ the calibration of large cylindri- calorimeter in the form of neutrons, secondary
cal chambers which they used was best obtained electrons, and scattered and transmitted photons.
when the beam was not parallel to any axis of Counting techniques have also been used where
symmetry of the chamber. the TBE is obtained from knowledge of the
In the pressurized chamber the air is used at a number of photons of each energy in the x-ray
pressure which depends on the plate separation
spectrum. A well-designed pair spectrometer
and the energy of th~ _radiation being measured. (Walker and McDaniel, 1948) provides this
~robably the fa_ctor. givn:ig the largest uncertainty
m such determmations is the correction for lack information with high resolution but its sensi-
of saturation, which may amount to the order of tivity is extremely low. A t~tal absorption
1~ percent in some circumstances (Wyckoff, 1960).
scintillation crystal (Foote and Koch, 1954)
counts the number of incident photons with high
~m~e ~nos~ of the electrons which produce the
iomzation m the collecting region are generated sensitivity, but independent knowledge of the
bef?re, and only a few behind the collecting shape of the photon spectral distribution is
region,. the mean position of origin of electrons required to obtain the TBE.
There are three other experimental methods
p~oducmg ionization in the collecting region is
d1splaced t~nvards th~ entrant diaphragm. There- which have been used to determine the TBE with
fore, the air absorption correction should be less less complicated equipment, but which require
than that for the distance between the center of knowledge of both photon spectral distribution
the collecting region and the diaphragm. This and atomic parameters. The balance converter
decrease has been computed to be 0.8 percent for method (Blocker, Kenney, and Panofsky, 1950)
cobalt-60 gamma rays and 0.4 ptrcent for cesium- depends upon measurement of ionization current
137 gamma rays (Aglintsev and Ostromukhova as a function of the atomic number of the front
1959). . ' wall of an ionization chamber, and requires math-
The only recen~ work allowing comparison be- ematical separation of the ionization into com-
~w~en these two kmds of standard (Wyckoff, 1960)
ponents resulting from Compton interactions and
mdicates ~hat there is agreement to about 2 per- from pair production. The shower method
cent. This paper also includes analysis of the (Blocker, Kenney, and Panofsky, 1950) depends
errors involved in both methods. upon measurement of ionization current as a
b. National standards. Table IIA5 gives the function of front-wall thickness, and requires
type of standar~ use~ in each country for exposure knowledge of electron stopping power ratios.
measurpments m this energy range. The details The copper activation method (Loeffler, Palfrey,
of these c~ambers are indicated in tables IIAG or Tautfest, 1959) depends upon counting the 9.9
IIA7. It is noted that some national laboratories min positron activity induced in copper by high
have both cavity and pressurized air chambers energy x rays, and requires knowledge of the
but only one type is indicated to be the national differential cross section for the Cu63 ('Y n) Cu62
standard. reaction. '
Each of these techniques requires too much
3. For Energies Above a Few Mev expenditure of time and energy for routine use
in the determination of TBE. They have been
a. Quantities and units. It is useful to measure used to calibrate ionization chambers (transfer
the total. beam energy (TBE) of high energy x-ray instruments) of various designs, so that this
bea~s, i.e., the total energy of the photons determination can be made by measuring the
crossmg a plane perpendicular to the beam during ionization collected during an irradiation. Un-
33
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 ~

"""
TABLE IIA6. Details of cavity chambers used by national laboratories

Corrections used

Country Institution Material Purity 1volumeJWall thicknessJ Stopping power Wall absorption References I Compared with I Reference
3 cm• I
2Mv Cs'° Cst37 2Mv Co60 Csu1
x rays ,,rays ,,rays x rays 'l' rays ,,rays

Graphite .•.. ,_______ _ 3.8 mm ...•••.. ,_________ _ 1.003 a , __________ , _________ _

-1-
Canada.----- National Research Coun- 2. 75 1. 025 NBS Cavity To be pub-
cil, Ottawa. Chambers. lished.
Germany ___ _ Physikslisch-Technische Graphited ... . ______ _ 45. 3
Bundesanstalt, Braun- Perspex _____ 1-------- 6.3
---------- ---------
---------- ---------
dom.
schweig.
United King- National Physical Lab-
oratory, Teddington.
Graphite .... ,_______ _ 2 3mm •........ I 1.0lOb
1.003'
1.020 b
1.012' and Marsh,
I
Barnard, Axton NBS Cavity
Chambers.
Wyckoff et
al., 1963.
1959. Barnard
and Marsh,
1959.
l
Japan .....•.. Electrotechnical Labora-1.--do ......... 99. 99
tory, Tokyo.
10.84 Variable from, _________ _
1to16 mm.
1.000 d 1. 027. ,_________ _ 0.753/mm 0.983/mm

In~it~s~w~f
Poland ..... . Glowny Ursad Mier, ... do ......•.. -------- 65. 8 6.1
Sweden ...•..

um"''~"'-''''"""' Rm••• o< oo________

Standards, Washing-
ton, D.C.
f
Radio phys- ... do .........
ics, Stockholm.
--------'--------1
2:99.9 67. 5
4. 3 mm .. -----•----------•----------•----------•----------
0. 77 gms/cm• ... ---------- 1.003. 1. 007. ---------- 1. 032 l.h 1.042 r.h Attix and Ritz,
1957
NBS Free-Air
Chamber•
NBS Calori-
meter
NBS Cavity
Chamber
I Wyckoff,1960

... do ........ 2'.99. 9 1. 13 0. 67 gms1cm• .. ---------- 1. 004 d 1. 008 d ---------- 1.014 I 1.022 l.h
------------------ Wyckoff et
al., 1963

• Values based on Bakker-Segre I values. •From ICRU Report (1959).

b These values are used for the calibration of exposure meters a~ainst graphite cavity chambers. r These values were determined for a beam incident at approximately 45° to the axis of the cylinder.
•In a recent international comparison total correction of 2.0% was used, consisting of +o.3 percent These numbers give the correction for attenuation of the gamma ray beam from the outer wall to the mean
stopping power correction, 1.7 percent 'for wall absorption and lack of electronic equilibrium, the mean position of orgin of the electrons producing the ionization in the cavity.
wall absorption correction, taking due account of the curvature of the cylindrical wall, being about 1.25 • This comparison was done with a small cobalt-60and a small cesium-137 source in which the sea ttering
percent. should be minimal.
• Value obtained using Bakker-Segre I values and the Spencer-Attix modification for chamber size. h A weighted mean of the beam calibration data from two chambers is used.

TABLE IIA7. Pressurized-air chambers

Radiation Pressure Plate

Country Institution range, Mev at mos. separa- Compared with Reference
tion, cm

Japan ... ______ \ Electro Technical Laboratory, 0.2 to 0.8 •..... 1 V.p to 10 ____ _ 40
Tokyo.
C".S.A ________ :-.TBS, Washington, D.C. 0.4 to 1.3 ______ lCp to 44 :\BS cavity chambers... ! Wyckoff (1960).
l:.S.S.R ______ Institute of D. I. Mendeleev, 0.25 to 3.0 _____ Cp to 40 Aglintsev and Ostromukhova
Leningrad. (1959, 1961).

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084

by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 fortunately, the calibrations of most ionization Bragg-Gray cavity ionization theory that this
chambers depend upon the x-ray beam parameters, quantity is directly proportional to the energy
maximum photon energy (Emax), filtration and absorbed in the copper medium, and hence to the
diameter, so that a complete empirical calibration incident energy. The quantameter is filled with
program entails the investigation of effects caused argon (to reduce ion recombination) to a pressure
by many changes in experimental conditions. of 800 mm of Hg (at 20 °C) and with a small
There is one ionization chamber, the quantam- admixture of carbon dioxide, to reduce gas mul-
eter (fig. IIA2) (Wilson, 1957), which does not tiplication. The quantameter was designed for
suffer from these defects. It samples ionization use above 300 Mev, and at these energies its
at several depths in a copper medium so that the calibration is independent of the beam parameters
total ionization current is proportional to the to a good approximation. The quantameter
area under a copper transition curve. (The last response is proportional to the calorimeter response
air cavity is considerably larger, to compensate to the extent that both the average electron
for transmitted energy.) It may be shown by stopping power ratio and the fraction of energy
escaping from the chamber are independent of
Emax· It corrects for escaping photon and electron
energy, but not for energy carried away by
~COPPER
neutrons, which introduces an error of a few
tenths of one percent. Furthermore, its calibra-
m STAINLESS STEEL
tion can be predicted theoretically from knowledge
- INSULATION of the chamber dimensions, the energy required
to produce an ion pair, and the average stopping
power ratio (Komar and Kruglov, 1960). The
theoretically calibrated quantameter has been
used as an absolute device to calibrate other
ionization chambers, and these calibrations have
been experimentally verified over a limited range
of energies.
c. Transfer instruments. Measurements of the
TBE have been used to calibrate the four ioniza-
QUANTAMETER
tion chambers shown in cross section in figure
FIGURE IIA2. Schematic cross section of the quantameter. IIA3, each labelled by the name of the institute

HIGH VOLTAGE
HIGH VOLTAGE

HIGH VOLTAGE

19mm 13mm 6mm

6!4mm
6.4mm
6.4m:T
3.0mm
0.5mm Al
16.Smm

0.4mm
Al

X-RAYS
~

N
Q

ION COLLECTOR

CORNELL ILLINOIS LPTI

I
~ COPPER
J_
~ ALUMINUM ALLOY

m STAINLESS STEEL
NBS
• INSULATION

FIGl'RE IIA:l. Schematic cross sections of the Cornell (Cornell Unirersity), Illinois (Univ. of Illinois), LPTI (Leningrad
I nstitult of Physics and Techrwloyy), and :'.\; l3S ( Unitnl Stutes l\'ational Bureau of Standards) ionization chambers.
35
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 LL 1.04·~~~-~-~~~~~-~~~
z"
J)
Q
:E I-
~ 1. 0 Zk,.--="'+---=---+-
3:::>
0 ~

""'
LL

_,
w
:::>
~
£10•
2 10
!;;

."'
m 8
::; NBS
u

"'
w 0.5 5 10 20

.
m
:E
>:
u FIGURE
t, g/Cm 2 OF ALUMINUM

IIA5. Correction factor of NBS chamber

calibration for a filtration of t g/cm 2 of aluminium
2000
relative to calibration for a filtration of 4.5 g/cm2
of aluminium.
FIGURE IIA4. Calibration of the Cornell, Illinois, LPTI, in the front wall escapes from the chamber edges
and NBS ionization chambers at 20 °C and 760 mm of without producing ionization in the cavity, and
Hg, and of the quantameter filled with argon to a pressure
of 800 mm of Hg at 20 °C. this fraction increases with increasing diameter.
(Loeffler, Palfrey, and Tautfest, 1959; Pruitt and Darnen, 1962; De Wire,
The variation with filtration has been studied
1959; Oakley and Wal•er, 1955; Edwards and Kerst, 1953; Komar and for the NBS chamber by calculating the response
Kruglov, 1960; Fuller and Hayward, 1961; Leiss, Pruitt, and Schrack, 1958;
Pruitt and Darnen, 1962; Pruitt and Pohlit, 1960; Wilson, 1957). to monoenergetic x rays, using the bremstrahlung
data of figure IIA4 along with the results of addi-
where it was first constructed and calibrated. tional measurements with Cs 137 and Co 60 'Y rays
Each of these chambers is of the parallel plate and lower energy x rays (Pruitt and Domen, 1962).
variety, intended for use in x-ray beams of small The results obtained for aluminium filters are
diameter. Three have copper walls, and the shown in figure IIA5, where F, is the ratio of the
fourth (NBS) has walls of an aluminium alloy calibration in a beam filtered by t g/cm 2 of alu-
(nominally 93.4 percent Al, 4.5 percent Cu, 1.5 minium to that in a beam filtered by 4.5 g/cm 2 of
percent Mg, and 0.6 percent Mn). All are air aluminium (the filtration used for the NBS data
filled and open to the atmosphere. Each of these of fig, IIA4). This curve shows that appreciable
four chambers samples the ionization behind a changes in the calibration may be expected only
front wall whose thickness was chosen to reduce if Emax is less than about 20 ~iev.
the variation of the calibration with Emax in the The Cornell, Illinois, and LPTI chambers will
energy range for which it was intended. exhibit the same general type . of variation with
The experimental calibration data of these four beam filtration, a variation which becomes less
chambers have been computed in terms of the significant at high Emax- The qu~ntameter
number of joules of incident energy required to calibration, on the other hand, should be mdepend-
produce one coulomb of ionization charge when ent of filtration because its calibration curve is
measured in air at 20 °C and 760 mm of mercury. flat. This conclusion must break down at some
The uncertainties of these calibrations are in value of Emax<53 Mev (the lowest experimental
the range from 1 to 3 percent and result from a calibration in fig. IIA4) but the point at which
variety of sources, but if these sets of calibrations the calibration factor begins to rise has not yet
are plotted as a function of Emaxi it is possible to been determined.
fit each set with a smooth curve which passes The variation with beam diameter may be ob-
through almost all of the points to within the tained from measurements of the relative response
quoted error. These curves are !')hown in figure of the chamber to a small diameter beam incident
IIA4. In particular, the quantameter calibration at different radii on the chamber face. 1Ieasure-
data ~ai;i be fitted with a straight line of zero slope ments of the response to a small diameter beam
to w1thm the quoted errors, indicating that no have been made with the Illinois, LPTI, and NBS
change with Emax has been detected between 53 chambers, and the results obtained at Emax=85
and 315 Mev. Also, it was found that calculated MeY for the LPTI chamber (Komar and Kruglo,·,
and measured values of the quantameter calibra- 1960) and Emax=90 Mev for the other two
tion are in excellent agreement. (Pruitt and Domen, 1962) are shown in figu~e
The cali?ra~ions of the Cornell, Illinois, LPTI, IIA6 \Vhere r is the radius at which the beam is
and NBS 10mzation chambers depend upon the incident. The change in calibration with beam
filtration and diameter of the x-ray beam. The diameter for a larg~-diameter centered beam is
variation with filtration arises because these obtained from such curves by taking into account
chambers, unlike calorimeters, are sensitive to the variation of beam intensity with radius. The
the photon spectral distribution, as shown by the predicted results for the NBS chamber at several
fact that the relevant curves of figure IIA4 are energies are shown in figure IIA 7 for beams of
not flat. The variation \\·ith diameter occurs be- uniform intensity. The magnitude of the effect
cause a fraction of the incident energy scattered decreases as Emax is increased.
36
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 l.4r-----.------,---.-----.-----. 1.04
E,..••
IJ...o !!!:!.
w 1.03
N
1.2 iii
~ 1.02
~
a::
0 1.01
NBS lJ...
z
Q
t; I.
w
0.8 a::
LPTI a::
0
u 0.99
0 5 10 15 20
D, c~

0 · 6 1<"0---~2f------+4-----l6~---8~--......JIO FIGURE IIA7. Correction factor of NBS

RADIUS, r, cm
chamber calibration in a beam of diameter
D and uni/orm intensi:ty relative to calibration
FIGURE IIA6. Relative response of the Illinois, LPTI, and in a 42 mm diameter x-ray beam.
NBS ionization chambers and the quantameter to a small-
diameter x-ray beam incident at radius r. of measurement, to review the status of inter-
national intercomparisons of measurements, and
The relative response of the quantameter to a to make recommendations regarding (1) preferred
small beam incident at different radii is also shown methods of measurement, (2) possible improve-
in figure IIA6 for Emax=85 Mev (Komar and ments in measurement techniques, (3) specific
Kruglov, 1960). The long flat portion of their areas where further work is needed, and (4)
curve results from the contribution of the periph- encouragement of international comparisons where
eral sensitive volumes which compensate for needed. A more complete discussion of some of
escaping side-scattered radiation. these questions will be found in the report on
Diffe_rent copi~s of. the. same chamber may "Mtasurement of Neutron Flux and Spectra for
show differences m calibration. These arise from Physical and Biological Applications" of the
small variations in dimensions and front wall National Committee on Radiation Protection and
composition, but experience has shown (De Wire, Measurements in the United States (NCRP 1960).
1959; Pruitt, Allisy, Joyet, Pohlit, Tubiana, and It is convenient to classify neutrons roughly
Zupanc_ic, 1~62) that wit~ c_areful quality control according to energy. The boundaries between
the cahbrat10ns of two similar chambers will be energy ranges, which depend upon the nuclear
the same to within 1 percent. More accurate interaction processes involved, are not sharp.
kno~ledge of. these di~erences can always be For convenience we shall use the following ranges:
obtamed by direct experimental comparison with thermal neutrons, below cadmium cut off energy
the original. (approximately 0.5 ev); intermediate neutrons,
cadmium cutoff energy to approximately 10 kev;
B. Measurements of Neutron Flux Density and fast neutrons, above approximately 10 kev.
Neutron Sources

. A neutron radiation field may now be described 1. Measurement of Neutron Flux Density
m terms of two alternative concepts. The first is a. Thermal neutrons
kerma. 10 The second uses neutron flux density,
neutron spectrum, and angular distribution (polari- (1) Low flux densities
zati?n will be ignored in this discm~sion). In this
sect10n ~f _the report the latter approach, which is The absolute measurement of thermal neutron
the tradit10nal approach of neutron physics will flux density is usually carried out by observing the
be e!Ilployed: It should be emphasized that'from reaction rate of an element of known cross section.
the mformat10n. of the type given here, kerma can With precise knowledge of the thermal neutron
be ~alculated if the appropriate neutron cross cross sections, elements such as boron, manganese,
sect10ns are known. and gold may serve as standards. To utilize a
N ~utron flux density information is frequently polyisotopic element such as boron, one must
obtamed through knowledge of the strength of know the isotopic composition accurately. Gold
neutr~:m sources. The strengths of neutron sources, foils are used widely owing to the fact that gold is
especially small sources such as radioactive neu- monoisotopic and has a comparatively large capture
tr?n sources and accelerator targets, are custom- cross section for thermal neutrons (98.8 ± 0.3
arily expressed as total neutron emission rate in barns) (Hughes and Schwartz, 1958). The total
neutrons per second. measured reaction rate is always in part due to
The object of this section is to discuss methods non-thermal neutrons. The reaction rate due to
thermal neutrons alone may be obtained by means
10 For explanation of terms see appendix I of this report. of the cadmium difference method. With gold
37
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 detectors it is not sufficient to assume the "l/v law" For comparison of thermal neutron fluxes, meas-
and use the cadmium difference method to calculate urements of induced activity of a foil irradiated in
the neutron flux density from the thermal neutron the fluxes to be compared are most convenient
cross section of gold; it is necessary to subtract the and reliable. In order to reveal all possible errors,
low but appreciable ( ,. __, 1 percent at 0.025 ev) the induced activity of the foil should be measured
contribution of the resonance cross section. Since in both of the laboratories taking part in the com-
the decay scheme of Au 198 is well known, an abso- parison. Therefore, the half-life of the induced
lute determination of the disintegration rate can activity should be at least a few days. Au 198 ,
be performed not only by the 4 pi-beta-counting which has a half-life of 2.696 days for the induced
method but also by a beta-gamma coincidence activity, is preferable to copper for the purpose
method (Mosburg and Murphey, 1961). The of an intercomparison because of the presence of
disintegration rate of Mn foils also may be meas- two isotopes Cu63 (69.1 percent) and Cu65 (30.9
ured by the 4 pi-beta-gamma coincidence tech- percent), with short half-lives (12.8 hours for Cu64
nique with equivalent accuracy despite the com- and 5.15 min for Cu66 ). For absolute measure-
plexity of the decay scheme (Axton, 1962). For ments the absorption cross section of copper for
absolute measurement of thermal neutron flux thermal neutrons is small and not well enough
density manganese has the advantage of a much known (4.5±0.1 barns for Cu63 and 2.2±0.2
smaller resonance neutron correction. The B 10 barns for Cu65 ) (Hughes and Schwartz, 1958), and
(n,a) reaction is also useful for absolute determina- the decay scheme· of Cu64 is complex.
tion of thermal neutron flux density since the boron Several comparisons of thermal neutron fluxes
cross section is presumably the best known absorp- have been performed between laboratories as
tion cross section (755±2 barns) (Hughes and summarized in table IIBl.
Schwartz, 1958), and it is strictly l/v. The
problem is in the absolute counting of the alpha Recommendations.
particles from the boron disintegrations (De Juren (i) Comparisons of standard neutron flux density
and Rosenwasser, 1954a, 1954b). Recently de- measurements between national laboratories using
tectors consisting of a boron layer on a solid-state the gold foil method or other adequate methods
detector have been developed at Oak Ridge and should be encouraged on a wider basis than has
are available commercially. occurred heretofore.
In absolute determinations of thermal neutron (ii) Work on precise determinations of thermal
flux, the depression of the thermal neutron flux neutron cross section and decay schemes should
density by the detector and the self-shielding effect be encouraged for some isotopes (for example,
in the detector should be considered as described the absorption cross section of manganese, and
in subsection IIB1a(3). the internal conversion coefficient of the 412-kev
Using a "l/v" detector the measurement done gamma rays from Hg 198 following the decay of
in a thermal neutron flux density determines, in Au 198), which are used as standards in thermal-
fact, the neutron density at a given point. The neutron flux-density measurements.
so-called "effective flux" is the product of the (iii) In view of the connection with flux-density
neutron density and a conventional velocity v0 measurements in reactors, investigations should
(2,200 m/sec, corresponding to the most probable be made to obtain more precise descriptions of
velocity for a Maxwellian distribution at a tem- the standard thermal-neutron flux densities.
perature T0 =20.44 °C). If n is the density of
thermal neutrons of various energy, the "effective
flux," nv0 , is different from the actual average flux (2) High.flux densities
density in the Maxwellian distribution at the
temperature T The special conditions in fields with high
neutron flux density, and the strong ionizing radi-
nv= i"' n(v)vdv=(2/-{ir)nvo ~f =l.128nvo ~f· ation associated in most cases, make a direct
absolute measurement of thermal neutron flux
density more difficult and restrict the applicability
Direct measurement of the average flux density of the methods given above. \Accordingly direct
involves larger uncertainty than determination of registration of boron, lithium or fission particles
nvo, in view of the difficulty of obtaining exact by means of ion-chambers and scintillation- or
information about the energy spectrum of a low semi-conducting detectors is not possible. When
thermal neutron flux density in a moderator. The using activated detectors one must take care that
most convenient way is to assume that the spec- the radioisotope produced, if it has a large capture
trum is actually Maxwellian with a small 1/E flux cross section, not be reauced by double capture
density component added to the high energy tail in the case of long exposure to a strong neutron
of the Maxwellian (above around 0.1 ev) and then field. For example Au 198 has a peak cross section
to determine the two parameters involved, namely of 26,000 barns, making double capture probable.
the temperature characteristic of the distribution The purity of the detector material must be very
and the relative contribution of the 1/E compo- good, especially since impurities building long-
nent. One must also specify the extension in lived activities should not be present. In a strong
energy, generally the cut-off energy for a stated density gradient, flux anisotropy effects must be
thickness of cadmium (cf. Westcott et al., 1958). considered.
38

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084

by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 TABLE IIBl. Intercompmisons of thermal neutron flux density measurements
No. 1 Absolute No. 2 Absolute Ratio R• Uncer-
Laboratory No. 1 Laboratory No. 2 method and method and Intercornparison of inter- tainty of IntercompaHson
quoted error quoted error method compari- intercom- reference
son panson
---
Aktiebolaget JENER, Kjeller, Activation of Au Activation of Na! Activation of Au 0.989 ±23 Unpublished,
Atomenergi, Norway (Grime- foils in thermal crystals and h- foils from Sweden 1953.
Stockholm, land). column, absolute scintillation together with
Sweden (Larsson). activity by fJ--y counting of induced Na! crystals at
coincidence activity. Kjeller.
method, ±23.
A ERE. Harwell C.E.A., France Beta counting of Beta activity of Counting of Cu I. 06 ±33 Littler and Lock-
England (Littler, (Cohen). Na24, Mn56 and Mn"byh- foils at Chatmon. ett, 1952.
Lockett). cooo, ±33. counting ±43.
N BS, Washington, Oak Ridge, Tenn., Absolute counting fJ--y coincidence End-window beta 0.98 ±2.53 DeJuren and
D.C., U.S.A. U.S.A. (Klema, of BIO (n,a) re- connting of Au counting of Au Rosen wasser,
(DeJuren). Ritchie). act10n, ±23. foils activated in foils. 1954b.
standard graphite
pile.
N BS, Washington, C.E.A., France _____ do _______________ Beta activity of 4..-counting of 0.968 ±1.53 Murphey and
D.C., U.S.A. (Cohen). Mn" by 4,,.. thick Cu foils. Chin, 1962.
(DeJuren). counting, ±43.
N BS, Washington, Electrotechnical Activation of Au Activation of Au Exchange of 0.986 ±1.53
D.C.,U.S.A. Laboratory, foils, absolute foils in standard activated Au (NBS) Do.
(Mosburg). Tokyo, Japan activity by graphite pile, foils and 0. 994
(Teranishi, h fJ--y coincidence absolute activity h{J-counting (ETL)
Michikawa). method, ±1. 53. by h fJ--y coinci- at NBS and ETL.
deuce method,
±1.93.
N BS, Washington, NPL, Teddington, _____ dO---·----------- Activation of Gold Exchange of o. 983 ----------
D.C., U.S.A. U.K. (Axton). foils. absolute activated Au (0. 987) Do.
(Chin). activity by h fJ--y foils and h fJ- mod
coincidence. counting.

• R- value determined for given arbitrary thermal neutron flux density by laboratory No. 1 each value based on the absolute flux determinatiou of the
value determined for given arbitrary thermal neutron flux density by laboratory No. 2'
particular laboratory.

On the other hand, in high fluxes only a little found suitable (Stephens et al., 1961). If the
detector substance is needed, so that the self- activity is too great for direct counting the sample
shielding and flux depression described in sub- may be put into solution and an aliquot calibrated
section IIB1a(3) become negligible. For a direct by absolute counting, or the dilute solution may
absolute determination of the activity of the be directly irradiated.
sample by counting, it may be preferable to use In many cases indirect methods may be used
an element with a small capture cross section. A to measure a neutron field known at one location
negligible resonance-activation is usually asso- by absolute calibration. The requirements f~r a
ciated with this, so that a Cd-measurement is not single kind of distintegration, on the mono1so-
needed. N a 23 seems to be suitable for accurate topic constitution, and on the purity of the sample
absolute measurements (Littler and Lockett, 1952; material are not so high. Tungsten cables, made
Wolf, 1961). The most recent value for capture of 7 wires, each 0.006 in. diameter, nickel and
cross section, 531±8 mb related to the value manganese-nickel alloys with 10 percent nickel in
of 98.7 barns for Au 197 (Wolf, 1961), differs con- form of wires, 0.02 in. diameter (Abson et al., 1958)
siderably from the Brookhaven compilation value and in form of foils with a thickness of 100 mg/cm 2
for the absorption cross section, 505± 10 mb (Stephens et al., 1961) have been used for fluxes
(Hughes and Schwartz, 1958), but not from the up to 10 15 neutrons/cm 2 sec. Copper foils also
activation cross section of 536 ± 10 mb given in are suitable, selectively counting the Cu 64 annihi-
the same reference. A further independent lation radiation with a coincidence method
determination may be desirable. (Maier-Leibnitz, 1961). The fission process has
Wire made of spectroscopically pure Co 59 from been used by measuring the fission products
Johnson and Matthey, London, with diameters outside the reactor. In one of the experiments the
0.005 in., 0.018 in. and 0.025 in. with a very good rare gaseous fission products from a little probe
uniformity are used successfully at Chalk River were transported outside of the reactor by a gas
(Jervis, 1957) while Euratom uses foils from the current and measured in a gas ion chamber
same producer with an 1/10 mm thickness. For (Koch et al., 1958; Stephenson, 1958). Another
Co 59 a cross section of 38.0±0.5 barns has been method uses a thin sample of fissile material
reported (Wolf, 1961), compared with 36.3±1.5 surrounded by plastic foils. The activity of the
barns from Brookhaven compilation and 38.0 ± fission particles contained in the foils is measured.
0.7 barns from Euratom. Better accuracy in Another possible method is measurement of
the knowledge of the cross section is desirable. changes in isotopic abundance of materials.
Also the purity of the cobalt does not seem to be Accuracies of about one percent in the neutron
. The use of the monoisotopic Sc45 ,
satisfactory. flux density have been obtained by measuring
cross sert10n 28.3 ± 0. 7 barns, has been reported calorimetrically the heat produced in a sample.
(Wolf, 1961). Thermocouples are used for temperature indica-
For use of elements with a larger capture cross tion. With 4 percent B 10 in CaS04 a thermo-
section, the detector must be made very thin for couple voltage of 3 mv corresponding to a _10 °C
a direct counting. Gold samples of 100 and temperature difference and to an absorption of
300 µg/cm 2 , evaporated on plastics have been 0.1 watt was reached in a field of 1012 neutrons/
39

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084

by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 cm 2 sec. Only 2 percent of this heat originated in aluminum supported his calculations within
from the gamma-radiation (Jaques et al., 1953; experimental error.
Abson et al., 1958). An arrangement with one Tittle (1951) applying later values for the medi-
mg U 235 in a sample consisting of an uranium- um constants to Bothe's original data concluded
aluminum sinter-alloy uses the greater energy that better agreement was obtained if Bothe's
of fission (Schilling, 1960). originlll sphtr6 formula were used (corresponds
(3) Flux perturbation (self-shielding and flux to replacing a in the above formula by ~a), and
depression) corrections A, replaced by A1,, the transport mean free path.
Air= A,/(1-P.) where P. is obtained by averaging the
The inner layers of a detecting foil placed in a cosine of the scattering angle over the neutron
uniform neutron field are shielded by the outer scattering angular distribution.
layers (the self-shielding effect); in addition the
foil as a whole behaves as a negative source which
depresses the neutron flux density in the neighbor-
The self-shielding factor; [~-E3 (r) Jis proba-
bly low, since it was calculated for foils of infinite
hood of the foil (the flux depression effect). The radius, but the error is negligible except for foils
observed foil activity must therefore be increased of very small radius (Sola, 1960).
to yield the true neutron flux density in the absence An alternative correction for very thin foils was
of the detector. derived by Skyrme (1943) on the basis of one-
On the basis of first order diffusion theory, speed transport theory,
Bothe (1943) calculated the ratio of qi, the average
flux density in a foil of radius a and thickness t,
to cp0 , the initially unperturbed flux density as: °iP!'fJo=l-r G Ei(r)+A(g)+D 1 -n;J for r<l.

A(g) is a function of g=al:a and is presented

graphically by Skyrme. For Y>""2, A(g)=%.
1
1+[ 2-E3(r)
ca 3L J
~·2a+3L-1
) for a>>A, Skyrme also gives values for D 1 , a function of the
constants of the medium, and indicates that D;
is negligible compared with D 1•
; [~-E3(r)] A comparison between the Bothe and Skyrme
formula and a more accurate solution of the
l
1+ [ 2-E3 (r)
J
(OA6a/>-.,)
for a< <A., transport equation has been published by Ritchie
and Eldridge (1960) (see also NCRP, 1960).
They suggest the following equation for a~ ro.
where r=t'l:~,
l:~ isthe disappearance cross section per -
!T [!-E3(r)]
2
cm 3 of foil,
A, is the scattering mean free path of
the neutrons in the medium.
cp/cpo= [1
1+ 2-E3(r)
J 2 (?a)
L
[3L
AS -K -r'")]
(2a

L is their diffusion length 'given by 1

1 where the functions S(x) = 1-i f -y l -t 2 e-x 1dt and
L=--
.J3i; sl:a 11' Jo
l:a, l:, are the absorption and scattering K(x, 'Y) are presented graphically in figures IIBl and
cross sections of the medium surround- IIB2. The quantity 'Y is the ratio of scattering
ing the foil, to total cross section in the medium.
EJ(r) is the third order exponential Ritchie and Eldridge compared the predictions
of the theories with experimental results by
integral defined by En(x) = f"' e-xu du Klema and Ritchie (1952) and by Thompson
J1 un (1956); the measurements concerned gold and
where n =3 and x=r. indium foils in graphite, where the flux depression
J
The factor ; [~.....- E 3 ( r) represents the self-
effect is in any case small compared with the self-
shielding effect. They concluded that the avail-
able data were insufficient to judge the relative
shielding effect while the remainder of the equation
accounts for the flux depression, accuracy of the theories.
To test the prediction of the Bothe and Skyrme
J
; G-E3(r) may be written as
theories, Sola measured a large number of gold
foils of different radius and thickness in graphite.
The data are reproduced in table IIB2.
_!_ [r-e-'(l-r)-r 2
2T
J"'
T
e-• ds]·
S
A more comprehensive treatment of the flux
perturbation has recently been published by
Dalton and Osborn (1961), and some correc-
The calculation was made for a spherical detec- tions and discussions of their papers by Ritchie
tor and then modified to apply to plane foils. and Dalton (1961). Meister (1958) has used
Bothe's measurements on thin dysprosium foils Ra-Be(a,n) sources with paraffin or graphite
40
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 1.0,~-------------------~
moderators and indium foil detectors, and has
developed a theory to compare with his experi-
ment. The method is based on the solution of the
transport equation for specific cases by means of a
digital computer; nonisotropic neutron scattering
in the medium, and scattering in the foil are per-
mitted, all dimensions of the detector may be
varied, and the neutron flux density may be
mapped at points inside and outside the detector. S(x)
Scattering in the detector is shown to be unim-
portant, but nonisotropic scattering in the medium
may involve errror. For example, differences of
3 percent are obtained for 5 mil (127µm) gold
foils in water, depending on the value taken for
""ji, the average cosine of the scattering angle.
Typical results are shown in figures IIB3 to IIB6
for coin- and wire-shaped detectors in water and
graphite. These plots are valid provided that

i.0::;~~::;10.0 cm- 1 and~~<<~~-

The value for ""ji was taken as zero for these

plots, so the results may be up to 3 percent low
for thick foils or wires in water. Examples of flux x
density mapping inside and outside detector foils
are reproduced in figures IIB7 and IIB8. They FIGURE IIBl. The Skyrme function S(x) = 1- (4/1r)
illustrate the undesirability of attempting to sep-
arate the perturbation into separate self-shielding
Jo 1
e-•'./1-t2dt. (Ritchie and Elridge, 1960) and an
and flux depression effects. approximate function, .~•.
Measurements of flux depression and self-
shielding for gold foils of 0.5 cm to 3 cm diameter in
.14
---- ---
,,.....-- -----
TAB LE UB2. Flux perturbation (flux depression plus self
shielding) for circular gold foils in graphite
/
Perturbation factor for various foil thicknesses /
µm

in.
'"- -ro'- - - - -
-
.001 .oo~
I%.,
I .003
I"''
.004
127

.005
254

.010
481

. 015
508

.020
/
/
/
/

/,.--------
.-----
______ :_:~-~~-----------------

Foll radius ~~ in. (1.27 cm) .10

0. 945 0. 916 0.892 0.870 0.850 o. 775 0. 712 0.656

/ /
Measµred• ------------
Bothe .. _______________
Skyrme _______________
. 965 . 931 . 907 .883 . 860
. 958 .926 .896 .868 .843
. 773
. 727
. 708
.624
.647
. 514
I /
Ritchie and Eldridge __ .950 . 914 .880 . 851 .825 . 718 . 639 . 575 I /
Dalton and Osborn. __ .934 . 894 .862 .834 . 811 . 754 ------ ------ +l
Foil radius ~ in. (0.635 cm) I!
Measured• ____________ o. 951
Bothe .. _______________ .968
o. 925 o. 905
.936 . 915
0.883 0.864 0. 788
.893 .872 . 792
o. 733
. 731
0.683
.675
1/
Skyrme _______________ . 962 . 933 . 907 .883 .862 . 763 . 678 . 58 7
Ritchie and Eldridge __ . 958 . 927 .899 . 875 . 852 . 761 .692 .634
Dalton and Osborn ___ .950 . 912 .883 .859 .838 . 781 ------ ------
Foil radius ~in. (0.318 cm)

Measured• ____________ O. 957 O. 931 0. 910 0. 890 0. 872 O. 799 O. 747 O. 704
Bothe .. _______________ .969 .938 .917 .898 .876 .798 .740 .681
Skyrme _______________ .964 .936 .912 .890 .870 . 780 . 701 .620
Ritchie and Eldridge__ . 962 . 934 . 909 . 888 . 868 . 786 . 722 . 668
Dalton and Osborn ___ . 960 . 928 . 903 . 881 . 862 . 804 ------ _____ _
1 m
Foil radius ~· in. (0.159 cm)

Measured•------------
Bothe .. _______________ o. 963 o. 936 o. 914 0.895 0. 878 0.811 0. 762 o. 726 I I
. 970 .939 . 919 .898 . 878 .802 . 744 .689
10 15 20 25
Skyrme_ -------· ------ .966 . 937 . 913 .891 872 . 784 . 708 .628 0 5
Ritchie and Eldridge __ . 968
Dalton and Osborn ___ .966
. 947 . 928 . 911 .896 . S34 . 784 . 740 x-
. 938 . 914 .893 .876 . 820 ------ ------
FIGURE IIB2. The transport correction term, K(x,-y),
•Measurements are by Sola (1960). The total standard deviations are less versus x.
than 2 percent .
.. Modified by Tittle. (Ritchie and Eldridge, 1960).

41
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 e
0. 0.91.------'-~

,.
px I~ •2.0

l~o 4.0
~ 0.8
6.0
8.0

0.7
0.11 I I I p-... ..... =-=t-....... =-IQ.V

06
· 0!<---------=o.°"0"""4--~--=o"".o""e--~---0='."'12_ __, 0·6'0\,---'---...,0""'0"'2---'---=o.-!:0"""4---'---o=-.±os-=--__.---=oc:.o"'e:-----'
t x r~ txr~
FIGURE IIB3.
The average normalized flux density in a FIGURE IIB4. The average normalized flux density in a coin-shaped
coin-shaped detector in graphite for various radii p and detector in water for various radii p and thickness t.
thickness t.
(Dalton and Osborn, 1961).
(Dalton and Osborn, 1961).

