U.S. Department of Commerce Charles Sawyer, Secretary National Bureau of Standards A.V. Astin, Acting Director Radiological Monitoring Methods and Instruments National Bureau of Standards Handbook 51 Issued April 7, 1982 ‘orale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington28,D.G=Prce 1ScentsPreface ‘The Advisory Committee on X-ray and Radium Pro- tection was formed in 1920 upon the recommendation of the International Commission on Radiological Protection, under the sponsorship of the National Bureau of Standar and with the cooperation of the leading radiological organi- zations. ‘The small committee functioned effectively until the advent of atomic energy, which introduced a large num- ber of new and serious problems in ,the field of radiation protection. At a meeting of this committee in December 1946, the representatives of the various participating organizations agreed that the problems in radiation protection had beeome so manifold that the committee should enlarge its seope and membership and should appropriately change its title to be ‘more inclusive, Accordingly, at that time the namo of the ‘committee was changed to the National Committee on Radiation Protection. At the same time, the number of participating organizations was increased and the total membership considerably enlarged. In order to distribute the work load, eight working subeommittees were established, as listed below. Each of these subcommittees is charged with the responsibility of preparing protection recommenda~ tions in its particular field. ‘The reports of the subcom- mittees are approved by the main committee before publication, ‘The following parent organizations and individuals com- prise the main committee: ‘American Medical Association: H. B, Williams, ‘American Radom Sie: , Quinty aud FB, Wirth. ‘Amertean Roentgen Ray Society ‘Newell and J. L: Weatherwax, National Bureau of Standards: L. 8. Taylor, Chainipan. National Electrical Manufacturers Association: B, Dale Trout Radiological Society of North America: @, Pauila and R. 8. Stone, U's. Air Force: W, 8. Cowart, Lt. Col. ‘U.S Army: D. A. York, Lt, Gol. V-& Aomie Boenry Commision: K. % Morgan and Shitds Warren, U.S: Public Health Service: H. I. Andrews and E. G. Wiliams, 0 ‘Tho following are the subcommittees and. their chairmen: Gubsomulives 1. Parmlatble Dow from Tstemal Brazos, G, Full Seber Permlble Inieraal Bae 2. lasers Seemias & Krave upto Teo Mion Volo, HO. Wy Eibeommiiee & Hany Paras (Neutrons Fotos and Subcommittes 5, Hlecsonsy Gamma Rays and Xrays above Two Sion Volt Woe Subcommittee 6 Hagilig of Rationctie Tetopes and Flson Bids St Parker Subcommitee 1. Mion Bicol and. Tnstumens, 1. 1. Subcommittee 8 Ware Diol and Desntaninaion, J. H. With the increasing use of radioactive isotopes by industry, the medical profession, and research laboratories, itis. 6s ential that certain minimal preeautions be taken to protect ihe users and the public. "The recommendations eontained in this Handbook represent shat is believed to be the best Aveilable opinions on the subject as of this date. As our experience with radioisotopes broadens, we will undoubt- erly be able to improve and strengthen the recommendations for their safe handling, utilization, and disposal of wastes, "This ‘report docs not. endeavor to provide a complete manual on radiological instruments. Yt is designed, how- fever, to indieate the types of measurements and instruments tha are acre for deterning he adequacy of radi tion shielding. This applies to. low-voltage and “high Se ease oPEY aastallaireasersTi@eR ite lniaratorion as dium" handling areas, cte,” ‘The Committee on. Nuclear Sciences of the ‘National ‘Research Council preparin Ghia reports on apie atramentation probe an the render is referred to these reports for more detailed information. "The present Handbook has been prepared by the Sub- committee on Monitoring Methods and Instruments, Its membership is as follows: HE, L, Avpnxws, Chairman, W.H. Rav. C1B! Baanernve, 4.8, Rose. 3. Hiner. 1G. Wirtrass, KOE Tare, A.V. Asmix, Acting Director.1 il 2 4 5 Determination of hazard 8 7. Personnel monitoring. Heed IL, Radiation detectors Z ‘S Bota- and i ° i 5 ° iL xX ° 12) Beton a 18, Alpha-particie 12 IV. Personnel monitoring instrument 2 “Th Beta and gamma instruments, 2 15, Neutwon instruments. 13 i it 15 18 i 1 VL. Radiation-aurvey' methods. Is "20. General recommendatt 18 21. Radioactive isotope moni 10 22, Medical installations. 20 23, Industrial installations. 2 Ed 25 25 25 Z 2 w sosctmiaae Radiological Monitoring Methods and Instruments I. General 1. Scope of Report It is imperative that users of radioactive materials and other sources of radiation take adequate measures to prevent overexposure of personnel.