0.91 ........ ~0--.........._ /

-e- -e-
1~ "
l:S-
2.0
5.0

0.71--------t--------+------~--1
" 0 .......
~ 10:0
60
17.0

05
· o OJ 0. 2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6~-------~---------::::"::"--------~
0 0.1 0.2 0.3
D
p x ~. :L.
D
p
FIGURE IIB5. The average normalized flux density in a wire-shaped detector FIGURE IIB6. The average normalized flux density in a wire-shaped detector
in water for various lengths L and radii p. in graphite for various radii p and lengths L.
(Dalton and Osborn, 1961).
(Dalton and Osborn, 1961).
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 ..,
'Q
I/)
.
w
J:

~
";'
!!!
x
<(
...J 2.-----~---,-.,.--~------=--=-or--
<(
a::
1- Q."!:-~----,~~-:::~~-;';;,---~7;-~--;::
z 0 Q4 0.S L2 1.6 2.0
w AXIAL POSITION Z, cm
u
FIGURE IIB8. A plot of the normalized flux
densities along the central axis outside of a
set of gold coin-shaped detectors of radius R
in water, thickness of 5 mils (127 µm).
(Dalton and Osborn, 1961).

in gold foils used to calibrate the NBS standard

thermal neutron flux, Mosburg (1961) used an
FIGURE IIB7 a and b. A map of the normalized flux integration method to calculate the average activ-
density within a coin-shaped gold detector in water. ity in a foil in a Maxwellian spectrum of neutrons.
{a) Radius of 1.5 cm and thlcknessof 5 mils (127 µm). (Dalton and He showed that a value of 1.08 u0 was appropriate
Osborn, 1961). (b) R•dius of 1.0 cm and thickness of 5 mils (127
11m). (Dalton and Osborn, 1961). for the range of thickness used (r ~.09). With
thicker foils this effective cross section would
water have been made recently by Zobel (1961) decrease as 'spectral hardening occurred within
to test the various theories discussed here. Best the foil.
agreement is obtained for the Ritchie and Eld- (5) Cadmium absorbers
ridge calculation and for the Dalton and Osborn
calculation with isotropic scattering. Data for Thermal-neutron flux-density measurements
the case of 2-cm diameter foils is shown in figure are normally carried out in the presence of a non-
IIB9. More comprehensive experimental data thermal component of flux which is allowed for by
are required to judge the recent calculations of cadmium difference experiments. The neutron
flux perturbation by detector foils by Ritchie and flux density below the effectiv~ cadmium c~t-.off
Eldridge (1960) and Dalton and Osborn (1961). energy is obtained ~y subtra?t10n of ~he a.ct1v1ty
obtained with the foil encased ma certam thickness
(4) Choice of effective disappearance cross section of cadmium. The thickness of the cadmium cover
should be stated because it affects the effective
In the case where flux depression is small, an cadmium cut-off energy. Effective cut-off energies
approximate treatment may be used to evaluate both for beam and for isotropic neutron fields have
self-shielding. A one-speed treatment is used been published by Westcott et al., (1958), and
where a careful choice must be made for the absorp- by Hickman and Long (1~6p.
tion cross section for use in evaluating r . . An ap- With non-1/v det&ctors, it is necessary to apply
proximate procedure is to use the cross section a correction factor, to the cadmium-covered
applicable to the mean velocity vof the Maxwellian activity for absorption of the r~sonance ~eutrons
spectrum, viz., (./i/2)u0 where u0 at room tem- in the cadmium cover. This correct10n can
perature is the customarily tabulated 2,200 m/sec be obtained either from computation of the
cross section. However, as has been pointed out absorption of resonance neutrons in the cadmium
(Hanna, 1961; Zahn, 1937), a thin 1/v detector or from measurement of the attenuation of
reduces a normally incident Maxwellian flux by resonance neutrons in a further equal thickness
the factor (1-(-[ir/2)t~r;), but reduces the re- of cadmium (Axton, 1962).
sponse of a thin 1/v detector to this flux by (1 If the neutron spectrum is assumed to take
- (2/Vi) t~r;), where t is thickness in cm and ~r; is the form of a Maxwellian distribution at tem-
in cm- 1 . It might be expected, therefore, that in perature T0 °Kelvin plus a non-thermal compo-
calculating the flux perturbation correction factor nent proportional to dEJE which is cut off sharply
for an isotropic Maxwellian neutron distribution, near 5kT, the cadmium ratio may be written
a cross section value of (-[ir/2)u0 should be used
for calculating the flux depression, and one of F +G1~
(2/Vi)u0 for the activation depression. /T
r-y- g
The last two values are applicable only for the
case of a very thin detector, and will reduce as the Rc.(!) ( T, ) I (!Bl)
lower energy neutrons are preferentially absorbed
and spectral hardening occurs. f(o)G1 ~-W +K(o)
For example, in calculating self-shielding effects (Walker et al., 1900)
43
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 THICKNESS (µml 2-cm- DIA. FOIL
50 100 150 200 250

DALTON a OSBORN, p. •0.3

.7

SKYRME

.5

0 2 3 4 5 6 3 7
THICKNESS (INCHES x 10 )

FIGURE IIB9. Flux perturbation (flux depression and self-shielding) for gold
foils in water.
(Zobel, 1961).

where t is the thickness of the foil, If f(o) is small so that j(2o) =.f(o) one may write
o is the thickness of the cadmium cover,
Rcd(o) is the ratio of the activity produced .f2(o) Gt ( ~-W)+ l/K(2o)
in a bare foil to that produced in a foil g - j(t) (IB2)
covered with cadmium of thickness o,
F is the thermal neutron flux perturbation
f(o)G1 (~-w)+1/K(o)
factor, where j(t) is the measured ratio of activities for a
r is the non-thermal flux parameter which foil of thickness t. j(o) may then be obtained from
is a measure of the relative importance the equation if all the other quantities are known.
of the dE/E component of the spectrum, G1 may be obtained from the equations of Roe
g and s0 are functions of the resonance (1954). Alternatively, G1 may be obtained from
integral, and are a measure of the de- cadmium ratio measurements.
parture of the absorber cross section from Red (o) is measured for very thin foil (Gt= 1) and
l/v law in the thermal and non-thermal
energy regions, respectively. They are eq (IBI) is solved for r. / T using for j(o) its
tabulated by Westcott (1960), 1To
TV is a small correction which arises when approximate valuej(t). Gt may then be evaluated
u is not proportional to gu0v0 /v in the from eq (IB 1) for a foil of thickness t and used
energy region between the dE/E cut-off in eq (IB2) to obtain a better value for j(o).
and the cadmium cut-off energies, Eventually all the quantities involved are obtained
by successive approximation. Martin (1955) ob-
K(o)=4.JEo/7rEcd(o) where Ecd(o) is the effec- tained a value of 1.02 for (l/j(t)) for a gold foil.
tive cut-off energy and E 0 =kT0 ,
Gt represents the attenuation due to self- (6) Calculation of f(o)
shielding in a foil of thickness t of the reso- j(o) is given approximately by the equation
nance neutrons,
f(o) represents the attenuation in a cadmium f(o) E 3 (a)-E 3 (a+b) (IB 3)
cover of thickness oof the resonance neutrons. !-E3 (a)
The correction factor F'cd(o) is given by where a=t1:Fot1 and b=o1:cd·
1:Fon is the effective foil absorption cross section at
Gt ~-1-1/K(o) the effective resonance energy. 1:cd is usually
FCd(o)= g taken as the effective cadmium cross section for
f(o)Gt (~-W )+1/K(o) the capture of neutrons at the effective resonance
energy. Some possible uncertainties are: (1) the
An approximate value Fcd(o) may be obtained choice of the effective energy (does this depend on
experimentally as follows, from measurements of foil thicknesses?); (2) the evaluation of the effec-
foil activity obtained with various thicknesses of tive capture cross section for cadmium at this
cadmium. Note that Fcd(o) is not obtained di- energy; (3) ·whether or not 1:cd should include a
rectly from this measurement. proportion of the scattering cross section (does
44
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 this proportion vary with t?); (4) whether or not neutron reaction cross section extending from
K depends on foil thickness. For very small a eq thermal neutron energies into the kilovolt neutron
(IB3) becomesj(ll)=E2 (b) as suggested by Walker energy region. Both reactions produce charged
et al., (1960). For very large a it becomes j(ll) particles which are readily detectable, and the
=2E3 (b) which is the expression suggested by boron reaction is followed by a 0.48 Mev gamma
Tittle (1951). If bis small the equation becomes ray from an excited state of Li7 in 94 percent of
the cases which also may be detected. The flat-
j(ll)=l-2b 1-E2(a). ness of response of detectors made of 10 g/cm 2
1-2E3 (a) thickness of natural lithium, natural boron, Li 6
To satisfy experi:n:ent~l .results (e.g., ~artin and B 10 is shown in figure IIB10. As can be seen
1955) with this equation, it is nece~sary to mch~de from the figure, the detection efficiency with
some scattering in ~Cd· A theoretical calculation separated isotopes is flat to considerably higher
and further experimental resu~ts are _needed to d~­ neutron energies than with the natural elements.
termine Fed for various cadmmm thicknesses 1 fo~l The response of B 10 and Li 6 detectors are essentially
thicknesses, materials and neutron spectral distri- flat to 1 kev and the B 10 detector is only down
butions. 3.4 percent in response at 10 kev. These detectors
b. Intermediate energy neutrons are well suited to low flux density neutron meas-
urements because they tend to have high
(1) Lowfiuxdensities.
efficiencies.
A simple approach to the measurement of Work has been done on suitable detectors con-
neutron flux density is by use of a. detector whose taining boron and lithium because they are also
response is independent of energy. If the de- useful as detectors for intermediate energy neutron
tector contains a material whose neutron cross time-of-flight systems where their high efficiency
section is sufficiently large so that all neutrons is very desirable. Unfortunately, most of these
interact in the detector, then the efficiency is flat detectors are also efficient detectors of gamma
with energy since the probability o~ a neutron rays, which are invariably present in neutron
interaction is 100 percent. The efficiency of the radiation fields.
detector however, is in general less than 100 per- A new approach with the same disadva~tag.e of
cent sin~e not every interaction produces an event sensitivity to gamma rays may be carn~d. out
which is finally recorded. As long as the final using a mixture of rare earths (gadohmum,
detection probability is independent of the energy europium, samarium) placed at the center of a
of the neutron causing the event, the detector's big liquid scintillator tank. Such a detector
response is flat. An advantage o! this method is should be black in the region of 10 kev because
that it does not depend upon precise knowledge of of the overlapping of extremely numerous neutron
a neutron cross section, but requires only that the resonance levels.
neutron cross section be large enough. These
detectors are called "black" detectors since they (a) Indirect detection method
absorb all neutrons incident upon them. The
nuclear reactions commonly used for black detec- In this method a sample of B 10 is placed in the
tors are the B 10 (n,a)Li7 and the Li 6 (n,a)H 3 reac- neutron beam. Gamma rays following the re~c­
tions. Both of these reactions have a large tions of neutrons with the B 10 are observed with

~ 100
UJ
(,)
a:
UJ
a.. 80
>-"
~
_J
iii 60
<(
ID
0
a:
a..
z 4
2
~
(,)
<(
UJ 20
a:
Li

.Qt 0.1 l.O 10 I 105

NEUTRON ENERGY, tv Piaure 11-1-10

FIGURE IIBlO. Response of a 10 gram-cm-2 "black" detector as a .function of energy.

45
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 one or more shielded N aI crystals. By setting a relative measurements. It is always possible to
differential pulse height selector or "window" on restrict the methods to relative measurements and
the 0.48 Mev gamma ray peak, other gamma rays to calibrate the detector using absolute measure-
can be discriminated against to some degree. ment in a thermal neutron flux or with a mono-
Bollinger et al., (1957), report an estimated error energetic source of neutrons (for example, a
of 0.5 percent but do not state the efficiency of the Sb-Be (y,n) neutron source).
dete.ctor. Rae and Bowey (1953) reported an A convenient solution in some cases is to de-
efficiency of 2.6 percent using a sample of amor- termine the flux integrated over a broad energy
phous B' 0 in a thin-walled aluminium cylinder 3 in. spectrum and to know simultaneously the shape
diameter by o~ in. deep viewed by two 1 % in. of the energy spectrum. For example, the flux
diameter by 2 in. deep N aI scintillation crystals. density may be measured for all neutrons with an
The boron plate may be placed at an angle to the energy above the cadmium cut-off. The spectral
incident neutron beam to increase its effective shape is calculated from the configuration of the
thickness without loss of detection efficiency, and investigated medium (reactor lattice, etc.), or it is
the efficiency may be improved by increasing the measured with the help of an open beam going
~olid angle for detection of gamma rays. The outside of the medium. The measurements on an
instrument may be calibrated by placing it in a open beam are done on low fluxes and these meas-
known thermal neutron flux density. urements are relatively easy.
If one wishes specifically to do measurements at
(b) Direct detection method a location where the flux density is high, it is neces-
sary to distinguish between two cases, according
A number of methods have been developed for to the energy range of neutrons: (a) Neutron
placing the lithium or boron directly in a scintil- energy below several kev: corresponding roughly
lator. With these detectors efficiencies approiich- to the domain where neutron resonance detectors
ing 100 percent may be achieved at low neutron are useful. (b) Neutron energy between 1 and 50
energies. However, the efficiency does not remain kev: In this domain the energy is too low for the
constant. to as hig? e!lergies as with a pure sample. techniques available for fast neutrons and gener-
Many kinds of scintillators have been used: inor- ally is too high for the resonance detectors.
ganic crystals such as Li 6I (Eu) (Schenck, 1953;
Murray, 1958); boron-loaded liquids (Bollinger and (a) Neutron energy below several kev
Thomas, 1957); cerium-activated B 10-loaded scin-
tillating glass (Bollinger et al., 1959), and cerium- Detectors are generally made from thin sheets
activated Li 6-loaded scintillating glass (Firk et al., on a metal or plastic (mylar or polystyrene) back-
1961). All of these detectors respond to gamma ing or even from thin foils without backing. The
rays; however, the lithium-loaded scintillators can detector is thin enough (about 100 µg/cm 2) to re-
discriminate against moderate fields of low energy duce the neutron self-shielding corrections.
gamma rays (around 10 mR/hr) because of the The activity is measured following an irradia-
4.78 _Mev of energy release in the Li 6 (n, a)H 3 tion of the detector covered by cadmium. If
react10n. The boron-loaded liquid scintillator desired, absolute measurements of the activity
assembly is efficient, but rather complex and re- can be made. However, an absolute value of the
q~ires considerable care in operation. The flux density does not result from such a measure-
LiI(Eu) crystals have a rather slow decay time ment, unless the activation cross section in the
(1.2 µsec), . require careful mounting, and the resonance spectrum is well known. If the acti-
crystal~ available are rather small. Their energy vation cross section is not accurately known, only
resolut10n (the thermal neutron resolution is relative measurements can be made.
about 6-8 percent in pulse height) is improved by If one is trying to correlate the result of the
operati<;in _at liquid nitrogen temperatures. The measurement with fairly well defined neutron
glass scintillators are faster (decay time about 100 energy, useful nuclei am those having a single first
ns for Li 6 loading). While B 10-loaded glasses have resonance giving the main contribution (In, 1.46
a factor of 4.5 in their favor because of the larger ev; Au, 4.8 ev.; Co, 13 ev; Mn, 330 ev; Na, 2 kev).
cross section, the Li 6-loaded glasses have the ad- It is also conceivable to restrict the measure-
vantages of better time resolution, better gamma- ments to the "effective integral" over .all the inter-
ray discrimination, ease of manufacture and better mediate neutron resonances.
p1;1- lse-he_ight. resolution. The a-partidle and the
Li r~coil with a total kinetic energy of 2.3 Mev
1
(b) Neutron energy beticeen 1 and 50 kev
contnb~te only 250 kev of equivalent electron
en~rgy in t~e boron glass. Either detector re-
A satisfactory solution does not exist today.
qmres only simple associated electronics. Rough estimates only are feasible. For example, a
foil detector may be covered with a sheet of 2
g/cm 2 of B' 0 , in order to perform an integral meas-
(2) High flux densities urement in the energy domain under study without
any contributions from the neutrons below 1 kev.
The in~e:me~iat~ neutron ~nergy range at high A thick iron shield provides a way to generate
flux densities 1s difficult to investigate, even for an "energy gate" around the mean value 25 kev

46
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 (the iron cross section is very low just at this sources (see fig. IIBll), unfortunately no careful
energy). If a black B 10 detector (viewed by a calibration with methods such as the counter
N al (Tl) crystal) is placed behind this shielding, telescope and associated particle counting men-
its output will be largely due to neutrons of about tioned above has yet been carried out. The
25 kev. calibrations with radioactive neutron sources are
Activation of medium-weight nuclei in the not too meaningful because the neutrons are
energy domain under study gives low counting spread through a wide range of energies and
rates and is therefore difficult to use. because of large uncertainties in the number of
New techniques are certainly needed to improve neutrons below 1 Mev (De Pangher, 1959; Hess,
measurement of intermediate energy neutrons. 1957). The precision long counter is provided
with a 1 gram Pu239-Be (a,n) source of neutron
c. Fast neutrons emission rate about 105 neutrons/sec for day to
day checks on sensitivity. To maintain calibra-
(1) Low flux densities tion, it is essential that the emission rate of this
source not change with time. In the future
Relatively accurate methods of absolute fast perhaps an Am241-Be (a,n) source should be
neutron flux density measurement do not exist, used for monitoring since most Pu 239-Be (a,n)
except for proton-recoil counters and telescopes sources have significant neutron emission growth
and associated particle counting, which in general rates which depend upon the purity of the
requires great care in use and well-defined sources plutonium.
or beams (see NCRP, 1960; Johnson, 1960). Information on the energy response of long
Associated particle counting can be used only with counters is presented in figure IIBll. The curve
certain suitable reactions such as H 2 (d,n)He3 and is based on data from Harwell (Allen and Ferguson,
H 3 (d,n)He 4 with an ion accelerator, and requires 1957) for one long counter and from Los Alamos
great care in beam line-up and in the prevention (Bame, et al., 1957) for another long counter with
of observation of neutrons from extraneous accelerators. The points shown in figure IIBll
sources, such as the accelerator itself and dia- for radioactive neutron sources are shown at
phragms for the charged particle beam (when calculated values of the average energy for the
accelerating deuterons, any matter struck by the sources based on measurements by modera-
beam is a potential source of H 2 (d,n)He 3 neutrons). tion methods of determining neutron energy
A relative or transfer instrument of wide (DePangher, 1959). Calibration over a wide range
applicability is the "long counter" of Hanson of energies requires an accelerator with energies
and McKibben (1947). In spite of the large size above 10 Mev such as the tandem accelerator
of this detector (length and diameter about 40 cm), or variable energy cyclotron. This energy range
the long counter is used widely because of its high should extend from around 10 kev, to overlap
efficiency for fast-neutron detection, its rather the energy range of the "black" detector to
uniform energy response and its excellent dis- about 20 Mev to determine the useful upper
crimination against gamma radiation. Recently energy limit for the detector.
DePangher (1961) has proposed a revision of A careful calibration at several energies in
this instrument called the "precision long counter" several laboratories seems very desirable. Lab-
of improved mechanical design and excellent oratories contemplating construction of a long
reproducibility for neutron sensitivity (better counter should consider this standard design,
than one percent). since interlaboratory comparisons will be
Although this instrument has been calibrated facilitated and one may expect to benefit from
absolutely versus energy with radioactive neutron· the energy calibrations recommended here. A
.

M I I
"
-
4

-- A>B

." "" Ro-e. • .

,..._
-- -
FISSION
PoBt
8

I
-LOS ALAMOS DATA A'4/:NE 1.5 Mtv
-HARWELL DATA BELOW 1.5 Mt v
•RESPONSE OF DE P1<NGHER LONG COUNTER
USING CALCULATEr AVERAGE ENEFlllES
I

0
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
E•NEUTRON ENERGY (Mev) (OR ti
FIGURE IIB11. Energy response of "long counters.n
The ordinate is the relative count rate for a given incident i.~utron flux density.

47
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 Aluminum Jacket

Thermal Neutron Shield

Brass
BF3 Tube
I Type BAssembly No. 11

Aluminum liner
for BF3 Tube

Aluminum Liner
for Source Holder
Outer Polyethylene Aluminum Sleeve
Shield
FIGURE IIB12. Precision long counter of DePangher (1961).
The length and diameter are each about 40 cm.

schematic diagram of the counter is shown in between distance, c, in cm from the front face to
figure IIB12. Design drawings may be obtained the effective center is given approximately by
by writing to W. C. Roesch, Hanford Laboratories, the relation c=7.8+ 1.lE where Eis the neutron
Richland, Washington, U.S.A. energy in Mev.
The main features of the new counter compared Recent developments in solid state counters
to the Hanson-McKibben design are: indicate that these devices will be of increasing
(a) use of polyethylene as the moderating importance in fast neutron flux density measure-
material, ment. Solid state detectors have been applied
(b) a larger diameter BF3 tube (1}~ inches), to associated particle counting (Cedarlund et al.,
(c) a machineable thermal neutron shield of 1961). Reactions in the silicon of the detector
low-molecular weight polyethylene impreg- such as Si(n,p) and Si(n,a) present interesting
nated with 5.0 percent boron, possibilities, and a proton recoil counter had been
(d) a retractable one-gram Pu-Be (a,n) neutron reported (Dearnaley and Whitehead, 1961).
source for the calibration of the BF3 (2) High flux densities
counter,
(e) extensive use of aluminium alloy for the For intense fast neutron flux densities the meas-
confinement of the polyethylene, urement of total neutron flux density is inseparable
(f) a larger cadmium shield on the front of the from the measurement of spectrum. Many
counter, and a rear cadmium shield instead methods which are suitable in low fluxes or in
of a rear B2 0 3 shield, collimated beams become impossible at high
(g) an annular region instead of eight holes cut fluxes. Threshold detectors, which are too in-
out of the central core to provide the sensitive at low fluxes, provide a satisfactory
augmentation of. low energy neutron method to obtain both flux density and spec-
response. trum in the same measurement and they are
To a good approximation the long counter acts unaffected by pulsing (see Trice, 1957; Hurst
as a point detector, with the effective center deeper et al., 1956; Delattre, 1961). Activation detectors
in the counter the higher the neutron energy. are generally used for absolute flux density meas-
For the DePangher long counter the relation urements, the activity being counted after the
48
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 irradiation. Fission counters are used chiefly for methods require the use of electronic computers
relative measurements, since the amount of fission for efficient fast neutron spectrum determination.
material permissible in the counter is extremely A list of threshold detectors with approximate
small at high fluxes. Threshold detectors have threshold energies is given in table IIB3. For
two disadvantages: they have low resolution, and cross section values, the reader is referred to the
they require precise knowledge of the neutron compilations by the various cross section com-
cross sections of the detectors used. These cross mittees such as BNL-325 and supplements
sections are not sufficiently well known (Moteff (Hughes and Schwartz, 1958), and the Euratom
and Beever, 1960), frequent discrepancies in the report (Liskien and Paulsen, 1961).
mean cross sections of greater than 10 percent
being reported. Fission cross sections are known 2. Neutron Sources
to somewhat better than 10 percent.
Of ten the data is analyzed by the assumption a. Status of neutron source calibrations and
of a constant cross section above threshold. Poly- intercomparisons. Desirable features of a neutron
nomial expansion methods which can take advan- source which is to serve as a standard include:
tage of detailed knowledge of the cross sections neutron emission rate independent of time,
above threshold have been given by Trice (1957), reproducible manufacture and neutron emis-
Hartmann (1957), and Uthe (1957). These sion rate,
TABLE IIB3. Threshold detectors
monoenergetic neutrons of known energy,
negligible gamma-ray output,
Approx. high neutron emission rate,
Detector Reaction Product Half-life threshold
energy•
transportable,
small size,
Mev negligible self absorption and scattering of
Npm __________________ (n,f) Many Many 0.2
.45
neutrons,
~n~::1--~================= -~~d1::~------ ~~::;:
4.5 hr
2.6 min .60 isotropic emission of neutrons, and
U"'-------------------- (n,f) Many Many .7
ease of preparation.
Th"'------------------- ___ do_______ do do 1. 3 No source has all of these features, but several,
~·(::::::::::::::::::: _'.~;fj_______ b~..
14.3 days 1. 7
71.3 days I. 7 which have been used as standards or which offer
P"--------------------- ___ do........ Si•t 2.6 hr 1.8 outstanding promise as source standards, are
Fe"--------------------
Al"--------------------
___ do _______
___ do _______
Mn"
Mg"
290 days
IOmin
1.8
2.6
given in table IIB4.
Si"-_.----------------- ___ do _______ Al" 2.2imin 4.4 The most desirable neutron standard source
Fe"-------------------- ___ do_______ Mn" 2.6 hr 5.0 would have a known emission rate of neutrons of
Mg"------------------- ___ do _______ Na" I.>.06 hr
15.06 hr
6.3
6.5
definite and variable energy. Accelerators furnish
g~~-~:::::::::::::::::: _'.~ii~~----- g~: lOmin
20.5 min
11. 4
20
monoenergetic neutrons of a wide range when use
is made of the T(p, n)He3 , D(d, n)He 3, and
*These threshold values will be usually lower than the "effective" threshold
T(d, n)He4 reactions. For particular applications
To evaluate the "effective" threshold in a given experiment, it is suggested associated with reactor uses, a fission neutron
that the crose section curve be used together with any spectral information
available. spectrum is desirable. Such a spectrum is emitted
TABLE IIB4. Characteristics of neutron sources important for standardization

Source Chief advantages Chief disadvantages Important data

Ra"'-Be(a,n) _________________ Large neutron yield, small, most Too much gamma radiation, unknown spec- T}i=1622yr, ""l.5XlO'n/sec curie.
widely measured standard source. trum, not reproducible except for Ra-BeF ,,
strength changes with time due to Po
growth.
Pu"'-Be(a.n)__________________ Few gamma rays, Jong half-life________ Not monoenergetic, significant self.,.bsorp- T}i=24,400yr"" 1.5XlO'n/sec curie.
tion, large bulk, neutron emission grows
with time if Pu"' is not pure.
Am"1-Be(a,n) ________________ Small, few gamma rays__ ______________ Significant self.,.bsorptlon, not monoener- T}i=458y,2.0X10'n/sec curie.
getlc.
Ra"'-Be('Y.n)_ ---------------- Reproducible, isotropic---------------- Too many gamma rays, polyenergetic spec- T}i=1622yr,1.2X10'n/sec curie.
trum below 0.7 Mev. lower neutron yield
than the (a,n) source.
Pu"'(Spontaneous fission)___ Long half-life (6600 yr) fission spec- Expensive, low neutron yield_______________ ""7XlO'n/sec g.
trum, few gamma rays.
Cm"'(Spontaneous fission) ____ Fission spectrum, low mass ___________ Expensive, difficult to obtain---------------- T}i=18.4yr,1XlO'n/sec g.
Li'(p,n)----------------------- Monoenergetic neutrons, few gamma Requires accelerator, knowledge of flux is ""10'n/microcoulomb at 2 Mev; thresh-
rays. not too good, anisotropic, not transport- old energy 1.881 Mev.
able.
H 3 (p.n) _______________________ Same as Li'(p,n) ______________________ Same as Li'(p,n).--------------------------- ""2XlO'n/microcoulomb at 2 Mev;
threshold energy 1.02 Mev.
H 2 (d,n) _______________________ Lowest gamma ray contamination, Requires accelerator, anisotropic, associated ""2x10•n/microcoulomb at 2 Mev
monoenergetic neutrons. particle counting possible, but requires (thick target).
knowledge or H'(d,n) and H•(d,p) relative
cross sections and angular distributions.
H 3 (d,n)_ ---------------------- Low gamma-ray output, large neutron Requires accelerator, excellent for associated Neutron energies roughly 1()-20 Mev.
yield for low deuteron energies, particle counting for flux determination. ""lO'n/microcoulomb at 2 Mev (thick
monoenergetic, rather isotropic. target).

49
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 by the spontaneous fission sources like the Cm 244 neutron flux density from the Li(p,n) and T(p,n)
source. In spite of the main requirements con- reactions, the flux density being absolutely deter-
cerning the neutron standard, the Ra-Be(a n) mined by recoil proton counting in hydrogen and
source with its wide energy spectrum, and 'the methane filled ion chambers. The Hanson-Mc-
Ra-Be(-y, n) source with its tremendous gamma-ray Kibben long counter was used for the comparison.
output have become the most widely used standard The emission rate of the Swedish source was
neutron sources. Measurements with Ra-Be determined by comparison of its output to that
sources are important because: of the T(d,n) reaction by measuring the recoil
(i) international comparisons of national stand- proton ion current in a homogeneous ion chamber.
ard sources ensure that the same flux scale is used These measurements are dependent on the (n,p)
in different countries and different laboratories scattering cross section.
(ii) agreement between absolute measurement~ (iii) Thermalization techniques. Most absolute
by different methods and in different laboratories calibrations are performed by integrating the total
strengthens our confidence that the measurements neutron absorption rate in an essentially infinite
are correct. moderator. Either the absorption rate of the
The Ra-Be(a, n) like the Ra-Be(-y, n) source, has thermalized neutrons is determined from the
the main disadvantage of a high gamma output. activity induced in the absorber (Mn-bath meth-
The Ra-Be(a, n) has the disadvantage of a greater ods) or the absorption rate is deduced from an
variation in time of the neutron emission rate, and absolute determination of the spatial neutron
perhaps also of the spectrum. The Ra-Be(a, n) density integral. The absolute part of the meas-
source neutron emission rate increases with time urement involves 4ir{j-counting, (:1--y coincidence
because of the growth of Po. technique, the counting of B 10 (n,a)Li 7 reactions in
Correction for the latter effect must be made to a known volume, etc. Most of these measure-
obtain the emission rate at a later date according ments are dependent on the neutron disappearance
to the formula: cross sections of H 1, Mn 55 , Au 197 , etc.
1+0.14[1-e- 0-oaswo+i1>] The results of a great number of source calibra-
1
Qi =Q 0 1+0.14[1-e- 0 · 03571 0]
1 tions are collected in table IIB5. As will be seen
in column 3 of this table, where the results of the
where Qi0 is the absolutely measured emission absolute neutron emission rate determinations of
rate at a time t 0 years after the sealing of a Ra 226 the different national standard sources are listed,
source (RaD must have been extracted), and t1 is the errors quoted for these separate determinations
the time elapsed after the calibration date in cluster about ±2 or ±3 percent. In order to
years. The factor 0.14 is derived from neutron investigate if these limits of error are realistic or
emission rate considerations at different a-particle not, a considerable number of source strength
energies (compare NRCP, 1960) and 0.0357 is the comparisons have been made. Examples of the
appropriate disintegration constant for formation more important direct comparison measurements
of polonium based on a RaD half-life of 19.4 years. are listed in columns 4-8 of the table. Only those
A considerable number of standard neutron measurements are listed which involve direct com-
sources have been absolutely calibrated during parison of two sources. Also only comparison
the period 1950-60. Several of these sources have measurements made in 1956 and later have been
also been compared in a series of direct comparisons included as the addition of old and obsolete data
such that no cumulative errors might arise from would have obscured the trend of modern meas-
the comparison series as was the case in earlier urements. To make the absolute source strength
measurements. As to the absolute calibrations values commensurable, all those source strength
most of the techniques used in absolute particle values depending upon the absorption cross sec-
counting have been explored. The main groups tion <TAu of gold and uH of hydrogen have been
of neutron detection techniques used are as follows. corrected to the values obtained if u Au=98.8 barns
(i) Associated particle techniques. The Ra- and uH=0.332 barns (Hughes and Schwartz, 1958).
Be(a, n) source of NRC, Canada, has been abso- Also all the corrections for polonium growth
lutely calibrated by comparison with the yield of have been recalculated using the formula given
the F 19 (a, n)N a 22 reaction. The activity of N a 22 above with the more accurate constant 0.14 instead
was determined absolutely by 4 71"{:1-counting. The of the previously used value of 0.17.
Ra-Be(a1 n) source of AB Atomenergi, Sweden, has Numerous methods are involved in the com-
been calibrated by comparison of its emission rate parison series.
with ~he neutron emission rate from the T(d, n)He 4 (i) The sources are immersed in a large modera-
react10n. a-particles from this reaction were abso- tor volume containing a solution of a Mn-salt.
lutely counted in a proportional counter within a The relative source strengths fullow from the
known solid angle. The RdTh-D 20 source of activity produced in the solution. An accuracy
Oxford, U.K., has been absolutely calibrated by of about ± 0.5 percent is possible when sources of
counting the number of protons from the D(-y n)H similar spectra are compared.
reaction in an ion chamber. These measure1~ents (ii) The sources are immersed in a large modera-
are cross section independent. tor and the neutron density integrated by the aid
(ii) Recoil particle techniques. The emission of BF3 counters. An accuracy of ± 0.8 percent is
rate of the Oxford RdTh-D 20 source was abso- possible when sources of similar spectra are
lutely determined by comparison to a measured compared.
50
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 TABLE IIB5. International intercomparisons of national standard neutron sources

Least
U.K. Sweden squares
Date of Absolute emission Emission rate Q, as measured by comparison to standard source Q. from the place X. The ratio (Rich- (Larsson, Canada estimate of
mond, 1958) (Geiger,
Neutron source Q, absolute
calibration
rate n/secX IO"
~~ is also given 1957) Revised 1960)
error of
absolute
1961 value (Ax-
ton, 1961)
----
Belgium, U.M., Brussels ___ Dec. 1952 Ra-a-Be• PTB, Germany
7.88±23 7.88±23
1.000±0.33 o. 997 1.015 1.012 +I.93

Canada Natl. Research July 1958 Ra-a-Be• Stockholm, PTB, Germany. U.M. Belgium. NPL, U. K. NBS, U.S.A.
Council. 3.20s±!.53 Sweden. 3.227 ±2.23 3.234 ±23 3.142 ±1.53 3.13 ±33 1.008 1.000 +o.73
3.182 ±2.23 0.994 ±0.33 0.992 ±0.33 1.021 ±0.53 1.026 ±13
1.008±0.83
Germany, Physikalish- Aug. 1958 Ra-a-Be• Stockholm, U.M., Belgium.
Technische Bundesan- 1.95 ±23 Sweden.
stalt, Braunschwelg. 1.937 ±2.23 1.975±23 1.007 1.006 +1.33
1.007 ±0.83 0.987 ±0.33
Italy, CISE, Milan. Sept. 1960 Ra-a-Be• Stockholm,
7.73 ±3.53 Sweden.
8.05 ±23 0.960
0.960 ±0.83
Japan, ETL, Tokyo. 1958 Ra-a-Be' Brussels, Belgium.
14.8s±33 1.50 ±53 1.007
1.008 ±53
(through inter-
mediate source).
Sweden, AB Atomenergl, Oct. 1954 Ra-a-Be• Moscow, U.S.S.R. PTB, Germany. U.M., Belgium.
Stockholm. 2.65 ±23 2.634 ±3.13 2.658 ±23 2.689 ±23 1.000 0.992 -0.13
1.006 ±0.53 0.997 ±33 0.985 ±0.33
Switzerland, Physical In- April 1955 Ra-a-Be' Stockholm, Sweden. Harwell U.K. CISE, Italy.
stitute of the University 1.52• ±2.83 1.516 ±2.23 1.560 ±1.73 1.504±43 0.979 1. 005 -1.93
Basel. 1.005 ±0.83 0.977 ±0.53 1.025 ±2.33
U.K. Oxford via Harwell. 1951 (1956) RdTh-D10• Etockholm,
Ra-a-Be Sweden.
9.b8 ±1.73 9.15 ±2.23 1.000 0.992 -0.13
0.992 ±0.83
U.K. National Phys. Lah- 1960 Ra--y-Be• NRC, Canada. NBS, U.S.A.
oratory, Teddington (sec- 0.1664 ±23 0.1668 ±33 0.1695 ±1. 73 o. 991 0.979 -1.03
ondary source). 0.998 ±1.73 0.982 ±0.243

U.S.A. National Bureau of 1955 Ra--y-Beto Stockholm, NRC, Canada. Harwell (Oxford) NPL, UK.
Standards, Washington, l.181 ±1.83 Sweden. U.K.
D.C. (Source II).• 1.166 ±3.53 1.176 ±1.63 1.179 ±1.73 1.164 ±2.03 1.007 1. 018 1. 010 +o.63
1.018 ±3.13 1.010 ±0.83 1.007 ±0.53 1.019 ±0.13
U.S.S.R., Moscow Inst. of June 1951 Ra-a-Bell Etockholm,
Physics, Moscow. 5.96 ±33 Sweden.
6.00 ±2.23 0.994 -1.33
0.994 ±0.83
U .s .... R., Joint Inst. for March 1952 Ra-a-Bell Etockholm,
Nuclear Research, Du- 0.486 ±73 Sweden.
bna. 0.490 ±2.23 0.992
0.992 ±0.83

*Reference standard available for comparisons. 'Michikawa, T., Teranishi, E., Tomimasu, T., and Inoue, Y. 'Axton, E. J., Bli:d Cross, P. (1961); Axton, E. J. (1961).
1de'Iroyer, A., and 'IaYernier, G. C. (1954). (1959). 10 DeJuren, J. A., Padgett, D. W., and Curtiss, L. F. (1955); De-
'Geiger, G. W., and Wh~te, G. N. (1959), Geiger, K. W. (1959, • larsson, K. E. (1954, 1955, 1958). Juren, J. A., Chin, J. (1955); Mosburg, E. R. (1959).
1960). 1 Von Planta, C., and Huber, P. (1956). 11 Erozolimsky, B. G., and Spivak, P. E. (1957); Bezotosnii, V. M.,
a von Droste, Dr., and Kolb, M. (1960). •Richmond, R. (1958). and Zamyatnin,,Yu. S. (1957).
•Felcher, G. P., Gnmagnoli, E., and Musci, M. (1960).
"'....
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 A LARSSON
+ RICHMOND

•OE ,._ • GEIGER

0 AXTON'S LEAST SQUARES SOLUTION(

.04 ,._

.02
'- )
,._ ., e

--
0 6 ... l:J
1)

+ I
I
... 6
I ~ 6
+1~

.98 --'
I
I
I
I
I
I +
,, • ,)

I I
I I
I I
.96 - ;.
I
I
I
I
I
I
94 ,._ I

.92
-
BELGIUM CANADA ~ERMANY
I
I
I
ITALY JAPAN SWEDEN lswlTZER· UK U.S.A USSR
i

LAND
UMHK NRC PTB CISE ETL ABA BASEL OXFORDI NPL NBS I
MOSCOW DUBNA

FIGURE IIB13. Results of some international intercomparisons of standard neutron sources

See table IIB5 for detailed explanation.

(iii) The sources are directly compared in air by spectra are compared. As shown by the ratio of
use of long counters. The accurac:y reached is the absolute measurements Q.!Ox given in columns
strongly dependent on any asymmetrt of the neu- 4-8 most of these fall within limits ± 0.8 percent,
tron yield of the source. The accuracy attainable 0.992:::;Q,/Ox:::;L008, with only two excepJ-j.ons
is of the order of ± 0.5 percent for similar sources when Ra-Be(a,n) sources are compared. When
using the same nuclear reaction. If different Ra-Be(a,n) sources are compared to Ra-Be('Y,n)
sources are used and even if all necessary correc- sources the same ratio varies within limits 0.977
tions are made, the error may be as high as 5 ;;;;; Q,/Ox;;;;i 1.028; i.e., almost ±3 percent.
percent. Results of three comparison series are reported
(iv) The sources are compared using the effect in table IIB5 of which the Swedish Ra-Be(a,n)
of the source neutrons on the reactivity of an source is involved in the longest series. This
almost critical reactor. With extreme care the source has been directly compared to nine sources
accuracy attainable may be as good as ±0.5 from eight countries. The comparisons have been
percent. made in Stockholm as well as at other places such
(v) The sources are placed in the center of a as Braunschweig, Germany, Brussels, Belgium,
moderator such as graphite with thermal neutron and Moscow, USSR. The source strength value
detectors located at large distances from the of the appropriate source has been arbitarily set
source if energy independence is desired (Macklin, equal to 1.000 and the other source calibrations are
1957; Walker, 1940). expressed in terms of it. Results are given in
From table IIB5 there appears to be a much columns 9, 10, and 11 of the table and in figure
greater uncertainty in the intercomparison of IIB13. The result of a least squares analysis of
('Y,n) sources with (a,n) sources than is the case source intercomparisons (Axton, 1961) is also
when similar sources are compared. The ('Y,n) reported. As is most clearly shown by the figure,
sources involved in the series are the Ra-Be sources the spread of the absolute values is small, all values
of NBS, USA and NPL, UK and the RdTh-D 20 except one falling within ± 1.5 percent. The error
source of Oxford, U.K. It should be noted that a bars shown in the figure are those given by the
systematic error may be common to many absolute authors of the different absolute calibration
calibrations since a number of identical corrections reports.
have been applied. These corrections need not Conclusion and Recommendations:
be applied in the relative calibration of photo- (i) All careful absolute neutron source strength
neutron sources, but they do appear in the.relative determinations listed are capable of about ± 1.5
comparison with Be(a,n) sources. The main percent accuracy.
difficulties seem to be fast neutron absorption (ii) Any new standard source may be compared
effects and leakage of fast neutrons. Both of to any of the sources listed in the table and the
these effects are negligible when sources of similar figure. The establishment of a world average
52
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 seems inopportune because of the need for investi- at energies above 5 Mev. Also when neutron
gation of possible systematic errors. moderation techniques are used, the comparisons
(iii) High precision is obtained only when com- should be made in such a way that fast neutron
paring sources of similar spectra. Careful studies leakage from the standard moderator is negligible.
should be made of the reasons why the compari- b. Some data on radioactive neutron sources and
son results of sources of widely different spectra spontaneous fission sources. A large number of
scatter so much. Efforts should be made to study possible (a,n) and ('Y,n) neutron sources are listed
effects of (n,a)-, (n,p)-, (n,.y)-reactions at higher in tables IIB6 and IIB7. Examples of the neutron
energies as well as of the processes ('Y,n) and spectra emitted by these sources are given in sub-
(n,2n). The 0 16 (n,a) reaction is very important section IIB2c.
TABLE IIB6. Data on some (a,n) sources (1) (a, n) sources
Maxi- Average
mum n~utron
Yield Neutron Any a-emitter may be mixed with a suitable
Source Half-life neutron
energy energy n/secXIO--< spectrum substance like beryllium to produce neutrons, if
(Mev)
(Mev) Ciirie"" the (a, n) reaction is energetically possible. As
Po'"-LL _----- 138. 4d I. 32 o. 48 0. 05 Figure IIB21.
seen from table IIB6 the Be(a,n)-reaction gives
Po'"-Be _______ 2.93y
Po'"-Be _______ 138. 4d
10. 6 ---------- ------------ Not measured. the highest neutron emission rate. This increases
10. 8 4.3' 2. 5 Figures IIB19,
20. steeply with a-energy. The following empirical
RaDEF-Be ___ 19.4y Similar to :Po-
10. 8 4. 5 2. 5
Be. expression for the maximum thick target neutron
Ra"•-Be _______ 1622y 13. 2 3.6' 15 Figure
15.
IIB14, emission rate, Qmax, has been given by Runnals
Rn"'-Be ______ 3. 825d 13. 2 12 Not well and Boucher (1956):
known.
Ac'"-Be _______ 21.8y 12 4.6 25 I Figure II B 16.
Pu'"-Be _______ 90y
Pu"'-Be _______ 24. 400y
11 2. 8 I Not measured. Qmax=O. 152 E 3 • 65 neutrons per million alphas
10. 6 4. 5 2.0 I Figure IIB17,
18.
Am"•-Be ______ 458y 11 2.0 Not measured. where the a-energy Eis expressed in Mev.
Cm2'•-Be ______ 163d 11. 6 4. 0 I Do. The yield for B(a,n) and 0 18 (a,n) is about one
Ra-BeF, ______ 1622y 13.2 2. 532 Do. third of that for Be(a,n). The yield for FID(a,n)
Po'"-B"------- 138.4d 6.1 2. 8' . 8 3 Figure IIB22a .
Po"'-B ________ 138. 4d 5. 0 . 2. Figure IIB22 . is somewhat lower. For the remaining light
Po21o-Bu _______ 138.4d 6. 1 . 8' Figure IIB22b . elements the yield is much lower.
Pono_ou _______ 138. 4d 4.3' 1.0' Figure II B23. For the majority of (a,n) sources, neutron
-----1~4--
Po"'-F"------- 138. 4d 2.8 & Figure IIB24 .
. 1•
Po'"-Na _______ 138. 4d ---------- ---------- . 047 Not measured . emission may leave the residual nucleus in an
Po"'-Mg ______ 138. 4d ---------- . 037 Do .
Po"'-A'------- 138. 4d
----------
2. 7 3 .027 Do. excited state which may decay by particle or
Po'" (mock
fission).
138. 4d 10. 8 1.6 about 0. 4 Simulated fis-
slon spec-
gamma emission. Breen and Hertz (1955) have
trum.• published data on gamma-ray emission. Ex-
amples for particle emission are the Be9 (a,n) 3a
•With CaF2 as target material.
t Runnals, 0. J. C., and Boucher, R. R. (1956).
reaction and the B 10 (a,np)C 12 reaction (Geiger
'Feld, B. T. (1953). and Jarvis, 1962). .
•Roberts, J. H. (1947).
•Geiger, K. W., and Jarvis, J. (1962). It is therefore expected that the neutron spec-
• Khabakhpashev, A.G. (1960).
• Szi!vasi, A. J. D., Geiger, K. W., and Dixon, W.R. (1960).
trum from such sources is rather complex. Only
1 Breen, R. J., and Hertz, M. R. (1955). a Po-B 11 (a,n) source gives a simple spectrum,
'Tochiltn, E., and Alves, R. V. (1958).
'DePangher, J. (1959). showing a single peak. Here the probability of
TABLE IIB7. Characteristics of some important (-y,n) sources

Ey • E. calculated • E • observed b Stand- Actual

Sources Half-life Mev Mev Mev ard source
yield b. • yield•

15.0h 2. 757 _______________ _ 0. 966 ________________ o. 83_____________ 13

Na"+Be----------- 2. 757 _______________ _ . 261._______________ . 22 ------------
Na"+D20 ________ _ 15. Oh 27
Al"+ Be __________ _ 2.30m I. 782 _______________ _ .1Q3 ________________ ------------------ ---------- ----------
Cl"+Be __________ _ 37.3m 2. 15 ________________ _ . 430 ________________ ------------------ ---------- ----------
Mn"+Be _________ _ 2. 58h I. 77, 2. 06, 2. gg ______ _ . 002, o. 350, L 076____ . 15, o. 30________ 2. 9
Mn"+D,o _______ _ 2.5811 . 320________________ . 22_____________ 0. 31 --------- -
Ga"+Be. _________ _
oa12+n,o ________ _
14. 2h
14. 2h
I. 87, 2. 21, 2. 51. _____ _
:~~k~~~~~~:~:::: --:13::::::::::::: ~- 9 ----------
A•"+ Be ___ --------
Y"+Be ___________ _ 104d
26. 6h l. 77, 2. 06 ___________ _
I. 853 _______________ _ :m: g: ~~:::::::::: --.-1.58±0.-00.5::::: ----10____ ::::::::::
Y"+D,O _________ _ 104d .265 ________________ ------------------ 0.3
rnm+Be. _________ _ 54m 2.090 _______________ _ . 377 ________________ >O. 15, o. 30 _____ _ . 82
Sb'"+Be __________ _ 60d . Q3j________________ . 0248:1::0. 0024 • HI I. 6.
I. 70 ----------------
La'"+Be _________ _ 40. 2d 2. 51.3. 0 ------------ . 747________________ . 62 ------------ 0.3
La'"+D20 ________ _ 40. 2d .140---------------- .13,0.15 _______ _ .7
RdTh+D20 ______ _ l.90y 2. 623 (ThC")_ ------ ---------------------- -··---------------- ---------- I. 2 d
MsTh+Be .. ______ _ 6. 7y 2. 614, !. 8 (ThC") ___ ---------------------- . 827:1::. Q3Q______ 3. 5
MsTh+D20 ______ _ 6. 7y ---- -- ____ . --- ________ ---------- ------------ . 197:1::. OIQ____ __ 9. 5 I. 2 d
Ra22•+Be _________ _ 1622y I. 690, I. 761, I. 820. ---------------------- . 7 max_________ I. 2 1.3
2. 090, 2. 200, 2. 420 .12 ____________ _
Ra'"+D __________ _ 1622y 0.1