“Any adequate radiation pro- tection program may require a variety of types of measuring instruments, and trained personnel must be available to insure the use of suitable instruments in the proper way, to interpret the readings obtained, and to, make necessary recommendations for reducing hazards. The present report represents an attempt to establish some basic guides for methods. of determining radiation hazards. and. selectin suitable instruments for measuring them. No attempt wil be made to give detailed discussions of the recommendations. ‘Radiation hazards arise from a wide variety of sources and the monitoring methods must vary accordingly. - Sources such as X-ray units are relatively fixed in position and con- stitute radiation hazards only when they are in operation Radioactive isotopes, on the other hand, are hazardous until natural decay has reduced the activity to safe levels, Furthermore, such materials may be spilled or lost during their use and become rather widely spread throughout a building or area. High-voltage accelerators represent. an intermediate case, where the greatest hazard is present during operation, but where induced radioactivity may persist for some time after the equipment is shut down. ‘The attainable characteristics of radiation-protection instruments are dependent on technical advances. in elec- tronics and in other fields. For this reason, specific recom- mendations may become obsolete as new designs are intro- duced. ‘The present report considers only types that have proved useful in practice. ‘Throughout this report a sharp distinction has been made between scanning and measuring radiation, Scanning is used to denote a rapid, qualitative survey, usually carried out with sensitive detecting instruments, to locate and deter- mine the extent of a radiation source, "Measuring refers to 1the quantitative determination of the kind and amount of radiation present. It should be emphasized that, the measurement and eval uation of hazardous radiation is not generally a straight- forward problem. ‘This is particularly so in situations involving a mixture of two or more types of radiation. - Such work should be done, whenever possible, by a trained health physicist who js familiar both with the instrumentation and the operational problems, 2. Definitions ‘Terms in this report will be used in accordance with the following brief definitions: * 2.1 Shall. Is necessary to mect currently accepted standards. 2.2 Should. Is recommended. Indicates advisory re- quirements that are to be applied when possible, 23. Assay. ‘The determination of kind and quantity of radioactive materials present by physical or cheniical measurements. 24 Airequivalent, Descriptive of materials for walls and electrodes of ionization chambers selected to produce ‘onization for proton or electron. measurement estntially equivalent to that in a free-air ionization chamber. his is possible only over limited ranges of photon energies, 2.5. Dose? The radiation delivered to a specified volume or to the whole body... The unit is the roentgen, gor Pose meter.”An instrument that measures radiation lose. 2.7 Dose rate, The radiation dose delivered per unit time. 2.8 Blectromagnetic radiation. For purposes of the pres- ent report, X-rays and gamma rays. 2.9 Eezporure’ The total quantity of ‘radiation at a given point, measured in air. ‘The measurement of exposure is made at'a given point in the radiation field without the presence of a seatterng body. 2.10 Exposure rate. ‘The amount of radiation (exposure) delivered at a given point per unit time. SEIT ig fom neon oem Nate nro etsy sre een panos et ae SU TGETuE. Pied aparece a 2.11 Hlectromeler’ An. instrument for measuring. the difference in electric potential between two points 2.12" Hlecromder tube, An electronie tube specially designed and constructed to measure very small ‘lectsie potentials, 3" Blectroscope An instrument for detecting the presence of an electric change on a body. 214 Mlus, A-rate of flow across @ unit area. For ex- ample, a neutron flux is the number of neutrons that cross Tem'fec 2415 Geiger-Miller counter (G-M counter). A chamber equipped with suitable electrodes and operated at. « voltage fand gos pressure that will permit ionization by collision asd {in which' the total ionization per event is independent of the amount of ionization produced by the absorption of radia ton, 2.16 Ionization. ‘The process whereby a neutral atom or ‘molecule is split into positive and negative ions. 2.17 Ionization by collision. Tontzation produced when ions already formed ave accelerated as by an dlvetre field to velocities high enough to prodiice more ions by collisions with neutral atoms or molecules, 2.18 Jonization chember. A container with electrodes on hich tale voltage ary prose for sllesting onl ons Formed in the gus inte chamber by the ionizing event. 2.19 Personnel meter, A device to be worn or carried by «person for the purpose of detecting or measuring radiation reesived by him, 2.20 Proportional counter. A chamber equipped with suitable electrodes and operated at voltages high enough to produce ionization by collision and adjusted so that the total fonization per count is substantially proportional to the iont- zation produced by the absorption ‘of the radiation ‘per event, 232i Radiation. Energy propagated through space 223 Madiation eld." Region in whieh radiation 1s prop- aguied. 2.23 Roentgen (). The international unit of quantity for both X-rays and gamma rays adopted by the Fifth Inter national Congress of Radiology at Chicago in 1987. Tt was defined by the International Commission on Radiological Units in the following words: ‘The International Unit of quantity or dove of Xrays or gamma sagt Bed the repped sal ite Dy the tpmbol se noniges aba be the quautcy of €or excuse ar ft nn the wns of tra toate” od ten vw te dale le ra ap araiation such that the amosiated corpuscular emission por {1001203 g of ate produces, in ar, fous earFying I est of quantity of eleetriclty of either sgn: 2.24 Roentgen equivalent physical (rep). Although not an Plas yet nna ity gpg aor shorthand notation for statements of dose of ionizing radia- tion not covered by the definition of the roentgen. One represents that dose which produces energy absorption of 93 ergs/g of tissue. The actual energy absorption in tissue per roentgen is function of the tissue composition and of the wavelength of the radiation. It ranges between 60 and 100 trgs/g. “For ealeulations of permissible exposure this varia- tion is ignored, and a beta-ny dose of one rep is suid to be iysically equivalent to an X-ray dose of Ir at a given point Inthe body. ‘The numerical eoeficient of the rep has been deliberately changed to 93, instead of the earlier 83, to agree with L. H. Gray’s “enengy-unit”. 2.25. Saturation. Condition in an ionization chamber when the applied voltage is sufficiently high to collect all the ions formed from the absorption of radiation, but in- sufficient to produce ionization by collision. 2.26 Surcey. A critical examination of the radiation neat @ source by or under the supervision of a qualified expert. 2.27 Sursey meter. A device for detecting radiation fields or for measuring exposure or exposure rate, 3. General Principles of Hazard Control 3.1 Radiation injuries can be prevented if potential ex- pposures ean be forecast. with sufficient accuracy to permit the application of appropriate protective measures. Basic pro- tective measures, not all of which may be required simul- taneously, follow in the next two paragraphs. 3.2, Entrance of radioactive materials into the body should be prevented by (a) enclosing all radioactive ma- terials, (b) supplying air of assured purity to all occupied spaces, (c) maintaining effective contamination control boundaries around all sources, (d) using immaculate handliny techniques, (@) decontaminating where control has failed and (f) enforcing a rigid system of aceounting for all radio: active materials 3.8 Invadiation of any part ofthe body should be reduced at least to, and preferably well below, the maximum per- nissible dose," a minimum to be sought ‘by (a) reducing’ the et NG Hata 1, Rasen of he Intra Con Ra te pte! Proton aod? fe" inteatal Commas om nctad ol Hist, rion rmbt ds si the or of reyratin Gh Nt! Con 4 time of exposure, (b) increasing the distance from the source, and (¢) interposing shielding 4, Airborne Hazards 4.1, Laboratory air and air discharged from the laboratory should be monitored for radioactivity if there is any possi- Dility of airborne contamination at hazardous levels, 4.2 Continuous sampling of airborne particulates (section VII) can be used to determine concentrations of beta and gamma emitters provided the sumples truly represent the jeing breathed. Airborne contamination may remain lo- y fail to indicate the extent alized and fixed instruments may of contamination, 4.3, Assays for long-lived alpha-emitting particulates are complicated by the fact that maximum permissible concentra- tions may be less than the naturally occurring decay products of radon and thoron, Studies on concentrates may be re- juired in order to evaluate the hazard properly. Any assays for airborne alpha-emitters. should be supplemented bya careful analysis of the physical circumstances giving rise to the hazard, Protective measures should be instituted if there is a chance that alpha emitters may become airborne, 44 Radioactive, chemically active gases can be concen: trated by chemical methods from a known volume of air and assayed by laboratory counting techniques. 