•For references see Amaldi (1959). • Schmitt (1960).

b For references see Amaldi (1959) and Wattenberg (1949). •This is the neutron yieldXIQ-• for a I-curie gamma source with lg of
0 U.S. Atomic Energy Commission Isotopes catalog. target material placed lcmaway from the gamma source (Wattenberg, 1949).
~ Ms-Th and Rd-'!'h sources_ emit some neutrons through (a, n) reactions • lO•n/sec per curie.
with !igbt elements w tbe earner and container walls (Littler, 1957).
53
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 forming an excited N 14 nucleus is only 5 percent. the case of D and ± 1.5 percent in the case of Be,
In the usual neutron source, consisting of a for the gamma-ray energy at threshold (Amaldi,
mixture of target material and a emitter, consid- 1959). This spread becomes even smaller for
erable broadening of a peak in the neutron higher gamma-ray energies. It has been assumed,
spectrum occurs, compared to the peak observed however, that the gamma-ray and neutron energies
in thin target geometry. There are two reasons are not being degraded in the target by scattering.
for this broadening_ Therefore it must be expected that bulky sources
(i) The a particles are slowed down in the emit neutrons down to lower energies than the
source material and all a energies from zero to energy values indicated in table IIB7. Cloud
the maximum energy occur. chamber measurements show relatively broad
(ii) In a source the observed neutrons are spectra (Eggler and Hughes, 1950), but this
emitted at all angles with respect to the a particles. probably indicates the difficulties of measure-
Consequently, monoenergetic neutron emission ment of neutrons in the presence of a large gamma-
can never be expected from the usual (a,n) source. ray background, rather than lack of energy homo-
Table IIB6 also lists the average neutron energy geneity of the neutrons from the source. Complex
because of its importance for neutron dosimetry. gamma-ray spectra cause complex neutron spectra;
Examination of table IIB6 shows that Pu 238-Be this applies particularly to sources containing
or Am 241 -Be appear to be most suitable for the Ra and Th and is evident from figure IIB25.
purpose of neutron standards. These materials Table IIB7, listing some important data on
can be prepared isotopically pure. The half- ('Y,n) sources, shows that except for the Ra-Be
li ves are well-known and can, for a given source, ('Y,n) source all the ('Y,n) sources have incon-
be verified by a calorimetric method. However, veniently short half-lives for use as stan<lard
many countries have regulations regarding these sources. For some applications it is of impor-
materials which makes the acquisition and export tance that the energy of the neutrons from most
of such sources difficult. ('Y,n) sources is much smaller than from (a,n)
As seen from table IIB6 most of the a-n sources sources.
except the Ra-Be source have inconveniently (3) Spontaneous fission sources
short half-lives. Also the yield figures are con-
siderably lower than those of Ra-Be sources. For a class of heavy even-even nuclei the
The neutron spectra emitted by Be(a,n)-sources process of spontaneous fission becomes energeti-
are all of the very complex type as illustrated by cally possible. Neutron sources made of such
the results on Ac-Be, Pu-Be, and Po-Be sources materials have not been in common use in spite
given in figures IIB16 to IIB20. The spectra of their merits, low gamma-radiation and well-
are on the whole rather badly known. known spectral distribution of the type ~Ee-Etr,
where T is a characteristic nuclear temperature
(2) (-y,n) sources of the order of 1.3 Mev. The reason for this
is that most of the suitable materials have not
Radioactive (-y,n) sources use only Be(Q= been available in large enough quantities or
-1.666 Mev) and D(Q=-2.226 Mev). The have not been available with sufficient purity.
neutron emission rate is relatively low, about A number of possible nuclides together with some
10-1,000 times smaller than that of a (a,n) source. pertinent data are given in table IIB8. The Cm 244
The accompanying -y-radiation is very intense. source, which has a copious yield, is attractive as
For monochromatic gamma-ray emitters the a possible standard source. Two grams of Cm 244
energy of the photoneutrons extends only over would emit about 2X10 7 n/sec or the same amount
a small range since little linear momentum is as a 1 gram Ra-a-Be source. As these sources
transferred to the residual nucleus_ From could be made very small, the chance that the
conservation laws it follows that the relative emitted neutrons make any inelastic collision
energy spread of ne1.ltrons is only ± 14 percent in before leaving the sources would be small and the
TABLE IIB8. Characteri8tics of some important spontaneous fission neutron sources

Half-life Half-life Neutrons Neutrons

Nuclide (spontaneous (a decay)• Alphas per fission b per per g sec
fission)• fission °

um __________
sx101111
{l.lXlO"
6.5Xl0", after aging with 1.9
------------ ------------
7411
~ half-life.
Pu*---------
u111 __________ l.6XlO'v 2.711 1. XlO' 1. 9 hx10<
8.3Xl0''11
4.9Xl0'9tl
4.51Xl0'11
89.6y
l.8XlOI ------------ ------------
2.0 2.3Xl0'
Pu'"--------- 5.5Xl0'
Pu'"--------- 1.3Xl011y 660011 l.9XJ07 2.1 7.0XIO'
Pu'"---------
Cm'"--------
7.2Xl0"11
7.2X!Oly
3.8Xl0'1/
162.5d
l.9Xl0'
l.6XIO'
2.3
2.3
------------
l.8Xl0'
Cm•« ________ l.4Xl07y 18.4y 7.6Xl0' 2.6 l.OXlO'
Cf'"----------
Cf'U __________ 6611 2.211 30 --------3:5- 2.6Xl0"
60d 60d ::::o ------------
•Sullivan, w. H. (1957).
b The number of alphas/fission is an inverse "figure of merit." A source with a low number of
alphas per fission has relatively many fissions and the neutron spectrum is not likely to be con-
taminated with (a,n) neutrons.
° Crane, W. W. T., Higgins, G. a, and Bowman, H. R. (1956).
54
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 spectrum would be a true virgin fission spectrum. to very different initial neutron energies involved
The report of a serious attempt to construct and in the slowing down process.
calibrate a spontaneous fission source (Pu 240 ) has The status of these particular neutron spectrum
been published by Richmond (1958). It is highly measurements merely illustrates the general great
recommended that increased efforts be made to need for a neutron spectrometer of high efficiency
establish a standard spontaneous fission neutron able to work in a field of strong gamma-radiation.
source. Research in this field is strongly recommended.
c. Neutron spectra. Because of the very un- The spectra of some important radioactive
favorable ratio of gamma-to-neutron yield of neutron sources are shown in figures IIB16 to
Ra-Be neutron sources, very few spectrum meas- IIB25.
urements have been performed on them. The The existence of a low energy neutron com-
only technique applied to these spectrum meas- ponent for Be(a,n) sources is controversial in the
urements is the recoil proton registration. The case of polonium or plutonium as alpha-emitter,
measurements made so far on Ra-Be(a,n) sources because the alpha-energy is very close to the
have been collected by Hess (1957) and Med- threshold for the break-up reaction. Results of
veczky (1961). Hess has also performed a calcu- DePangher for the case of the Po-Be source
lation of the spectrum as well as of the spectra of spectrum support the absence of such a com-
other (a,n) sources. The calculation is based on ponent. But recent results concerning the Pu-
a knowledge of range energy relations of a-parti- Be(a,n) source of St. Romain et al., (1962) claim
cles in beryllium and ·of the cross section for the evidence for an intense low energy component not
(a,n) reaction as a function of tmergy. visible on the earlier curve of Stewart (see fig.
The results of the calculations as well as of a IIBl 7). For Ac 227 ( + decay products) with an
recoil proton measurement is given in figure average alpha-energy of 6.4 Mev, the low energy
IIB14. Other results gained on Ra-Be(a,n) component is to be expected.
neutron spectra are collected in figure IIB15. As Typical reactor and accelerator neutron spectra
shown by the figures the status in this field is not are given in figures IIB26 and IIB27.
satisfactory. An additional low energy neutron For further information the reader is referred
component (Ev.<0.5 Mev) was estimated by to NCRP (1960).
DePangher (1959) to be 26 percent of the whole
spectrum.
A measured spectrum for the Ra-Be(,,,n) source
is shown in figure IIB25. Comparison of the
figures IIB15 and IIB25 indicates the difficulty of
comparing Ra.-Be(a,n) to Ra-Be(y,n) sources due
N(El

Ra-Be(a,n)

• HILL DATA
-CALCULATED
14 SPECTRUM

12

6 - ' . :
10

N(E) 5 -

I
4
N(E)
6

4
b

2
°o'-":::::...l.'--~2'--~3!---~4L-~5!---~L6~_,._7~_L.8~_,_.....::::,,,_,IO

0 NEUTRON ENERGY, Mev

0 2 4 B
NEUTRON ENERGY, Me v FIGURE IIB15. Neutron spectrum for Ra-Be(a,n).
Curve A was measured with nuclear emulsions (Medveczky, 1961); Curve B
FIGURE IIB14. Calculated neutron spectrum (Hess, 1959) with nuclear emulsions (Houtermans and Teucher, 1951); Curve C with a
counter·absorber arrangement called the "Ranger" (Hill, 1947); Curve D with
for a Ra-a-Be source. nuclear emulsions (Demers, 1945); and Curve E with nuclear emulsions (Watson,
Experimental data from Hill (1947). 1958).

55
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 °'"'
15,
--1--
101-----· +-·-----·-.J---

N(E)
N(El

10>~--------1-------+---'--.------+-------~

o.__ _..___.___.....___..__ __.___.___.....____.___.___ _........_ _.

0 3 6 9
0 ~---'-----'-___,3.,..__ NEUTRON ENERO~ M•v
0 _.__ _.__~6-~--~-~9-~--~--""":-'.

NEUTRON ENERGY, Me v
FIGURE lIB17. Neutron energy spectrum of Pu-Be(a,n).
FIGURE IIB16. Neutron energy spectrum of Ac-Be(a,n). Nuclear emulsions were used for the measurement (Stewart, 1955).
Nuclear emulsions were used for the measurement (Dixon, Bielesch, and Gelger, 1957).

--··--A
16 I
'~
I
61-- -------a
c
!\ l I .................... 0

l ~{ 'i.
12

N(E) el- -1
r-til i \i
41!- r 1
N(E)

0 2 4
NEUTRON

FIGURE IIB18. Neutron energy spec-

trum of a Pu-Be(a,n) source (Broek
and Anderson, 1960).
An organic scintillation crystal was used for
the measurement. The measurement is shown
dotted, and the sol1d curve is a calculated part of 0 ·· ...
the spectrum due to Be• (a,n) leaving c12 in Its 0 3 6 9 12
ground sta~. NEUTRON ENERGY, Mev

FIGURE IIB19. Neutron energy spectra of Po-Be(a,n).

Curve A was measured with a proton recoil proportional counter telescope (Cochran and Henry,
1955); curve B was determined by a similar method (Breen, Hertz, and Wright, 1956); curve C with
nuclear emulsions (private communication from author, 1960, indicates that the all quoted energies
should be increased by 3 percent, Whitmore and Baker, 1950); curve D with Li•I scintillation crystal
spectrometer (Murray, 1958).

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084

by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 7

N(E) 4
N(E)

2
a
B
I
0

6
NEUTRON ENERG~ Moy

FIGURE IIB22. Neutron spectrum of

Po-B(a,n).
Curve A is the result of a measurement with nuclear
emulsions (Perlman, Richards, and Speck, 1946); curve
B was also by nuclear emulsions (Staub, 1947); curve C
by proton recoil counter telescope (Cochran and Henry,
1955).
N(El

~e·•
N(E)
b
12 /'-/
_,..,-.-../~:·._~
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ._.....~..-4'.o5'o
NEUTRON ENERGY, Me v 8 Alpha-Partii::le Energy,Me

FIGURE IIB20. Neutron spectrum of Po-Be(a,n). N(E)

Nuclear emulsions were used for the measurement (Medveczky, 1961). Curve a is 4
for a source with carrier while curve b is for a carrier free source. Significant differences
are observed.

l.O 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0

NEUTRON ENERGY, M ev

FIGURE IIB22a. Calculated neutron spectra

for a Po-B' 0 (a,n) source for transitions into
Po-a-LI
the ground state (a), 2.4-Mev state (b), and.
3.54-Mev state (c), where the relative neutron
32011------ic-*-~-r-- t EXPERIMENT yields (curves a, b, and c), as shown in the
-CALCULATED SPECTRUM inset, are used in the calculation.
Also shown are the sum of these three calculated spectra
(solid line) and the experimental points from emulsion data,
corrected for a small contribution from the B" impurity in
the actual source (Geiger and Jarvis, 1961).
N(E)

0 0.4 0.8
NEUTRON ENERGY, Me v
N(E)
~20

40
80

:1
,,
I I!\"''" b
IIB21. Neutron spectrum of Po21o_Li(a,n)
01 ~.;:::i~..,..-;_,.,:.1~~~-~-L--=-~~~o~~..1.....~3~.o=--.1...-~4~.o,....,.--=5~0=--~--'
0
FIGURE
(Barton, 1953) .
The, calculated curve is from Hess (1959). NEUTRON ENERGY, Me v

FIGURE IIB22b. Calculated neutron spectra

for a Po-B11 (a,n) source for transitions into
the ground state (a) and the 2.3-Mev state (b).
The sum of the two curves and the experimental points
from emulsion data are also shown (Gelger and J arvls,
1962).

;7
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 4
---T 6
-
1 I
5
3 -
4

N(EJ
3 ,--

~
2 -- - - r-- -- +-+-+-++ 1-- f- - - -- -

>- >- ,~

oo ot
0'~0~~~+1~~~~2~~~......~~~~4r"~'"-"""15 I - ,...r-- · - r--~-

~ mn
t--
NEUTRON ENERGY, Me v ,...
0 n
FIGURE IIB23. Neutron spectrum of Po210_01s 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
NEUTRON ENERGY, kev
(a,n), (Khabakhpashev, 1960).
FIGURE IIB25. Neutron energy spectrum of a
Ra-Be(-y,n) source.
A cloud chamber was used for the measurement (Eggler and
Hughes, 1950).
100,..,;-,....--.;i-----.----~---,--~--------,

IO>l------\t--------'l';-----+--"'-<:------1--->t.----t
N(E)

2.0 3.0
Neutron Energy, Mev

FIGURE IIB24. Neutron spectrum of Po210_p19

(a,n).
Dashed histogram shows the neutron spectrum obtained from
these results after correcting for the neutron-proton scattering
cross section and the escape of proton tracks from the nuclear
emulsion (Szilvasi, Geiger, and Dixon, 1960).
1.0

0 2 3 4 5 6
NEUTRON ENERG~ Mev

FIGURE IIB26. Neutron fission spectra from reactors.

References: Watt, 1952; Rosen, 1956; USNRDL measurement on
C P-5 spectrum (unpublished); Codd, Sheppard, and Tait, 1956.
110~---

15 Mn OEUTERONS

\\
\ OEUTERONS
\
N(E} --------\----

'4A'
''
'

FIGURE IIB27. Neutron energy spectra

for 15, 20, and 24 Mev deuterons on
thick Be target.
Measurement for 15 Mev was by Cohen and Falk,
1951; for 20 and 24 Mev by Tochilin and Kohler, 1958.

58
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 III. Practical Measurement of Exposure For other radiation qualities it may be neces-
sary to determine experimentally the minimum
A. Definitions wall thickness required. Suitable materials in-
The following terms are used in this section. clude polystyrene, Perspex (Lucite), nylon, or
(i) Exposure standard is an ionization chamber bakelite. The thickness (in g/cm 2 ) required for
and associated equipment, which allows the direct a given photon energy is nearly the same for
measurement of exposure. (Frequently referred these and other low-atomic-number materials.
to as a primary standard.)
C. Instrument Calibration
(ii) Reference instrument is an exposure or
exposure-rate meter of good stability which is This subsection deals with the calibration of
calibrated as accurately as possible against an reference and field instruments against exposure
exposure standard and used only for the calibra- standards. Such calibrations are obtained by a
tion of field instruments. (The reference instru- substitution technique. The beam output is first
ment is frequently referred to as a secondary measured with the standard and a reading of the
standard or substandard.) reference or field instrument then obtained at the
(iii) Field instrument is an exposure or exposure- same position in the beam. The calibration factor
rate meter used for routine measurements. is computed from these data.
B. Field Instrument Requirements The information presented here with subsequent
comments is derived from a questionnaire sent to
An exposure or exposure-rate meter should all exposure standard custodians listed in the 1959
have- ICRU Report. Useful information was received
(i) a minimum variation in sensitivity over the from ten calibration laboratories.
energy range of interest,
(ii) been calibrated against an exposure stand-
u Electronic equilibrium and electron contamination. As the photon energy
ard or reference instrument for all the qualities of is increased, the range of the secondary electrons is also increased and electrons
interest, from outside of the ionization chamber are more likely to reach the ionization
chamber and penetrate its walls. Thus, if one considers the usual chamber
(iii) appropriate constancy and means for check- wall thickness, this factor becomes more significant at energies above I Mev,
where electronic equilibrium rather than mechanical strength determines
ing same, the thickness. Before the equilibrium thickness is reached, the chamber is
(iv) minimum stem "leakage," able to collect and record electrons from the various sources indicated in
subsection IlIK The presence of these electrons therefore affects the shape
(v) suitable range and dimensions. of the build-up curve and may affect the magnitude of the equilibrium thick-
ness. When equilibrium thickness has been reached, the wall of the chamber
Restrictions on the size of the ionization is sufficiently thick to prevent these electrons from contributing significantly
chamber are less stringent for in-air measurements to the ionization within the chamber.
The amount of electron emission from irradiated material depends on
than for those in a phantom. Volumes of a few whether it is "emergence emission"-in the direction of the prhnary radia-
tion-or "incidence emission"-in the opposite direction to the primary
cm3 are permissible except for measurements in a radiation (Wilson, 1941). The relation between the amount of this emission
phantom or at the ends of closed applicators. and the atomic number of the irradiated material also varies with the direction
of the emission. Under the conditions in which output or half-value-layer
For such measurements the depth of the chamber measurements are normally made, the electron emission may be regarded
chiefly as emergence emission. Under these conditions, it has been shown
should not be more than a few millimeters. The that for radium gamma rays, for cobalt-60 gamma rays and for 1-2 Mv x rays,
wall thickness should be no greater than is nec- the amount of electron emission is a function of atomic number of the irradiated
material such that it is minimal for materials of intermediate atomic number
essary to provide both electronic equilibrium 11 such as copper, iron, brass, etc. (Wilson, 1941; Wilson and Perry, 1951;
and sufficient mechanical strength. Wyard, 1951). The same finding may be inferred to hold for cesium-137
gamma rays and recent work suggests that it holds also for 4 M v x rays (Martin
A typical thimble chamber used for measure- and Muller, 1961). This, of course, is the basis of the accepted procedure of
using intermediate atomic number filters on the nosepieces of beam equip-
ments of filtered 100 to 250 kv x rays has a wall ment that must be close to the skin. Quite a small thickness of suitable
thickness of about 0.1 g/cm 2• material, such as brass, will absorb the electron emission from the heavy
high-atomic-number diaphragm material, and will itself produce a minimum
Examples are given below of the minimum wall of such emission.
The exact amount of electron emission incident upon an ionization chamber
thickness required in graphite cavity chambers will depend, of course, upon the geometry of the irradiated surfaces and
used with higher photon energies: · intervening air and their relation to the chamber.
In order to minimize the effect of electron contamination in radiotherapy,
it has been shown that a certain clearance between the end of the collimator
approx. 0.2 g/cm 2 for cesium-137 gamma rays and the patient is desirable. Although the distance to insure the maximum
buildnp factor will increase with increased primary radiation energy, a
approx. 0.5 g/cm 2 for cobalt-60 gamma rays distance ot about 15 to 20 cm is adequate for cesium-137 equipments (Burns,
unpublished), cobalt-60 (Johns et al., 1952a; Kemp and Burns, 1958), and
approx. 1.5 g/cm 2 for 4 M v x rays. 4 My accelerators (Jones, unpublished).

59
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 1. Exposure Meters Used for a Few K v to About chamber of the largest instrument used for
0.5 Mv X Rays therapy did not differ by more than 1 part in
1,000 from the average exposure rate over the
a. Tube output constancy. In a few labora- aperture of the standard. The spread of rates so
tories output constancies within 0.1-0.2 percent determined amounted in some cases to several
during calibration are claimed. If, however, the parts in 1,000. Stevens and Richardson (1961)
output of the x-ray tube cannot be kept at a made radiographs at right angles to the central
high degree of constancy throughout the calibra- ray and measured the density of the image at a
tion, the use of a monitor chamber is recom- great number of points using densitometers with
mended. The majority of the laboratories use 1 and 2 mm aperture diameters. McLaughlin
monitor chambers. (1962) also used a photographic method and
b. Monitor chambers. These chambers and concluded that the relative exposure rate across
their measuring accessories should be at least ot the beam could be determined with an accuracy
the same precision as the exposure standard. of 1 percent.
If appreciable drift in radiation quality can (2) Scattered radiation. The monitor may
occur during a calibration, the quality dependence receive a different amount of scattered radiation
of the monitor chamber over the drift region when the standard is in the measuring position
should not exceed that of the instrument to be than when the chamber to be calibrated is in the
calibrated. The presence of the monitor in the measuring position. This error may be important
beam between the source and the chamber should when large monitor chambers are used or if the
not impair the uniformity of the field. A flat distance from the monitor to the standard is
chamber with thin but firm flat walls at right small. To avoid this, Rajewsky et al., (1955)
angles to the beam axis can serve this purpose. placed a diaphragm between the monitor and the
Such chambers have been described by Thoraeus chamber. The answers to the questionnaire of
(1956), Worthley et al., (1957), and ·Henry and most laboratories and the measurements of Stevens
Aitken (1961). Monitor filtration should be in- aud Richardson ( 1961) , and Henry and Aitken
cluded in the total filtration. (1961), however, lead to the following conclusion:
For very soft radiations (5-50 kv x rays), If the distance between monitor and standard
Allisy and Roux (1961) report the use of a free-air chamber is at least 50 cm and the monitor chamber
monitor chamber. diameter not substantially larger than that of the
c. Sources of error. When calibrating an instru- beam, this error is of minor importance.
ment against a standard, it is important that the (3) Timing errors. If the irradiation interval
exposure it receives per unit time (or, if a monitor is defined by switching the x-ray tube on and off,
is used, per unit charge collected in the monitor) or by unearthing the meters and switching off the
is the same as that of the standard. There are at x-ray tube, difference in energy dependence
least three possible sources of error: non uniformity between the monitor and the other chambers mav
over the beam cross-section, scattered radiation, cause errors during x-ray tube potential buildup,
and timing of exposure. and the grounding switches for the monitor and
(1) Nonunijormity. When the cross-section of standard mav not work simultaneously. These
the beam covering the chamber to be calibrated is errors are di'fficult to evaluate and are greater
not identical with that covering the standard when the timing is different for the standard and
chamber aperture, the average exposure rate over the reference or field instrument.
these two cross-sections may not be the same. Recommendation:
Four laboratories stated that the uniformity of
the cross-section of the beam had been investi- A mechanical shutter should be used. If a
gated. Three other answers only estimated the mechanical shutter is used and the arrangement
uniformity of the beam cross-section; the rest of of the monitor or the chamber to be calibrated is
the answers presented no definite data. not symmetrical about the beam axis passing
through the standard aperture, slight irregularities
Recommendation: in the irradiation timing may arise if the shutter
Radiation field uniformity over the beam cross- moves to and fro. In asymmetrical arrangements,
section used in calibration should be tested. the shutter therefore should always move in the
Several methods have been used to investigate same direction, or high speed shutter mechanisms
the uniformity of the beam. In one method should be used.
three apertures of different diameters were used The timing errors may be evaluated by com-
with the standard chamber to find out whether paring the average ionization current collected
the ionization current was proportional to the for two different shutter-controlled timing periods.
aperture area. Another method (communicated Timing errors introduced by shutter operation
by Aston, 1961) involves the exploration of a may be reduced to an acceptable leYel by lengthen-
~ia~et~r of the beam with a restricted part of an ing the exposure period. If the operation of the
10rnzat10n chamber, this restriction being obtained shutter 12 requires more than a fraction of a
by a diaphragm with a slit of uniform width second, exposures of several minutes' duration
approximately equal to that of the chambers of may be required.
the exposure meters to be calibrated. It was The shutter error may be avoided for those
found that the average exposure rate over the 12 Publication or the details of acceptable shutter designs is encouraged.

60
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 instruments that have a charge or current in- (ii) Large distance between the tube and the
dicator which is connected during instrument calibration position. This can be recommended
exposure. In this case the time is taken from the if sufficient space is available and backscatter
time at which the detector is ungrounded to the from surrounding materials is negligible. As this
time at which it is grounded. The beam is "on" method tends to give greater field uniformity for
during this procedure. large instruments it may be especially useful for
d. 0.ff-fows radiation. In order that the their calibration. Due to the relatively low sensi-
monitor, the standard, and the instrument to be tivity of the standard it may be necessary to use
calibrated "see" the same source of radiation, and a shorter target distance for the standard than for
to prevent too great a beam divergence inside the the sensitive field instrument. If so, correction
standard chamber, it is usually considered wise has to be made both for the inverse square and air
to reduce the effect of off-focus radiation as much absorption effect on the exposure. Alternatively
as possible. This may be accomplished by placing a sensitive reference instrument may be used for
the first diaphragm as close to the tube window the beam measurement at the place of interest.
as possible. In addition, it will be worthwile to The following evaluation has no reference to
place a second diaphragm between this one and these low exposure-rate calibrations.
the monitor chamber. This second diaphragm f. Evaluation of exposure-meter calibration ac-
will further reduce the amount of off-focus radia- curacy for the region from about 60 to about 400
tion "seen" by the monitor. Such an arrangement kv x rays. An estimation of maximum uncer-
might place the monitor chamber at a larger tainty in calibration procedure with good tech-
distance from the source and therefore reduce its niques at medium exposure rates gives the following
sensitivity somewhat, but it has the added advan- figures:
tage of being further removed from the heat which Percent
Exposure standards* ____________________________ ± 1. 0
is developed within the tube. Under these Monitor, during calibration:
conditions the temperature of the monitor will be Volume fluctuations_________________________ .1
more nearly constant. Air density_________________________________ .2
e. Exposure rates used for calibrations. Cali- Charge measurement_________________________ .1
Distance_ _ _ _ __ _ __ __ __ __ _ __ __ __ _ ___ _ ___ _ __ __ _ _ .1
brations with the large free-air chambers necessary Shutter operation______________________________ .1
in the medium energy region call for relatively Stray radiation _____ .. __________________________ .1
large distances between the chamber and the tube Irradiation field nonuniformity __ __ _ __ _ __ __ __ __ __ .2
focus in order to keep the beam divergence inside
the chamber within permissible limits. For this TotaL _ __ _ __ __ __ __ _ __ _ _ __ __ __ _ __ __ __ _ _ _ ± 1. 9
reason instruments will, as a rule, be calibrated at •see subsection IIA for components of this uncertainty.
low exposure rates. Maximum exposure rates
among the standardization laboratories who This evaluation does not take into account the
answered the questionnaire range between 2 and uncertainty in the reading of the instrument to
20 R/min at medium filtration.· At the heaviest be calibrated. The estimated maximum 13 uncer-
filtration used, maximum exposure rates obtain- tainty therefore is:
able at the calibration position were sometimes as
low as 0.1 R/min. ± (1.9 percent+reading uncertainty of instrument
These exposure rates have the disadvantage of to be calibrated).
being generally much lower than those for which
the instruments will be used. Furthermore, the 2. Exposure Meters Used for 0.5 to a Few Mev
calibration of insensitive instruments will take
considerable time, which may introduce appreci- This section deals with the calibration of ref er-
able errors due to instability and leakage. In ence and field instruments against exposure stand-
order to investigate these sources of error, it is ards in the energy range from about 0.5 to a few
recommended that, in addition to calibration, the Mev. These exposure standards, which are de-
relevant tests from those mentioned below (Test- scribed in section IIA2, are graphite ionization
ing Procedures Associated with Calibration) should chambers, except in the U.S.S.R. where a pres-
be performed. surized air chamber is used. There has for
For the calibration of a high sensitivity instru- some time been discussion as to which point
ment very low exposure rates may be required. in a cavity ionization chamber should be taken
These. exposure rates can be obtained by high as the effective point of measurement but it is
filtrat10n, but the resulting spectral distribution now generally accepted that the center of the
may differ appreciably from that for which the chamber should be taken as this point (Burlin,
instrument is to be used in the field. If the cali- 1959). It is the practice of all the standardizing
bration factor for the instrument is very energy laboratories to place the center of the ionization
dependent, such a modification of the spectrum chamber of the reference instrument at the
may not be acceptable. In such a case one of the specified point in the beam of radiation. The
following methods may be pref erred. source-chamber distance used in the various
(i) Low x-ray tube current. This can be rec- laboratories varies from 70 to 180 cm and the field
ommended where unstable leakage currents or 13 With the best tec'miques, some of t'1ese errors can be redured. For
other causes do not render the maintenance of a example, in the case of a highly stabilized output, t"e total monitor-induced
uncertainty can be reduced to about 0.1 percent. However, for x rays gene-
sufficiently constant low tube current difficult. rated by potentials of less than 60 kev, the total uncertainty may be larger.

61
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 sizes at the calibration positions from 4.5 X 4.5 question of policy of the individual standardiza-
cm to 33X33 cm. One laboratory has published tion laboratories as to whether they can investigate
an account of its calibration technique (Barnard such irregularities in detail. If such service is not
et al., 1956). available at the calibration center, the owner may
There is no general agreement on the uncer- wish to perform his own special tests or have them
tainties associated with such calibrations. The done elsewhere.
major source of disagreement arises from the In a number of cases, however, conditions during
uncertainties associated with the exposure calibration will make it imperative that the stand-
standard. ardization laboratories test at least some of the
instruments' properties before calibration. All
3. Exposure-Rate Meters tests should be done after proper warming-up time
For the calibration of an exposure rate meter and, if possible, repeated after an interval.
its position, P, in the x-ray beam and the target a. Zero drift. In instruments where the radia-
current are so adjusted that the desired scale tion sensitive part (e.g., the ionization chamber)
reading is obtained. When high stability tube is permanently connected to the measuring instru-
output is used, the exposure rate in the beam ment, zero drift should be determined. This test
at this position is then determined by the standard should be carried out after a period of at least 12
or by a reference instrument. It should be noted hours during which the exposure meter has not
that the time enters here only in the measurement been irradiated.
with the standard or reference instrument and b. Leakage in ionization chamber exposure me-
not with the instrument to be calibrated. There- ters. Ordinary leakage, due to inadequate insula-
fore, an absolute value determination is necessary. tion, can be determined by giving the collector
Thus, when an exposure standard for 60 to 400 s1stem a charge which produces a reading of about
kv x rays is used, the estimated maximum 73 total scale or more and observing during an ade-
uncertainty found for the calibration of exposure quate period whether there is any appreciable loss.
meters will be augmented by ±0.2 percent for Stem leakage in exposure or exposure rate in-
time measurements, giving a total of ± (2.1 struments, due to ionization gains or losses in
percent+reading uncertainty of instrument to insufficiently shielded air cavities in the stem can
be calibrated). be determined by placing the ionization chamber
When, however, a reference instrument is used, together with the stem in a uniform beam of radi-
which has been calibrated with good techniques ation of sufficient diameter. Readings are to be
the evaluation will be: ' taken with shielded and unshielded stem. Care
Percent must be exercised to assure that scattering from
Calibration of reference instrument__ __ __ __ __ __ __ ± 1. 9 the shield does not adversely affect the results.
Reading error with reference instrument__________ .2
Time measurements_________ __ __ __ __ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .2 This test is also appropriate for exposure-rate
Monitor ____ . _____________________________ . _ . _ *. 4 meters. If insufficiently-shielded preamplifiers are
Distance___ __ __ _ .1 housed in the stem, even weak stray radiation
Shutter operatio; __ ~===== := :=============
Stray radiation____________ _ __ ____________ __ _ :===== .
. 11
may have appreciable effects. In this case the
Irradiation field non uniformity ____ . _ __ __ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ .2 stem may have to be shielded from all sides to
find these effects.
TotaL _ _ _ _ ____ . ___________________ . _ __ ± 3. 2 If an appreciable stem leakage is found, this
'If a monitor is used, the exposure rate (L) is found by the formula should be stated in the calibration report, as well
as the length of the part of stem exposed during
calibration. DIN 6817 (1962) requires that, if
where E=the exposure measured by the standard or refPrence instrument in
the ionization chamber is shielded while other
position P during the time in which a charge 0 1 is collected in the monitor. irradiation conditions remain the same, no reading
02=the charge collected in the monitor during a time tin which the instru-
ment to he calihrntcd, in position P, is kept exaetly at the desired scale reading may be detectable. This procedure, apt though
by manual regulation of the target current. it may be to detect any spurious charges leaking
T~is figure al.so is to be augmented by the
to the collector part of the instrument, is unable
readmg uncertamty of the instrument to be to detect any loss of charge through leakage to
calibrated. earth. To cover both possibilities, this test
At high exposure rates care should be taken would have to be done with and without an initial
that saturation conditions in the reference instru- charge on the collector.
ment, as well as in the monitor, are satisfied. c. Exposure-rate dependence. Many exposure
or exposure-rate meters are of a design which
4. Testing Procedures Associated with Calibration makes the determination of saturation curves by
a standardization laboratory impracticable. More-
A common experience of standardization labo- over, lack of saturation need not be the only cause
ratories is that during calibration a number of of exposure-rate dependency.
instruments to be calibrated show irregularities of The only decisive way of testing exposure rate
some kind, which make calibration difficult or im- dependence is a calibration both at high and low
possible. Furthermore, the presence of stem leak- exposure rates.
age and the like will have a certain influence upon d. Radiation-quality dependence. Standardiz-
the calibration results. It is, of course, largely a ing laboratories will in general calibrate exposure

62
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 or exposure-rate meters only at the radiation Acco~ding to this inquiry, the acceptable un-
qualities requested. It is, however, recommended, certamty for reference and field instruments in
if an instrument is to be calibrated at one fixed the range between 100 kv and a few M v varied
quality in a region where quality dependence may generally between 2 and 5 percent. This means
be suspected, that the standardization laboratory that generally high accuracy was required.
advise the owner to have the instrument cali- The industry stated that it is not in a position
brated at some adjacent qualities, in order to to meet the extremes of the users' requirements.
obtain an idea about the instrument's quality It claimed, however, to be able to meet them to
dependence. a large extent.
e. Anisotropy. Ionization chambers which are This statement can easily be confirmed as far
apparently axially symmetrical sometimes show as measuring range and sensitive volume di-
marked nonuniformity of wall thickness. Also, mensions are concerned. It has, however, been
the collector electrode may be eccentrically shown (ICRU Report, 1959, section 7.2) that the
positioned. Either of these may cause a sensitiv- accuracy of commercial instruments has in a
ity shift when the orientation of the chamber number of cases been overrated. Therefore, in
in the beam is changed. The standardization the next section recommendations have been
laboratory should either measure the influence of made for the performance of reference instruments.
these factors, especially when low-energy radia-
tion is used, or indicate the orientation of the 2. Performance of Reference Instrunients 14
chamber relative to the beam when the chamber a. Calibration. All reference instruments
was calibrated. should be calibrated and a written report of the
f. Scale characteristics. If one or more points results should be available.
on the scale of an exposure meter have been This report should indicate: (i) The correction
calibrated, the rest of the scale of those instru- factors by which the readings are to be multiplied
ments where the chamber or other radiation to obtain the exposure or exposure rate for each
sensitive part is continuously connected to the radiation quality at which the instrument was
measuring part may be tested by means of a calibrated; (ii) scale readings of the calibration
constant exposure rate, e.g., from a radioactive point(s) or interval(s); (iii) for unsealed chambers,
source. The chamber should be exposed to this temperature and pressure (corrected for humidity)
radiation in such a way that the pointer moves for which the correction factors are valid; (iv)
slowly (e.g., 1-2 scale divisions per minute). Vari- readings shortly before or after calibration with
ation of the timing for different parts of the scale any checking device provided with the instru-
is then a measure of the lack of uniformity of the ment; (v) the exposure standard against which
scale. the instrument was calibrated; and (vi) the date
D. Instrument Performance of calibration.
1. Requirements The correction factors should enable the user
to measure exposure with a maximum uncertainty
The requirements are of necessity a compromise of ± 3 percent at the qualities and readings
between the wishes of the user and the ability of indicated. (This uncertainty applies in the range
the manufacturer to satisfy them. For clinical where the calibration uncertainty against the
instruments, the limits of the user's needs can, exposure standard is about ± 2 percent.)
to a certain degree, be derived from an inquiry b. Scale characteristics. The scale error de-
made by Ellis (1959) and from the inquiry
pends on the reading and indication uncertainty
mentioned below.
and scale nonlinearity of the measuring device
General requirements can be found, for instance,
(electrometer, scaler, potentiometer, etc.). It
in the Report of the ICRU (1959), the "Code of
Practice for X-ray Measurements" prepared b~, should not exceed ± 1 percent of the full scale
the Hospital Physicists' Association (1960) and, reading.
c. Leakage. Errors may result from insulation
in more detail, in the draft DIN 6817 (1962) of
effects (inherent and induced leakage and elec-
the German Standardization Commission.
An inquiry was made among a number of trical aftereffects) and stem leakage. The latter
radiologists, physicists, and institutions in Bel- may cause errors of considerable amount in a con-
gium, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Sweden, denser ionization chamber using high energy x and
and the United Kingdom in order to obtain in- gamma radiation (Braestrup and Mooney, 1958).
formation about their requirements regarding Leakage should be tested routinely. The cor-
sensitivity, accurac~', and other physical properties rection due to leakage should not exceed 1 percent
of the instruments. The information obtained of the value measured.
was partly collected by and discussed with d. Exposure-rate dependence. Errors due to
representatives of industrial firms, in order to exposure-rate dependence generally result fro1!1
know to what extent commercial instruments saturation defects or dead-time effects. It is
could meet the users' demands. recommended that the operating instructions of
It was found that the requirements regarding the instrument should state over what range
acceptable uncertainty had a rather large spread the error due to exposure-rate dependence does
lying partly within the limits of maximum cali- not exceed 1 percent.
bration error as evaluated in the preceding section. u This subsection includes excerpts from ICRU Report (1959).

63

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084

by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 e. Energy dependence. It is not possible to 2. Field and Point of Measurement
make an ionization chamber of the cavity type The exposure rate in air at a point on the central
with an energy-independent response over a wide ray increases with the area of the beam, due to
range of radiation quality. It is therefore rec- the increased contribution of off-focus emission
ommended that the instrument should not be and radiation scattered from the diaphragm sys-
used outside the quality range for which it has tem, from the irradiated air and from other ob-
been calibrated unless the energy dependency jects. This is exemplified in figure IIIEl for a
there i~ sufficiently well known for the desired 250 kv x ray machine (Farr, 1955a).
measurmg accuracy.
f. Incident-beam-direction dependency. Errors More marked variation is introduced by scat-
due to this source may be eliminated by irradiating tered radiation from the walls and end plate of an
the chamber in the same orientation relative to applicator (cone). The magnitude of the effect
the beam as during its calibration against the depends upon the design of the applicator; repre-
exposure standard. sentative figures for 50-250 kv x rays have been
g. Atmospheric temperature, pressure and hu- given by Bradshaw (1953) and Bailey and Beyer
midity. If the chamber is not hermetically (1957).
sealed, it is recommended that accurate instru- The presence of such scattered radiation may
ments be available for the measurement of atmos- be demonstrated by measuring the exposure rate
pheric conditions to determine the correction at points along the central ray and plotting the
factor. After moving the instrument to a new product of the exposure and the square of the dis-
location, it should be permitted time to attain tance to the source, versus distance. Typical
temperature and pressure equilibrium before results are shown in figure IIIE2 for 250 kv x rays
measurements are made. Attention is called to and a closed-ended applicator (Farr, 1955a).
the possibility that chambers usually not sealed In the megavoltage region, the amount of radi-
may inadvertently become sealed because of a ation scattered by the irradiated material is less
very tight-fitting outer wall or other defects. dependent upon the atomic number of the ma-
h. Operation and constancy checks. It is rec- terial but more of the low energy scattered radia-
ommended that a carefully constructed checking tion is absorbed by a higher than by a low atomic
device containing a radioactive source for the number scatterer. The radiation observed from
irradiation of the chamber in a fixed geometry a high atomic number scatterer may thus have a
be available. If the chamber is not hermetically higher average energy than that for a low atomic
sealed, readings must be corrected for temperature, number (Martin and Muller, 1961). The amount
humidity, and pressure. of scatter produced from source capsule, dia-
phragms, etc., depends less on the type of materials
E. Measurement Techniques used than on the geometrical construction. Pub-
lished data of the dependence of output from var-
1. Composition of the Radiation Beam ious megavoltage apparatus upon the beam size
The beam includes: confirm this. The data also show that the pro-
(i) primary radiation (including any off-focus portion of scattered radiation in the beam does
emission), not vary very widely with energy from 1-4 Mev.
(ii) scattered radiation which is able to reach They also suggest that the actual geometrical
the ionization chamber from any part of the col- relationships between the source, diaphragm, and
limating system, including applicators (cones), chamber may affect the amount of scatter only
etc., and from the irradiated air, by a few percent of the total radiation, provided
(iii) corpuscular radiation (electrons) arising care is taken to minimize this in the diaphragm
from similar places and able to reach the chamber. design. This is illustrated in figure IIIE3.
(Normally, these electrons are almost completely In radiotherapy, the exposure. rate in air is
absorbed in the wall of the chamber and therefore commonly measured either at a point correspond-
do not contribute significantly to its reading; see ing to the surface of the object to be irradiated
footnote 11 at beginning of this section for a de- or at the center of revolution of a moving source.
tailed discussion of electron contamination). Where no applicators are used, the point of

100
BEAM AREA AT POSITION OF CHAMBER, cm 1

FIGURE IIIEI. Variation of relative exposure rate in air with field area
(source-chamber distance, SCD, 50 cm; HVL 1.8 mm Cu), the beam
being defined by a simple diaphragm 21 cm from the source (Farr,
1955a).