4.5. Methods for assaying radioactive, noble gases are un- satisfactory because of the diliculty of concentrating a suit- table sample. Some noble gases ean be condensed with liquid air, but others require lower temperatures, 4.6 Radon and thoron present particular problems be- cause each has a number of radioactive daughter products, Radon and thoron ean be condensed ‘with liquid air, To evaluate properly the hazard associated with these isotopes, it is necessary to know the stage of decay of the sample assayed. A curve showing the rise and fall of gamma activ- ity from radon is shown in figure 3. 5. Surface Contamination 1. Quantitative measurements of surface contamination difficult because of unknown factors such as self-abs tion, geometry, and depths of penetration. Estimates ms by counting wipes furnish useful information and should be made in order to determine whether or not a contaminant is likely to rub off a surface. However, these measurements are only qualitative and unreliable because of the uncertainty as to the amount of contamination removed. In general, some —a 5‘measurements of surface contamination are qualitative in nature, 5.2 | Identification of the kinds pf radiation emitted should be made. to estimate the possibility of alpha-emitters be: coming airborne. 5.3 | In some cases measurements of alpha and low-energy beta contaminants may require the removal of surface me, terial and a chemical separation of radioactive and inert ‘components, 6. Determination of Hazards 6.1 The determination of the existence of a radiation hazard presupposes the presence of a radiation field, “The degree of the hazard and the protection techniques to he instituted depend on the location of the souree, its strength physical form, and the kind and energy distribution of itg radiations. | Protective measures should be checked by meas, urements whenever possible. 6.2 Scanning rather than measuring instruments should be used to locate unknown sources. Seanning instruments require rapid meter response, and aural indicators are useful cena teepond promplly and permit the eyes to follow the sensitive element. Shields around part of the sensitics element are desirable 6.8 "All locations where a scanning survey shows an ex- posure rate of one-fifth or more of the permissible value sao to be considered potentially hazardous.” Quantitative moar, ‘urements shall be made at all of these positions, 6.4 Except for alpha particles and noutrons, all meas prements should be expressed in roentgens or reps (doperd ing on the type of radiation) per unit me 5.5 | Neutron measurements may be expressed as the num- ber of neutrons per square centimeter per second (hee density), together with any available information on ine energy distribution of the neutrons. 7, Personnel Monitoring 7-1 Every person whose safety depends upon proper rating procedures rather than upon adequate auicddnee oh havo upon his person a personnel meter at all times when Giperure is possible. | Personnel meters may be any one or & combination of the following types: (a) Pocket formation chamber, (b) pocket dose meter, and (c) photographic file meter. 7.2 Under some conditions other types of personnel meters may be used. Pocket ionization chambers with act warm actuated after a preset expostre, crystal, or chemical dose meters may be used. 7.3. It must be remembered that personnel meters meas- ture the exposure only at the point! where they are. wor which should be the part of the body expected to reeeire the greatest exposure. 74 In general, personnel meters do not respond properly to beta radiation and may give incorrect readings willow, energy electromagnetic radiation unless specially calibrated. IL. Radiation Detectors 8, Beta-and Gamma-Radiation Detectors 8.1 A detecting instrument should be used for loeati gources of radiation and contamination. Tt shall not be vend {for measurement ofthe radiation unless it has been ealireeea under approprinte conditions with radiation of approvinetole the same energy distribution as that being imewrrcd 82 A dotecting instrument should have sullcent sensi tivity to show a response to normal radiation Laskersoet Tt should be capable of rapid response and preferable hs ped with an aural indicator G-M counter may be suitable for detecting beta and gamma radiation. For beta-partile detection the Goat tube should have as'thin a wall-as posible, A inowaine shield will serve to differentiate beta from gamina radon ‘Tho Q-M tube shall not respond to visible fight, weal tok tl function properly over the maximum range of tonponeet in which It may be used. 84 | For the detection of soft radiations, such as the beta Particles from Cand 8, any absorbing material beans the source and the detector shall be a misimung saopcecal de et enero da trum i in proper operating condition by frequent taste vith ane soutree of radiation, 9. Alpha-Particle Detectors 9.1" Proportional counters, ionization chambers, or sein= tiation counters should be used to detect alpha particles, .2 Sensitive detectors incorporating flat iontzation chasm. bers with thin windows of a material such as nylon are Satisfactory. An equivalent window thickness of 0.8 mg/em® 7is acceptable. Tonization-chamber readings measure total alpha ionization near the source and must not be interpreted as dose rate to the body. 9.3 A standard alpha-emitter should be available at all times for instrument cheeks. 10. Neutron Detectors 10.1, Slow (0.03 to 100 ev) and intermediate (100 ev to 0.01 Mev) neutrons can be detected with a roportional counter lined with boron carbide or filled with boron tri- fluoride gas, This method dseriminates against other tyes of radiation. As detection is obtained through the alpha Particle from the B" (n, a) reaction, the sensitivity can be enhanced by using boron enriched in 'B". 10.2 A cadmium shield ean be placed outside an ion chamber to detect slow neutrons through the Cd (n, 7) reaction. If ima radiation is also present, an additional Fading is need to determine the nex eect de one on For measurement of this background a similar shield of a material whose gamma absorption is the same as the ead. pee but which does not give an (n, 7) reaction, should be 10.3. Slow neutrons can be detected with a double cham ber, one half of which is lined with boron, ‘The instrument is differentially sensitive to neutrons and ean be used in the Presence of geome mdladon, 10.4 Intermediate-energy neutr can be detected by placing a paralin moderator around ether af thems escribed in paragraphs 10.1 and 102," The netlon ee tron wil be ede none’ by hydrogen alone Point where either of the above nuclear reactions becomes ppreclabie. 10.5 Neutrons with greater than thermal energies can be detected by placing around a boron-containing propor, tional counter sufficient paraffin to reduce some neutrons to thermal energies, “A 3}eineh paraffin tsckness wales @ maximum flux of thermals. A cadmium or boron shield outside the moderator can be used to exclude slow. neutrons te the dtr. 10.6 _ As tissue damage by fast neutrons is probably largely due to ionization from recoil protons, fast neutron haseets may be estimated from measurements with a chamber filled with a hy« -h gas, such as methane. To make this ‘measurement in the presence of gamma radiation, a second chamber of the same volume filled with a high atomic number gas can be connected differentially with the first. This chamber must be lined with a hydrogenous material, such as paraffin, of a thickness equal to the maximum range of the recoil protons (see fig. 1) if the ionization is to bi in rep. If the neutron beam is smaller in cross than the flat plate arca of th made for the volume actually irradiated. If gamma radin- tion is present, readings should be taken with the beam past: ing through each chamber and the posit reversed to estimate the effects of absorption. Tn some cases it may be necessary to take separate readings with each 10.7 A methane-flled proportional counter can be ad- justed to be insensitive to gamma radiation and yet respond to fast neutrons through the proton recoils. 108 At present there is insufficient experience with neu- trons with energies above 10 Mev to permit making recom= ‘mendations 10.9 The calibration of neutron detectors is difficult, and not entirely satisfactory. Only a rough outline of methods ‘ean be presented here. Boron-containing chambers can be calibrated in a neutron flux that has been established by measurement of the activ ity induced in indium foils. ‘wincchamber instruments for fast neutrons can be cal- brated by exposing to known gamma radiation the pre ously matched chambers (paragraph 10.0) but now contested with additive instead of reversed polarities. After a cor- rection is made for the absorption by the chamber walls, the ionization-per-gram of chamber