64
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 APPLICATOR FACE

55 60 65 70 75 80
DISTANCE OF CHAMBER FROM FOCAL SPOT, cm
FIGURE IIIE2. I(F /50) 2 plotted against F for a closed ended applicator (SCD 50 cm, 10 cm
diameter, HVL 1.8 mm Cu) where I is the measured exposure rate on the central ray at distance F
from the source (Farr, 1955a).

1.12
i.J
1-
4
a:
..·•• B
.~··· E
i.J
~ 1.08
Ill F
~
)(
i.J
a: 1.04
ct
z
i.J
>
~ 1.00
..J
i.J
a:
0.96!..---....,l--.L..---L--1-....1......,.L---...,.,!.,,....-.L..--,.,!,-=------'
10 20 40 60 BO 100 200 400
AREA OF FIELD AT POINT OF MEASUR~MENT
FIGURE IIIE3. Variation of relative exposure rate with field area for various
equipments, designated by reference letters only.
Curves A: Co-60 (type• A'). A good flt for data at 60, 70 and 75 cm source-chamber distance (SCD)
(Wilson, unpublished}. Data for a csm gamma beam apparatus also flt this curve (Burns, unpub·
lished); B: 2 Mv generator (type 'B'), 100 cm SCD, (Burns, unpublished); C: Co" (type 'C').
SCD 80 cm, multivane diaphragm (Kemp and Burns, 1958). This data Is also a close fit for 4 Mv
data; D: Co" (type 'D'), SCD 60 cm (Burns, unpublished). For curves A,B,C, and D relative
outputs are taken as unity for a 4x4 cm field; E: 300 kv generator (type 'E'). 4 mm Cu HVL, SCD
50 cm (Trout, Kelley, and Lucas, unpublished); and F: 2000 kv generator (type 'F'). 7 mm Pb
HVL, SCD, 100 cm (Trout et al., unpublished). For curves E and F relative outputs are taken
as unity for a 5x5 cm field.

measurement will be freely accessible. When rection does not take into account the effect of the
open-ended applicators are used, the ionization scattered radiation from the applicator sides and
chamber should be placed in the middle of the end which may introduce an error of a few percent,
x-r-ay field with its center as nearly as possible and which will increase with chamber size. For
in the place of the end of the applicator (Hospital higher accuracy an extrapolation technique may
Physicists' Association, 1960). be applied.
With closed-ended applicators, the exposure rate 3. Special Problems Relating to Low-Voltage
in air at the surface may be obtained with sufficient X Rays
accuracy (Hospital Physicists' Association, 1960)
for most purposes by making measurements in The measurement of exposure rate in air at the
the middle of the field with the chamber (or its open end of an applicator presents particular
stem) in contact with the surface and applying a problems in the 5-50 kv range: This is due to
simple inverse-square-law correction. This cor- (a) the short SSD in comparison with the diameter
65

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084

by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 of typical thimble chambers, and (b) their wave- (v) Measurements should be repeated from time
length dependence in this energy region. For the to time to determine possible variations in output.
design of special chambers for this purpose, con- The output of an x-ray tube often decreases
sideration must be given to (i) minimizing the throughout its useful life due to increased absorp-
absorption in the chamber walls, and (ii) ensuring tion caused by the roughening of the target and by
saturation at high dose rates. The exposure rate the deposition of tungsten on the tube window,
in air may be measured with a compact free air and to other factors. The drop in output is
chamber (Greening, 1960), but this may not, usually greatest with low filtration. The output
for reasons of geometry, include the soft secondary of some multisection x-ray tubes has been found
radiation from the walls of such an applicator to vary with tube angulat1on. When determining
(Meredith, 1940). Suitable secondary chambers the reduction in output, due to radioactive
have been described by Oosterkamp and Proper decay of a cesium source, it is necessary to take
(1952) and Tranter (1961). account not only of the decay of the Cs 137 (half-
life 30 yr), but also of any contamination by Cs 134
4. Output Measurement Technique (half-life 2.3 yr) (Wheatley et al., 1960).
The specification of the output of an x-ray tube F. Exposure Distribution in the Beam
or gamma-ray beam source requires a statement
of the measurement conditions. These include This subsection considers the distribution of
(i) the voltage, tube current, filter, HVL, and exposure or exposure rate in a plane normal to
other pertinent operating conditions of the x-ray the central ray, at the usual SSD in air. If the
machine, or the nuclide(s) and the date in the distribution of exposure rate is circt1larly sym-
case of a gamma-ray beam source; (ii) the source- metrical about the central ray, then it is necessary
chamber distance, the beam dimensions employed, only to map the distribution along one line
and the type of collimator·. perpendicular to the central ray. Such symmetry
The following precautions should be taken in usually exists for a transmission x-ray target.
the measurement of output. If, however, the electrons do not all have the same
(i) Care should be taken to minimize extraneous velocity and if they are bent by a magnetic field
radiation from nearby objects. before striking the target, some asymmetry may
(ii) Sufficient time must be allowed for the ex- be introduced into the exposure distribution
posure meter to achieve temperature and pressure (Newberry and Bewley, 1955). The distribution
equilibrium with its surroundings. Appropriate of exposure rate from a reflection x-ray target
corrections for the actual temperature and pres- does not usuallv show such circular svmmetrv
sure conditions must be applied to the readings and it is necessary to map it along two lines,
obtained.
perpendicular to the central ray. One of .these
(iii) The measurement should be made at the lines should be parallel and the other perpendicular
point of interest. The location of this point has
been discussed in section IIIE2. In using to the tube axis.
published depth-exposure data, it should be recog-
nized that the exposure at the surface is affected 1. Gamma Beam Equipment
more by the scatter contributions from the col-
limating system (including applicators) than is the The distribution of exposure rate is usually
exposure in a depth. In view of this variation, a symmetrical but tends to drop more rapidly toward
measurement taken at 5 cm depth in water the periphery of the :field than would be expected
(equivalent) phantom may be a more reliable from the inverse square law.
basis for use of published depth-exposure data in
radiotherapy. 2. Transmission X-Ray Targets
(iv) The field size should not be so large as to
produce undue scattered radiation and to irradiate For high-energy g~ne~ato~s which use trans-
unnecessarily large parts of the exposure-meter mission targets the d1stnbut10n of exposure rate
insulator. 15 On the other hand, the beam size is usually svmmetrical but shows a greater falloff
should not be so small as to prevent the whole of toward the·edge of the field than is the case with
the effective volume of the chamber seeing the a gamma-ray beam eguipment. It is governed
entire source. The measurement, therefore, in- principally by the physical laws of bremsstrahlung
evitably includes a small percentage of scattered and, to a lesser extent, by obliquity of filtration of
radiation. The :field size employed should be as the x rays in their pas~age through the target and
close as practicable to that used in the calibration other filters. Fortunately, such generators are
of the chamber though, in general, a field size of able to produce copious output and it is usual to
10X10 cm, or 10-cm diameter, is recommended employ a conical filter so shaped as to make the
for 250-kv equipment (Farr, 1955a) and for exposure rate in air nearly constant across the
gamma-beam equipments (Braestrup and Mooney, field. For example, the exposu~e rate may be
1958). made uniform across a 30-cm-diameter field at
100-cm SSD by sacrificing one-thfrd of the output
" Useful figures for typical radiation-induced Jel\kage have been given by
Braestrup and Mooney (1958) [nr a common type of condenser chamber
on the central ray of a 4-M v linear accelerator
exposure meter. (Greene and Tranter, 1956).
66
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 3. Reflection X-Ray Targets direction, depending on the target angle of the
tube. (The target angle is the angle between
The distribution of exposure rate from a reflec- the direction of the electron stream and the
tion target has neither the symmetry nor compara- normal to the target face.)
tive uniformity of that from a gamma-ray beam Figures IIIF2 and IIIF3 illustrate the wide
equipment. Nor is t~ere usually available ~he range of distributions which can be shown by
high output to permit the use of a flattenmg tubes of different makes operating at the same
filter, such as is provided by the high energy voltage. These curves indicate that these dis-
x-ray machine. tributions are the product of three effects
a. Exposure distribution along a line perpen- depicted diagrammatically in figure IIIF4 and
dicular to the tube axis. The exposure rate usually discussed by Farr (1955b).
decreases svmmetrically on either side of the (i) The symmetrical factors, identical with
central ray 'by an amount determined by (i) the those affecting the distribution of exposure rate
inverse square law, (ii) obliquity of filtration, and along the line perpendicular to the tube axis,
(iii) the design of the tube, and the windows of would produce a similar distribution along this
tube and housing. Tubes of different makes may line (curve a).
vary in this respect (fig. IIIFl), a particularly (ii) The predominantly forward emission of
poor distribution being produced (curve IV) by x rays generated at any point within the target
a reentrant oil displacement cone (Farr, 1955b). 110.------.-------,---,-------,----,-----,
b. Exposure distribution along a line parallel to
the tube axis. The exposure rate does not usually 10
decrease symmetrically on either side but falls off w
more rapidly in eithe~ the cathode or the anode ~
a:
wll01~--~---~--~---~--~---~ w
a:
~ ::>
a: (/)
0
~I ~ 8
::> w
(/)
0 w
0.. >
x I-
w
w
~ 7
w
~ a:
I-
~ 80 c A
w B B
a:
15 10 5 0 5 10 15 15 10 5 0 5 10 15
DISTANCE FROM CENTRAL RAY, cm DISTANCE FROM CENTRAL RAY, cm
FIGURE IIIFl. Relative exposure rate along a line perpen- FIGURE IIIF2. Relative exposure rate along a line perpen-
dicular to both the tube axis and the central ray· (50 cm dicular to the central ray and parallel to the tube axis
source-chamber distance, 200-265 kv, HVL 1.7 mm Cu) (otherwise same conditions as figure IIIF1) for a number
.for a number of different makes of tube. of tubes of different makes and target angles. (Farr.,
Dashed line shows effect of inverse square law (Farr, 1955b). 1955b).

w
1-
<I
a:
w
a:
::>
(/)
0
0..
x
w
w
>
1-
<I
~

::! 8

CATHODE ANODE

15 10 5 0 5 15
DISTANCE FROM CENTRAL RAY, cm

FIGURE IIIF3. Relative exposure rate distribution across the field of an x-ray
tube operated at 100--140 kv.
(a) Parallel to tube axis of 45 degree target.
(b) Perpendicular to tube axis of 20 degree target (Farr, unpublished).
67
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 I.I

w
I-
<(
0::

w
0::
::>
<fl
~I 0 ---
X
w
-
c

.............."'-..

w
>
I-
<(
_J
w
0::

CENTRAL
RAY
0.9 I I
CAT HOOE ANOOE

15 10 5 0 5 10 15
DISTANCE IN cm ALONG A LINE PARALLEL TO TUBE AX IS
FIGURE IIIF4. Diagrammatic representation· of (a) symmetrical factors
applying to distribution along any line, (b) emission effect, (c) heel
effect applying to distribution of exposure rate along a line parallel to
the tube axis.
produces a rise of exposure rate from the cathode At lower kilovoltages, similar considerations
to the anode end of the field (curve b). The hold. The optimum angle at 140 kv and HVL
magnitude of this "forward emission" effect 3 mm aluminum is about 45 degrees (Farr,
increases with tube voltage. 1955b). Atlee and Trout (1943) recommend the
(iii) The ab3orption of the rays, generated at use of a curved target.
a depth within the target, increasea as the angle
made with the target face by the emergent ray 4. Desirable Distribution of Exposure Rate m
decreases. This "heel effect" causes a decrease Air
of exposure rate from the cathode to the anode
end of the field (curve c), and becomes less marked a. Radiotherapy. Undue variation of expo-
the greater the filtration. 16 The absorption, in sure rate in air across the section of the beam
the target, of x radiation which originates from distorts the isodose curves in a phantom in such
its interior is too complex for satisfactory theoreti- a way to make the application of general isodose
cal treatment. It has been estimated (Farr, curves uncertain (Farr, 1955b). The distribution
1955b) that the effective depth of penetration of of exposure rate in air should therefore be as
the cathode stream at 250 kv is about 5 microns uniform as can be obtained by reasonable care in
and. that, in a typical tube, this produces an the design of the tube and the housing window.
eqmvalent filtration oi the central rav of about They should be designed so as to produce as
0:2 mm Cu. The corresponding equiv~lent filtra- uniform as possible a distribution of exposure rate
tion for a tube operated at 10-50 kv has been along a line perpendicular to the tube axis, and
estimated (Jennings, 1953) as 0.04 mm aluminum. the angle of the target should be chosen to give,
. c. Optimum target angle. The above considera- for the desired quality range of radiation, a
tions suggest that it may be possible to choose distribution of exposure rate along a line parallel
the target angle (in relation to tube voltage and to the tube axis as symmetrical as possible. In
filtration) so as roughlv to balance the two unsym- this way, the distribution can be made approxi-
metrical cm~ves b and cand thus produce a nearlv matelv symmetrical about the central ray with
symn~etrical distribution of exposure rate along some ·decrease in exposure rate at the periphery.
the hne parallel to the tube axis. Indeed, it If a single x-ray tube is used over a wide range
appears (Farr, 1955b) that at 250 kv the heel of voltages, e.g., 100-300 kv, account must be
and emission effects can be balanced so that the taken of the change of exposure distribution which
distribution along that line follows curve a the may occur over that range. Under these cir-
same as that along the line perpendicular t~ the cumstances, the tube should have a target angle
tube axis. appropriate to the lower voltage; i.e., 45 degrees.
With low filtration (HVL=0.5 mm copper) It is possible to design an aluminum filter for
this is achieved at 250 kv by a target angle of use at the higher voltage which will compensate
about 30 degrees. With increasing filtration the for the unsymmetrical distribution of exposure
hee~ effect becomes less pronounced, and' the rate in the anode-cathode direction. Similarly,
optunum angle becomes somewhat smaller (Farr it is possible to design special filters to make the
1955b). ' exposure rate in air constant over the useful
beam, which may be desirable for some purposes
"The "heel effect" also results in an increase of HVL from cathode to the
anode side of the beam (see section IV). (Farr, 1955b).
68
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 tion beams and of the radiation at points within
an irradiated medium are discussed in subsection
IVC. If the spectrum of the incident radiation
-----
ILi
~100
a:: ....---,,,,,,,,,. -....-- ........ is known, the scattered radiation within the
ILi
/ '' medium may be calculated under certain condi-
a::
i1l I
I
'' tions of radiological interest. Some equivalent
0
a.
x
BO

I
I "'
'\. HVL's of the total radiation for various fields are
also given.
ILi I The relative biological effectivess of various
ILi 60 I
> I radiations is best correlated with the radiation
I-
<(
I quality expressed in terms of the microscopic dis-
-'
ILi 40
tribution of energy along the tracks of the ionizing
cc
CATHODE - -
particles. Subsection IVD contains a brief dis-
LEFT SIDE---- cussion of the initial distribution of electrons set
in motion in an irradiated medium and of the
20 10 0 10 20 30 energy deposition by these electrons.
DISTANCE FROM CENTRAL RAY, cm

FIGURE IIIF5. Distribution of exposure rate across B. Quality of the Incident Beam Expressed in Terms of
the field of a diagnostic x-ray tube (Kemp, 1946). Potential, Half Value Layer and Other Parameters
to ~~~!~~e indicates anode-cathode distribution; dotted line, normal
1. Specification of Quality by a Single Parameter
b. Radiography. In radiography the desirable
target angle is governed by other considerations. a. Tube potential. In the case of radiation
For this application the angle is usually small and from high-energy x-ray machines (1 to 4 Mv),
the "heel" effect pronounced. There is a marked quality is frequently described simply by a state-
fall of exposure rate towards the anode end of the ment of the accelerating potential, provided such
field (fig. IIIF5) which becomes more pronounced beams are heavily filtered by the transmission tar-
as the target roughens during the life of the tube get. The choice of this somewhat inadequate
(Beetlestone and Thurmer, 1958). Because of the specification of quality may be attributed to the
latitude of films and the tolerance ot the human less rapid variation of attenuation coefficients
eye, the heel effect is generally of little account with energy in this region, thus rendering the
in radiography. It is sometimes turned to good methods of quality specification based on attenu-
purpose if gross variations in the thickness of the ation less precise than at lower energies. The
subject can be matched by variations of exposure same quality specification is frequently used at
dose rate across the field. lower energies when the radiation suffers con-
A tul_>e desi~ned for radiography, with a steep siderable attenuation, such as in certain problems
target, IS unsmtable for therapy or other applica- in radiation protection and x-ray diagnosis.
tions where a uniform field is required (fig. IIIF2 b. Hal,j value layer (HVL). The HVL is that
and IIIF3). thickness of material necessary to produce a re-
duction to 50 percent of the initial exposure rate.
IV. The Specification and Measurement of Suitable materials for such measurements, and
Radiation Quality details of recommended techniques, are discussed
in subsection IVB6. This method has been very
A. Introduction widely used for x rays, especially in the field of
radiation therapy where is has been most useful .
. A complete speci~cation of x and gamma radia- However, it is not always an adequate specifica-
t10n at the place of mterest must include not only tion for the determination of percentage depth
an expression of quantity, such as exposure or dose (Jennings, 1950; Trout et al., 1962) or back-
energy fluence, but also information as to the scatter factor (Greening, 1954; Trout et al., 1962).
quality of the radiation. Such information is HVL can be improved as a specification of quality
required to predict the penetration of a beam of by restricting the combination of filter and kv
radiation, to calculate differential absorption in used to produce such a value of HVL (Thoraeus,
various materials and in attempting to explain 1936, 1958), but in such circumstances the speci-
variations in biological effectiveness. As a meas- fications almost fall into the category discussed
ure of the penetrating ability of a beam, it has below (tube potential and HVL).
been the practice to express the quality in terms For gamma ray beams identification of the
of the ha.If-value layer (HVL). This single pa- source(s) is generally sufficient, although attenu-
rameter Is usually inadequate. and additional ation measurements of gamma ray beams are
parameters are required. A discussion of the sometimes made and the HVL quoted. Even
HVL and related ways of expressing the quality with good geometry, it is not possible to eliminate
of a radiation beam is given in subsection IVB. scattered radiation entirely. The observed HVL
A more complete expression of the quality of x is therefore somewhat less than that calculated for
and gamma rays is the spectral distribution of the known source energy levels (see subsection
fluence, energy fluence, or exposure as a function IVB6a(2)).
of photon energy. Spectral distributions of radi- c. Attenuation coefficient. If a tangent is
69
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 drawn to an attenuation curve plotted semiloga-
rithmically, the slope of this tangent gives the
attenuation coefficient of the radiation after pass-
ing through the absorber thickness at which the
tangent was drawn. Special cases are tangents
3

2
=----,-r-···.··
---~ .··-. -1
-- =- I~'· ·
at the origin (Taylor, 1931) and at very large S' \
absorber thicknesses. -- - -~,\ -- - - --
~

d. Equivalent wavelength or equivalent energy. .,

>

/JV-~
-"' I
One of the oldest methods of specifying the quality a::
of a heterogeneous radiation beam is to express it w
CL
in terms of wavelength or energy of that mono- w /)) ~ (a)

chromatic radiation which would show the same f-

<!
0
3
particular property as the heterogeneous radia- a::
w j \
tion; e.g., same HVL in a certain absorber. This a::
wavelength or energy is then called the equivalent
wavelength or equivalent energy of the hetero-
::>
Cf)

22 2
/"
v
I\
geneous radiation. It is essential in any such
statement of quality to indicate the respect in
x
w I \ I
iI
I /\\ "
--
52
which the radiations are equivalent, as different I
I

I \. S'2
equivalent wavelengths or energies will result r-- ...... (b)
-:::::::::: .....
from consideration of different properties_ of the
radiations. - 0 /
v /~
~~
2
r-:: ~
"'-
0 40 80 120 160 200
2. Specification of Quality by Two Parameters PHOTON ENERGY, kev

a. Tube pctential and HVL. Bell (1936) FIGURE IVBl a and lb. Spectral distribution of
thought that these two parameters were sufficient exposure rate for x rays produced by (a) 100 kv
to give the spectral distribution of the radiation, accelerating potential, 4 mm Al inherent + 1.67 mm
Al + 0.87 mm Cu filtration (curve 8 1) and (b) 220
but Jones (1940) showed this to be inadequate for kv, 4 mm Al inherent filtration only (curve 8 2).
some purposes. However, for most clinical pur- (Hettinger and Starfelt, 1958a).
poses these two parameters give an appropriate Curves S' and S" are the calculated spectral distributions after the
specification of radiation quality and are recom- radiation has passed through land 2 HVL of Cu, respectively.
mended in preference to a statement of HVL only. Increasing aluminum filtration results first in a
b. HVL and homogeneity coefficient, h. The less, and then in a more homogeneous beam.
HVL is that thickness of material necessary to Thus the coefficient h will possess first a maximum,
reduce the initial exposure rate to 50 percent, and and then a minimum, with increasing filtration
the second HVL is the additional thickness neces- (see also Wagner, 1957). A similar effect would
sary to reduce the exposure rate to 25 percent be expected to occur with lightly filtered x rays
of the initial value. The ratio of the first to the above 200 kv (see, for example, fig. IVBlb), in
second HVL is termed the homogeneity coefficient, which there is an appreciable amount of K-charac-
h, and is unity for monoenergetic rays. teristic radiation. Under these conditions, the
Figures IVBla and IVBlb (Hettinger and homogeneity coefficient, h, is no longer a useful
Starfelt, 1958a) show the spectral distributions of concept.
radiations produced by 100 kv and 220 kv accel-
erating potentials, respectively. These radia- 3. Specification of Quality in Terms of Depth
tions have approximately the same HVL (0.59 and Dose in Tissue
0.55 mm of copper) but obviously very different
spectral distributions. This difference is charac- For low voltage x-ray treatments, a measure of
terized by their very different homogeneity co- radiation penetration in soft tissue forms a useful
efficients of 0.88 and 0.40, respectively. Trout concept of "quality". If this were to be a meas-
et al., (1962) have made a d£tailed examination of ure of the radiation beam leaving the tube, it
the homogeneity coefficient for many radiation would have to be expressed in terms of percentage
beams. A few of their data are shown in figures depth dose for zei;o field area and infinite SSD.
IVB2 and IVB3 which give homogeneity coeffi- Such a concept has little advantage over attenu-
cients as a function of HVL in copper and alumi- ation measurement,s in aluminum or copper for a
num respectively for x-ray beams produced be- fixed target-chamber distance. On the other
tween 100 and ;)00 kv. hand, the percentage depth dose given for specified
When x-ray beams contain an appreciable field areas and SSD is useful and of direct meaning
amount of characteristic radiation with an energy to the clinician.
considerably different from the peak of the con- The specification adopted may take the form of
tinuous spectrum, the significance of the homogene- a complete depth-exposure curve from the surface
ity coefficient must be reconsidered. As Zieler (100 percent) to the level at which the exposure
(1954, 1957) has shown, the intense L-charac- rate is reduced, say, to 10 percent; or it may be
teristic radiations from tungsten are largely trans- restricted to one or two selected points. The
mitted by tubes containing only 1 mm Be filtra- depth at which the exposure rate has been reduced
tion, yielding relatively homogeneous beams. to 50 percent of the surface value is termed half-
70
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 .,,- ,,,,.,, ~// ~~ r/ ......
I.0
I _;
~VP v' ~,.
I~ II' / ~ ,I j

~ jl
I
I /
. vv I,.~v I VJ
1-· .Br-------- --
z
LI.I
Q
LL
.·
v~v
LL
LI.I
8 v j,./'
>-
1-
w
/ _)/
v
/ ~ ~//
z
w
C>
0
::E /
/ ... /
..... ~,
0
:i:: /
/
v /
~/
v .....3(:;
.4
•
.3
0.1 1.0 10
FIRST HALF- VALUE LAYER, mm Cu
FIGURE IVB2. Homogeneity coefficient as a function of HVL in copper for
radiations generated at 100 to 300 kv.

vv
.71
I JI~
.6 \ /
v
/ v 1.1

\ 7 v/ / ~ l/
00
/
1-·
z
LI.I
0
.5 ~
i.,..~
,,,/7..../ ~v
Li: .4
LL

8 \
I'...._
-
~.,,.

i,...-
~ ....
,,,,,,,,,..z
250/ ~~
>-
-
~

1- .3

:~
w
z
LI.I
C>
0
::E
\ '\ 1 - ........
........
i,...-
,_.
i-"' ....
....
.......
I
2 "--- _i- ......
i--""'
.I

0.1 1.0 10
FIRST HALF-VALUE LAYER, mm Al

FIGURE IVB3. Homegeneity coefficient as a function .of HVL in aluminum

for radiations generated at 100 to 300 kv.
value-depth or HVD or DJ,2 (Mayneord, 1940) and has been studied by Jennings (1950) and Tudden-
this has been advocated as a useful concept (see, ham (1957), and figures are included in tables
for example, Smithers (1946), Jennings (1950; IVBl and IVB2.
1951), Proppe and Wagner (1954)).
However, at low energies, it has been found that 4. Distribution of Quality Over Field Area in Air
(a) the HVD in tissue can vary for a given HVL The predominantly forward emission of x rays
in aluminum, and (b) the depth at which the expo- generated at a point within a reflection target
sure rate is reduced to 10 percent of the surface causes a decrease of the exposure rate from the
value (D,fo) can vary for a given HVD in tissue. cathode to the anode side of the field, as discussed
Both of these factors are dependent on the kv-filter in section III. At the same time, a phenomenon
combination used to obtain the HVL or HVD. (called the "heel" effect) results in an increase in
Their significance for radiations generated under the HVL of the beam from cathode to anode side
50 kv is shown in tables IVBl and IVB2. of the field on account of the internal filtration at
Thus, a two-point specification is desirable. the target. This is exemplified in figure IVB4 for a
This may consist of HVD together with the po- diacrnostic x-ray tube, and in figure IVB5 for two
te~tial employed, or the D,~ and the Dtfo- The deep-therapy x-ray tubes with difftrent target
ratio Dtfo/D~ termed the "Fall-off" Ratio (F.O.R.) angles.
71
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 5. Choice of Appropriate Quality Specification the attenuation curve, though care must be taken
in selecting the point on the curve. For example,
The more rapidly the penetration of the beam if only a s~all fraction of the radiation i~ abs?rbed
varies with energy, the more detailed the knowl- in producmg the effect, 1mch as the cahbrat10n of
edge of radiation quality required. However, for exposure meters, the exposure of photographic
most clinical purposes a statement of the rotential emulsions, or the irradiat~on of thin specimens,
and HVL is recommended. The choice o method one may choose an equivalent wavelength or
is given below in order of successive stages of energy derived by drawing a tangent near ~he
complexity: origin. On the other hand, in some protect10n
a. Specification of nuclide. In gamma-ray beam work and in some diagnostic x-ray measurements
equipment, identification of the source(s) is in which the radiation is heavily attenuated, the
generally an adequate specification of quality, equivalent wavelength should be derived from a
except for those sources where filtration or scat- point of low percentage transmission on the curve.
tering affects the quality. This method is infrequently used in clinical w~rk.
b. Tube potential. When the spectral distribu- f. Tube potential and HVL. At potentials
tion (and hence subsequent penetration) changes under ""0.5 Mv, and in other applications where
slowly with filtration (over ""'1 Mv), the quality the addition of filtration or small changes in
may be specified by the accelerating potential potential can materially alter the penetration, a
alone. This statement may be useful also for statement of potential and HVL is suitable, and
highly filtered low-voltage beams, but for most is generally recommended for clinical work.
applications, this specification is insufficient. g. HVL and homogeneity coefficient, h. When
c. Half value layer. A statement of HVL alone unusual kv-filter combination8 are employed, and
may be sufficient if the kv-filter combinations are the potential is not accurately known. a statement
those normally employed clinically. of the HVL and homogeneity coefficient, h, is
d. Half value depth in "tissue," HVD. For low desirable.
voltage x-ray treatments, the concept of HVD in h. Complete attenuation curve. If a complete
mm "tissue" forms a useful quality specification attenuation curve is measured with sufficient
of direct meaning to a clinician. However, this accuracy, it can be employed to obtain the spec~ral
specification is not restricted to the incident beam distribution of the radiation beam by absorpt10n
(except for zero area and infinite SSD) because analysis (see section IVC2a). A few points only
the HVD is related to a selected field area and on the attenuation curve are sufficient when less
SSD. detailed information is required.
e. Equivalent wavelengt,h or energy. The equiv- i. Spectral distribution. The most complete
alent wavelength or energy can be determined from statement of radiation beam quality is given by
the spectral distribution obtained, as discussed
TAB LE IVB 1. Two examples of the variations in D~2 and D~io in section IVC. This knowledge makes it possible
for a given HVL in Al. All the data relates to a 5-cm- to calculate the relative amount and quality of the
diameter field at 10 cm SSD
scattered radiation at various· points in a medium.
Added HVD (or D~io mm F.O.R.
Such information is usebl, for example, in esti-
HVLmmAl kv(p) filtration D~)mm (see text) mating the dose in nonwater-equivalent tissues,
''tissue''
mm Al "tissue"
in allowing for energy dependence in films and
50 0.40 5.2 5. 5
other doseineters, and in calculating electron and
o.a ________________ { 30 . 44 4. 7
28.6
22.6 4.8 linear-energy-transfer distributions.
20 .60 4.0 16.0 4.0

0.5. _______________ { 50 .55 7.1 34.1 4.8 6. The Measurement of HVL

30 . 74 6. 7 27. 5 4.1
20 1.3 6. 2 22.0 3. 55
a. Materials. Materials chosen for HVL meas-
NOTE: Although the 2 HVD ranges above do not overlap, those for D~io
do. Thus it is possible to have 0.3 mm Al HVL yielding a more "penetrat- Ci
...J
-
ing" beam than one of 0.5 mm Al HVL. >E
:r E

TAB!,E IVB2. Two examples of the variations in D~io for a

given HVD in "tissue'', the data relating to a 5-cm-
diameter field at 10 cm SSD

HVD mm "tissue" kv(p) Ext. ftltra- DJ.i 0 mm F.O.R.

tlon mm Al ''tissue'' (see text)

37 0.1 10.4 5. 2
2.0 _____________________ { 20. 5 .2 9. 7 4.85
16. 5 .3 9.2 4.6
H .4 8.0 4.0

10 ______________________ { 45 1.0 40 4.0

32 1. 5 37 3. 7
27 2.0 35.5 3. 55

NOTE: Possible variations in DJ.io depths are reduced by specifying HVD

FrnuRE IVB4. Distribution of HVL
in "tissue" instead or HVL in Al, but t'1e F.O.R. remains as variable (and
from the cathode to anode side of a
HVD is a function of field size and SSD). Jennings (1951); see also Wagner beam from a diagnostic x-ray tube
(1953). (Kemp, 1946).
72
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 ::> 2.0
(.)

E
E
_J
>
:i:: 1.5

===:;:~CA~T~H~OD~E:::T=======1-~::;;..-~ ANODE
l.OIL-;___ _..J-..;;.;.:..:..:.;,;:..:..:;.....1.._ _ _--..1._ _ _ _i......;.;;.;.;;.;;.;;;.._'."':'-_ _ _ ~

15 10 5 0 5 10 15
DISTANCE FROM CENTRAL RAY PARALLEL TO TUBE AXIS, cm

FIGURE IVB5. Distribution of HVL along a line parallel to the tube axis and
perpendicular to the central ray (200-230 kv, 20 degree and 27 degree targets)
(Farr, unpublished).
1.15·~-----------~-----------~

>-
I-
a::
:J
a..
~Ill.Dl-----1------1------1-----+=----+---__..,
c •

0.95
0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 15
mm Al
HVL in. {~ mm Cu
• mm Pb
FIGURE IVB6. Impurity index, a, as a function of HVL
A. Impurity of l percent Cu in Al (HVL in mm Al)
B. Impurity of l percent Pb in Cu (HVL in mm Cu)
C. Impurity of l percent Fe in Pb (HVL in mm Pb)
The plotted values and full-line curve (B) apply to monoenergetic radiation (discontinuity
arises from Pb K-edge); the chain-dotted curve attempts to display values appropriate to
continuous x-ray spectra.

urements .should be solids of definite composition its K-absorption edge (29 kev). Therefore, tin
and density and which can be made into thin cannot be recommended as a standard material
sheets of uniform thickness. for HVL measurement.
The quality range over which a given material The chemical purity of the material must also
can yield unequivocal values of HVL will depend be considered, particularly at the lower energies,
upon the shape of the graph relating the total where the absorption processes are governed more
absorption coefficient for the material to the by atomic number than by electron den~ity.
energy of the radiation. The occurrence of dis- (1) (!hemical p11.rity. Hubner (1958) derived
continuities at the lower energies (absorption expressions which enable the influence of known
edge phenomena), or of minimum values at the amounts of impurities to be evaluated numeri-
higher energies (caused bv the onset of pair- cally. In particular, he obtained an expression
production process) will help to define the useful for a dimensionless constant, a. which gives di-
quality range. rectly the factor by which the HVL as measured
Although tin has sometimes been used for HVL with impure material must be multiplied to give
measurements, reference to a variety of tabulated the corresponding value for the pu!e ~aterial.
data indicates that its density can vary over This constant serves also as a numerical mdex of
rat~er a wide range, being dependent on crys- the effect of the impurities. Jones (1961) has
tallme form. Moreover, at the lower energies evaluated a on the assumption that a given
its range of usefulness is limited by the energy of material (Al, Cu, or Pb) contains an impurity
73
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 element, differing in atomic number from that of et al., (1952a) found 10.5±0.1 cm for the HVL in
the basic material by as much as is likely, and water as compared with 11.0 cm calculated for
amounting in each case to 1 percent by weight. the known average energy of 1.25 Mev. Jones
The results are shown graphically i!l figure IVB6, (1961) gives the following experimental values of
where a is plotted as a function of HVL ,the latter HVL for a cobalt-60 beam: 4.47 cm aluminum,
being derived from the relationship HVL=0.69 µ- 1 1.40 cm copper, and 0.96 cm lead, for which the
where µ is the linear attenuation coefficient. associated equivalent energies are: 1.15, 1.12, and
The latter is determined from the product of 1.13 Mev, respectively. The HVL in water quoted
the mass attenuation coefficient (White Grodstein, by Johns et al., is consistent with 1.13 Mev.
1957) and the density of the pure metals. The b. HVL measurement technique. A determina-
densities used were 2.70 g/cm3 for aluminum, tion of HVL entails the measurement of exposure
8.93 for copper, and 11.35 for lead (International rate at a selected point as increasing thicknesses
Critical Tables, 1926). Since a varies very nearly of appropriate atte.rnating material are placed in
linearly with percentage impurity, a-values ap- the path of the beam. A monitoring chamber
propriate to other impurity levels are easily may be useful with x rays to permit correction
derived. for any variation in exposure rate. It should be
It is concluded (Jones, 1961) that as regards placed so that its readings are independent of the
impurity effects, generally available grades of lead amount of absorbing material placed in the beam.
(99.9 percent pure) and copper (99.2 percent The chamber used for the attenuation measure-
pure) are adequate, whereas for aluminum, grades ments should have a minimum quality dependence
must be selected which are at least 99.8 percent over the range concerned.
pure. Consideration must be given to the conditions
For the specification of HVL, "effectiv~" required to minimize the influence of the scattered
thicknesses of attenuators 17 should be used. radiation emitted by the attenuator which would
These are the quotient of the measured mass per otherwise increase the HVL obtained. Thus Farr
unit area by the density of the material. (1955a) investigated the effect of variations in
(2) Useful quality range. Jones (1961) considers field size, and of source-attenuator-chamber spac-
the extent to which absorption edges can set a ing, on the HVL obtained, and Trout et al., (1960,
lower limit to the energy at which aluminum, 1961) have demonstrated how a unique HVL can
copper and lead should be used for HVL de- be derived for the 100-300 kv range.
termination. As a rough guide the x-ray generat- (1) 100-300 kv x-ray beams. In order to mini-
ing potential should be not lower than about mize the influence of scattered radiations, the
four times the characteristic K-absorption limit. following conditions should be observed: Limiting
It. follows that the lower limits for copper and of the field size reduces the amount of scattered
lead are 35 and 350 kv, respectively. For alu- radiation that reaches the exposure meter, but the
minum this limit is too low to be of significance field must be large enough so that the chamber
(6 kv). An upper limit will occur where the "sees" all of the source. Great care must be taken
onset of pair production causes a minimum in the with alinement (e.g., radiographic check). The
attenuation coefficient. To avoid the confusion diaphragm must be of sufficient thickness to ab-
arising from there being two energy values related sorb the primary beam. In order to avoid trans-
to the same absorption coefficient, the peak mission through the edge of the collimator, a
energy of the x-ray beam should be below the slightly conically shaped aperture is advantageous
energy at which the minimum is reached for the at the higher energies.
attenuating medium concerned. The minima are Figure IVB7 (Somerwil, 1957) illustrates the
found at about 3.5 Mev for lead, at 8 Mev for extent by which the measured HVL decreases
copper, and at about 20 Mev for aluminum. with decreasing field diameter, d, at the attenua-
In consequence of the above considerations, it tor. The figure also shows that for d less than 5
is necessary to restrict the ranges over which these cm, the attenuator-chamber distance, b, should
materials are used for HVL measurements, and be at least equal to the source-attenuator distance,
the following table summarizes the position: F, which in this case was 20 cm. This condition
Acceptable range for HVL measure-nts is to be expected when the source may be con-
Aluminum _______________ 10 kv-10 (or more) Mv sidered as a point source for the geometrical
Copper_ _________________ 35 kv-8 Mv arrangement concerned. However, when the
Lead ____________________ 350 kv-3.5 Mv
source and chamber sizes are significant in rela-
Practical considerations may further limit this tion to the diaphragm dimensions at the attenu-
useful range. ator, then the optimum position of the attenuator
For cobalt-60 gamma rays, aluminum, copper may be about half way between the source and
and lead are equally satisfactory attenuating the chamber (Tarrant, 1932; Seeman, 1938; Het-
media, provided that the measurements are car- tinger and Cormack, private communication,
ried out under conditions of good geometry. Due 1962). Hence, as a general rule, the attenuating
to the presence of scattered radiation, the ob- material should be placed approximately midway
served HVL is somewhat less than that calculated between the source and the chamber, and for this
for the source energy levels. For example, Johns quality range, a source-chamber distance of at
least 50 cm should be used (Farr, 1955a).
17 Less precise (measured) thicknesses may be adequate for clinical needs. For clinical purposes, HVL derived in this way
74
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 ·------i
.08
II ALUMINUM KVP mm Al
I
130 4.0

ATTENUA~O~.- ---~·- I 100 3.0

SOURCE -- - - • 11 CHAMBER 100 2.0
cp
II

;.::_____ · · - d
100 1.0
I .• - I
I • ~I lOO 0.5
3.6 I I i·- ...J
1.. _f.•.W. .<:"1... .+. ... ~ -~ >
J:
0 " 3.4
E
z
E
• 3.2 w
(..'.)
0.12 KVP mm Cu
_J

>
z 300 4.0
<{
I
FIELD DIAM. d .I 200 2.0
3. J:
AT ATTENUATOR u 250 3.0
cm
...J 300 1.0
2.6 <{ 250 1.0
z
0 200 1.0
2.6L::.--..L-1...l.l.JJJH:;:;;;~=:!:::::82i1Jl.lJ f-
200 0.5
1.0 10 100 u 140 0.25
CHAMBER-ATTENUATOR DISTANCE b, cm <{
0::
LL
FIGURE IVB7. Variation of HVL with field diameter, d,
at the attenuator, and with chamber-attenuator distance, b. 0.14 THOREAU:;I
KVP mm Sn
including 300 2.0
250 kv, 2 mm Cu filtration, source-attenuator distance F=20 cm. 0.12 300 1.5
(Somerwil, private communication, 1957).
0.25 mm Cu
0.10 and 1.0 mm Al 250 0.64
will be of sufficient accuracy (H.P.A. Code of .08
Practice, 1960) because the percentage depth dose .06 200 0.44