gas can be calculated. One- half of this value will be the sensitivity of the reversed polarity connection for fast neutrons. Calibrations for neutrons of energy greater than 3.5 Mey can be made from the induced radionctivity in sulfur because above this energy the eross section for the (n,p) reaction in sulfur is nearly constant at 0.5 barn, III. Measuring Instruments 11, X- and Gamma-Radiation Measuring Instruments 11.1 Electromagnetic radiation is measured by the col- lection of ions formed in an air-filled ionization chamber with air-equivalent walls. ‘The wall thickness should be at feast equal to the maximum range of the segondary electrons ‘but should not greatly exceed this value. Special care must be taken in selecting suitable chambers for photon energies below 100 kev. 91127 Collection voltages shall bo sufficient to produce saturation in all regions of the chamber at all intensities to be measured, but shall not be so high as to produce ionization 37 collision. 11,3" Saturation conditions must. be specially invest gated when chambers are used with pulsed sourees where the Peak radiation intensities may be very high 114 The chamber should project from the body of the instrument to minimize seattering from cireuit components and pom mor acura alton of he meurng Keometty. This ean be accomplished by detaching a charge hamber irom the measuring instrument. 11,5 Instruments designed to mensure more than 1 x/br shouid be constructed to permit mounting of the chamber om a probe at a distance from the indicating portion of the ch cuit so that readings can be taken without undue exposure of the operator. 11.6 The ionization can be measured by the change in charge collected on a capacitor or by the potential developed across a resistor. Blectrometer tubes and amplifiers, elec: troscopes, and clectrometers ate satisfactory for this purpose, 11.7 Calibration. sources for electromagnotie, madinti instruments should have essentially the samme energy bution as the radiation to be measured. ‘The primary stand ard of comparison for energies up to 250 kev should be the standard free-air chamber. Above 200 kev a thimble cham. her, so constructed as to be essentially energy-independent, can be used, 118 All instruments for general use should be checked for energy dependence with gamma radiation from fta or Com and with X-rays. ‘There should be not. more than, a 20- percent variation between 100 kev and’ Mev. 11.9 Radium in equilibrium with its decay products and in a container with 0.5-mm platinum walls will produce & gamma-ray field given by 8.4 (mg of Ra) rare 84% (tng of Re), for all distances d (in centimeters) greater than 20 times the greatest dimension of the souree.. Co® may be used for instrument calibration if the output of the source is known in roentgens per unit time at a given distance. In using Co! for calibration, cure must be taken to correct for the decay, 1 ey ame yar eget tg a sR is espe rea ent ae 10 which takes place with a half-life of 5.3 years. In making calibrations eare must be taken to minimize scattering. The equation given above is strictly valid only if there is no seat tering, and where air attenuation is negligible. 11.10 Care shall be taken to insure that the instrument is in proper operating condition by frequent tests with known source of radiation. 12, Beta-Radiation Instruments 12.1 Beta radiation may be measured by the collection of ions produced in an air-filled ionization chamber. The reading 80 obtained will be lower than the actual value by an amount that depends upon the thickness and material of the chamber walls and on geometrie factors. The corresponding reading may be higher under some conditions. nda Ak leat one end or sido of the ionization chambs shall be provided with a window thin enough to permit, the entrance of a substantial fraction of the beta particles, ‘The window should preferably have an equivalent thickness of not more than 7 mgjem#, ‘The range of beta particles in aluminum is calculated from empirical equations derived from experimental data. ‘The range depends primarily on the mass per unit area, and only secondarily on the window ‘material. "See figure 2 for a curve of beta particleranges. In using these curves it should be remembered that the beta~ Particle energies commonly given represent th pasimam ‘energy of emission and that the average energy is in gener about one-third of the maximum, Removable absorbers of not less than 1.0 g/em® should be provided to cover the thin window completely and permit the differentiation of beta from gamma radiation. ‘The ma~ terial of the absorber should be air equivalent. 