_·~
data are not critically dependent on HVL; see,
for example, "Depth Dose Tables for use in Radio- .04
therapy' (fig. D.1, Hospital Physicists' Associa- .....~-
tion, 1961).
When greater precision is necessary, a "unique"
.02
0
0
-- 2 4 6 8 10 cm
HVL can be arrived at by a method developed by DIAMETER OF IRRADIATED FILTER
Trout et al., (1960). This consists in deriving the FIGURE IVB8. Fractional change of HVL with diameter of
zero-field-area value, either by an extrapolation irradiated absorber, for the indicated potentials and filtra-
technique, or by applying correction factors based tions with F=.b=25 cm.
on such measurements, thus eliminating the effects (See Figure IV B7 for definitions of F and b).
Aluminum and copper curves from Trout et al., (1960);
of the otherwise unavoidable scattered radiations. Thoraeus curves from Trout et al., (1961).
By measuring HVL for at least two, and prefer-
ably three or more diaphragm sizes-, a linear tions, provided an absolute calibration curve (to
extrapolation of a plot of HVL against the aperture correct for readings obtained at known HVL's)
diameter will yield the zero-area value. To derive is available for the chamber. A transmission
the zero-area HVL from a sin~de HVL measure- curve is first obtained in terms of the observed
ment, correction factors should be applied de- readings without correction, from which a series
pending on the field area, source-attenuator and of apparent HVL's can be obtained for a range
source-chamber distances employed. If the meas- of added filtrations. Correction factors for these
urements are made with a source chamber dis- HVL's are then read from the calibration curve,
tance of 50 cm and the attenuators placed midway and applied to the original readings to give a
between them, then the curves of figure IVB8 can second percentage transmission curve. This proc-
be applied for any field diameter up to 10 cm (at ess can be repeated, the new factors obtained
the attenuator position) to correct to zero-area. being applied to the original readings, though in
For other source attenuator and source-chamber practice, a single approximation curve is usually
distances, additional correction factors are pro- sufficient.
vided in the papers of Trout et al., (1960, 1961). At a lower end of the range (under """0.5 mm
(2) Under """100 kv x-ray beams. In addition aluminum HVL) the relation of HVL to filtration
to observing the points stated in the previous for a given kv undergoes a double bend (see
section, particular attention should be given to Jennings, 1950, fig. 22 and Zieler 1956, fig._ 8).
any ~ffect of chamber wavelength dependence. This is due to the contribution of L-charactenst1c
Morrison and Reed (1952) have shown that cor- radiations from tungsten, as discussed in sub-
rections of. 5-10 percent may be required for HVL section IVB2.
m_easured m the 0.5-2 mm aluminum HVL range (3) Over """300 kv x-ray beams and gamma-ray
with chambers whose readings have to be cor- beams. As in the 100-300 kv range extraneous
rected for quality. The corrections can be scatter should be reduced to a minimum, and the
derived by a method of successive approxima- diaphragm placed about midway between the
75
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 source and the chamber. Undei Lhese circum- and Wang et al., (1957b) compared spectra ob-
stances, Jones (1961) has shown for a Co 60 beam tained by the attenuation method with those
that if the semiangle subtended by the irradiated obtained by scintillation spectrometry, and found
filter at the chamber position does not exceed tan- 1 good agreement for 280 kv and 50 kv x rays,
0.02 (1 degree), then the HVL obtained (in respectively. Other recent determinations of x-
aluminum, copper or lead) will be within 0.5 ray spectra with the use of absorption analysis
percent of the zero-area value. have been made by Burke and Pettit (1960) and
If larger fields are employed, correction to zero- Trout et al., (1961). Greening (1951) determined
area values~the unique HVL-can be achieved the spectrum of primary and secondary x radia-
by extrapolation. Jones (1961) finds that a plot tion within a block of irradiated material. He
of the HVL obtained is linear with the square of used spherical ionization chambers enclosed in
the aperture diameter. Trout, Kelley, and Lucas shells of absorbing materials.
(private communication, 1961) find that this The amount of spectral information obtainable
relationship holds for angles up to 0.08 steradians by this method is limited by the accuracy to which
corresponding to an attenuator area of ~ 50 cm 2 the transmission curve can be measured and by
at a source-attenuator distance of 27 cm. For the limited number of parameters used in the
this area, the fractional change in HVL is ~ 6 and curve fitting. The method is usually limited to
10 percent for lead and copper, respectively. relatively simple spectra although Greening (1947)
Measurements made by Trout et al., (private has developed a method allowing for the presence
communication, 1961) with 1 and 2 Mv x-ray of characteristic radiations.
generators, indicate a more restricted range of b. Scintillation spectrometry has become a
linear extrapolation, but greater attenuator areas common method of determining photon spectra.
can be employed with the greater spacing prac- A sodium iodide crystal is the' most commonly
ticable at the higher energies. For small angles used scintillator. When such a crystal is irra-
(under 0.04 steradians), the fractional increase in diated each absorbed photon gives rise to a light
HVL is ~ 1 percent per 0.01 steradians, using pulse or scintillation, which can be observed by a
copper or lead attenuators, and for both equip- multiplier phototube and converted into an electric
ments. pulse with a height nearly proportional to the
absorbed energy. After amplification the electric
C. Spectra of X and Gamma Radiation pulses are sorted in a pulse-height analyzer. The
1. Introduction recorded pulse-height distribution constitutes the
response of the detector to the whole radiation
In this subsection both primary and secondary spectrum and has to be corrected for distortions
radiation are considered. Secondary radiation such as those due to statistical fluctuations and
arises when material is irradiated and consists incomplete absorption of the incident photon
mainly of photons degraded in energy by one or energy. The pulse-height distribution may be
more Compton scattering processes. In . some represented as a column matrix P, where each
cases the characteristic (fluorescent) radiation element indicates the number of pulses within a
from heavier materials may give considerable certain pulse height interval. The unknown
contribution to secondary radiation. At a point radiation spectrum may in an analogous way be
within the irradiated medium secondary radiation represented as another column matrix N, with
will be incident from all possible directions and the same number of elements as matrix P. With
may have a different spectral distribution in each this notation the relation between P and N, with
direction. a small approximation, may be written in the
2. Methods of Determining Photon Spectra following way:
a. In absorption analysis the spectral distri-
bution is calculated from a transmission curve where Af is a quadratic response matrix. Sym-
which must be measured with high accuracy. In bolically the unknown spectrum N can be written
practice it is necessary to measure the transmission as
through a suitable absorber under conditions of
good geometry until less than 10 percent of the
incident radiation remains. The radiation de- where M- 1 is the inverse response matrix. If the
tector should have an essentially uniform response energy intervals are chosen large enough the
to radiation of all energies in the beam. The respor1se matrix is nonsingular and its inverse can
transmission curve can then be fitted to one of be calculated. However, objection may be raised
about four different functions which have been against correction of the pulse-height distribution
suggested, each having usually two adjustable for the statistical spread with the inverse matrix
constants. These constants, when determined, method (Dixon and Aitken, 1958). It is more
are substituted in corresponding functions (ac- suitable to correct the pulse-height distribution
tually the inverse Laplace transformations) in for such spread through some kind of analytical
order to calculate the spectral distribution. The or numerical solution of the Fredholm integral
theory of absorption analysis is given by Silber- equation that describes the statistical spread in
stein (1932), Jones (1940), and Greening (l 94J, pulse height (Liden and Starfelt, 1954 and Dixon
1950, 1952) among others. Cormack et al., (1955) and Aitken, 1958). After this correction the m-
76
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 verse matrix method may be applied to correct for in the past few years. An attempt will be made
the escape effects (Rawson and Cormack, 1958 and to survey the published data, to compare some
Hubbell, 1958). It is also possible to obtain the spectra measured in various laboratories and to
radiation spectrum by applying successive approxi- assess the applicability of the relation of Kulen-
mations of the noninverted matrix equation kampff (1922) and Kramers (1923). The discus-
(Hettinger and Starfelt, 1958a and Skarsgard et sion will be concerned with the shapes of the
al., 1961). spectra and with the absolute magnitude of the
If one measures radiation spectra, which are bremsstrahlung and the characteristic radiation
smooth and broad, and uses a total absorbing from the target.
scintillation detector (Hettinger and Starfelt, Table IVCl lists present available data concern-
1958b), the Gaussian spread has little influence ing primary spectra of x rays generated at poten-
on the spectra. If the correction for the spread tials from 20 kv to 400 kv. It will be noted that
is omitted and the pulse-height distributions set spectra have been reported for a wide variety of
equal to the radiation spectra, the introduced makes and types of generator and for various
error is unimportant (Hettinger and Liden, 1960). voltage wave-forms; they are expressed as various
Primary and secondary radiation are usually kinds of distributions. Most spectra measured
measured with different experimental arrange- with scintillation spectrometers are presented as
ments. The measured spectra of secondary radia- number fluence distribution (N") as a function of
tion have to be normalized with regard to the flux photon energy (k), whereas spectra derived from
of the primary radiation. Either both primary absorption analysis are usually given as an
and secondary radiation have to be measured in exposure distribution against wave length (XA
absolute units (photons per kev, cm 2 , second and vs X). The filtration of the primary beam varies
unit solid angle) or the normalization factor must considerably from one spectrum t.o another. The
be calculated from tabulated or measured expo- most appropriate form in which a spectrum is
sure data. If the spectral distributions are finally presented will depend upon the use to be
measured in absolute units, conventional depth made of it. The choice among distributions of
dose tables and backscatter data can be used a& a number fluence, energy fluence and exposure
check of the obtained spectra with regard to against photon energy will depend upon the
magnitude and shape (Hettinger ri.nd Liden, particular circumstances.
1960; Hettinger, 1960b; and Skarsgard and Johns, It would be highly desirable to obtain a general
1961). empirical relation which would describe the shape
c. Theoretically calculated spectra of scattered of radiation spectra in terms of peak kilovoltage,
radiation of radiological interest have been pub- waveform and filtration. A relation which has
lished by Bruce and Johns (1960). The distribu- sometimes been used as a basis of comparison and
tions of scattered x rays were determined through which has the great advantage of simplicity is
a combination of analytic and Monte Carlo meth- the thick-target formula found experimentally for
ods. The contribution of once-scattered radiation x rays up to 4q kv by Kulenkampff (1922) an.d
was calculated analytically and added to the derived theoretically by Kramers (1923). This
results of Monte Carlo calculations of multiple formula may be written as follows:
scatter.
3. Spectra of Primary Radiation
a. Spectra of x rays, 20-400 kv. A number of where I" is the intensity distribution function,
experimental determinations of the radiation e.g., erg cm- 2 sec- 1• kev- 1, A is the constant fo~ a
emitted by x-ray tubes with thick targets have given spectrum, k is t?e photon. energy at which
been made, the majority of the work being done I" is evaluated and k 0 is the maximum value of k.
TABLE IVCl. Thick target primary spectra

Reference Method Generator kv Wave

form

~~~=~~g(fJb<~~:-~:::::::::::::::::: -:Ab5-:::::::::::::: :::::::~:::::::::::::::::: ~~-:::: -c.-:P:----

oreenlng (1950) _____________________________ do._ .. --------- G.E. Maximar__________ 150, 220 ____ A/2.
Johansson (1951) ..---------------------- Scint..____________ Phil. MetaJix_. __ , _______ 75.100 ---- C.P.
Ehrlich (1955) ______________________________ do------------- Exp. Be window ________ 20-100 ---- C.P.

Kolb, Jaeger (1955, 1956l---------------- ..... dO------------- -------------------------- 25-50------ C.P.

Cormack et al., (1955, 1958) __________________ do _____________ Picker Vanguard .. ______ 280-------- A/2.
Cormack et al., (1957a, bl.-------------- _____ do _____________ G.E. Maximar __________ 400-------- i..12.
Wa t I (1957) Ab8 & S · t {Machlett OEG 60------- ------------ A12.
ng e a·• ---------------------- • cm ------ Machlett OEG 50------- 50 -------- C.P.
l
H ett nger an d Sta •It
r1e (1958 a ----------- ----- dO-------------
) {Philips
SiemensMG 300.--------
Tutomat. ______ 100-250....
47, 75 ______ C.P.
A.
Villforth et al., (1958) ______________________ do _____________ West. Quandrocondex... 30--250 ---- Cflc
P
Altken and Dixon (1958).--------------- _____ dO------------- G.E. Be window. _______ 30--100 ---- A • · ·
Cprmack and Burke (1960) __________________ dO------------- Picker Vanguard-------- 14Q ________ A.
Burke and Pettit (1960l---------------- Abs _______________ G.E. XRD-3----------- 20.30,50 -- ~ p
Skarsgard and Johns (1961)_____________ SclnL____________ Siemens _________________ 250-------- f2 ·
Trout et al., (1961l---------------------- Ab•--------------- -------------------------- 200, 300____ A ·

77
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 50 kv (cp)
20 kv(p) 0.7mm Al
Characteristic radiation
is not includ•d

I
/°'
\
\
I
I
If)
z I \
w BO
1-
z I \
UJ
~ 60
I
/ \./BURKE ond PETTIT
'('" (1960)
I
I-
<(
I
I
\
\ I
_J
UJ
0:: 40
\

' \.
i
\.
2
I
20

0·0~~---'.._~~20,,__~~30,,-.~~40,,..--~~~~
B 12 16 20 PHOTON ENERGY, k ev
PHOTON ENERGY, kev
FIGURE IVC2. Comparison of experimental
FIGURE IVCl. Comparison of experimental spectra (dotted lines) and spectrum calculated
spectrum (dotted line) and spectrum calculated from the Kulenkampff-Kramers formula
from the K ulenkampff-Kramers formula (solid line) modified for filtration and voltage
(solid line) modified for filtration and voltage waveform.
waveform.

This relation refers to the thick target bremsstrah- At 45 and 50 kv there appears to be rather good
lung unaffected by the photon absorption within agreement among the spectra of Hettinger and
the target. The absorption within the target and Starfelt, of Aitken and Dixon, and of Wang et al.
the electron backscatter reduce mainly the low The spectra obtained by all these workers have
energy part of the spectrum. For purposes of peaks at considerably higher photon energy than
comparison, some of the measured spectra are that predicted by the Kulenkampff-Kramers
represented together with spectra calculated from formula. The discrepancy between the theoreti-
the Kulenkampff-Kramers formula modified for pul- cal and the experimental curves in figure IVC2 is
sating wave form and for filtration of all materials less than in figure IVCl. As pointed out by
between the target and the detector. Cormack (1960, 1961), the above-mentioned
Burke and Pettit (1960) have used absorption modified formula may be used for an approximate
analysis to measure x-ray spectra from tubes prediction of the spectral shapes of x rays for
operated at 20, 30, and 50 kv. In order to sepa- voltages above 100 kv. Figures IVC3, IVC4,
rate the continuous and characteristic components IVC5, and IVC6 illustrate this condition at
of the spectra, they collected absorption data on 140 kv (constant potential), 140 kv (sinusoidal
various tubes which differed from each other only voltage waveform), 250 kv (cp) and 280 kv (p),
in target material. Their 20 kv spectrum is respectively. The peaks at about 60 kev are due
shown in figure IVCl together with a theoretical to characteristic K-radiation from the tungsten
spectrum averaged over the sinusoidal voltage target. When heavier filtration is used the agree-
waveform and decreased in correspondence to ment with the theoretical formula is very much
the attenuation of the tube window. improved.
Hettinger and Starfelt (1958a) have carried Some spectra have been measured in absolute
out a series of measurements of primary. spectra units. Figure IVC7 shows a comparison of a 100
generated at constant potentials ranging from 45 kv (cp) spectrum calculated by Ehrlich (1955)
to 250 kv. Several measurements have been and one measured by Hettinger and Starfelt
made by other workers of spectra generated at 50 (1958a). The experimental intensity distribution
kv. An intercomparison between these spectra was corrected for the absorption in the window
and the theoretical spectrum for a filtration of 0. 7 which was equivalent to about 4 mm Al.
mm Al is shown in figure IVC2. Wang et al., Figure IVC8 shows the relative number of
(1957a) also made measurements with lower filtra- tungsten K-photons emitted along the central ray
tion (0.0127 mm Al+ 1 mm Be) and estimated the from an x-ray tube with an inherent filtration of
contribution of characteristic radiation. Analysis 4 mm Al and operating at various constant volt-
of the shape of the scintillation spectrum indicated ages. According to earlier measurements (Comp-
that 30 percent of the total intensity was due ton and Allison, 1935), the absolute intensity of
to characteristic radiation. Greening's (194 7) characteristic radiation varies with the difference
method for analyzing the shape of the absorption between the exciting and critical voltages raised
curve indicated that characteristic radiation ac- to a power of 1.6, Hettinger (1960a) found the
counted for 40 percent of the total intensity. value of this exponent to be 1.2±0.1 (fig. IVC9).
78
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 -T--1--1

I' II
18
140kv(cp) 250 kv (cpl
I\ 4mm Al + Sm AIR
30

I\ ,., 4mm Al

-160 I I I I
I I I I
I I >- I\
I I f- I I
~ 200 I I
140 I I I I
I
I
\_.,HETTINGER
\ !1958 l
e. STARFELT
w
f-
z
w
I
I
I
\_....,.HETTINGER and STAR FELT (19581
I
I
>- 120 > I I
t:: I \ f-
<( I \
(/)
z I \ -'
w 100. I '
w J \ 0::
I- I
z \ K RAMERS
w
\ '-
> \ ' '-,
I- 80 \ KRAMERS
<( '
-'
w PHOTON ENERGY, k ev
a:: 60 FIGURE 1VC5. Comparison of experimental
spectrum (dotted line) and spectrum calc'ulated
from the Kulenkampjf-Kramers formula
4 (solid line) modified for filtration and voltage
wave form.

~
20 '\ 120
'\ 280 kv(p)
~ 3.2 mm Be
0 100 +3.2 mm C
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 >- \ + I mm Al
I-
\ +0.25mm Cu
PHOTON ENERGY, k ev en
z \
\ +0.2mm Sn
w 80
FIGURE IVC3.
Comparison of experimental spectrum I- \
(dotted ll:ne) and spectrum calculated from the Kulen- z \
\ KRAMERS
kampff-Kramers formula (solid line) modified for filtration w \ (Sinusoidal)
and voltage wave form. > 60 \
I- \
<( \
-' \ CORMACK et al
. I T- w (1958)
l a: 40 ·- \
\
\
140 kv(p) \
120
,~,
20 - '\
/ \
'' ~

>-
100 I
I
I
I
0
0 100 200
" 300
':::: I '(CORMACK and BURKE
en I (19601 PHOTON ENERGY, kev
z
w 80
I- \
~ \ FIGURE IVC6. Comparison of experimental
w \ spectrum (dotted line) and spectrum calculated
~ 60 I from the Kulenkampff-Kr.amers formula
I-
<(
I KfjAMERS (solid line) modified for filtration and voltage
-' (S1nusa1dal I
w \
waveform.
a: 40
'' 2.0 x 10 ,-•-~-.--~-.---r-.----ir--r-r--r---i
1

20
' ~
~
c:
,!;!
'O
12
--THEORY (EHRl,.ICH )
---EXPERIMENT
:;!.
'<:: "'
d:5 1.5 (\ 100 kv
...........
0 c: ,,-....._ I \
0 40 BO
PHOTON ENERGY, k e v
120 e I I '
. \\
. . . ,, I
0
E
IVC4. Comparison of experimental spectrum >"I. I '
FIGURE I ' ~
(dotted line) and spectrum calculated from the Kulen-
kampff-Kramers formula (solid line) modified for
"'
.><
Q;
0.
I
I
'~ \
filtration and voltage wave form. >
~ 05 II '\
~ I \
Q; I ~
c: ~
FIGURE IVC7. Comparison between theoretical and "'
experimental spectrum of 100 kv thick target brems- :g OO!,-....l..--:2~0,...--.l...--4t0~..._---;!:60~-'--;:;a~o-'--~10~0;--..__~120
strahlung. The peak at 60 kev in the experimental ~o.
<1> PHOTON ENERGY, k ev
curve is due to characteristic tungsten K-radiation.
79

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084

by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 "'~ z
<{
30
0 0.2:0.----,.---,------r------r---~-~
20
6: 0
<{
.... en a::
0 zw
a:
~ 0.1 ~ ~ I
0
:::!E J: "O
::> 0.. c
z ' 0
...J ><:
~ 0.IOt-----t------11-------41----+------+----4
~
a:
w
Q_

~ 0.05t----+-

~
0
:r
Q_

" ~0~~--:':50=--~___,.,o~o=--~__,,5~0~~~200-'-~~-25~0~~--'300
0

TUBE VOLTAGE, k
FIGURE IVC9. The tungsten K-radiation in-
FIGURE IVC8. The number of tung~ten K-photons per total tensity plotted against the dijference between
number of photons versus tube voltage (Hettinger and exciting voltage and critical voltage (70 kv)
Starfelt, 1958a). from Hettinger (1960a).
TABLE IVC2. Sources of experimental spectra for potentials of 1 Mv O'I' greater

Target
Accelerating Machine type Method Reference
potential Mv
Material Thickness

t~~~::::::::: }constant potential____ w _________

I2.8 mm/cos 45° _ _____ Compton _________ Miller et al., (1954).

l !
Styrene ___
l.O ___________ Constant potentiaL ___ AL _______ Approx. equal to
1. 5 ___________ Van de Graaff _________ Cu._______ electron range. Scintillation_______ Edelsack et al., (1960).
2.0____ ------- Ag _______ _
Au _______ _
2.8 ___________ Betatron ______________ w _________ 0.000"--------------- Compton _________ Laslch and Riddiford (1947).
Be ________ 2.63 mg/cm'---------,
2.72 __________ { A'--------- 0.878 mg/cm• _______ _
~:~L=::::=:: -----d0 ---------------- Au. _______ {g:~g:~)~:::_·~-=:::: Scintillation _______ Starfelt and Koch (1956).
w_________ g:~·:::::::::::::::
9_____________ Linear accelerator _____ Cu________ 0.375"--------------- Photo-protons _____ Phillips (1954).
lL ___________ Betatron ______________ ---------------------------------- _____ do _____________ Wang and Wiener (1949).
lL ________________ dO----------------- w _________ 0.060" wire __________ Compton _________ Motz et al., (1953.)
17.5 _______________ do _________________ Mo ________ {8:~'.'.--------------- }Pairs______________ Warner and Schrader (1954).
17.8 _______________ do _________________ w _________ 0.005"--------------- Compton _________ Robson and Gregg (1957).
18.5 _______________ do _________________ W _________ 0.010"--------------- Photo-protons _____ Phillips (1952).
19.5 _______________ do. ________________ Pt. _______ 0.005"- -------------- Pairs ______________ Koch and Carter (1950).
22------------ _____ do _________________ Pt_ _______ Thin (see paper for Photo-protons _____ Weinstock and H~lpern (1955).
details).
65 ____________ Synchrotron __________ W _________ 0.005"- ______________ Pairs ______________ Stokes (1951).
70 _________________ do----------------- w _________ 0.25" diameter (but _____ do------------- McDiarmid (1952).
see paper).

b. Spectra of x rays, 1-100 Mv. Data are used, as this determines the extent to which the
less plentiful and generally less accurate in this accelerated electrons are slowed down and scat-
energy range than they are below 0.4 Mv. tered, and the absorption of photons in the targ~t.
Spectra have been obtained by means of scintilla- The effective target thickness is often uncertam
tion spectrometry and by measuring the energies with betatrons and synchrotrons, and care should
of Compton-recoil electrons, electron-positron be exercised in applying the results obtained with
pairs or photo-protons from deuterium. The last one machine to a problem associated with another.
two methods preclude the detection of photons Above 10 M v, and with thin targets, the theory
with energies below the thresholds of these reac- of Schiff (1951) predicts spectral shapes which are
tions. Scintillation spectrometry gives better in fair agreement with experiment. . Hisdal (19?7)
statistical accuracy and makes possible the has considered the effect of multiple scattermg
detection of the, often important, low-energy within the target on Schiff's theory. A compre-
photons. hensive discussion of the bremsstrahlung spectra
Details of some experimentally determined generated by electron energies of 1-100 Mev has
spectra available in the literature are given in been given by Koch and Motz (1959).
table IVC2, the better established ones between 1 c. Spectra of gamma-ray beams. The radio-
and 10 M v being shown in figures IVClO, IVCll, active nuclides which have been used as sources
IVC12, and IVC13. for beam therapy are listed in table IVC3 together
Spectra depend upon the thickness of target with some of their physical properties. For such
80
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 1000 1000 KV
~ I\\
- --··
/ ('!- -
II ! \
1 - - ~- ~- --
v \ ' RAMERS' THEORY

1 I \ ~ fK'. o•
~ .¥ " \
800 \ / •• 90•
- P. I --

"I i \ \\
' \\
600
I!" IJ
I! I e-
\
\
[\\
,,
I \ \\ -
w \
> I J
..... -~
7J I \ ~
<(
_J I I i\ ~
w I \ l
0:::
I \ \
200 \ \

It I __ ..___
I\\
tI I
{k) I I .\
'J
0 I LO
.2 .4 .6 .8
0
PHOTON ENERGY, Mev
FIGURE IVClO. X-ray spectra obtained at 1000-kv tube potential.
Filtration: 2.8 mm w+2.8 mm Cn+l8.7 mm water+2.l mm brass. Dashed cnrves: spectra
measnred hy Compton spectrometer (the ordinate is photon energy multiplied by number of
photons of that energy) (Miller et al., 1954). Angles refer to direction of x rays relative to initial
electron direction. Solid curve: spectrum calcnlated hy Kramers' method (1923).

W(Z=74)
Wl{-=74>
..
~
> E 0m0 c = 4.54 Mev
e. 0°
E0 m0 c2 • 9.66 Mn
e.
0°
o EXPERIMENT
.....
l-',._-~---- SCHIFF
~ VJ51d--+-"!.--...---~-.--~~~~~+--=I
0
bJ:
Cl.

:SVJ4H--+-411..--+---l~+--+~'l'C.---+~-l--,!
(/)
a::
w
aJ
~
~ 3 0
VJl----t----'l<l<:--l---+---+---l---"'~-l----l'-,d
w
>
~
_J
w
a:: IOrc--l~+--t~+---+~-l--l'""="t--+-=l

10.._........__,~_,_~~,___.___..~...._........__, 101......~--1~.!---L.~'--_.___..~...._...............,
0 2 3 4 5 0 2 4 6 8 10
PHOTON ENERGY, M ev

FIGURES IVCll and IVC12. Relative x-ray spectra (in photon/ Mev interval)
from a betatron (Starfelt and Koch, 1956).
Curws arc given for tliree tungsten target thicknesses: 0.24 g/cm'. 0.48 g/cm•, and 5.80 g/cm•. Only
the curw shape<, not their relati,-e positions, are significant. The points were obtained with a scintil-
lation spectrometer. The solid curves were calculated from the thin target formula of Schiff (1951),
and normalized to the experimental data.

81

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084

by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 EXPERIMENTAL 8 THEORE flCAL SPECTRA

~ 10 15•b'>.~-+--~~---I--+---+----+--~
Ci
<[
a::
w
t;; 10' 4 b----l-------P""--+--,__--+-""""<l--~
V> n.
~~
J- I

~ :t.1o~b---+---+----'"'.......i=---..-~c---+;;-----"!'~---'~
n. >
w
::;

.4 .8 ~o
PHOTON ENERGY, Me v
Fig.NCl4
FIGURE IVC14. Spectral distribution of the degraded radi-
ation emerging from the source and collimator of a cobalt-60
therapy unit.
TABLE IVC3. Radionuclides used as teletherapy sources

Specific
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Nuclide Gamma energy (Mev) Half life gamma ray
ENERGY, Mev constant•
------1----------11----------
FIGURE IVC13. Family of bremsstrahlung spectra Ra"'-------------- 0.2-2.2 _______________________ 1620 Y------- 0.825 b
for 1.5 Mev electrons on thick targets of different Z. Cooo_______________ 1.17 (1003) 1.33 (1003). _____ 5.26 Y------- 1. 30
The measurement is made at zero degrees relative to the incident Ir"'--------------- 0.31, 0.47 (0.14-1.2) ___________ 74 d _________ ------------
Csm ______________ 0.662 (843). _________________ 30 Y--------- 0.326
electron direction. Each <>urve is multiplied by 10• for clarity of
presentation. (Edelsack et al., 1960).
• Roentgens per hour at 1 meter from 1 curie. This assumes no attenuation
in source, its capsule or in air.
use the radioactive material is enclosed in a metal b Roentgens per hour at 1 meter from 1 gram of radium after filtration
through 0.5 mm platinum.
capsule which effectively absorbs the beta
radiation. The beam from a teletherapy unit radiation and also the quantity of such radiation
will therefore contain primary gamma and with respect to the primary. Cormack and
possibly some characteristic radiation from the Johns (1958) have made approximate calculations
source, secondary radiation scattered within the of the Compton scattered radiation from a cobalt
source, the treatment head and the collimating source 2.5 cm in diameter and 1.3 cm thick and
system and electrons generated in any material from a tapered lead collimator. Recently, Costrell
through which the beam passes. (1962) has made measurements of the scattered
The gamma-ray spectrum from a radioactive components in the spectra from various calibration
nuclide consists of one or more discrete lines. sources Qf cobalt-60. The intensity of the
The quantum energies are of interest in nuclear scattered radiation was found to vary from 3
physics and have been determined to a high percent of the total incident intensity for a bare
degree of precision. The gamma rays emitted source 17 mm in diameter and 2.5 mm thick to
by a radium source are largely" due to the beta- 15 percent for a source simulating cobalt pellets
active daughters Ra B (Pb 214) and Ra C (Bi 214 ) in a capsule 5 cm in diameter and 5 cm thick
and form a complicated spectrum of some twenty mounted in a collimating head. The shapes of the
lines ranging in energy from 0.05 Mev to 2.2 Mev. spectra are very similar to those calculated by
The average is roughly I Mev. Iridium-192 has Cormack and Johns (1958). Scrimger (1962)
rather a complicated spectrum with an intense has measured the spectrum of scattered radiation
group of lines at about 0.3 Mev, a strong line at in the beam for a therapy unit containing a cobalt-
0.47 Mev and several other lines between 0.14 60 source 2.5 cm in diameter and 1.3 cm thick in a
and 0.62 Mev. Cobalt-60 has a much simpler standard capsule. The spectrum is shown in
spectrum, 1.17 and 1.33 M v gamma rays in figure IVC14 and is compared with the calculated
cascade, while cesium-137 has a single gamma-ray spectrum of Cormack ,and ,Johns. The spectrum
line at 0.662 Mev. Cesium-137 units may contain was found to be almost independent of
some of the isotope cesium-134 whose principal field size from 4 X 4 cm to 20 X 20 cm at 80 cm
gamma rays have energies of 0.57, 0.60 and 0.79 SSD. Additional studies of the radiation from
Mev and whose half life is 2.3 years. various collimators are required.
The secondary radiation scattered from the Johns et al., (1959) have measured the spectrum
source material and from the treatment head may from a cesium-137 unit by using a scintillation
constitute an appreciable fraction of the total spectrometer. On comparison with the spectrum
radiation. It is therefore of importance to from a small, relatively low activity cesium-137
know the spectral distribution of the secondary source the scattered spectrum from the larger
82

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084

by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 therapy source was calculated. The scattered is between 50 and 250 kev. Hettinger and Liden
spectrum is of nearly the same height from 0.6 (1960), Hettinger (1960b), and Bjiirngard and
Mev down to 0.2 ?\Iev where it falls abruptly. Hettinger (1961) found this condition to be valid
The scaHered exposurf' was found to be 27 percent when the point of observation was on the front of,
of t.he primary. Costrdl (1962) finds scattered within, and on the back of the phantom. These
contributions ranging from 8 to 21 percent of the authors also studied the angular distribution of
total beam intensitv for CsCl sources of various the scattered radiation within a radiologic phan-
dimensions with the.average energy of the sca,ttered tom, the forward scattered photons being more
photons ranging from 0.3 to 0.45 Mev. Recent numerous with increasing field size and depth.
work of Bruer et al., (l!l62) shows the marked Most spectra reported refer to points along the
influence of radiation scattered from the collimator central axis. Mak and Cormack (1960) have
of a cesium-137 therapy unit. measured 140 kv(p) and 280 kv(p) x rays and
found that the spectra at points lying off the beam
4. Spectra of Secondary Radiation axis, but within the primary beam, agree very
well in shape with those at points at the same
a. Introduction. Seyeral spectra of scattered depth on the central axis.
radiation have lately been determined for different b. Spectral distributions. Table IVC4 surveys
geometrical conditions. Most of the phantoms measured and theoretically calculated spectra of
were of radiologic type with regard to geometrical secondary radiation of interest for radiology.
dimensions. Jn most cases water was used as a Most of the measurements were carried out with
soft-tissue-equivalent material. The point of ob- scintillation spectrometers. Bruce and Johns
servation was on the front or back surface of the (1960) have performed Monte Carlo calculations
phantom or within it. The spectral distributions and their spectra cover a wide range of primary
depend on several variables; vir., the energy of the photon energies, field sizes and depths. Most of
primary radiation, the source-surface distance, the the spectra mentioned in table IVC4 refer to a
field size, the depth of the point of observation geometrical arrangement. where the source of
and its position in relation to the beam axis, and primary radiation is outside the phantom and the
the size and composition of the phantom. The central ray of the primary beam is perpendicular
spectrum of scattered radiation seems to be inde- to the surface.
pendent of the dista,nce between source and obser- Figl!re 1VC15 shows some t_Ypical spectra
vation point, provided the beam area at this point caknlated by Bruce and Johns (1960). The
is kept constant. ,Tolrns et al., (1958) have indi- spectra refer to different depths (0, 2, 5, and 10
cated that this condition holds for first-order cm) when a parallel primary beam is perpendic-
scattered radia.tion. ularlv incident on a semi-infinite water scatterer.
The secondary radiation in soft tissue consists The ·beam is 25, 100, 400 cm 2 or infinite, and the
essentially of photons which have undergone one energy of the initial photons is 100 kev. The
or more Compton-scattering processes. The spectral fluence is given in units of kev cm- 2
multiply-scattered photons become more impor- (kev)- 1 • The ordinate is normalized with regard
tant with increasing field size and depth of the to an incident primary fluence of 1 photon per
observation point. The total number of scattered cm 2 • The smooth curve including the dashed line
photons in relation to the primary flux, i.e., the represents the contribution of multiply-scattered
number buildup, shows a similar trend. However, radiation to which the discontinuous singly
the nurn her buildup seems to be roughly inde- scattered distribution has been added. The
pendent of the primary photon energy when this area under the curve gives the energy of the

TABLE IVC4. Spectra of secondary radiation

Reference Primary photon energy Geometry Method

Payne-Brott (1937) ___________________ . __ x rays ____ •. _______ .___________ First 01 der scatter considered within phantom ___ .______ Theoretical.
Greening and Wilson (1951). ____________ ___ .do.·-------------------____ Within radio!. phantom _______________ ------------------ Abs. analysis.
Greening (1951)_ _____ __ ________________ ____ do .. ____________________________ do___________________________________________________ Do.
Lindell 11954) ------------· _____________ 70-lfiO kv x rays _______________ Backscatter _____________________________________________ Sein!.
Goldstein and Wilkins (19M) ____________ 250 kev-10 Mev .. ______________ Within semiinfinite media ______________________________ Theoretical.
Hine and MrCall (1954) ________________ -------------------------------- Backscatter __________________ -------------- ___________ - - Scint.
Berger and Dogget (195fi) _______________ 0.66. 1and4 Mev ____________ _ Infinite field size. backscatter and transmission. _________ Monte Carlo.
Conmcketal., (1957) __________________ 400kvpxrays .. ___ _ Within radio!. phantom .. _______________________________ Scint.
Peelle et al., (1957) ________ __________ ____ Co60 radiation _______________ _ Source and detector witl1in an infinite water tank.______ Compton spectromet.
Cormack et al., (1958b) __________________ 280 k\·p x rays---------------- Within radio!. phantom-------------------------------- Sein\.
Hettinger and Starfelt (1959). _______ ___ _ 50-250 kev. _________________________ do___________________________________________________ Do.
Hettinger anr! IA den (1960) ____ . ________ 50-250 kev .. ________________________ do ____ _____ _______ ____ ___ _____ _____ __ ___ _______ __ ___ Do.
Cormack and Burke (1960). ____________ 140 kvp x rays _____________________ do___________________________________________________ Do.
Mak and Cormnck (1960)_ ______________ 14(} k\·p and 280 kvp x rays____ Within radio!. phantom at points lying off the beam axis Do.
Hettinger (1960b) ________________________ 50-250 kev _____________________ Backscatter from radio!. phantom_______________________ Do.

Berger and Raso (1960) __________________ 20 kev-·2 Mev ----------------- Backscatter ____ ----------------------------------------- Monte Carlo.
Bruce and Johns (19GO) _____ ------------ 50, 100, 200, 500, and 1250 kev __ Backscatter from and scatter within an irradiated me- Do.
dium.
BaarIi (1961) __ -------------------------- 0.2-1 Mev. -------------------- Backscatter ____________________________________________ _ Scint.
Skarsgnrd and Johns (1961) ----------- _ 250 kv rndiation. ______________ Backscatter from and scatter within radio!. phantom .. __ Do.
Bjarngard and Hettinger (1961) _________ 50-250 kev -------------------- Transmitted radiation scattered from radio!. phantom __ Do.
Bruce and Pearson 0962) _______________ csm radiation ___ ______ _______ Within radio!. phantom .. __________ --------------------- Do.

83
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 Eo • 100 ke v
Eo•IOO ktv
DEPTH• 5cm
DEPTH•Oc

20 100
E, kev E, k ev
Fig. nrc 150 Fig. nr c 15c
FIGURE IVC15a. Spectral distribution of scattered FIGURE IVC15c. Spectral distribution of scattered
radiat1"on at the surface of a water phantom from radiation at a depth of 5 cm in a water phantom
an incident fluence of one 100 kev photon per cm2 • from an incident fluence of one 100 kev photon per
The ordinate is in units of kev cm- 2 (kev)- 1. (Bruce cm2 • The ordinate is in units of kev cm- 2 (kev)- 1.
and Johns, 1960). (Bruce and Johns, 1960).
3

~-----1-------
1
E 0 •100 k•v !

--1--
E0 •100 k•v
OEPTH•2cm
2 -- "''""'0<•

E, k e v
E, kev
Fig. nz:c 15d
Fig Ill.:C 15 b
FIGURE IVC15d. Spectral distribution of scattered
FIGURE IVC15b. Spectral di'.stribution of scattered radiation at a depth of 10 cm in a water phantom
radiation at a depth of 2 cm in a water phantom from an incident fluence of one 100 kev photon per
from an incident fluence of one 100 kev photon per cm2 • The ordinate is in units of kev cm-• (kev)- 1.
cm•. The ordinate is in units of kev cm-• (kev)-1. (Bruce and Johns, 1960).
(Bruce and Johns, 1960).
Figure IVCI6 shows some scattered spectra
scattered radiation. Inspection shows that about measured with a scintillation spectrometer. The
half of the scattered energy is due to sing-ly spectra refer to primary 250 kv radiation with a
scattered photons. The effective lower energy HVL of 2.4 mm copper. From the spectrum at
limit of the spectra is at about 25 kev. At abotit 6 cm depth and 200 cm 2 field size it can be cal-
this photon energy the photo-electric absorption culated that the energy absorption in compact
becomes so important that further energy degrada- bone is somewhat more than twice that in soft
tion through scattering processes becomes very tissue.
unlikely. · c. Comparison of experiment and calculations.
From their calculated spectra, Bruce and Johns Cormack (1960) has compared some spectra from
(1960) have made matrices useful for determining Bruce and Johns (1960) with the secondary photon
spectra of scattered radiation resulting from any spectra measured by Hettinger and Starfelt (I ~59)
arbitrary continuous primary spectrum with and by himself (1958). In the former comparison
photon energies below 400 kev. the secondary spectra resulting from X-ray beams
84
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 with effective energies of 63, 113, and 184 kev were
compared with the theoretical spectra for mono-
0 2.5cm d 2.5 cm energetic sources of the equivalent energy. Agree-
50cm 2 200 cm 2 ment in magnitude and general shape was good
although the measured spectra did not display
the discontinuities of the theoretical as they were
not from monoenergetic primaries (fig. IVCl 7). Cor-
mack's second comparison was for a scattered spec-
trum generated by 280 kv(p) x rays with HVL of
"'E 2.6-mm copper. The agreement in the shape of
20
u xl0-3
b 6.0cm 6.0 cm the spectra was good but no test was made of the
0 15 50 cm 2 200 cm 2 absolute magnitude.
z Bruce et al., (1962) have made a comparison
<t
..
>
:.::
of their Monte Carlo results (1960) with the
secondary x rays measured by Skarsgard and
a: Johns (1961) and with their own measurements
w of cesium-137 and cobalt-60 spectra. The cal-
c..
(/) culated and measured spectra agree within the
z 5 limits of error.
0 c
I- .10" 3 15 cm 15 cm d. Equivalent energy or HVL in a medium.
0 4 50 cm 2 200 cm 2
:I:
c..
Although the half value layer is strictly defined
3 only for a nearly monodirectional beam of radia-
tion, an equivalent HVL or energy may be used
as a partial description of the quality of the multi-
directional radiation within an irradiated medium.
Values of the equivalent energy have been meas-
250
ured using double ionization chambers by Bruzau
(1929), Wilson (1939), Clarkson and Mayneord
FIGURE IVC16. Spectral distribution of primary and
(1939), Greening and Wilson (1951), and Schaal
secondary 250-kv (cp) radiation at different depths (2.5, (1956). Values of the equivalent HVL may also
6.0, and 15 cm) when the field size at the phantom surface be calculated from the complete spectral distri-
is 50 cm• (a, b, and c) and 200 cm2 (d, e, and f). bution making use of tabulated attenuation coeffi-
The focus-surface distance is 67.5 cm; one primary photon per cm• ls incident cients. Table IVC5 shows values of the equiva-
upon the phantom surface. The upper curve In each diagram corresponds
to the total radiation, i.e., is the sum of primary and secondary photons. lent HVL determined in this way by a number of
The ordinate scale in diagran1 c and f have been enlarged 4 times (Hettinger workers for water phantoms irradiated with x rays.
and Lid6n, 1960).
-3
125xlo.~~~--.-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~--r~~~~~~~

- - THEORY PRIMARY ENERGY = 113 k e v

- - - EXPERIMENT DEPTH = 15 cm
> BEAM AREA AT 15 cm = 299 cm 2
100
cu
.:t:.

er:
wz
a.. i:2 75
en o
z:r:
0 a..
l-
o >-
I er:
a.. <( 50
o~
w er:
er: a..
'I
w ~
I- 0
I- z 25 ~
<( <( 'I
L>
en I
I
0
0 50 100 150
PHOTON ENERGY, k e v

FIGURE IVC17. Comparison between an experimental spectrum and one calculated with a
Monte Carlo method. The secimdary radiation is integrated over space. (Hettinger,
1960a).
85
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 TABLE IVC5. HVL in irradiated water-values in table The energy deposition along the tracks of the
give HVL in mm Cu for total radiation electrons may be described in various ways (see
(a) 400 kv (p), Primary HVL 3.8 mm Cu, Cormack et al., (1957)
also subsection IAlg). McGinnies (1959) gives
tables based on the theory developed by Spencer
Depth\Area 0 50 100 400 and Fano (1954) of the energy spectrum of
(cm) (cm•) electrons as they slow down from a number of
initial energies. Burch (1957) has derived a
0------------------------- 3.8
3_ 9
3. 5 3_ 4 3. 2
method of progressively calculating for a com-
62-------------------------
________________________ _ 3. 4 3. 2 3.1
15 ____ --------------------
4.1
4.3
3. 3
3.2
3. 1
2. 9
2.8
2. 6
plete initial energy spectrum the energy dissipated
by small collisions in each of a number of electron
(b) 280 kv (p) Primary HVL 2.6 mm Cu, Cormack et al., (1958b)
energy intervals. A graphical summary of various
electron-dissipation distributions as a function of
linear energy transfer has been presented by
2. 871
2.
3.0
2. 0
2. 0 I 1. 7
1. 5 Howard-Flanders (1958). Rossi et al., (1961)
I. 7 1. 2
have critically discussed the specification energy
deposition in a small volume with particular at-
(c) 250 kv (cp), Primary HVL 2.4 mm Cu, Hettinger and Liden (1960)
tention to the statistical fluctuations and to the
2,5 ____________________________________ 1 combined effect of mort than one traversing par-
1.4
2. 541 ticle. Rossi also measured energy deposition dis-
k::: :: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::: 2.
2. 8
1.6
1.71
1. 6
1.3
1.1 tributions of electrons set in motion by gamma rays
and for protons set in motion by fast neutrons.
(d) 250 kv (cp), Skarsgard and Johns (1961) In the present state of knowledge it does not
Primary HVL-1.25 mm Cu
appear useful to present here a detailed description
of methods for determining energy deposition
Depth\Area 0 25 50 100 200 500
distributions nor to summarize existing data.
(cm) (cm')
References
o _____________
1. 28 0. 98 0. 92 0.87 0. 84 0.82
2_5 ____________ 1. 38 . 85 . 72 . 66 . 61 . 58
Abson, W., Cox, R. L., and Gray, A. L. (1958). Neutron
5.0 ____________ 1. 55 .82 . 72 .63 flux instrumentation, Proc. Intern. Conf. on Peaceful
10.0 ___________ . 56 . 52
15.o ___________ 1. 83 .90 . 75 . 62 . 49 .46 Uses of Atomic Energy, 15/P/56 Geneva.
2. 24 . 99 . 75 .60 . 50 .47 Aglintsev, K. K., and Ostromukhova, G. P. (1959). The dis-
tribution of ionization along a beam of ,,-radiation and
Primary HVL-2.20 Cu the determination of radiation dose with normal ioniza-
tion chambers, Soviet J. Atomic Energy 6, No. 1, 33.
o_____________ Aglintsev, K. K., and Ostromukhova, G. P. (1961).
2. 26 1. 89 1. 80 1. 70 1. 62 1. 54
2.8 __________ -- 2.39 1. 72 1. 55 1. 41 1. 23 1.15
Roentgen readings in the '}'-radiation range, with quan-
5_0 ____________ 2. 53 1. 70 1.48 1. 21 tum energy of 0.25-3 Mev, Tr. Vses. Nauchno.-Issle.
10,0 ___________ 1.08 1.00
15.0 ___________
2.67 1. 54 1.29 1. 06 . 88 . 80 Inst. Metodiki (Bull. Mendeleev Inst.) 55, No. 115, 55.
2.90 1. 48 1.20 . 98 .81 . 66 Aitken, J. H., and Dixon, W. R. (1958). X-ray spectra
from a 100 kv machine, NRC (Can.) Report 4864.
Primary HVL 3.20 Cu Aitken, J. H., DeLa Vergne, L., Henry, W. H., and Loftus,
T. P., (1962). Comparison of United States and Cana-
o _____________ dian free-air ionization chambers, Brit. J. Radio!. 35, 65.
2.5 ____________
3.16 2. 78 2. 67 2. 56 2. 45 2. 37 Allen, A. 0., Hogan, V. D., and Rothschild, W. G. (1957).
3.19 2. 45 2. 26 2.09 1. 93 1. 81
5_0 ____________ 3. 26 2. 46 2. 22 1. 91 1. 70 1. 56
Studies in the radiolysis of ferrous sulfate solutions;
10_0 ___________ 3. 33 effect of acid concentration in solutions containing
15.0 ___________ 2. 31 1. 98 1. 69 1.44 1.27
3. 46 2.11 1. 75 1. 45 1.18 .86 oxygen, Radiation Res. 7, 603.
Allen, A. 0., and Rothschild, W. G. (1957). Studies in
the radiolysis of ferrous sulfate solutions; effect of
The hardening effect of the passage of the primary oxygen concentrations in O.SN sulfuric acid, Radiation
Res. 7, 591.
beam through the water and its effect on the Allen, W. D., and Ferguson, A. T. G. (1957). The fission
ov~r~ll 9uality of the radiation is particularly cross sections of u2a3, u2~s, u23s and Pu 23 9 for neutrons in
stnkmg m the work of Skarsgard and Johns. the energy range 0.030 Mev to 3.0 Mev., Proc. Phys.
Soc. (London) A70, 573.
Allisy, A., and Astier. A. (1958). Determination of the
D. Electron Spectra in an Irradiated Medium absorbed dose/exposure. dose ratio in bone and muscle
by the method of equivalent gases, J. Radio!. Electro!.
In a medium irradiated with x or gamma rays, Nucl. Med. 39, 340.
electrons are set in motion as a result of the Allisy, A., DeLaVergne, L., and Wyckoff, H. 0. (1957).
photoelectric, Compton and pair production International comparison of French and U.S. roentgen-
p~ocesses. The distribution of initial energies ray standards, Acta Radio!. '18, 484.
Allisy, A., and Roux, A. M. (1961). Contribution a la
given to these electrons at some point may be mesure des rayons roentgen dans le domaine de 5 a 50
calculated from the photon spectrum at that point. kv, Acta Radio!. 55, 57.
Nelms (1953) has given a comprehensive set of Amaldi, E. (1959). The production and slowing down
of neutrons, Encyclopedia of Physics 38/2, Springer-
graphical data of the distribution of Compton- Verlag.
recoil electrons. Johns et al., (1954) have pre- Anderson, A. R. (1962). A calorimetric determinat~on
sented tables for calculating the distributions of of the oxidation yield of the Fricke dosimeter at high
photoelectrons, Compton-recoil electrons and posi- dose rates of electrons, J. Phys. Chem. 66, 180.
Andrews, H. L., Murphy, R. E., and Lebrun, E. J. (1957~.
tron-electron pairs generated by continuous photon Gel dosimeter for depth-dose measurements, Rev. Sci.
spectra. Instr. 28, 329.
86
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 Anta, M. C .. and Haissinsky, M. (1954). Sur la reduction Stationery Office, London, England.
des sels ceriques par Jes rayons a du polonium prepare Barr, N. F. (1958). Private communication.
par depot anodique, J. Chim. Phys. 51, 33. Barr, N. F., and Stark, M. B. (1958). The destruction
Astier, A., and Allisy, A. (1959). Quelques donnees of the fluorescence of quinine in acid solution by 250
recentes sur la conversion roentgen-rads dans l'of> et kvp x-rays, Radiation Res. 9, 89.
le muscle, J. Radial. Electrol. Med. Nucl. 40, 379. Barr, N. F., and Stark, M. B. (1960). Chemical dosimetry
Aston, G. H. (1961). Private Communication. with fluorescence compounds: The destruction of the
Aston, G. H., and Attix, F. H. (1956). An intercompari- fluorescence of quinine by gamma rays, Radiation Res.
son of the roentgen standards of Great Britain and U.S.A. 12, 1.
Acta Radial. 46, 747. Barr, N. F., Stark, M., Hands, J., Laughlin, J. S. (1961b).
Atlee, Z. J. and Trout, E. D. (1943). A study of roentgen Dosimetry with small silver-activated glass rods, Health
ray distribution at 60-140 kvp, Radiology 40, 375. Phys. 7, 48.
Attix, F. H., and Ritz, V. H. (1957). A determination Barr, N. F., Stark, M., and Laughlin, J. S. (1961a). A
of the gamma-ray emission of radium, J. Research comparison of two fluorometers designed to measure
NBS 59, 293, RP2801. the radiation-induced fluorescence of silver-activated
Attix, F. H. (1961). Unpublished experiments at U.S. glass rods, Radiology 76, 113.
Naval Research Laboratory, reported at 2nd Micro- Barton, David M. (1953). Measurement of the neutron
dosimetry Conference, Rochester, N.Y. spectrum from a Po-LF low energy neutron source,
Attix, F. H. (1962). Dosimetry by solid .state devices, AEC Los Alamos Report LA-1609.
U.S. Naval Research Laboratory Report No. 5777. Bausch & Lomb Optical Co. (1959). Commercial micro-
Auxier, J. A., Hurst, G. S., and Zedler, R. E. (1958). A dosimeter uses glass fluorescence, Nucleonics 17, No.
single ion detector for measurement of ')'-ray ionization 9, 128.
in cavities, Health Phys. 1, 21. Bay, Z., Mann, W. B., Seliger, H. H., and "Wyckoff,
Avotina, M. P., and Ostromukhova, A. P. (1961). An H. 0. (1957). Absolute measurement of Wair for
installation for the absolute measurement in roentgens sulfur-35 beta rays, Radiation Res. 7, 558.
for X-radiation in the 20-60 kv range, Tr. Vses. Nau- Bay, Z., Newman, P. A., and Seliger, H. H. (1961).
chno.-Issle. Inst. Metodiki (Bull. Mendeleev Inst.) Absolute measurement of W for Po 210 alpha particles
55, No. 115, 35. in air, nitrogen and carbon dioxide, Radiation Res. 14,
A WRE 0-28/60 (1961). Neutron cross sections of selected 551.
elements and isotopes for use in neutronics calculations Beetlestone, A., and Thurmer, G. (1958). Some considera-
in the energy range 0.025 ev-15 Mev. Atomic Weapons tions of focal spot sizes, Brit. J. Radial. 31, 492.
Research Establishment. Belcher, E. H. (1953). Radiation dosimetry with scintil-
Axton, E. J. (1961). Neutron source calibrations: a lation detectors, Brit. J. Radial. 26, 455.
review, Nucleonics 19, No. 3, 90. Belcher, E. H., and Geilinger, J. E. (1957). Improved
Axton, E. J., and Cross, P. (1961). The establishment scintillating media for radiation dosimetry, Brit. J.
of an absolutely calibrated neutron source, J. Nucl. Radiol. 30, 103.
Energy 15, 22. Bell, G. E. (1936). Spectral distribution in the continuous
Axton, E. J. (1962). Private communication, National X-ray spectrum and the specification of X-ray quality,
Physical Lab., Teddington, Englalld. Brit. J. Radiol. 9, 680.
Baarli, J. (1961). An experimental study of gamma-ray Berger, M. J., and Dogget, J. (1956). Reflection and
backscattering using scintillation gamma-ray spectro- transmission or gamma radiation by barriers: Semi-
scopy, Arkiv Math. Naturvidenskap, Band LV, No. 8, analytic Monte Carlo calculation, J. Research NBS 56,
Oslo. 89, RP2653.
Back, M. H., and Miller, N. (1957). Use of ferrous Berger, M. J., and Raso, D. (1960). Monte Carlo calcu-
sulfate solutions for x-ray dosimetry, Nature 179, 321. lations of gamma ray backscattering, Radiation Res.
Baily, N. A. and Beyer, N. S. (1957). The influence of 12, 20.
treatment cones on dose rate, Am. J. Roentgenol, Radium Berger, R. T. (1961). The x- or gamma-ray energy
Therapy Nucl. Med. 77, 873. absorption or transfer coefficient: tabulation and discus-
Baily, N. A., and Mayer, J. W. (1961). A P-N junction sion, Radiation Res. to, 1.
semiconductor radiation detector for use with beta- and Bernard, C.H., Thornton, W. T., and Auxier, J. A. (1961).
gamma-ray-emitting isotopes, Radiology 76, 116. Silver metaphosphate glass for x-ray measurements in
Baily, N. A., Grainger, R. J., and Mayer, J. W. (1961). coexistent neutron and x-radiation fields, Health Phys.
Capabilities of lithium drifted P-I-N junction detectors 4, 236.
when used for gamma-ray spectroscopy, Rev. Sci. Bernier, J. P., Skarsgard, L. D., Cormack, D. V., and
Instr. 32, 865. Johns, H. E. (1956). A calorimetric determination of
Ballinger, E. R., and Harris, P. S. (1959). Field study the energy required to produce an ion pair for cobalt-60
of the AgPOa glass personnel dosimeter, Los Alamos gamma rays, Radiation Res. 5, 613.
Scientific Laboratory Rept. No. LA 2298. Bernstein, W., and Schardt, A. W. (1952). Activation
Balon, Z. P. (1957). Researches in the area of ionizing of Lil crystal phosphors, Phys. Rev. 85, 919.
radiations, Tr. Vses. Nauchno.-Isse. Inst. Metodiki Bezotosnii, V. M., and Zamyatnin, Yu S. (1957). Mea-
(Bull. Mendeleev Inst.) 30, ?...-0. 90, 70. surement of absolute intensities of neutron sources,
Bame, S. J., Jr., Haddad, E., Perry, J. E., Jr., and Smith, At. Energ. 2, 313; (1958) J. NucL Energy 6, 237.
R. K. (1957). Absolute determination of monoenergetic Biber, C., Huber, P., and Miiller, A. (1955). Arbeit pro
neutron flux in the energy range l to 30 Mev., Rev. Ionenpaar von mehratomigen Gasen fiir Po-a-Teilchen,
Sci. Instr. 28, 997. Helv. Phys. Acta 28, 503.
Barber, W. C. (1955). Specific ionization by high-energy Bichsel, H. (1961). Outer shell corrections for stopping
electrons, Phys. Rev. 97, 1071. powers, Bull. Am. Phys. Soc. 6, 46.
Barnard G. P., Axton, E. J., Belcher, D. S. C., and Bishay, A. M. (1961). A bismuth lead borate glass dosim-
Marsh, A. R. S. (1956). The present status of calibra- eter for high-level gamma measurements, Phys. Chem.
tions of ionization dosimeters with high-voltage X-rays, Glasses 2, No. 2, 33.
Phys. Med. Biol. 1, 18.
Barnard, G. P., Axton, E. J., and Marsh, A. R. S. (1959). Bjiirngard, B., and Hettinger, G. (1961). Spectra of scat-
A study of cavity ion chambers for the use with 2 M v tered radiation behind slabs of water irradiated by
X-rays: equilibrium wall thickness; wall-absorption car- X-rays, Arkiv Fysik 20, 517.
rel tion, Phys. Med. Biol. 3, 366. Blankenship, J. L., Bibliography on semiconductor nuclear
Barn: rJ, G. P., and Marsh, A. R. S. (1959). The stopping radiation detectors, Rept. No. TID-3907, Dec. 6, 1960
pm1 er correction for graphite cavity chambers used with (Office of Technical Services, Department of Commerce,
2M v x rays, Phys. Med. Biol. 4, 33. Washington 25, D.C.)
Barnard, G. P., Aston, G. H., and Marsh, A. R. S. (1960). Blanks, B. A., and Rohrer, R. H. (1960). A sensitive
Effects of rnriations in the ambient air on the .calibra- gamma ray dosimeter, Am. J. Roentgenol., Radium
tion and use of ionization dosimeters, Her Majesty's Therapy and Nucl. Med., 83, 581.
87
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 Blocker, W., Kenney, R. W., and Panofsky, W. K. H. value layers from 1.25 mm Cu to 6 mm Pb, Radiation
(1950). Transition curves of 330 Mev Bremsstrahlung, Res. 17, 534.
Phys. Rev. 79, 419. Bruce, W. R., and Pearson, M. L. (1962). Spectral
BNL 325 (1958). Neutron cross sections. Brookhaven distribution of scattered radiation in a water phantom
National Laboratory. irradiated with Cs 137 gamma rays, Radiation Res. 17 ,555.
BNL 325 (1960). Neutron cross sections, supplement Brucker, G. (1952). Energy dependence of scintillating
number 1. Brookhaven National Laboratory. crystals, Nucleonics 10, No. 11, 72.
BNL 400 (1962). Angular distribution in neutron- Bruzau, M. (1929). Sur la distribution du rayonnement
inducted reactions. Brookhaven National Laboratory. dans Jes milieux dispersifs, Ann. Phys. 11, 5.
Boag, J. W. (1954). The distribution of linear energy Brynjolfsson, A. (1960). Calorimetric measurements of
transfer or "ion density" for fast neutrons in water, gamma-rays in the Co-60 irradiation facility of Risl!I,
Radiation Res. 1, 323. Risl!I Report 16.
Boag, J. W. (1956). Chapt. 4, Radiation Dosimetry, Hine Burch, P. R. J. (1955). Cavity ion chamber theory,
and Brownell, Academic Press, Inc., New York, N.Y. Radiation Res. 3, 361.
Boag, J. W., Dolphin, G. W., and Rotblat, J. (1958). Burch, P. R. J. (1957). Some physical aspects of relative
Radiation dosimetry by transparent plastics, Radiation biological efficiency, Brit. J. Radio!. 30, 524.
Res. 9, 589. Burke, E. A .• and Pettit, R. M. (1960). Absorption
Bollingel', L. M., Saplakoglu, A., Coceva, C., Cote, R. E., analysis of X-ray spectra produced by beryllium window
and Thomas, G. E. (1957). Precision thermal fission tubes operated at 20 to 50 kvp., Radiation Res. 13, 271.
cross sections by a new method, Bull. Am. Phys. Soc. Burlin, T. E. (1959). The measurement of exposure dose
112, 196; Argonne National Laboratory Physics for high energy radiation with cavity ionization cham-
Division Summary Report, January through March bers, Phys. Med. Biol. 3, 197.
1957, ANL-5698, p. 2, Argonne National Laboratory, Burlin, T. E. (1961). An experimental examination of
Lemont, Ill. theories relating to the absorption of gamma-ray energy
Bollinger, L. M., and Thomas, G. E. (1957). Boron- in a medium to the ionization produced in a cavity,
loaded liquid scintillation neutron detectors, Rev. Sci. Phys. Med. Biol. 6, 33.
Instr. 2S, 489. Burlin, T. E. (1962). An experimental examination of
Bollinger, L. M., Thomas, G. E., and Ginther, R. G. (1959). theories relating ionization in a cavity to radiation dose,
Glass scintillators for neutron detection, Rev. Sci. Instr. Ph.D. Thesis, London University, London, England.
30, 1135. Burns, J.E., Perry, B. J., Pierce, N. H., Trotman, R. E.,
Bortner, T. C., and Hurst, G. S. (1954). Ionization of and Wilson, C. W. (1959). A kilocurie caesium 137
pure gases and mixtures of gases by 5-Mev alpha parti- beam unit at Westminster Hospital: Physical aspects,
cles, Phys. Rev. 93, 1236. Brit. J. Radiol. 32, 215.
Bothe, W. (1943). Zur Methodik der Neutronensonden, Cameron, J. R., Daniels, F., Johnson, N., and Kenney,
Z. Physik. 120, 437. G. (1961). Radiation dosimeter utilizing the thermo-
Bouzigues, H., Scheidhauer, J., Brian, R., and Messain- luminescence of lithium fluoride, Science 1H, 333.
guiral, L. (1961). Enlarged sensibility of the Fricke Caswell, R. S. (1960). Neutron-insensitive proportional
dosimeter by utilization of the orthophenanthroline counter for gamma-ray dosimetry, Rev. Sci. Instr. 31, 869.
reagent, pp. 331-5 of "Selected Topics in Radiation Cedarlund, R., Horn, A., and Scolnick, M. (1961). Solid-
Dosimetry," Vienna, International Atomic Energy A"ency. state detector for monitoring 14-Mev neutron produc-
Bradshaw, A. L. (1953). The wall effect of applicators, tion, Nucl. Instr. Methods 13, 305.
Hosp. Phys. Assoc. Bull. 1, pt. 1, 4. Cheka, J. S. (1954). Recent developments in film mon-
Braestrup, C. B., and Mooney, R. T. (195S). Cobalt 60 itoring of fast neutrons, Nucleonics U, 40.
radiation measurements, Radiology 70, 516. Chiozzotto, M. (1962). La camera a ionizzazione ad aria
Brandt, W. (1958). Tight-binding corrections of stopping libera dell' Instituto Superiore di Sanita, Instituto Super-
powers, Phys. Rev. lU, 1624. iore di Sanita, Rome, Italy.
Brannen, E., and Olde, G. L. (1960). Electron dosimetry Clarkson, J. R., and Mayneord, W. V. (1939). The
in phantoms using thin scintillator sheets, Phys. Med. quality of high voltage radiations, Brit. J. Radio!. 12,168
Biol. 6, 37. Clarkson, J. R., Leech, H. J., Taylor, A. G. C., and Mason.
Breen, R. .J., and Hertz, M. R. (1955). Gamma radiation S. W. A. (1959). A moving-beam caesium 137 telecurie,
from polonium neutron sources, Phys. Rev. 9S, 599. unit, Brit. J. Radio!. 32, 798.
Breen, R. .l., Hertz, M. R., and Wright, D: U. (1956). Cochran, R. G., and Henry, K. M. (1955). Proton recoil
The spectrum of polonium-beryllium neutron sources, fast-neutron spectrometer, Pt. II, Experimental, Rev.
U.S. Atomic Energy Commission Report MLM-1054. Sci. Instr. 26, 757.
Breitling, G., and Glocker, R. (1952). Uber die Wel- Cockroft, A. L., and Curran, S. C. (1951). The elimina-
lenliingenahhiingigkeit von Szintillationszahlern im Riint- tion of the end effects in counters, Rev. Sci. Instr. 22, 37.
gene;ebiet, Naturwissenschaften 39, 84. Codd, J., Shepherd, L. R., and Tait, J. H. (1956). The
Breitling, G., Glocker, R., and Mohr, H. (1956). Die physics of fast reactors, Progr. Nuclear Energy, 1,
Messung der Rontgendosis in Fett, Muske!, Knochen Ser. 1, 251, Pergamon Press, Inc., London, England.
mit Hilfe von Leuchtstoffen verschiedener Zusammen- Cohen, B. L., and·Falk, C. E. (1951). (d,n) reactions with
setzung, Fortschr. Gebiete Rontgenstrahlen N uklear- 15-Mev deuterons; II Neutron energy spectra and yields,
Med. Si, 561. Phys. Rev. Si, 173.
Bretscher, E., and French_, A. P. (1944). British Atomic Cole, D. P., Duffv, P.A., Hayes, M. E., Lusby, W. S., and
Energy Project Report 386; The measurement of a Webb, E. L. (1952). The phosphor-phototube radiation
neutron flux in the presence of gamma rays, British detector, Elec. Eng. 71, 935.
Atomic Energy Project Rept. BR-517. Cole, A., Moore, E. B., and Shalek, R. J. (1953). A
Broek, H. W., and Anderson, C. E. (1960). The stilbene simplified automatic isodose recorder, Nucleonics 11
scintillation crystal as a spectrometer for continuous No. 4, 46.
fast-neutron spectra. Rev. Sci. Instr. 31, 1063. Cole, A., Sinclair, W. K., Fletcher, G. H., and Johnson,
Brown, B., and Hooper, E. B. (1958). Plastic phosphor G. C. (1960). Physical studies on a short-treatment-
matrix for fast neutron detection, Nucleonics 16, No. 4,96. distance cesium 137 teletherapv unit, Railiology 7!, 731.
Brownell, G. L. (1961). Medical applications of semi- Compton, A. H., and Allison, S. K. (1935). X rays in
conductor nuclear particle detectors, Puhl. No. 871, theory and experiment, 2nd ed., p. 81, D. van Nostrand
NatL Aca<l. Sci.-Natl. Res. Council, Wash., D.C., U.S.A. Co., New York, N.Y.
Bruce, W. R., and .Johns, H. E. (1960). The spectra of Cormack, D, V., Till, .J. E., Whitmore, G. F., and Johns,
X-rays scattered in low atomic number materials, Brit. H. E. (1955). Measurements of continuous x-ray
J. Rarliol. Suppl. No. 9. spectra with a scintillation spectrometer, Brit. J. Radio!.
Bruce, W. R., Pearson, M. L., and Johns, H. E. (1962). 2S, 605.
Comparisons of Monte Carlo calculations and experi- Cormack, D. V. (1956). Distribution of energy losses of
mental measurements of scattered radiation produced the electrons set in motion by radiation, Indian J.
in a water phantom by primary radiations with half Radio!. Souvenir No. 576.
88
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 Cormack, D. V., Griffith, T. J., and Johns, H. E. (1957). DePangher, J. (1959). Double moderator neutron dosim-
Measurement of the spectral distribution of scattered eter, Nucl. Instr. Method Ii, 61.
400 kvp x-rays in a water phantom, Brit. J. Radio!. 30, DePangher, J. (1961). A reproducible precision poly-
129. ethylene long counter for measuring fast neutron fl.ux,
Cormack, D. V., and Johns, H. E. (1958). Spectral Hanford Laboratories, Richland, Wash.
distribution of scattered radiation from a kilocurie deTroyer, A., and Tavernier, G. C. (1954). Absolute
cobalt unit, Brit. J. Radio!. 31, 497. measurement of the Union Miniere neutron standard,
Cormack, D. V., Burke, D. G., and Davitt, W. E., (1958a). Bull. Classe Sci., Acad. Roy. Belg., Ser. 6, !O, 150.
Spectral distribution of 140 kvp x rays, Radiology 70, de Waard, R. H., Oosterkamp, W. J., and Somerwil, A.
91. (1958). Mededeling van de Dosimetrie-commissie van
Cormack, D. V., Davitt, W. E., Burke, D. G., and Rawson, de Nederlandse Vereniging voor Electrologie en Ront-
E.G. (1958b). Spectral distribution of 280 kvp x-rays, genologie, J. Belge Radiologie U, No. 6, 41.
Brit. J. Radio!. 31, 565. Dewhurst, H. A. (1952). Effect of aliphatic alcohols on
Cormack, D. V., and Burke, D. G. (1960). Spectral dis- the 'Y-ray oxidation of aerated aqueous ferrous sulfate,
tributions of primary and scattered 140 kvp x-rays, Trans. Faraday Soc. !8, 905.
Radiology M, 743. De Wire, J. W. (1959). Private communication.
Cormack, D. V. (1960). A comparison of calculated and Digby, N., Firth, D., Hercock, R. J. (1953). The photo-
measured scattered spectra, J. Can. Assoc. Radio!. XI, graphic effect of medium energy electrons, J. Phot. Sci.
40. 1, 194.
Cormack, D. V. (1961). Spectral distributions in a med- DIN 6817, (1962). Dosimeter mit Ionisationskammern
ium irradiated with X- or gamma-rays, Trans. IX fur Rontgen- und Gammastrahlen, Regeln fiir die
Intern. Cong. Radiology, p. 1400. Herstellung, Fachnormenausschuss Radiologie in Ar-
Costrell, L. (1962). Scattered radiation from large Coo0 beitsgemeinschaft mit der Deutschen ROntgengesell-
calibrating sources, Health Phys. 8, 261. schaft.
Costrell, L. (1962). Scattered radiation from large Cst37 Dixon, W. R., Bielesch, Alice, and Geiger, K. W. (1957).
sources, Health Phys. 8, 491. Neutron spectrum of an actinium-beryllium source,
Cottin, M., and Lefort, M. (1956). Etalonnage absolu Can. J. Phys. 35, 699.
du dosimetre au sulfate ferreux avec rayons x mous de Dixon, W. R., and Aitken, J. H. (1958). The resolution
10 et 8 Kev, J. Chim. Phys. 53, 267. correction in the scintillation spectrometry of con-
Crane, W. W. T., Higgins, G. H., and Bowman, H. R. tinuous X-rays, Can. J. Phys. 36, 1624.
(1956). Average number of neutrons per fission for Dolphin, G. W., and Innes, G. S. (1956). A calorimetric
several heavy-element nuclides Phys. Rev. 101, 1804. method used in the dosimetry of x-ray beams from a
Dainty, J. (1950). Report on fast neutron dosimetry, 1 Mev generator, Phys. Med. Biol. 1, 161.
CRM-482. Donaldson, D. M., and Miller, N. (1955). Etudes quan-
D'Ans, J., and Lax, E. (1949). Handbook for Chemistry titatives des reactions radiochimiques, III Oxydation de
and Phys., 2nd ed., Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany. sulfate ferreux par Jes particles fJ, J. Chim. Phys. 52, 578.
Dalton, G. Ronald and Osborn, Richard, K. (1961). Flux Draganie, I. (1959). Action des rayonnements ionisants
perturbations by thermal neutron detectors, Nucl. Sci. sur les solutions aqueuses d'acide oxalique: acide oxalique
Eng. 9, 198. utilise comme dosimetre chimique pour les doses entre
Davisson, S., Goldblith, S. A., and Proctor, B. E. (1956). 1.6 et 160 M rads, J. Chim. Phys. 58, 9.
Glass dosimetry, Nucleonics 1!, No. 1, 34. von Droste, G. and Kolb, M. (1960). Unpublished.
Day, M. J., and Stein, G. (1950). Chemical effects of Dudley, R. A. (1956). Photographic film dosimetry,
ionizing radiation in some gels, Nature 166, 146. Chapt. 7, Radiation Dosimetry, Hine and Brownell,
Day, F. H. (1956). Unpublished work, National Bureau Academic Press Inc., New York, N.Y.
of Standards. Edelsack, E. A., Kreger, W. E., Mallet, W., and Scofield,
Dealler, J. F. (1954). An optical shutter for scintillation N. E. (1960). Experimental investigation of thick
meters, Brit. J. Radio!. 27, 646. target bremsstrahlung radiation produced by electrons
Dearnaley, G., and Whitehead, A. B. (1961). Two semi- of 1.00, 1.50, and 2.00 Mev, Health Phys. <l, 1.
conductor detectors for fast neutrons. AERE-R 3662, Edwards, P. D., and Kerst, D. W. (1953). Determination
Harwell, U. K. See also: Dearnaley, G., and Ferguson, of photon flux for energies between 150 Mev and 300
A. T. G. (1962). Nucleonics 20, No. 4, 84. Mev, Rev. Sci. Instr. 2!, 490.
Degelman, J., Callahan, A. B., and Fulton, G. P. (1957). Eggler, C., and Hughes, D. J. (1950). The neutron spec-
An improved fluorometer for miniature glass rod radia- trum of a radium-beryllium photo source, U.S. Atomic
tion detectors, Radiation Res. 6, 548. Energy Commission Report ANL 4476.
DeJuren, J. A., and Rosenwasser, H. (1954a), Pulse- Ehrlich, M. (1954). Photographic dosimetry of X- and
height measurements of recoils from Bio (n,a) Li7. Phys. gamma rays, NBS Handb. 57.
Rev. 93, 831; (1954b), Absolute calibration of the NBS Ehrlich, M. (1955). Scintillation spectrometry of low-
standard thermal neutron density, J. Research NBS 52, ·energy bremsstrahlung, J. Research NBS Ii!, 107,
93, RP2477. RP2339.
DeJuren, J. A., Padgett, D. W., and Curtiss, L. F. (1955). Ehrlich, M. (1956a). National Bureau of Standards. Pri-
Absolute calibration of the National Bureau of Stand- vate communication.
ards photoneutron standard, I. J. Research NBS liS, Ehrlich, M. (1956b). Reciprocity law for X-rays, Part I:
63, RP2605. Validity for high-intensity exposures in the negative
DeJuren, J. A., Chin, J. (1955). Absolute calibration of region, J. Opt. Soc. Am. <18, 797.
the National Bureau of Standards photoneutron stand- Ehrlich, M., and McLaughlin, W. (1959). Photographic
ard; II. Absorption in manganese sulfate J. Research dosimetry at total exposure levels below 20 mr, NBS
NBS liS, 311, RP2635. ' Tech. Note 29 (1959) (PB151388).
Erozolimsky, B. G., and Spivak, P. E. (1957). The
Delattre, P. (1961). Les methodes de determination des standardization of neutron sources using the graphite
spectres de neutrons rapides a J'aide de detecteurs a stack of a reactor, Atomnaya Energiya 2, 1327 (1957);
seuil, Rapport C.E.A. No. 1979, C.E.N. de Saclay, J. Nucl. Energy 8, 243 (1958).
Gif-sur-Yvette, France. Ellis, F. (1959). The use of the rad in clinical practice,
Demers, J. P. (1945). Photographic emulsion studies of Brit. J. Radio!. 32, 588.
Po-Be neutrons, MP-74 and Energy distribution of Failla, G., and Rossi, H. H. (1950). Dosimetry of ionizing
neutrons from Ra-Be sources, MP-204. Montreal particles, Am. J. Roentgenol. Rad. Therapy Nucl.
Report. Med., H, 489.
Dennis, J. A., and Loosemore, W. R. (1957). A fast Fano, U. (1953). Gamma ray attenuation, Nucleonics
neutron counter for dosimetry, A.E.R.E. EL/R 2149. 11, No. 8, 8.
DePangher, J. R. (1957). Double moderator neutron Farr, R. F. (1955a). The specification of roentgen ray
detector, HW-54584. output and quality, Acta Radio!. !3, 152.

89
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 Farr, R. F. (1955b). The distribution of dose rate across Giocker, R., and Breitling, G. (1952). Der Kristall-
the field of an X-ray therapy tube, Brit. J. Radiol. 28, Szintillationszahler als neues Dosismessverfahren,
364. Strahlentherapie 88, 92.
Felcher, G. P., Germagnoli, E., and Musci, M. (1960). Goldhlith, S. A., Proctor, B. E., and Hammerle, 0. A.
On the absolute calibration of a Ra-Be neutron source, (1952). Evaluation of food-irradiation procedures uti-
Energia Nucl. 7, 31 and 738. lizing high energy cathode rays, Ind. Eng. Chem 44,
Feld, B. T. (1953). The neutron. E. Segre, Exp. Nuclear 310.
Phys. II, 208. Goldstein, H., and Wilkins, Jr., J.E. (1954). Calculations
Firk, F. W. K., Slaughter, G. G., and Ginther, R. J. of the penetration of gamma rays, U.S. Atomic Energy
(1961). An improved Li6-loaded glass scintillator for Commission Report NY0-3075.
neutron detection. Submitted to Nuclear Instr. Goodwin, P. N. (1956). Scintillation counter for beta-ray
Method. dosimetry, Nucleonics 14, No. 9, 120.
Foote, R. S., and Koch, H. W. (1954). Scintillation Goodwin, P. N. (1959). Calorimetric measurements on
spectrometers for measuring the total energy of X-ray a cesium-137 teletherapy unit, Radiation Res. 10, 6.
photons, Rev. Sci. Inst. 21i, 746. Gordon, S., and Hart, E. J. (1958). Radiation decompo-
Fowler, J. F. (1955). Problems in the design of a sition of water under static and bubbling conditions, 2d
fluorescence meter for interstitial therapy, and a practi- Intern. Conf. Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva,
cal design of instrument, Br-it. J. Radiol. 28, 104. P/952, 29, 13.
Franks, J., Associated Electrical Industries (Woolwich) Gray, L. H. (1936). An ionization method for the abso-
Ltd., Harlow Research Laboratory, West Road Temple lute measurement of -y-ray energy, Proc. Roy. Soc.
Fields, Harlow, Essex, England. (Private communi- (London), A.lli6, 578.
cation.) Gray, L. H., Mottram, J. C., and Read, J. (1940). Some
Fricke, H., and Morse, S. (1929). The actions of x rays experiments upon the biological effects of fast neutrons,
on ferrous sulfate solutions, Phil. Mag. 7, 129. Brit. J. Radiol. 13, 371.
Friedland, S.S., Mayer, J. W., and Wiggins, J. S. (1960). Gray, L. H. (1944). The ionization method of measuring
Tiny semiconductor is fast, linear detector, Nucleonics energy, Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc. 40, 72.
18, No. 2, 54. Greene, D., and Tranter, F. W. (1956). Dosage data for
Fry, W. H., Miller, H., and Orton, K. F. (1955). A 50 4,000,000 volt X-rays, Brit. J. Radiol. 29, 193.
curie cobalt-60 teletherapy unit, Brit. J. Radio!. 28, 8. Greening, J. R. (1947). The determination of x-ray
Fuller, E. G., and Hayward, E. (1961). Calibration of a energy distributions by the absorption method, Brit. J.
monitor for use in bremsstrahlung beams, J. Research Radiol. 20, 71.
NBS 61iA (Phys. & Chem.), No. 5, 401 (Sept.-Oct. 1961). Greening, J. R. (1950). The determination of X-ray wave-
Fulton, G. P., Schulman, M. II., Lutz, B. R., and Arendt, length distributions from absorption data, Proc. Phys.
K. A. (1954). Minute radiophotoluminescent glass Soc. 63A, 1227.
implants for in Vivo radiation dosimetry, Federation Greening, J. R. (1951). A method of determining the
Proc. 13, 50. wavelength distribution of the X-radiation at a point
Geiger, K. W. (1959). Absolute standardization of radio- in a scattering medium, Brit. J. Radiol. 24, 204.
active neutron sources. II. The use of the F 1D(a,n)N a22 Greening, J. R., and Wilson, C. W. (1951). The wavelength
reaction, Can. J. Phys. 37, 550. of the X-radiation at a depth in water irradiated by
Geiget. K. W., and Whyte, G. N. (1959). Absolute beams of X-rays, Brit. J. Radiol. 24, 605.
standardization of radioactive neutron sources. I. Greening, J. R. (1952). The spectral distribution of radi-
Activation of manganese bath, Can. J. Phys. 37, 256. ation from X-ray tubes, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 42, 685.
Geiger, K. W. (1960). The status of the Canadian neutron Greening, J. R. (1954). A survey of surface backscatter
standard, Can. J. Phys. 38, 569. factors for radiations generated at 200 to 250 kv, Brit.
Geiger, K. W., and Jarvis, C. J. D. (1962). Neutrons J. Radiol. 27, 532.
and gamma rays from Po21o_B10 (a,n) and Po2IO-Bll (a,n) Greening, J. R. (1960). A compact free air chamber for
sources, Can. J. Phys. 40, 33. use in the range 10-50 kv, Brit. J. Radio I. 33, 178.
Genin, R. (1956). Energie moyenne d'ionisation dans les Griffith, H. D., and Swindell, G. E. (1951). Measurement
gaz. Defaut d'ionisation, J. Phys. Radium 17, 571. of skin dose in radium therapy, Brit. J. Radiol. 24, 337.
Genna, S., and Laughlin, J. S. (1955). Absolute calibra- Griffith, G. H. (1958). Bibliography on photographic
tion of a cobalt-60 gamma-ray beam, Radiology 61i, film dosimetry, WADC Tech. Note 58-105, ASTIA
No. 3, 394. Document No. 155571.
Genna, S., and Laughlin, J. S. (1956). Calorimetric Gross, W., Wingate, C., and Failla, G. (1957). Average
measurement of energy locally absorbed in an irradi- energy lost by sulfur-35 beta rays per ion pair produced
ated medium, AEC Contract Report AT (30-1) 1451. in air, Radiation Res. 7, 570.
Gevantman, L. H., Chandler, R. C., and Pestaner, J. F. Gupton, E. D., Davis, D. M., and Hart, J. C. (1961).
(1957). Tri dimensional examination of chemical sys- Criticality accident application of the Oak Ridge Na-
tems irradiated in gel media, Radiation Res. 7, 318. tional Laboratory badge dosimeter, Health Phys. ii, 57.
Gevantman, L. H., and Pestaner, J. F. (1959). Ferric Haeberli, W., Huber, P., and Baldinger, E. (1953). Ar-
ion yields in ferrous sulfate solutions irradiated with beit pro Ionenpaar von Gasen und Gasmischungen fiir
low energy x-ravs, J. Chem. Phys. 31, 1140. a-Teilchen, Helv. Phys. Acta 26, 145.
Gevantman, L. H. (1960). Radiation effects in gels, Hall, E. J., and Oliver, R. (1961). A pitfall to avoid in
Radiation Res. Suppl. 2, 608. ferrous sulphate dosimetry, Brit. J. Radiol. 34, 397.
Geygv, J. R. (1955). Ed., Wissenschaftliche Tabellen, Hanna, G. C. (1961). The depression of thermal neutron
J. R. Geygy, Inc., Zurich, Switzerland. flux and density by absorbing foils, Nucl. Sci. Eng. 11,
Ginther, R. J., and Kirk, R. D., Thermoluminescence of
CaF2:Mn anfl its application to dosimetry, Report of 338.
Progress, U.S. Na val Research Laboratory, Sept. Hanson, A. 0., and McKibben, J. L. (1947). A neutron
1956, p. 12. detector having uniform sensitivity from 10 kev to 3
Ginther, R. J., anfl Kirk, R. D. (1957). The thermolumi- Mev, Phys. Rev. 72, 673.
nescence of CaF2:Mn, J. Electrochem. Soc. 104, 365. Harlan, J. T., and Hart, E: J. (1959). Ceric dosimetry:
Ginther, R. J., and Schulman, J. H. (1960). New glass Accurate measurement at lOq rads, Nucleonics 17, No.
dosimeter is less energy-dependent, Nucleonics 18, No. 4, 8, 102.
92. Hart, E. J. (1952). Mechanisms of the gamma-ray-
Glass, F. M., and Hurst, G. S. (1952). A method of pulse induced chain oxidation of aqueous ferrous sulfate-
integration using the binary scaling unit, Rev. Sci formic acid-oxygen solutions, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 74,
Instr. 23, 67. 4174.
Giazunov, P. Ya, and Pikayev, A. K. (1960). An inves- Hart, E. J. (1954). Gamma-ray-induced oxidation of
tigation of the rarliolytic oxidation of divalent iron with aqueous formic acid-oxygen solutions, Effect of oxygen
irrarliation doses of high power, Dokl. Akad. Nauk and formic acid concentrations, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 76,
SSSR 130, 1051. 4312.
90
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 Hart, E. J., and Gordon, S. (1954). Gas evolution for Hine, G. J., and McCall, R. C. (1954). Gamma ray
dosimetry of high gamma, neutron fluxes, Nucleonics backscattering, Nucleonics 12, No. 4, 27.
12, No. 4, 40. Hisdal, E. (1957). Bremsstrahlung spectra corrected for
Hart, E. J., Ramler, W. J., and Rocklin, S. R. (1956). multiple scattering in the target, Phys. Rev. 105, 1821.
Chemical yields of ionizing particles in aqueous solutions; Hochanadel, C. J., and Ghormley, J. A. (1953). A
effect of energy of protons and deuterons, Radiation Res. calorimetric calibration of gamma-ray actinometers, J.
4, 378. Chem. Phys. 21, 880.
Hart, E. J., and Walsh, P. D. (1954). A molecular pro- Hodara, M., Friedman, M., and Hine, G. J. (1959).
duct dosimeter for ionizing radiations, Radiation Res. Radiation dosimetry with fluorods, Radiology '73, 693.
1, 342. Hollander, L. E., Jr. (1956). Special CdS cells have high
Hart, E. J., and Walsh, P. D. (1958). Dosimetry of x- and -y-ray sensitivity, Nucleonics 14, No. 10, 68.
gamma ray and neutron fluxes in CP-5, Proc. 2d Intern. Holm, N. W., Brynjolfsson, A., and Maul, J. E. (1961).
Conf. Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, P/763, Absolute measurements on the Co60 irradiation facility
29, 38. at Rislll, p. 371-6 of Selected Topics in Radiation Do-
Hart, E. J., Koch, H. W., Petree, B., Schulman, J. H., simetry, Vienna, International Atomic Energy Agency.
Taimuty, S. I., and Wyckoff, H. 0. (1958). Measure- Hornyak, W. F. (1952). A fast neutron detector, Rev.
ment systems for high-level dosimetry, Proc. 2d Intern. Sci. Instr. 23, 264.
Conf. Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy 21·, 188. Hospital Physicists' Association (1960). A code of
Harteck, P., and Dondes, S. (1956). Nitrous oxide dosim- practice for X-ray measurements, Brit. J. Radio!. 33, 55.
eter for high levels of betas, gammas, and thermal Hospital Physicists' Association (1961). Depth dose
neutrons, Nucleonics 14, No. 3, 66. tables for use in radiotherapy, Brit. J. Radiol. Suppl.
Hartmann, S. R. (1957). WADC Technical Report 57- No. 10.
375, U.S. ASTIA Document AD-142029. Houtermans, F. G., and Teucher, M. (1951). Das
Haybittle, J. L., Saunders, R. D., and Swallow, A. J. Primarspektrum der schnellen N eutronen einer
(1956). X- and gamma irradiations of iron sulphate, (Raa+Be)-quelle und deren unelastischen Stosse in Pb.
J. Chem. Phys. 25, 1213. II. Z Physik 129, 365.
Healey, R. H., and Reed, J. W. (1941). The behaviour Howard-Flanders, P. (1958). Physical and chemical
of slow electrons in gases, Amalgamated Wireless Valve mechanisms in the injury of cells by ionizing radiations,
Co., Sydney, Australia. Advan. Biol. Med. Phys. 6, 553.
Hedden, W. A., Kircher, J. F., and King, B. W. (1960). Hubbell, J. H. (1958). Response of a large sodium-iodide
Investigation of some glasses for high-level gamma- detector to high energy X-rays, Rev. Sci. Instr. 29, 65.
radiation dosimeters, J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 43, No. 8, 413. Hubner, W. (1961). Private communication.
Heller, P. (1958). Private communication. Hubner, W. (1958). Uber den Einfluss von Fremdstoffen
Henley, E. J. (1954). Gamma-ray dosimetry with in Filtersubstanzen bei Sehwachungs.-und Halbwerte
cellophane-dye systems, Nucleonics 12, No. 9, 62. schichtmessungen, Fortschr. Gebiete Rontgenstrahlen
Henley, E. J., and Richman, D. (1956). Cellophane dye Nuklearmed 89, 629.
dosimeter for 1(}'1 to 107 roentgen range, Anal. Chem. Huffman, R. E., and Davison, N. (1956). Kinetics of
28, 1580. the ferrous iron-oxygen reaction in sulfuric acid solutions,
Henriksen, T. (1958). A scintillation dosimeter for 31 J. Am. Chem. Soc. '78, 4836.
Me V betatron radiation, Acta Radio!. (Stockh.) 49, Hughes, D. J. (1953). Pile neutron research, Addison-
377. Wesley Publ. Co., Cambridge, Mass.
Henriksen, T ., and Baarli, J. (1957). The effective Hughes, D. J., and Schwartz, R. B. (1958). Neutron cross
atomic number, Radiation Res. 6, 415. sections, BNL-325, 2d ed.
Henry, W. H., and Garrett, C. (1960). The Canadian Hurst, G. S., Ritchie, R. H., and Wilson, H. N. (1951).
standard free-air chamber for medium quality X-rays, A count-rate method of measuring fast neutron tissue
Can. J. Phys. 38, 1677. dose, Rev. Sci. Instr. 22, 981.
Henry, W. H., and Aitken, J. H. (1961). Monitoring Hurst, G. S., and Ritchie, R. H. (1953). On energy
ionization chamber for an X-ray generator, Brit. J. resolution with proportional counters, Rev. Sci. Instr.
Radio!. 35, 516. 24, 664.
Herbert, R. J. T. (1956). A scintillation dose-rate meter Hurst G. S. (1954). An absolute tissue dosimeter for
using a tuned low frequency amplifier, Brit. J. Radiol. fast' neutrons, Brit. J. Radio!. 2'7, 353.
29, 345. Hurst, G. S., Harter, J. A., Hensley, P. N., Mills, W. A.,
Hertz, C. H., and Gremmelmaier (1960). Miniature Slater, M., and Reinhardt, F. W. (1956). Techniques
semiconductor dose-rate meter, Acta Radio!. 54, 69. of measuring neutron spectra with threshold detectors-
Herwig, L. 0., and Miller, G. H. (1954). Alpha-particle tissue dose determination, Rev. Sci. Instr. 2'7, 153.
ionization in a gridded chamber, Phys. Rev. 94, 1183. ICR U (1957). Report of the International Commission on
Hess, W. N. (1957). Neutrons from (a,n) sources. Ann. Radiological Units and Measurement, 1956 NBS
Phys. 6, 116. Hanab. 62.
Hettinger, G., and Starfelt, N. (1958a). Bremsstrahlung ICRU (1959). Report of the International Co.mmission on
spectra from roentgen tubes, Acta Radio!. 5'0, 381. Radiological Units and Measurements, NBS Handb.
Hettinger, G., and Starfelt, N. (1958b). lnproved NaI 78.
scintillation spectrometer for the study of continuous ICRU Report 109. (1962). Radiation Quantities and
X-ray spectra, Nucl. Instr. 3, 25.
Hettinger, G., and Starfelt, N. (1959). Energy and Units, NBS Handb. 84.
ICRU Report lOd (1962). Clinical Dosimetry, NBS
angular distribution of scattered radiation in a water Handb. 87.
tank irradiated by X-rays, Arkiv. Fysik 14, 497.
Hettinger, G. (1960a). Spectra of primary and secondary International critical tables of numerical data (1926-30).
roentgen radiation, Radiation Physics Department, Publ. for National Research Council by the McGraw-
Lund. Hill Book Co. Inc., New York, N.Y. .
Hettinger, G., and Liden, K. (1960). Scattered radiation Ishiwari R. Yamashita, S., Yuasa, K., and Miyake, K.
in a water phantom irradiated by roentgen photons (1956). On the ionization-energy relation for alpha-
between 50 and 250 kev, Acta Radio!. 53, 73. particles in air, J. Phys. Soc. Japan 11, 337.
Hettinger, G. (1960b). Angular and spectral distribution Ito, T., and Ito, G. (1941). Special edit. Commemorating
of backscatter radiation from slabs of water, brass 50th anniv. of Electrotechmcal Lab., Tokyo, Japan, p.
and lead irradiated by photons between 50 and 250 lL
kev, Acta Radio!. 54, 129. Ittner, W. B., and Ter-Pogossian, M. (1952).. Air-
Hic~man, G.D., and Leng, W. B. (1961). The calculation equivalence of scintillation materials, Nucleomcs 10,
of effective cutoff energies for .cadmium, and gadolin- No. 2, 48.
ium, samarium, Trans. Am. Nucl. Soc. 4, 154. Ittner, W. B., and Ter-Pogossia~, M. (1954)_. Sci_n!il-
Hill, D.· L. (1947). Studies with the "Ranger", U.S. lation probe for determining relative beta ray mtensities,
Report AECD-1945 (rev.). Nucleonics 12, No. 5, 56.
91
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 Jaeger, R., and Kolb, W. (1956). Scintillationsspektro- Kara-Michailova, E., and Lea, D. E. (1940). The in-
metrie weicher Rontgenstrahlung, Sonderbande Strah- terpretation of ionization measurements in gases at high
lenther. 35, 285. pressures, Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc. 36, 101.
Jaffe, G. (1929). Columnar ionization in gases at high Keene, J.P. (1957). Oxidation of ferrous ammonium sul-
pressures, Physik. Zeitschr. 30, 849. fate solutions by electron irradiation at high dose rates,
Jaques, T. A. J., Bollinger, H. A., and Wade, F. (1953). Radiation Res. 6, 424.
Neutron detector for reactor instrumentation, Proc. Kemp, L. A. W. (1946). The physicist in the radiodiag-
Inst. Elec. Engrs. 100, Pt. I, 110. nostic department, Brit. J. Radiol. 19, 304.
Jahns, E. (1960). Bau und Erprobung eines Lumineszenz- Kemp, L.A. W., and Burns, J.E. (1958). Physical meas-
Dosimeters fiir Messungen in Korperhohlen, Diploma urements on the London Hospital Picker C3000 cobalt
Thesis, University of Heidelberg. unit, Acta Radiol. 49, 471.
Jennings, W. A. (1950). Physical aspects of the roentgen Khabakhpashev, A. G. (1960). Neutron spectrum of a
radiation from a beryllium window tube operating over Po-a-0 source, Soviet J. Atomic Energy (Transl.) 7, 591.
the range 2-50 kvp for clinical purposes, Acta Radiol. Kircher, J. F., King, B. W., Oestmann, M. J., Schall, P.,
33, 435. and Calkins, G. D. (1958). Recent research in high-
Jennings, W. A. (1951). Low voltage X-ray therapy with level gamma dosimetry, Proc. 2d Intern. Conf. Peacefu
a beryllium window tube part 2, the achievement of Uses of Atomic Energy 21, 199.
optimum depth dosage distribution, from the physical Klema, E. D., and Ritchie, R. H. (1952). Thermal neu-
standpoint, Brit. J. Radiol. :M, 135. tron flux measurements in graphite using gold and
Jennings, W. A. (1953). A theoretical study of radiation indium foils, Phys. Rev. 87, 167.
outputs and qualities from a beryllium window tube Koch, H. W., and Carter, R. E. (1950). Determination
operated at low kilovoltage, Brit. J. Radiol. 26, 193. of the energy distribution of bremsstrahlung from 19.5
Jentschke, W. (1940). Messungen an harten H-Strahlung, Mev electrolls, Phys. Rev. 77, 165.
Physikal Zeits. U, 524. Koch, L., Labeyrie, J., and Tarassenko, S. (1958). Nou-
Jervis, R. E. (1957). A cobalt irradiation-monitoring velle methode de mesure de flux de neutrons, Conf. Rept.
technique. Report Atomic Energy of Canada, CRDC- Geneva, 15/P/1207.
730. Koch, H. W., and Motz, J. W. (1959). Bremsstrahlung
Jesse, W. P., and Sadauskis, J. (1953). Alpha particle cross-section formulas and related data, Rev. Mod. Phys.
ionization in pure gases and the average energy to make 31, 920. '
an ion pair, Phys. Rev. 90, 1120. Kolb, W. (1955). Scintillationsspektrometrie weicher
Jesse, W. P., and Sadauskis, J. (1955). Ionization in Rontgenstrahlung, Naturwissenschaften 43, 53.
pure gases and the average energy to make an ion pair Komar, A. P., and Kruglov, S. P. (1960). Quantameter
for alpha and beta particles, Phys. Rev. 97, 1668. for measuring energy flux of bremsstrahlung from beta-
Jesse, W. P. (1958). Absolute energy to produce an ion trons and synchrotons and an investigation of this in-
pair in various gases by beta particles from S35 , Phys. strument, Zh. Tekh. Fiz. 30, 1369 (Soviet Phys.-Techn.
Rev. 109, 2002. Phys. 5, 1299, 1961).
Jesse, W. P. (1960). The ionization by polonium alpha Kondo, S. (1960a). Neutron response of silver-activated
particles in air and the average energy to make an ion phosphate glass, Health Phys. 4, 21.
pair, Radiation Res. 13, 1. Kondo, S. (1961). Response of silver-activated phosphate
Johansson, S. A. E. (1951). The use of scintillation glass to a,(3,-y rays and neutrons, Health Phys. 7,, 25.
counters in the measurement of the energy of X-rays Kramers, H. A. (1923). On the theory of X-ray absorp-
and low energy gamma rays, Arkiv Fysik 3, 533. tion and of the continuous x-ray spectrum, Phil. Mag.
Johns, H. E., Epp, E. R., Cormack, D.V., and Fedoruk, 46, 836.
S. 0. (1952a). Depth dose data and diaphragm design Kreidl, N. J., and Blair, G. E. l1956b). Recent develop-
for the Saskatchewan 1000 curie cobalt unit, Brit. J. ments in glass dosimetry, Nucleonics U, No. 3, 82.
Radiol. 25, 302. Kulenkampff, H. (1922). tl'ber das kontinuierliche
Johns, H. E., Fedoruk, S. 0., Kornelsen, P. 0., Epp, E.R., Rontgenspektrum, Annal. Phys. 69, 548.
and Darby, E. K. (1952b). Depth dose data, 150 kvp Langendorff, H., Spiegler, G., and Wachsmann, F. (1952).
to 400 kvp, Brit. J. Radiol. 25, 542. Strahlenschutzueberwacbung mit Filmen, Fortschr.
Johns, H. E., Till, J. E., and Cormack, D. V. (1954). Gebiete Roentgenstrahlen N uklearmed 77, 143.
Electron energy distributions produced by gamma-rays, Larson, H. V. (1958). Investigation of the energy loss
Nucleonics 12, No. 10, 40. per ion pair in air for protons in various gases, Phys.
Johns, H. E., Bruce, W.R., and Reid, W. B. (1958). The Rev. 112, 1927.
dependence of depth dose on focal skin distance, Brit. Larsson, K. E. (1954). A critical comparison between
J. Radiol. 31, 254. some methocls for measuring the strength of a Ra-Be
Johns, H. E., Hunt, J. W., and Skarsgard, L. D. (1959). neutron source absolutely, Arkiv. Fysik 7, 323.
A cesium 137 teletherapy unit for use at a source-to~skin Larsson, K. E. (1955). The use of the 'f3 (d,n) He• re-
distance of 35 cm, Brit. J. Radiol. 32, 224. action for the comparison of some methods for the
Johnson, C. H. (1960). Recoil telescope detectors, absolute measurement of a fast neutron flux, Arkiv.
Chapter II C in Fowler, J. L., and Marion, J.B., Fast Fysik 9, 293.
Neutron Physics, Part I, lnterscience Puhl. Inc., New Larsson, K. E. (1958). Present status in the field of
York. neutron source calibrations, J. Nucl. Energy 6, 322.
Johnson, G. R. A., and Weiss, J. (1957). The actions of Lasich, W. B., and Riddiford, L. (1947). Note on the 2.8
X-rays (200 kv) and -y rays (6°Co) on dilute aqueous Mev Betatron, J. Sci. Instr. 24, 177.
solutions of eerie salts, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London) A240, Laughlin, J. S., and Beattie, J. W. (1951). Calorimetric
189. determination of the energy flux of 22.5 Mev x rays,
Jones, A. R. (1960). Uses of semiconductor detectors Rev. Sci. Instr. 22, 572.
Laughlin, J. S., Beattie, J. W., Henderson, W. J., and
in health physics monitoring, Nucleonics 18, No. 10, 86. Harvey, R. A. (1953). Calorimetric evaluation of the
Jones, D. E. A. (1940). The determination from absorp- roentgen for 400 kv and 22.4 Mev roentgen rays, Am.
tion data of the distribution of X-ray intensity in the J. Roentgenol., Radium Therapy, Nucl. Med. 70, No. 2,
continuous X-ray spectrum, Brit. J. Radio!. 13, 95. 294.
Jones, D. E. A. (1961). The suitability of materials used Laughlin, J. S., and Genna, S. (1956). Calorimetric
for the measurement of the half-value thickness of Methods, Cnapt. 9. Radiation Dosimetry Hine and
X-ray beams, Brit. J. Radio!. 34, 801. Brownell, Editors, Academic Press, Inc., New York,
Jordan, W. H., and Bell, P. R. (1947). A general purpose N.Y.
linear amplifier, Rev. Sci. Instr. 18, 703. Laughlin, J. S., Zsula, J., and Liuzzi, A. (1957). Oxida-
Joyet, G., Trumpy-Eggenberger, C., and Mauderli, W. tion of ferrous sulfate by high-energy electrons and the
(1953). Article in The Brown Boveri Betatron Brown influence of the polarization effect, Radiation Res. 7,
Boveri & Co., Ltd., Baden, Switzerland. ' ' 327.

92
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 Laurence, G. C. (1937). The measurement of extra hard Medvecsky, L. (1961). Energy spectrum of neutron
x rays and gamma rays in roentgens, Can. J. Res. Alli, sources Be(a,n), Atomki Kozeemenyek III, 2-3 (Debre-
67. cen, Hungary).
Lazo, R. M., Dewhurst, H. A., and Burton, M. (1954). Meister, Von H. (1958). Die Aktivierungsquerschnitte
The ferrous sulfate radiation dosimeter, a calorimetric von Mnss, Cu63 , Pd108 und In 115 fiir thermische neutronen.
calibration with gamma rays, J. Chem. Phys. 22, 1370. Z. Naturforsch. 13a, 820.
Lee, P. K., Ballinger, E. R., and Schweitzer, W. H. (1961). Meredith, W. J. (1940). Percentage depth doses in low
A heat treatment which extends the usable range of voltage X-ray therapy, Brit. J. Radiol. 13, 320.
AgP0 3 glass dosimeters, Los Alamos Scientific Labo- Michikawa, T., Teranishi, E., Tomimasu, T., and Inoue,
ratory Rept. No. LA2575. Y. (1959). The absolute calibration of a Ra(a)-Be
Leiss, J. E., Pruitt, J. S., and Schrack, R. A. (1958). neutron source, Bull. Electrotech. Lab. (Tokyo) 23,
Private Communication. 223.
Lid.en, K., and Starfelt, N. (1954). Scintillation spec- Michikawa, T., Furubayashi, B., Teranishi, E., and Inoue,
trometry of continuous gamma- and X-ray spectra Y. (1961). Absolute calibrations of thermal neutron
below 1 Mev, Arkiv Fysik 7, 427. flux densities. Bull. of the Electrotech. Lab. (Tokyo),
Lindell, B. \1954). Secondary roentgen radiation, Acta to be published.
Radiol. U, 353. Miller, W., Motz, J. W., and Cialella, C. (1954). Thick
Liskien, H., and Paulsen, A. (1961). Compilation of cross target bremsstrahlung spectra for 1.00, 1.25 and 1.40
sections for some neutrons induced threshold reactions, Mev electrons, Phys. Rev. 96, 1344.
Euratom, Central Bureau for Nuclear Measurements, Miller, N., Part III, Chapter 2, Actions chimiques et
Geel \Belgium). biologiques des radiations 2me serie Hassinsky, Masson
Littler, D. J., and Lockett, E. E. (1952). The meas- et Cie, Paris, p. 161 et seq., 1956.
urement of an absolute thermal neutron density in Miller, N. (1958). Radiation yield measurements in
G. L. E. E. P., AERE RIR 961 Appendix 3. irradiated aqueous solutions. II. Radical yields with
Littler, I. J., and Thomas, R. H. (1952). Absolute neu- 10.9 Mev deuterons, 21.3 and 3.4 Mev alpha particles,
tron density determinations using cobalt, AERE R/R and B(n,a) Li recoil radiations, Radiation Res. 9, 633.
1019. Milvy, P., Genna, S., Barr, N., and Laughlin, J. S. (1958).
Littler, D. J. \1957). Report on a conference on neutron Calorimetric determination of local absorbed dose, Proc.
source preparation and calibration held at Buckland 2d Intern. Conf. Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy 21,
House on the 8th and 9th of July 1954, British Report 142.
AERE NP/R 1577. Milvy, P., Barr, N., Geisselsoder, J., and Laughlin, J. S.
Loeffler, F. J., Palfrey, T. R., and Tautfest, G. W. (1959). ( 1960). Calorimetric determination of local absorbed
The energy dependence of the Cornell thick-walled dose, IXth Intern. Cong. Radiology, Trans., George
ionization chamber, Nucl. Inst. Methods Ii, 50. Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart, Germany.
MacLaughlin, W. L. (1962). Radiation beam mapping Minder, W. (1961). Chemical dose measurements of high
with photographic film, Radiology 78, 119. energy photons and electrons, p. 315-23 of Selected
Macklin, R. L. (1957). Graphite sphere neutron detector, Topics in Radiation Dosimetry, Vienna, International
Nuclear Inst. 1, 335. Atomic Energy Agency.
Maier-Leibnitz (1961). Reaktor Miinchen, Private com- Moe, H. J., Bortner, T. C., and Hurst, G. S. (1957).
munication. Ionization of acetylene mixtures and other mixtures by
Mak, S., and Cormack, D. V. (1960). Spectral distribu- Pu239 a-particles, J. Phys. Chem. 61, 422.
tions of scattered X-rays at points lying off the beam Mohr, H. (1957). Vergleichende Dosismessungen im
axis, Brit. J. Radiol. 33, 362. Phantom mit Leuchtstoffdosimeter und lonisations-
Malsky, S. J., Amato, C. G., Reid, C. B., Spreckels, C., kammer, Fortschr. Rontgenstr. 85, 486.
and Maddalone L. (1961). In Vivo dosimetry with Morrison, M. T., and Reed, G. W. (1952). A note on the
miniature glass rods, Parts I (Physical Aspects) and determination of half-value layers of soft X-rays, Brit.
II (Clinical Application), Am. J. Roentgenol. Radium J. Radio!. 25, 270.
Therapy, Nucl. Med. 85, 568-582. Mosburg, E. R. Jr. (1959). A scintillation counter method
Marinelli, L. D. (1953). Radiation dosimetry and pro- of intercomparing neutron source strengths by means 'of
tection, Annual Review of Nuclear Science, 3, 249 a manganous sulfate bath, J. Research NBS 62, 189,
(Annual Reviews, Inc., Stanford, Calif.) RP2952.
Martin, D. H. (1955). Correction factors for Cd-covered Mosburg, E. R. (1961). Notes on self-shielding correc-
foil measurements, Nucleonics 13, No. 3, 52. tions for 1/v detectors in a Maxwellian flux. Private
Martin, J. H., and Muller, G. W. (1961). Quantity and communication, National Bureau of Standards.
quality of scattered X-rays, Brit. J. Radiol. 34, 227. Mosburg, E. R., and Murphey, W .. (1961). A recalibra-
Mayneord, W. V. (1940). Energy absorption, Brit. J. tion of the NBS standard thermal neutron flux. Re-
Radiol. 13, 235. actor Sci. Technol. (J. Nucl. Energy, Parts A/B) 14,
McDiarmid, I. B. (1952). The X-ray spectrum from a 25-30.
70 Mev synchrotron, Phil. Mag. 43, 1003. Moteff, J. and Beever, E. R. (1960). Proc. Symp. Se-
McDonell, W. R., and Hart, E. J. (1954). Oxidation of lected Topics in Radiation Dosimetry, l.A.E.A.,
aqueous ferrous sulfate solutions by charged particle Vienna, Austria, p. 383.
radiation, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 76, 2121. Motz, .J. W., Miller, W., and Wyckoff, H. 0. (1953).
McElhinney, J., Zendle, B., and Domen, S. (1956). A Eleven-Mev thick target bremsstrahlung, Phys. Rev.
calorimeter for measuring the power in a high-energy 89, 968.
x-ray beam, J. Research NBS 56, No. 1, 9, RP2642. Muckenthaler, F. J. (1957). Applied nuclear physics
McElhinney, J., Zendle, B., and Domen, S. R. (1957). annual progress report, p. 270, ORNL-2389.
Calorimetric determination of the power in a 1400 kv
x-ray beam, Radiation Res. 6, 40. Muehlhause, C. 0., and Thomas, G. (1953). Two liquid
McGinnies, R. T. (1959). Energy spectrum resulting scintillation neutron detectors, Nucleonics 11, No. 1,
from electron slowing down, NBS Circ. 597. 44.
McKay, K. G. (1951). Electron-hole production in ger- Murphey, W. M. and Chin, J. (1962). lntercomparisons
manium by alpha-particles. Phys. Rev. 84, 829. of the Standard Thermal Neutron Flux Density of the
McLaughlin, W. L. (1959). Photographic methods in National Bureau of Standards. Proc. IAEA Symp.
measuring large radiation doses, Nucleonics 17, No. 10, Neutron Detection, Dosimetry and Standardization
58. held at Harwell, England, Dec. 10-14, 1962.
Medalia, A. I., and Byrne, B. J. (1951). Spectrophoto- Murray, R. B. (1958). Use of Li51(Eu) as a scintillation
metric determination of cerium (IV), Anal. Chem. 23, detector and spectrometer for fast neutrons. Nucl.
4!'i3. Instr. Methods 2, 237.

93
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 Myers, I. T., Le Blanc, W. H., Fleming, D. M., and Pruitt, J. S., Allisy, A~, Joyet, G., Pohlit, W., Tubiana,
Wyckoff, H. 0. (1961). An adiabatic calorimeter for M., and Zupancic, C. (1962). Transfer of NBS high
high precision standardization and determination of energy X-ray calibrations to European betatron labora-
W (air), paper presented at meeting of Radiation tories, J. Research NBS 66C (Eng & Instr), No. 2, 107
Research Society, Washington. (Apr.-June 1962).
Naito, M., Inoue, Y., lbaraki, Y., and Moriuchi, Y. Rabin, H., and Price, W. E. (19.5.5). Mapping radiation
(1961). Present status of standardization of exposure fields with silver-activated phosphate glass, Nucleonics
dose in Japan, Proc. Symposium on Selected Topics in 13, No. 3, 33.
Radiation Dosimetry (Vienna, 1960), IAEA. Rae, E. R., and Bowey, E. M. (19.53). A scintillation
NCRP Report, 1954, Permissible dose from external detector for neutrons of intermediate energy, Proc.
sources of ionizing radiation, NBS Handb. 59. Phys. Soc. (London), A66, 1073.
NCRP Report, 1957, Protection against neutron radiation Rawson, E.G., and Cormack, D. V. (1958), A matrix to cor-
up to 30 million electron volts, NBS Handb. 63. rect for scintillator escape effects, N ucleonics, 16, No. 10, 92.
NCRP Report, 1960, Measurement of neutron flux and Rajewsky, B., Bunde, E., Dorneich, M., Lang, D., Sewkor,
spectra for physical and biological applications, NBS A., Jaeger, R., and Hiibner, W. (19.55). Darstellung,
Handb. 72. W ahrung und Ubertragung der Einheit der Dosis fiir
NCRP Report, 1961, Measurement of absorbed dose of Riintgen-und Gammastrahlen mit Quantenenergien
neutrons and of mixtures of neutrons and gamma rays, zwischen 3 kev und 500 kev (Physikalisch-Technische
NBS Handb. 75, p. 82. Bundesanstalt, Braunschweig, Germany).
NCRP Report, 1961, Stopping powers for use with cavity Reid, W. B., and Johns, H. E. (1961). Measurement of
ionization chambers, NBS Handb. 79. absorbed dose with calorimeter and determination of
Nelms, A. T. (1953). Graphs of the Compton energy- W, Radiation Res. U, I.
angle relationship and the Klein-Nishina formula from Reinhardt, P. W., and Davis, F. J. (1958). Improvements
10 kev to 500 Mev, NBS Circ. 542. in the threshold detector method of fast neutron dosim-
Nelms, A. T. (19.58). Energy loss and range of electrons etry, Health Phys. 1, 169.
and positrons, Suppl. NBS Circ. 577. Richardson, J. E., Kerman, H. D., and Brucer, M. (19.54).
Newbery, G. R., and Bewley, D. K. (19.5.5). The per- Skin dose from a cobalt-60 teletherapy unit, Radiology
formance of the medical research council 8 Mev linear 63, 2.5.
accelerator, Brit. J. Radio!. 28, 241. Richmond, R. (1958). The standardization of neutron
Nold, M. M., Hayes, R. L., and Comar, C. L. (1958). sources, Progr. in Nucl. Energy, Series I, Phys. and
Tissue dose from internally administered Y~0 , Radiation Math., II, 165.
Res. 9, 190 (Abstracts). Riegert, A. L., Johns, H. E., and Spinks, ,l. W. T. (1956).
Oakley, D. C., and Walker, R. L. (1955). Photoproduc- Ag-phosphate glass needles for measuring gamma dose,
tion of neutral pions in H; magnetic analysis of recoil Nucleonics U, No. 11, 134.
protons, Phys, Rev. 97, 1283. Ritchie, R. H., and Dalton, G. R. (1961). Re: Thermal
Olde, G. L., and Brannen, E. (1961). Surface dose meas- neutron flux depression by absorbing foils and flux
urements with a scintillation dosemeter, Phys. Med. perturbations by thermal neutron detectors, Nucl. Sci.
Biol. 6, 32.5. Eng. 11, 4.51.
Oosterkamp, W. S., and Proper, J. (1952). Free-air and Ritchie, R. H., and Eldridge, H. B. (1960). Thermal
thimble ionization chambers for Grenz-ray dosimetry, neutron flux depression by absorbing foils, Nucl. Sci.
Acta Radio!. 37, 33. Eng. 8, 300.
Paymal, M., Bonnaud, M., and LeClerk, P. (1960). Radi- Ritz, V. H. (1959). Design of free-air ionization chambers
ation dosimeter glasses, Proc. Intern. Symp. Selec- for the soft X-ray region (20-100 kv), Radiology 73,
ted Topics in Radiation Dosimetry, IAEA, Vienna, 911.
Austria, June 7-13. Ritz, V. H. (1960). Standard free-air chamber for the
Payne-Scott, R. (1937). The wave length distribution of measurement of low energy x-rays (20-100 kilovolts-
the scattered radiation in a medium traversed by a beam constant potential), J. Research NBS 64C (Eng. &
of X or gamma rays, Brit. J. Radio!. 10, 8.50. Instr.), No. 1, 49.
Peelle, R. W., Maienschein, F. C., and Love, T. A. (1957). Ritz, V. H. (1961). A note on Mylar film dosimetry, Rad-
Energy and angular distribution of gamma radiation iation Res. 15, 460.
from a Co 00 source after diffusion through many mean Roberts, J. H. (19.57). Absolute flux measurement of
free paths of water, ORNL Rept. 2196. anisotropic neutron spectra with proton recoil tracks
Peirson, D. H. (1958). The phosphate glass dosimeter, in nuclear emulsions, Rev. Sci. Instr. 28, 677.
Atomic Energy Research Establishment, Harwell Rept. Robson, J. W., and Gregg, E. C. (1956). A scintillation
No. AERE-EL/R 2590. crystal roentgen ray dosimeter, Am. J. Roentgenol,
Perlman, Richards, and Speck (1946). U.S. Atomic En- Radium Therapy, Nucl. Med. 76, 979.
ergy Commission Rept. MDDC-39. Robson, J. W., and Gregg, E. C. (1957). Bremsstrahlung
Petree, B. (1958). Absorbed dose calorimetry for high measurements with a Compton electron spectrometer,
dose rates, Abs. No. 21.5, Radiation Res. 9, 166. Phys. Rev. 105, 619.
Phillips, K. (19.52). The experimental determination of Roe, G. M. (1954). The absorption of neutrons in Doppler
the spectra of a betatron, Proc. Phys. Soc. 65A, 57. broadened resonances. KAPL 1241.
Phillips, K. (19.54). On the thick target bremsstrahlung Roesch, W. C. (1958). Dose for nonelectronic equilibrium
spectrum at relativistic energies, Proc. Phys. Soc. 67A, conditions, Radiation Res. 9, 399.
669. Rosen, L. (1956). Techniques for measurement of neutron
von Planta, C., and Huber, P. (19.56). Bestimmung der cross sections and energy spectra for sources which are
Quellstarke einer Be-Photo-und einer Ra-Be-Neutronen- continuous in energy and time, Proc. Intern. Conf.
quelle, Helv. Physica Acta 29, 375. Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, 4, paper P/582, United
Pott, F. Rh., and Wagner, S. (1960). Die selektive Mes- Nations, New York, N.Y. . ..
sung von Neutronen-und Photonendosen mit einem Rosman, I. M., and Zimmer, K. G. (19.55). 0 pnmen~!111
Athylendosimeter, Nukleonik 2, No. 7, 271. Stsintillyatorov v dosimetrii, Vestnik Rentgenologn
Proppe, A., and Wagner, G. (1954). Die Bedeutung Radiologii, No. 1, 63. .
der Halbwerttiefe fiir die dermatologische Riintgen- Rosman, I. M., and Zimmer, K. G. (1956a). Uber die
therapie, Z. Haut Geschlechtskrankh. 16, 289. Anwendung von Szfotillatoren in der Dosimetrie, Z.
Pruitt, J. S., and Pohlit, W. (1960). Vergleichsmessungen N aturforsch, 11B, 46.
mit Intensitats-standards fur energiereiche Bremsstrah- Rosman, I. M., and Zimmer, K. G. (19.56b). An isodose
lung, Z. Naturforsch. 15b, 617. plotter of simple design, Brit. J. Radio!. 29, 68~.
Pruitt, J. S., and Domen, S. R. (1962). Determination of Rosman, I. M., and Zimmer, K.. G. (19.57).. U~er die
total X-ray beam energy with a calibrated ionization Anwendung von Szintillatoren m der Dos1metne-II.
chamber, NBS Mono. 48. Atomkernenergie 2, 429.

94
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 Rossi, H. H., and Rosenzweig, W. (1955a). A device for Schulman, J. H., Attix, F. H., West, E. J., and Ginther,
the measurement of dose as a function of specific R. J. (1960b). New thermoluminescent dosimeter, Rev.
ionization, Radiology 6t, 404. Sci. Inst. 31, 1263.
Rossi, H. H., and Rosenzweig, W. (1955b). Measure- Schwarz, H. A. (1954). Temperature coefficient of the
ments of neutron dose as a function of linear energy radiation induced oxidation of ferrous sulfate, J. Am.
transfer, Radiation Res. 2, 417. Chem. Soc. 76, 1587.
Rossi, H. H., and Rosenzweig, W. (1956). Limitation of Scrimger, J. W. (1962). The measurement of cobalt-60
the concept of linear energy transfer (LET), RadiOlogy output spectrum. Thesis. University of Saskatche-
66, 105. wan.
Rossi, H. H., and Failla, G. (1956). Tissue-equivalent Seeman, H. E. (1938). Secondary radiation intensity as a
ionization chambers, Nucleonics lt, No. 2, 32. function of certain geometrical variables, Am. J.
Rossi, H. H., Biavati, M. H., and Gross, W. (1961). Roentgenol. 39, 628.
Local energy density in irradiated tissues, I. Radio- Shalek, R. J., and Cole, A. (1958). A scintillation probe
biological significance, Radiation Res. 15, 431. for the measurement of radiation dose in body cavities,
Rotblat, J. (1950). Photographic emulsion technique, Am. J. Roentgenol. 79, 450.
Chapter 3, Progress in Nuclear Phys. 1, Academic Sharpe, J. (1952). Energy per ion pair for argon with
Press, Inc., New York, N.Y. small admixture of other gases, Proc. Phys. Soc. (Lon-
Rotblat, J., and Sutton, H. C. (1960). The effects of kon) A65, 859.
high dose rates of ionizing radiations on solutions of Sigoloff, S. C. (1956). Fast-neutron insensitive chemical
iron and eerie salts, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London) A255, 490. gamma-ray dosimeter, Nucleonics lt, No. 10, 54.
Rudstam, G., and Svedberg, T. (1953). Use of tracers in Sigoloff, S. C. (1961). Chemical and colorimetric dosime-
chemical dosimetry, Nature 171, 648. try: the tetrachloroethylene chemical dosimeter system,
Runnalls, 0. J. C., and Boucher, R. R. (1956). Neutron p. 337-59 of Selected Topics in Radiation Dosimetry,
yields from actinide-beryllium alloys, Can. J. Phys. 3t, Vienna, International Atomic Energy Agency.
949. Silbertstein, L. (1932). Spectral composition of an X-ray
Rosenzweig, W., and Rossi, H. H. (1959). Determination radiation determined from its filtration curve, Phil. Mag.
of the quality of the absorbed dose deliv.ered by mono- 15, 375.
energetic neutrons. Radiation Res. 10, 532, and Sinclair, W. K., and Trott, N. G. (1956). The construc-
Private communication. tion and measurement of beta-ray applicators for use in
St. Romain, F. A., Bonner, T. W., Bramblett, R. L., and ophthalmology, Brit. J. Radiol. 29, 15.
Hanna, J. (1962). Low-energy neutrons from the Skarsgard, L. D., Bernier, J. P., Cormack, D. V., and
reaction Be'(a,n)C12 , Phys. Rev. 126, 1794. Johns, H. E. (1957). Calorimetric determination of the
Schaal, A. (1956). Messung der Strahlenhiirte innerhalb ratio of energy absorption to ionization for 22-Mev
eines streuenden Mediums in der Rontgen-Tiefenthera- x rays, Radiation Res. 7, 217.
pie, Strahlentherapie 99, 561. Skarsgard, L. D., and Johns, H. E. (1961). Spectral flux
Scharf, K., and Lee, R. M. (1961). Investigation of the density of scattered and primary radiation generated at
spectrophotometric method of measuring the ferric ion 250 kv, Radiation Res. H, 231.
yield in the ferrous sulfate dosimeter Radiation Res. Skarsgard, L. D., Johns, H. E., and Green, L. E. S. (1961J.
Abstract No. 135, U, 498. Iterative response correction for a scintillation spec-
Schenck, J., and Heath, R. L. (1952). Tin activation of trometer, Radiation Res. H, 261.
Lil, Phys. Rev. 85, 923. Skjoldebrand, R. (1955). A fast neutron scintillation
Schenck, J. (1953). Activation of lithium iodide by counter with tissue equivalent response, J. Nucl. Energy
europium, Nature 171, 518. 1, 299.
Schiff, L. I. (1951). Energy-angle distribution of thin Skyrme, T. H. R. (1943). Reduction in neutron density
target bremsstrahlung, Phys. Rev. 83, 252. caused by an absorbing disk, British Report MS-91.
Schilling, W. (1960). Neutron flux measurements at the Slater, M., Bunyard, G. B., and Randolph, M. L. (1958).
FRM with a thermocouple. Kerntechnik 2, 398. Combination ion chamber-proportional counter
Schmidt-Rohr, U. (1953). Ein Spektrometer fiir schnelle dosimeter for measuring gamma-ray contamination of
Neutronen und das Neutronenspektrum von Ra-a-Be, Z. neutron fields, Rev. Sci. Instr. 29, 601.
Naturforschung 8a, 470. Smeltzer, J. C. (1950). Energy dependence of the
Schmitt, H. W. (1960). Determination of the energy of naphthalene scintillation detector, Rev. Sci. Instr. 21,
antimony-beryllium photoneutrons, Nuclear Phys. 20, 699.
220. Smith, E. E. (1955). The standardization of X-ray
Schneider, D. 0., and Cormack, D. V. (1959). Monte dosimeters, Brit. J. Radiol. 28, 662.
Carlo calculations of electron energy loss, Radiation Smithers, D. W. (1946). X-ray treatment of accessible
Res. 11, 418. cancer, Arnold, p. 7.
Schuler, R. H., and Allen, A. 0. (1956). Yield of the Snyder, W. S., and Neufeld, J. (1955). Calculated depth
ferrous sulfate radiation dosimeter: an improved cath- dose curves in tissue for broad beams of fast neutrons,
ode-ray determination, J. Chem. Phys. 2t, 56. Brit. J. Radiol. 28, No. 331, 342.
Schuler, R. H., and Barr, N. F. (1956). Oxidation of Sola, A. (1960). Flux perturbation by detector foils,
ferrous sulfate by ionizing radiations from (n,a) reactions Nucleouics 18, No. 3, 78.
of boron and lithium, J. Am. Chem. f:loc. 78, 5756. Somerwil, A. (1957). Private communication.
Schuler, R. H., arid Allen, A. 0. (1957). Radiation chem- Somerwil, A. (1959). The standard dosimeter of the
istry studies with cyclotron beams of variable energy: Rotterdamsch Radiotherapeutisch Instituut, J. Belge
Yields in aerated ferrous sulfate solution, J. Am. Chem. de Radiologic t2, 87-91.
Soc. 79, 1565. Spencer, L. V., and Fano, U. (1954). Energy s;:>ectrum
Schulman, J. H. (1950). Dosimetry of x rays and 'Y rays, resulting from electron slowing down, Phys. Rev. 93,
U.S. Naval· Research Laboratory Rept. No. 3736. 1172.
Schulman, J. H., Ginther, R. J., Klick, C. C., Alger, R. S., Spencer, L. V., and Attix, F. H. (1955). A theory of cavity
and Levy, R. A. (1951). Dosimetry of x rays and ionization, Radiation Res. 3, 239.
'Y rays by radiophotoluminescence, J. Appl. Phys. 22,
1479. Starfelt, N., and Koch, H. W. (1956). Differential cross-
Schulman, J. H., Shurcliff, W., Ginther, R. J., and Attix, section measurements of thin-target bremsstrahlung
F. H. (1953). Radiophotoluminescent dosimetry sys- produced by 2.7- to 9.7-Mev electrons, Phys. Rev.
tem of the U.S. Navy, Nucleonics 11, No. 10, 52. 102, 1598.
Schulman, J. H., and Etzel, H. W. (1953). Small volume Staub, H. (1947). The neutron spectrum of boron
dosimeters for x-rays and gamma-rays, Science 118, 184. bombarded by polonium alphas. MDDC-1490.
Schulman, J. H., Klick, C. C., and Rabin, H. (1955). Stephens, K. G., and Cooper, W. M. (1960). Calibration
Measuring high doses by absorption changes in glass, of manganese and gold foils for relative neutron flux
N ucleonics 13, No. 2, 30. measurements, Brit. J. Appl. Phys. 11, 342.

95

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084

by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 Stephens, K. G., Van der Walt, R., and Williams, G. Tochilin, E., and Alves, R. R. (1958). Neutron spectra
(1961). Measurements of neutron fluxes and neutron from mock-fission sources, Nucleonies 16, No. 11, 145.
spectra. AEl-Rept. A 1202 (Aldermaston). Toehilin, E., and Kohler, G. D. (1958). Neutron beam
Stephenson, S., and Crocker, V. S. (1958). AERE, characteristics from the University of California 60 inch
unpublished. Rept. by Abson . . . I.e. cyclotron, Health Phys. 1, 332.
Sternheimer, R. M. (1952). The density effect for the Trice, J. B. (1957). APEX-408, U.S. Atomic Energy
ionization loss in various materials, Phys. Rev. 88, 851. Commission.
Sternheimer, R. M. (1956). Density effect for the ioniza- Trout, E. D., Kelley, J. P., and Lucas, A. C. (1960).
tion loss in various materials, Phys. Rev. 103, 511. Determination of half-value layer, Am. J. Roentgenol.
Stevens, J., and Richardson, J. F. (1961). Private Rad. Therapy Nuclear Med. 84, 729.
communication. Trout, E. D., Kelley, J. P., and Lucas, A. C. (1961).
Stewart, L. (1955). Neutron spectrum and absolute yield Evaluation of Thoraeus filters, Am. J. Roentgenol. 86,
of a plutonium-beryllium source, Phys. Rev. 98, 740. 933.
Stokes, R. H. (1951). Measurement of electron pairs for Trout, E. D., Kelley, J.P., and Lucas, A. C. (1962). The
the determination of a 65 Mev x-ray spectrum, Phys. second half-value layer and the homogeneity coefficient,
Rev. 84, 991. Am. J. Roentgenol. 87, 574.
Strominger, P., Hollander, J. M., and Seaborg, G. T. Trumbore, C. N. (1958). The effect of oxygen on ferric
(1958). Table of isotopes, Rev. Mod. Phys. 30, 585. ion yields in aqueous solutions containing polonium,
Sullivan, W. H. (1957). Trilinear chart of nuclides, U.S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 80, 1772.
Atomic Energy Commission Rept. Tuddenham, W. J. (1957). Half-value depth and fall-off
Sworski, T. J. (1956). Mechanism for the reduction of ratio as functions of portal area, target skin distance and
eerie ion by thallous ion induced by cobalt-60 gamma half-value layer, Radiology 69, 79.
radiations, Radiation Res. 4, 483. Tubiana, M., and Dutreix, J. M. High energy radiation
Szilvasi, A. J. D., Geiger, K. W., and Dixon, W. R. dosimetry, Symp. on Quantities, Units and· Measuring
(1960). Study of neutrons from a Po-F(a,n) source, Methods of Ionizing Radiation-Rome, 1958, Ed. Ulrico
J. Nucl. Energy 11, 131. Hoephi, p. 149.
Taimuty, S. I., Towle, L. H., and Peterson, D. L. (1959). Tranter, F. W. (1961). An ion chamber with a wall of air,
Ceric dosimetry: Routine use at 105-107 rads, Nucleonics Symp. on Radiation Dosimetry, IAEA, p. 131, June.
17, No. 8, 103. Uthe, P. M. (1957). Attainment of neutron flux-spectra
Taplin, G. V. (1956). Radiation dosimetry, 1st ed., G. J. from foil activations. Technical Report 57-3, U.S. Air
Hine and G. L. Brownell, Academic Press, Inc., New Force Institute of Technology, Wright-Pattersol/- AFB,
York, N.Y. Ohio.
Tarrant, G. T. P. (1932). Numerical calculation of Valentine, J. M., and Curran, S. C. (1952). Energy ex-
scattering correction in gamma-ray absorption measure- penditure per ion pair for electrons and a particles,
ments, Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc. 28, 475. Phil. Mag. 43, 964.
Taylor, L. S. (1931). Absorption measurements of the Valentine, J. M., and Curran, S. C. (1958). Average
x-ray general radiation, Radiology 16, 302. energy expenditure per ion pair in gases and gas mix-
Teply, J., and Bednar, J. (195h). Radiation chemistry of tures, Reports on Progress in Physics 21, 153. .
aqueous chloroform solution, Proc. 2d Intern. Conf. Villforth, J.C., Birkhoff, R. D., and Hubbell, H. H. (1958).
Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, 1958, P/2114, Comparison of theoretical and experimental filtered
29, 71. spectra, ORNL-2529.
Thielens, G. (1961). Limitations on the use of ferrous Wagner, E. B., and Hurst, G. S. (1958). Advances in the
sulfate dosimetry for measuring small -y-radiation doses, standard proportional counter method of fast neutron
p. 325-9 of Selected Topics in Radiation Dosimetry, dosimetry, Rev. Sci. Instr. 29, 153.
Vienna, International Atomic Energy Agency. Wagner, E. B., and Hurst, G. S. (1959). Gamma response
Thomas, J. K. Private communication. and energy losses in the absolute fast neutron dosimeter,
Thompson, M. W. (1956). Some effects of the self- Health Phys. 2, 57.
absorption of neutrons in neutron-detecting foils, J. Wagner, E. B., and Hurst, G. S. (1961). A G-M tube
Nucl. Energy 2, 286. -y-ray dosimeter with low neutron sensitivity, Health
Thompson, T. J. (1952). Effect of chemical structure on Phys. 6, 20. .
stopping powers for high-energy protons, Thesis, Univ. Wagner, G. (1953). Untersuchungen iiber den Dosisabfall
Calif., UCRL-1910. in Gewebe und den Homogenitiitsgrad Berylliumgefens-
Thoraeus, R. (1932). A study of the ionization method terter Rontgenstrahlungen, Zschr. fiir Haut-und Geschl.
for measuring the intensity and absorption of roentgen Krkh 16, 190.
rays and of the efficiency of different filters used in Wagner, G. (1957). Die Bedeutung der characteris-
therapy, Acta Radiol. Suppl. 15. trischen Eigenstrahlung in der dermatologischen Ront-
Thoraeus, R. (1936). A new method for calculating com- gentherapie, Acta Dermat. venereol. Proc. 11th Intern.
binations of tube-voltage and filtration and some results Cong. Dermat. 11, 412.
of its application in roentgen therapy, Acta Radiol. 17, Walker, R. L. (1946). Absolute calibration of a Ra-Be
579. neutron source, MDDC 414.
Thoraeus, R. (1954). Status of roentgen ray standards Walker, R. L., and McDaniel, B. D. (1948). Gamma-ray
in Sweden, and a brief report on the first part of an spectrometer measurements of fluorine and lithium under
intercomparison between national roentgen ray stand- proton bombardment, Phys. Rev. 74, 315.
ards, Acta Radiol. Suppl. 117, 33. Walker, W. H., Westcott, C. H., and Alexander, T. K.
Thoraeus, R., Oosterkamp, W. J., Proper, J., Jaeger, R., (1960). Measurement of radiative capture resonance
Rajewsky, B., Bunde, E., Dorneich, M., Lang, D., and integrals in a thermal reactor spectrum, and the thermal
Sewkor, A. (1955). Vergleiehsmessungen des inter- cross section of Pu-240, Can. J. Phys. 38, 57.
nationalen roentgen im Bereich von 8 kV bis 170 kV Wang, P. K. S., and Wiener, M. (1949). Spectral analysis
Erzeugungsspannung, Strahlentherapie 98, 265. of 10 Mev betatron radiation by nuclear emulsion, Phys.
Thoraeus, R. (1956). Monitoring filters in roentgen Rev. 76, 1724.
therapy, Acta Radiol. 46, 414. Wang, P. K. S., Raridon, R. J., and Tidwell, M. (1957a).
Thoraeus, R. (1958). On the determination of the radia- X-ray spectrum from a beryllium window tube: I.
tion quality, Symp. Quantities, Units and Measuring Scintillation spectrometry, Brit. J. Radiol. 30, 70.
Methods of Ionizing Radiation, Rome, Italy. Wang, P. K. S., Raridon, R. J., and Crawford, R. C.
Thornton, W. T., and Auxier, J. A. (1960). Some X-ray (1957b). X-ray spectrum from a beryllium window
and fast neutron response characteristics of, Ag-meta- tube: II. Laplace transformation, Brit. J. Radiol. 30,
phosphate glass dosimeters, Oak Ridge National Labo- 153.
ratory Rcpt. ORNL-2912. Warner, R. M., and Schrader, E. F. (1954). Angle-energy
Tittle, C. W. (1951). Slow neutron detection by foils, distribution of radiation from high-energy electron ac-
Nucleonics 8, No. 6, 5; 9, No. 1, 60. celerators, Rev. Sci. Instr. 26, 663.

96

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084

by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 Watson, E. C. (1958). Quoted in J. DePangher's double Wilson, R. R. (1957). Precision quantameter for high
moderator neutron dosimeter, July 15, 1958 (HW- energy x-rays, Nuclear Instr. 1, 101.
57293). Wolf, G. (1961). Die Absoluteichung von Zerfallsraten
Watt, B. E. (1952). Energy spectrum of neutrons from mittels der fl--y-Koinzidenzmethode und deren Anwen-
thermal fission of U 23.1, Phys. Rev. 87, 1037. dung zur Messung des thermischen Aktivierungsquer-
Wattenberg, A. (1949). Photo-neutron sources, Natl. schnitts der Isotope Na23 , Sc40 , C<>5 9 und Tau, Nukleonik
Acad. Sci.-Natl. Res. Council, Nuclear Science Series, 2, 255.
Preliminary Rept. No. 6. Worthley, B., Thompson, A. M., and Tooze, M. J. (1957).
Weinstock, E. V., and Halpern, J. (1955). Bremsstrah- Precision charge comparison of x-ray dosimeters, Austr.
lung spectrum from the internal target of a 22 Mev J. Appl. Sci. 8, 261.
betatron, Phys. Rev. 100, 1293. Wyckoff, H. 0., Aston, G. H., and Smith, E. E. (1954).
Weiss, J., and Bernstein, W. (1955). Energy required to A comparison of x-ray standards, Brit. J. Radiol. 27,
produce one ion pair for several gases, Phys. Rev. 98, 325; A1Jta Radiol. Suppl. 117, 17.
1828. Wyckoff, H. 0., and Attix, F. H. (1957). Design of
Weiss, J., and Bernstein, W. (1956). Energy required to free-air ionization chambers, NBS Handb. 64.
produce one ion pair in several noble gases, Phys. Rev. Wyckoff, H. 0. (1960). Measurement of cobalt-60 and
103, 1253. cesium-137 gamma rays with a free-air chamber, J.
Weiss, J., Allen, A. 0., and Schwarz, H. A. (1956). Use Research NBS 64'C (Eng. Instr.), No. 2, 87(Apr.-June1960).
of the Fricke sulfate dosimeter for gamma ray doses in Wyckoff, H. 0., Allisy, A., Aston, G. H., Barnard, G. P.
the range 4 to 40 kiloroentgen. Proc. 1st Intern. Conf. Hiibner, W., Loftus, T., and Taupin, G. (1963). Inter-
Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, 1955, P/155, comparison of National X- and gamma-ray exposure-
H, 179. dose standards, Acta Radiol. 1, 57.
Westcott, C. H. (1960). Effective cross section values Wyard, S. J. (1951). Secondary electronic emission pro-
for well-moderated thermal reactor spectra, CRRP-960, duced by cobalt gamma rays, Brit. J. Radio!. 24', 411.
EANDC(Can)-4. Yokota, R., Nakajima, S., and Sakai, E. (1961). High
Westcott, C. H., Walker, W. H., and Alexander, T. K. sensitivity silver-activated phosphate glass for the
(1958). Effective cross sections and cadmium ratios simultaneous measurement of thermal neutrons, -y-
for the neutron spectra of thermal reactors, Proc. Conf.
Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, 1955, P/202, and/or fl-rays, Health Phys. 5, 219.
15, 70. Zahn, C. T. (1937). Absorption coefficients for thermal
Wheatley, B. M., Jones, P. C. C., and Sinclair, T. C. neutrons, Phys. Rev. 52, 67.
(1960). A caesium 137 beam therapy unit: Physical Zanstra, H. (1935). Ein Kurzes Verfahren zur Bestim-
aspects, Brit. J. Radiol. 33, 251. mung des Sii.ttigungstromes nach der Jaffe'schen Theorie
White, Grodstein, G. (1957). X-ray attenuation coeffi- der Kolonnenionisation, Physica 2, 817.
cients from 10 kev to 100 Mev., NBS Circ. 583. Zieler, E. (1954). Zur Charackterisierung weicher Ront-
Whitmore, B. G., and Baker, W. B. (1950). The energy genstrahlung durch Halbwertschicht und Homogenitii.ts-
spectrum of neutrons from a Po-Be source, Phys. Rev.
78, 799. grad, Strahlentherapie 93, 579.
Whyte, G. N. (1954). Density effect in gamma-ray Zieler, E. (1956). Dosismessungen an Berylliumfenster-
measurements, Nucleonics 12, No. 2, 18-21. Rohren fiir Spannungen von 10 . . . 100 kV, Strahlen-
Widder, F., and Huber P. (1958). Druckabhii.ngigkeit therapie 100, 595.
der Sii.ttigungsladung von Po-a-Teilchen in C0 2, A-CO,- Zieler, E. (1957). Der Einfluss des Charaktertischen
und A-CH.-Mischungen, Helv. Phys. Acta 31, 601. Rontgenspektrums auf die Qualitii.t weicher Ront-
Wiesner, L. (1961). The use of polyisobutylene solutions genstrahlen, Strahlentherapie 102, 88.
for measuring doses from 103 rad up to about 101° rad, Zimmer, K. G. (1938). Dosimetrische und strahlenbio-
p. 361-70 of Selected Topics in Radiation Dosimetry,
Vienna, International Atomic Energy Agency. logische Versuche mit schnellen N eutronen I, Strahlen-
Wilson, C. W. (1939). Estimat.ion of the "quality" of therapie 63, 517.
depth radiations in gamma-ray therapy by means of the Zimmer, K. G. (1956). Vorrichtung zum Nachweis
ionization produced in chambers with wall materials of radioaktiver Strahlungen und Verfahren und Vorrich-
different atomic numbers, Brit. J. Radiol. 12, 231. tung zum Herstellen eines dazugehorigen Lichtleiters,
Wilson, C. W. (1941). The dependence of the secondary German Patent DBP 1.053.108.
electronic emission produced by gamma radiation upon Zobel, W. (1961). Experimental determination of flux
the direction of the radiation, Proc. Phys. Soc. 53, 613. depression and other corrections for gold foils exposed
Wilson, C. W., and Perry, B. J. (1951). Secondary
electronic emission generated by 1 Mev and 2 Mev in water. American Nuclear Society meeting, June
X-rays, Brit. J. Radiol. H, 293. 1960, Oak Ridge National Laboratory.

97

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084

by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 Appendix I
Radiation Quantities and Units*

1. Introduction and Measurements (ICRU) to extend the number

of concepts. It was also desired to introduce a
There has recently been much discussion of the new quantity which could be more directly
fun~ai;nental .concepts and quantities employed in correlated with the local biological and chemical
radiatio!1 d_osimetry: This has arisen partly from effects of radiation. This quantity, absorbed dose,
th~ rapid mcrease m the number of individuals
has a generality and simplicity which greatly
usmg these concepts in the expanding field of facilitated its acceptance, and in a very few years
nuclear science and technology partly because of it has become widely used in every branch of
the need for extending the con'cepts so that they
wou~d be of use at higher photon energies and for
radiation dosimetry.
The introduction of absorbed dose into the
pa~ticulate as well as for photon radiation but
medical and biological field was further assisted
chiefly b~cause of certain obscurities in the existing by defining a special unit-the rad. One rad is
formulation of the quantities and units themselves. approximately equal to the absorbed dose de-
The roentge~, for example, was originally livered when soft tissue is exposed to 1 roentgen
defined to provide the best quantitative measure of medium voltage x radiation. Thus in many
of exposure to medium-energy x radiation which situations of interest to medical radiology, but
the i;neasuring tech~iques .of that day (1928) not in all, the numbers or roentgens and rads
permitted. The choice of arr as a standard sub- associated with a particular medical or biological
st~nce was not o~ly convenient but, also appro-
effect are approximately equal and experience
priate for a physical quantity which was to be with the earlier unit could be readily transferred
c?rrelated wit~ the biological effect of x rays to the new one. Although the rad is merely a
si_nce the effective ato~ic number of air is not very convenient multiple of the fundamental unit,
~ifferent from that of tissue. Thus a given biolog-
erg/g, it has already acquired, at least in some
ical response could be reproduced approximately circles, the additional connotation that the only
by a~ equ~l exposure in roentgens for x-ray quantity which can be measured in rads is absorbed
ener~p~s available at that time. Since 1928 the
dose. On the other hand, the rad has been used
defimtio~ of the r~entgen has been changed
by some authors as a unit for a quantity called
seve~al t~mes, .and this has reflected some feelinv
of dissatisfaction with the lack of clarity of the by them.first collision dose; this practice is depre-
concept . cated by the Commission.
Being aware of the need for preventing the
.The most serious source of confusion was the emergence of different interpr~tations of the same
fa1lur~ to define adequately the radiation quantity
quantity, or the introduction of undesirable,
of which the roentgen was said to be the unit. 1 unrelated quantities or units. in this or similar
As a consequence of this omission the roentgen fields of measurement, the ICRU set up, during
ha.d gradually acquired a double role. The use of its meeting in Geneva in September 1958, an
this name f<?r ~he unit had become recognized as a Ad Hoc Committee. The task of this committee
way of spec1fymg not only the magnitude but also was to review the fundamental concepts, quanti-
the ~ature .of t~e quantity measured. This ties, and units which are required in radiation
pr11:ctice con~icts ~it_h the general usage in physics, dosimetry and to recommend a system of concepts
whi~h permit~, withm the same field, the use of a
P!!-rticu~ar umt for all quantities having the same and a set of definitions which would be, as far
dimensions. as possible, internally consistent and of sufficient
Even before this, the need for accurate dosimetry generality to cover present requirements and
of neutrons and of charged particles from accelera- such future requirements as can be foreseen.
tors or .from radio~u<?lides had compelled the The committee was instructed to pay more
International Commission on Radiological Units attention to consistency and rigor than to the
historical development of the subject and was
•ifke.n fr~m Rad!ation Quantities and Units, International Commission
on ad1olog1cal Umts and Measurements, Report !Oa, National Bureau of authorized to reject any existing quantities or
St:"';.~rds ~andbook. 84 (numbers refer to paragraphs in the original report) .
. nz, . and Hubner, W. Concepts and Measurement of Dose Pro- units which seemed to hinder a consistent and
~dmgs of Second International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Aiomlc unified formulation of the concepts.
nergy, Geneva 1958, P/ffll %1, 101, United Nations, Geneva (1958).

99
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 Bertrand Russell 2 in commenting on the use of the definition and even the name and symbol
and abuse of the concept of infinitesimals by given to any such quantity, may at some future
mathematicians, remarks: "But mathematicians date require alteration if discussions with repre-
did not at first pay heed to (these) warnings. sentatives of the other interested groups of sci-
They went ahead and developed their science, and entists should lead to agreement on a common
it is well that they should have done so. It is a definition or symbol. Although the definitions
peculiar fact about the genesis and growth of new presented here represent some degree of compro-
disciplines that too much rigor too early imposed mise, they are believed to meet the requirements
stifles the imagination and stultifies invention. A in the field of radiation dosimetry.
certain freedom from the strictures of sustained
formality tends to promote the development of a 3. Quantities, Units, and Their Names
subject in its early stages, even if this means the
risk of a certain amount of error. Nonetheless, The Commission is of the opinion that the
there comes a time in the development of any field definition of concepts and quantities is a funda·
when standards of rigor have to be tightened." mental matter and that the choice of units is of
The purpose of the present reexamination of the less importance. Ambiguity can best be avoided
concepts to be employed in radiation dosimetry if the defined quantity which is being measured is
was primarily "to tighten standards. of rigor." If, specified. Nevertheless, the special units do exist
in the process, some increased formality is re- in this as in many other fields. For example,
quired in the definitions in order to eliminate any the hertz is restricted, by established convention,
foreseeable ambiguities, this must be accepted. to the measurement of vibrational frequency,
and the curie, in the present recommendations,
2. General Considerations to the measurement of the activity of a quantity
of a nuclide. One does not measure activity in
The development of the more unified presenta- hertz nor frequency in curies although these
tions of quantities and units which is here proposed quantities have the same dimensions.
was stimulated and greatly assisted by mathemati- It was necessary to decide whether or not to
cal models of the dosimetric field which had been extend the use of the special dosimetric units to
proposed by some members of the committee in an other more recently defined quantities having the
effort to clarify the concepts. It appeared, how- same dimensions, to retain the existing restriction
ever, that the essential features of the mathe- on their use to one quantity each, or to abandon
matical models had been incorporated into the the special units altogether. The Commission
definitions and hence the need for their exposition considers that the addition of further special
in this report largely disappeared. The mathe- units in the field of radiation dosimetry is un-
matical approach is published elsewhere. 3 desirable, but continues to recognize the existing
As far as possible, the definitions of the various special units. It sees no objection, however, to
fundamental quantities given here conform to a the expression of any defined quantitv in the
common pattern. Complex quantities are defined appropriate units of a coherent physical system.
in terms of the simpler quantities of which they Thus, to express absorbed dose in ergs per gram
are comprbed. or joules per kilogram, exposure in coulombs per
The passage to a "macroscopic limit" which has kilogram or activity in reciprocal seconds, are
to be used in defining point quantities in other entirely acceptable alternatives to the use of the
fields of physics can be adapted to radiation quan- special units which, for historical reasons, are
tities and a special discussion of this is included usually associated with these quantities.
in the section headed "limiting procedures." The ICRU recommends that the use of each
The general pattern adopted is to give a short special unit be restricted to one quantity as follows:
definition and to indicate the precise meaning of
any special phrase or term used by means of an The rad-solely for absorbed dose
explanatory note following the definition. There The roentgen--solely for exposure
has been no attempt to make the list of quantities The curie--solely for activity.
which are defined here comprehensive. Rather,
the Commission has striven to clarify the funda- It recommends further that those who prefer to
mental dosimetric quantities and a few others express quantities such as absorbed dose and
(such as activity-) which were specifically referred kerma (see below) in the same units should use
to it for discussion. units of an internationally agreed coherent system.
It is recognized that certain terms for which Several new names are proposed in the present
definitions are proposed here are of interest in report. When the absorbed dose concept was
other fields of science and that they are already adopted in 1953, the Commission recognized the
variously defined elsewhere. The precise wording need for a term to distinguish it from the quantity
of which the roentgen is the unit. In 1956 the
Commission proposed the term exposure for this
latter quantity. To meet objections by the ICRP,
' Russell, B., Wisdom of the West, p. 280 (Doubleday and Co., Inc., New
a compromise term, "exposure dose" was agreed
York, 1959). upon. 4 While this term has come into some use
•Rossi, IL ·H. and Rorsch, W. C., Field Equations in Dosimetry,
Radiation Res. 16, 'i83 (1962). •For details see ICRU, 1956 Report, NBS Handb. 62, p. 2 (1957).

100
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 since then, it has never been considered as com- Although this statement does not cover a
pletely satisfactory. In the meantime, the basic number of theoretical aspects (in particular the
cause of the ICRP objection has largely disap- physical dimensions of some of the quantities) it
peared since most legal codes use either the units fulfills the immediate requirement for an un-
rad or rem. equivocal specification of a scale that may be
Since in this report the whole system of radio- used for numerical expression in radiation protec-
logical quantities and units haR come under critical tion.
review, it seemed appropriate to reconsider the Another new name is that for the quantity
1956 decision. Numerous names were examined which represents the kinetic energy transferred to
as a replacement for exposure dose, but there charged particles by the uncharged particles per
were serious objections to any which included unit mass of the irradiated medium. This is the
the word dose. There appeared to be a minimum same as. one of the common interpretations of a
of objection to the name exposure and hence this concept "first collision dose," that has proved to
term has been adopted by the Commission with be of great value in the dosimetry of fast neu-
the hope that the question has been permanently trons. The concept is also closely related to the
settled. It involves a minimum change from the energy equivalent of exposure in an x-ray beam.
older name expoRure dose. Furthermore, the elim- The name proposed, kerma, is based on the initials
ination of the term "dose" accomplishes the long- of kinetic energy released in material.
felt desire of the Commission to retain the term Still another new name is the energy fiuence
dose for one quantity only-the absorbed dose. which is here attached to the quantity in the 1953
The term "RBE dose" has in past publications ICRU report called quantity of radiation. The
of the Commission not been included in the list latter term was dropped in the 1956 ICRU re-
of definitions but was merely presented as a "rec- port, but the concept-time integral of intensity-
ognized symbol". In its 1959 report the Commis- remains a useful one and the proposed term ap-
sion also expressed misgivings over the utilization pears to be acceptable in other languages as well
of the same term, "RBE", in both radiobiology as English. A related quantity, particle .fine11c_e,
and radiation protection. It now recommends which is equivalent to the quantity nvt used m
that the term RBE be used in radiobiology only neutron physics, is included to round out the sys-
and that another name be used for the linear- tem of radiation quantities.
energy-transf er-dependent factor by which ab- The quantity for which the curie is the unit
sorbed doses are to be multiplied to obtain, for was referred to the committee for a name and
purposes of radiation protection, a quantity that definition. Hitherto the curie has been defined as
expresses, on a common scale for all ionizing radia- a quantity of the radioactive nuclide such that
tions, the irradiation incurred by exposed persons. 3. 7X10 10 disintegrations per second occur in it.
The name recommended for this factor is the However, it has never been specified what was
quality factor ( QF). Provisions for other factors meant by quantity of a nuclide, whether it be a
are also made. Thus a distribution factor (DF), number, mass, volume, etc. Meanwhile the c~1s­
may be used to express the modification of bio- tom has grown of identifying the number of curies
logical effect due to non-uniform distribution of of a radionuclide with its transformation rate.
internally deposited isotopes. The product of Because of the vagueness of the original concept,
absorbed dose and modifying factors is termed because of the custom of identifying curies with
the dose equivalent (DE). As a result of discus- transformation rate and because it appeared not to
sions between ICRU and ICRP the following interfere with any other use of the curie, the Com-
formulation has been agreed upon: mission recommends that the term activity be used
The Dose Equivalent for the transformation rate, and that the curie be
made its unit. It is recognized that the definition
1. For protection purposes it is useful to of the c~rie is of interest to other bodies in addi-
define a quantity which will be termed tion to the ICRU, but by this report we recom-
the "dose equivalent" (DE).
2. (DE) is defined as the product of absorbed mend that steps be taken to redefine it as
dose, D, quality factor (QF); dose dis- 3.7x101°s-1, i.e., as a unit of activity and not of
tribution factor (DF), and other neces- quantity of a radioactive nuclide.
sary modifying factors. It is also recommended that the term speciji,c
gamma-ray constant be used instead of speciji,c
(DE)=D (QF) (DF) . . . . gamma-ray emission for the quotient of th~ _ex-
3. The unit of dose equivalent is the "rem". posure rate at a given distance by the act1v1ty.
The dose equivalent is numerically equal The former term focuses attention on the constancy
to the dose in rads multiplied by the of this quotient for a given radio nuclide rather
appropriate modifying factors. than the emission of the source.

101

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084

by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 4. Detailed Considerations need not always be energy or frequency; one can
A. Llmltln!l Procedures speak of the spectral concentration of flux density
with respect to quantum energy or of the absorbed
Except in the case of a uniform distribution of dose with respect to linear energy transfer. The
sources throughout a large region, radiation fields interaction constants (such asµ, Sand W) referred
are in general nonuniform in space. They 1.11!1Y to in this report are often mean values taken over
also be variable in time. Many of the quantities the appropriate spectral distributions of the
deilned in this report have to be specified as func- corresponding quantities.
tions of space or time, and in principle they must
therefore be determined for sufficiently small re- C. Units
gions of spa~e or intervals of time by some limiting For any of the quantities defined below the
procedure. T~ere are co1_1~eptua~ difficulties in appropriate unit of an internation.a~ly agre~d
taking such limits for quantities which depend upon coherent system can be used. In a?dition ce~t.am
the discrete interactions between radiations and special units are reserved for special quantities:
atoms. Similar difficulties arise with other macro-
scopic physical quantities such as density or tem- the rad for absorbed dose
perature and they must be overcome by means of the roentgen for exposure
an appropriate averaging procedure. . the curie for activity.
To illustrate this procedure we m~y consi~er D. Definitions
the measurement of the macroscopic quantity (1) Directly ionizing particles. are charged p_ar-
"absorbed dose" in a nonuniform radiation field. ticles (electrons, protons, a-particles,. et~.) ~avmg
In measuring this dose the quotient of energy by sufficient kinetic energy to produce iomzation by
mass must be taken in an elementary volume in collision.
the medium which, on the one hand, is so small th3:t (2) Indirectly ionizing particles are u~charged
a further reduction in its size would not appreci- particles (neutrons, photons, etc.) whwh can
ably change the measured value of the quotient liberate directly ionizing particles or can initiate
energy by mass and, on the other hand is still a nuclear transformation.
large enough to contain many interactions and be (3) Ionizing radiation is any radiation consisting
traversed by many particles. 5 If it is impossible to of directly or indirectly ionizing particles or a
find a mass such that both these conditions are mixture of both.
met, the dose cannot be established directly in a (4) The energy imparted by ionizing radiation to
single measurement. It can only be deduced from the matter in a volume is the difference between
multiple measurements that involve extrapolation the sum of the energies of all the directly and
or averaging procedures. Similar considerations indirectly ionizing particles whicli have entered
apply to some of the other concepts defined below. the volume and the sum of the energies of all
The symbol ~precedes the symbols for quantities those which have left it, minus the energy equiv-
that may be concerned in such averaging proce- alent of any increase iri rest I1_1ass that. took J?la?e
dures. in nuclear or elementary particle reactions withm
In the measurement of certain material con- the volume.
stants such as stopping power, absorption co-
efficient, etc., the limiting procedure can be NOTES: (a) The above definit~on is inte~ded t? be
specified more rigorously. Such constants can exactly equivalent to the previous meamngs given.
be determined for a given material with any by the ICRU to "energy retained by matter and
desired accuracy without difficulties from sta- made locally a"ailable" or "energy which app~ars
tistical fluctuations. In these cases the formula as ionization, excitation, or changes ?f chem.wal
quoted in the deD.nitions are presented as differ- bond energies". The present fo~mulation sl?e.mfies
ential quotients. what energy is to be included without reqmrmg a
B. Spectral Distributions and Mean Values lengthy, and possibly incomplete, catalog of the
In practice many of the quantities defined below different types of energy transfer. .
to characterize a radiation field and its interaction (b) Ultimately, most of the energy impart~d
with matter are used for radiations having a com- will be degraded and appear as hea~. _Some of i~,
plex energy spectrum. An important general however, may appear as a change m mterat01!11C
concept in this connection is the spectral concen- bond energies. Moreover, during the d~gr~dat~on
tration of one quantity with respect to another. process the energy will diffuse and the distribution
The spectral concentration is the ordinate of the of heat produced may be different from the
distribution function of the first quantity with distribution of imparted energy. For these rea-
sons the energy imparted cannot always be
respect to the second. The independent quantity equated with the heat produced. .
' In interpreting radiation effects the macroscopic concept of absorbed dose (c) The quantity energy imparted to m<!'tter m a
may not be sufficient. Whenever the statistical fluctuations around the
mean value are important, additional parameters describing the distribution
given volume is identical w~th the quantity often
of absorbed energy on a microscopic scale are necessary. called integral absorbed dose m that volume.

102
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 (5) The absorbed dose (D) is the quotient of (10) The energy flux density or intensity (I) is
fl.En by Am, where AEn is the energy imparted by the quotient of AF by At where AF is the energy
ionizing radiation to the matter in a volume ele- fluence in the time At and A has the meaning indi-
ment, Am is the mass of the matter in that volume cated in section 4.A.
element and A has the meaning indicated in
l=AF
section 4.A. At
D=AED
Am NOTE: This quantity may also be referred to as
energy fluence rate.
The special unit of absorbed dose is the rad. (11) The kerma 9 (K) is the quotient of fl.Ex by
Am, where AEx is the sum of the initial kinetic
1 energies of all the charged particles liberated by
1 rad=lOO erg/g= J/kg
100 indirectly ionizing particles in a volume element
of the specified material, Am is the mass of the
NOTE: J is the abbreviation for Joule. matter in that volume element and A has the
meaning indicated in section 4.A.
(6) The absorbed dose rate is the quotient of AD
by At, where Wis the increment in absorbed dose
in time At and A has the meaning indicated in K=AEx
section 4.A. Am

Absorbed dose rate=At

w NOTES: (a) Since AEx is the sum of the initial
kinetic energies of the charged particles liberated
by the indirectly ionizing particles, it includes not
A special unit of absorbed dose rate is any only the kinetic energy these charged particles
quotient of the rad by a suitable unit of time expend in collisions but also the energy they
(rad/d, rad/min, rad/h, etc.). radiate in bremsstrahlung. The energy of any
(7) The particle fluence 6 or fluence (<P) of charged particles is also included when these are
particles is the quotient of AN by Aa, where AN produced in secondary processes occurring within
is the number of particles which enter a sphere 7 the volume element. Thus the energy of Auger
of cross-sectional area Aa and A has the meaning electrons is part of fl.Ex.
indicated in section 4.A. (b) In actual measurements Am should be so
small that its introduction does not appreciably
disturb the radiation field. This is particularly
necessary if the medium for which kerma is deter-
mined is different from the ambient medium; if
(8) The particle flux density or flux density the disturbance is appreciable an appropriate cor-
(<P) of particles is the quotient of A.P by At where rection must be applied.
A.P is the particle fluence in time At and A has the (c) It may often be convenient to refer to a
meaning indicated in section 4.A. value of kerma or of kerma rate for a specified
material in free space or at a point inside a dif-
ferent material. In such a case the value will be
that which would be obtained if a small quantity
of the specified material were placed at the point
of interest. It is, however, permissible to make a
NOTE: This quantity may also be referred to as statement such as: "The kerma for air at the
particle fluence rate. point P inside a water phantom is . . . " recog-
(9) The energy fluence (F) of particles is the nizing that this is a shorthand version of the fuller
quotient of AEF by Aa, where AEF is the sum of description given above.
the ~nergies" exclusive of rest energies, of all the (d) A fundamental physical description of a
particles which enter a sphere 8 of cross-sectional radiation field is the intensity (energy flux density)
area Aa and A has the meaning indicated in at all relevant points. For the purpose of dosim-
section 4.A. etry, however, it may be convenient to describe
the field of indirectly ionizing particles in terms
of the kerma rate for a specified material. A
F AEF suitable material would be air for electromagnetic
Aa radiation of moderate energies, tissue for all radia-
• This quantity is the same as the quantity, nvt, commonly used in neutron
tions in medicine or biology, or any relevant mate-
physics.
7 This quantity ls sometimes defined with refe!'ence to a plane of area <la
rial for studies of radiation effects.
Instead of a sphere of cross-sectional area <la. 'fhe plane quantity ls le~
useful for the present purposes and it will not be defined. The two quantities
~re equal for a unidirectional beam of particles perpendicularly incident upon 'Various other methods of specifying a radiation field have been used,
the plane area. e.g., for a neutron source the "first collision dose" In a standard material at
• See footnote 7. a specified point (see Introduction).

103
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 Kerma can also be a useful quantity in dosim- A special unit of exposure rate is any quotient
etry when charged particle eq_uilibri~m exists at of the roentgen by a suitable unit of time (R/s,
the position and in the material of mterest, and R/min, R/h, etc.).
bremsstrahlung losses are negligible. It is then
equal to the absorbed dose at that point. In (15) The mass attenuation coefficient (~) of a
beams of x or gamma rays or neutrons, whose material for indirectly ionizing particles is the
energies are moderately high, t~ansie!1t cha~g~d­ quotient of dN by the product of p, N, and dl
particle equilibrium can occur; m this condit10n where N is the number of particles incident
the kerma is just slightly less than the absorbed normally upon a layer of thickr;iess dl and dens~ty p,
dose. At very high energies the difference be- and dN is the number of particles that experience
comes appreciable. In general, if the range of interactions in this layer.
directly ionizing particles bec?m~s compa~a~le
with the mean free path of the mdirectly 10mzmg
particles, no equilibrium will exist.
(12) The kerma ra~e is the q~otient of .AK. by
At where AK is the mcrement m kerma m time NOTES: (a) The term "interactions" refers to
At' and A has the meaning indicated in section processes whereby the energy or di·rection of the
4.A. indirectly ionizing particles is altered.
(13) The exposure (X) is the quotient of AQ (b) For x or gamma radiations
by Am, where AQ is the sum <;>f the electric::il
charges on all the ions of one sign produced i!1
air when all the electrons (negatrons and posi- ~=.:_+~+ O' cob+~
p p p p p
trons), liberated by photons in a volume element
of air whose mass is Am, are completely stopped where ~ is the mass photoelectric attenuation co-
in air and A has the meaning indicated in section p
4.A.
efficient ~is the total Compton mass attenuation
' p

coefficient, u~oh is the mass attenuation coefficient

The special unit of exposure is the roentgen (R).
for coherent scattering, and~ is the pair-production
p
1R=2.58Xl0-4 C/kg 10
mass attenuation coefficient.
NOTES: (a) The words "charges on all the ions of
one sign" should be interpreted in the mathe- (16) The mass tnJrgy tranifer coefficient(µ;) of
matically absolute sense. a :material for indirectly ionizing particles is the
(b) The ionization arising from the absorption quotient of dEK by the product.of E, p and ~l where
of bremsstrahlung emitted by the secondary E is the sum of the energies (excludmg rest
electrons is not to be included in AQ Except energies) of the indirectly ionizing. particles
for this small difference, significant only at high incident normally upon a layer of thickn~ss ~l
energies, the exposure as defined above is the and density p, and dEK is the s~m of _the kmet.ic
ionization equivalent of the kerma in air energies of all the charged particles liberated m
(c) With present techniques it is difficult to this layer.
measure exposure when the photon energies
involved lie above a few Mev or below a few kev.
(d) As in the case of kerma (4D(ll), note (c)),
it may often be convenient to refer to a value of
exposure or of exposure rate in free space or at a
point inside a material different from air. In NOTES: (a) The relation between fluence and
such a case the value will be that which would be kerma may be written as
determined for a small quantity of air placed at
the point of interest. It is, however, permissible K=FµK
to make a statement such as: "The exposure at p
the point P inside a water phantom is . . . . "
(b) For x or gamma rays of energy hv
(14) The exposure rate is the quotient of
AX by At, where AX is the increment in exposure µx=Ta+~+~
in time Dot and Ll has the meaning indicated in p p p p
section 4.A, ·
AX where
Exposure rate=M
10
This unit is numerically identical with the old one defined as I e.s.u. of
charge per .001293 gram of air. C is the abbreviation for coulomb.

104
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 to the medium by a charged particle of specified
(~=the photoelectric mass attenuation coeffi- energy in traversing a distance of dl.
cient, ll=average energy emitted as fluorescent
L=dEL
radiation per photon absorbed.) and dl

NOTES: (a) The term "locally imparted" may refer

either to a maximum distance from the track or
to a maximum value of discrete energy loss by the
(~=total Compton mass attenuation coefficient, particle beyond which losses are no longer
considered as local. In either case the limits
E.=average energy of the Compton electrons per chosen should be specified.
(b) The concept of linear energy transfer is
scattered photon.) and different from that of stopping power. The
former refers to energy imparted within a limited
~=~
p p
(l - 2mc
hv
2
)
volume, the latter to loss of energy regardless of
where this energy is absorbed.
(20) The average energy (W) expended in a gas
(~=mass attenuation coefficient for pair produc- per ion pair formed is the quotient of Eby Nw,
where Nw is the average number of ion pairs
tion, mc 2 =rest energy of the electron.) formed when a charged particle of initial energy
Eis completely stopped by the gas.
( 17) The mass energy-absorption coefficient (µ;n)
of a material for indirectly ionizing particles is W=_§_
Nw
µK (1-G) where Gis the proportion of the energy
p NOTES: (a) The ions arising from the absorption
of secondary charged particles that is lost to of bremsstrahlung emitted by the charged particles
bremsstrahlung in the material. are not to be counted in Nw.
NOTES: (a) When the material is air, is propor- µ.nP (b) In certain cases it may be necessary to
consider the variation in W along the path of the
tional to the quotient of exposure by fluence. particle, and a differential concept is then required,
but is not specifically defined here.
(b) µK and µ.n do not differ appreciably unless
p p
the kinetic energies of the secondary particles are (21) A nuclide is a species of atom having
comparable with or larger than their rest energy. specified numbers of neutrons and protons in
its nucleus.
(22) The activity (A) of a quantity of a radio-
(18) The mass stopping power(;) of a material active nuclide is the quotient of flN by flt where
flN is the number of nuclear transformations
for charged particles is the quotient of dE, by which occur in this quantity in time flt and fl
the product of dl and p, where dE, is the average
energy lost by a charged particle of specified has the meaning indicated in section 4.A.
energy in traversing a path length dl, and p is
the density of the medium. A=flN
flt
S 1 dE,
p pdl The special unit of activity is the curie (c).

NOTE: dE, denotes energy lost due to ionization, lc=3.7Xl0 10s- 1 (exactly)
electronic excitation and radiation. For some
purposes it is desirable to consider stopping power N oTE: In accordance with the former definition
with the exclusion of bremsstrahlung losses. In of the curie as a unit of quantity of a radioactive
this case §_ must be multiplied by an appropriate nuclide, it was customary and correct to say:
p "Y curies of P-32 were administered. . . ."
factor that is less than unity. It is still permissible to make such statements
(19) The linear energy transfer (L) of charged rather than use the longer form which is now
particles in a medium is the quotient of dEL by dl correct: "A quantity of P-32 was administered
where dEL is the average energy locally imparted whose activity was Y curies."

105
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
 (23) The specific gamma ray conswnt (r) of Special units of specific gamma ray constant
a gamma-emitting nuclide is the quotient of are Rm 2h-1c- 1 or any convenient multiple of this.
l 2 ~~ by A, where ~ is the exposure rate at a NOTE: It is assumed that the attenuation in
distance l from a point source of this nuclide the source and along l is negligible. However, in
having an activity A and ~ has the meaning the case of radium the value of r is determined
indicated in section 4.A. for a filter thickness of 0.5 mm of platinum and in
l2D.)( this case the special units are Rm 2h- 1g- 1 or any
r= A~t convenient multiple of this.

TABLE 4.1. Table of quantities and units

Units
No. Name Sym. Dimen-
bol sions a
MKSA cgs Special

]_ ________ erg ________ g. rad.

4 Energyim-
parted ------ E--------
(integral
absorbed
dose).
5 Absorbed dose. D EM-1 ____ J kg-1 ____ erg g-1_ --- rad.
6 Absorbed dose EM-IT-I_ Jkg-ls-1 __ erg g-1s-1 _- rad s-1, etc.
rate.
7 Particle flu- 4> L-•------- m-2 ______ cm-2 ______
ence or
fluence.
8 Particle flux L-•T-1 ___ m-1s-1 ____ cm--ts-1 ____
density. "'
9 Energy fluence. F EL-•----- Jm-• ____ erg cm-• ___
10 Energy flux I EL-•T-1 __ J m-•s-1 __ erg cm-•s-1 _
density or
intensity.
11 Kerma_ ------- K EM-1 ____ J kg-1 ____ erg g-1 ____
12 Kerma rate ____ ------ EM-IT-I. J kg-ls-I __ erg g-is-1-.
13 Exposure ______ x QM-1 ____ C kg-I ___ esu g-1 ____ R (roent-
gen).
14 Exposure rate .• ------ 'J,,M-IT-1. C kg-ls-I. esug-1s-1 __ Rs-1, etc.
M-1 ____ m•kg-1 ___ cm•g-1 ____
15 Mass attenua- µ.
tion coeffi-
cient.
-p

16 Mass energy L'M-1 ___ m•kg-1 ___ cm•g-1 ____

transfer co-
!!!!.
p
efficient.
17 Mass energy L'M-1 ___ m•kg-1 ___ cm•g-1 ____
E!!!
absorption p
coefficient.
18 Mass stopping s EL'M-1 __ Jm•kg-1 __ ergcm1g-1_
·power. p
19 Linear energy • L EL-1 _____ J m-•---- erg cm-1 ___ kev(µ.m)-1.
transfer.
20 Average energy w ]_ ________ erg________ ev.
E--------
per ion pair.
22 Activity_______ A T-1 ______ g-1 _ - ------ c(curie).
g-1 _ ------
23 Specific r QL'M-1 __ Cm•kg-1 __ esucm•g-1_ Rm•b-1c-1,
gamma-ray etc.
constant.
Dose equiva-
lent.
DE ----------- ----------- ------------ rem

• It was desired to present only one set of dimensions for each quantity, a
set that would be suitable in both the MKSA and electrostatic-cgs systems.
To do this it was necessary to use a dimension Q, for the electrical charge,
that is not a fundamental dimension in either system. In the MKSA sys-
tern (fundamental dimensions ~ ~ T, I) Q represents the product IT; in
the electrostatic-cgs system (M, , ) it represents Ml/l/,3/IT-1.

106
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jicru/article-abstract/os6/1/NP/2924084
by University of Durham user
on 14 January 2018