12.3 Precise measurement of beta radiation from a surface is best dono with an extrapolation chamber. 12.4 For monitoring purposes a thin-wall chamber of or- ganic material may be calibrated by covering the chamber with a cap of suitable thickness and composition as specified Jn paragraph 11.1, With this cap the chamber becomes essentially air equivalent for X-rays or gamma rays of the per energy, and it may be calibrated with either an ray, radium, or Co source. With the cap removed, chamber readiig resulting from beta radiation can ‘be ex pressed in arbitrary units, roughly equivalent to rep at that thickness of material. Ti may be calibrated with other sources of beta particles having equivalent energies. 112.5 An alternative method uses a surface monitor cali- brated with @ source that has been standardized with an extrapolation chamber. 12.6 Care shall be ikon to insure thatthe instrument is in proper operating condition by frequent tests with a known souree of radiation. The size and location of the instrument with respect to the source are important factors in making measurements of the beta-ray dose, and when measurements are made these should be comparable to the conditions used during calibration of the instrument or correction made for the discrepancy. 13. Alpha-Particle Instruments , 18.1 Alpha-particle measurements ean be made with the instruments described in section 9, provided proper calibra- tions are made. _ 132. No attempt should be made to measure alpha radia- tion and express it in rep, Results should be given as counts per minute with a given instrument or as disintegrations per minute per square centimeter if the geometrical efficiency of the instrument is known, 13.3 Chambers measuring gross ionization should be cal brated under the same conditions of energy spectrum, absorption, and geometry as for the assay. IV. Personnel Monitoring Instruments 14, Beta and Gamma Instruments 14.1 Gamma-ray doses can be measured by ionization chambers with walls of air-equivalent materials.” Tonization ‘chambers ean be so constructed that an auxiliary electroscope or electrometer is used to measure the ionization produced. In an alternative construction (dosimeter) a quartz-fiber électroscope is built into the ion chamber, and the instrument ean be read without anxiliary equipment. 14.2 Calibration should be carried out as described in Paragraphs 11.6 and 117, Chae 14.3 A photographic film can be used for determini beta’ and gamma doses, -A"portion of the film should. be shielded with about 1 mm of a suitable metal to prevent response to beta radiation and to improve the response to Righer-energy photons. ‘Tin, silver, tedium, OF ead ate commonly tised for this purpose as well as to reduce the energy dependence of the film. w 144 Beta radiation can be determined from the blacken- ing of the unshielded portion of the film, after suitable corrections are made for gamma-ray exposure and absorption by the film wrapping. Since most of the sensitive photo- graphic emulsions are 15 to 20 times as sensitive to gamma radiation of 50 to 100 kev as to gamma radiation of | Mev itis extremely difficult to estimate what fraction of the open: window readings is due to beta and what fraction is due to Soft gamma radiation if both beta and soft gamma radiation are present in unknown quanti r 14.5 Tho film shall be processed with great care. Fresh chemicals are to be preferred, but where this is impractical the control films will serve as a check on the processing. Constant agitation ofthe developer is usually recommended but quiet solutions may be used if the process is standardized. Developing temperatures shall be controlled to. 1° F ‘Standard exposed films shall be processed in each batch as 14.6 When visual comparison with control films exposed to known amounts of radiation and processed simultaneously indicates an exposure of more than one-fifth of the permis- sible value, the film densities should be measured with a ‘quantitative densitometer. 3g 14.7 Photographic films should be calibrated with known sources of radiation of the proper energy distribution to insure the accurate determination of the exposure, 148 Beta calibrations should be made under proper conditions with known sourees having energy distributions similar to that of the radiation being determined and having 10 gamina radiation softer than 1 Mev. 14.9 Films should have identifying markings produced by a suitable X-ray exposure, by punch marks, or by other suitable means of positive identification, If X-rays are used, ‘eare must be taken to prevent fogging of the useful portions of the films, 15. Neutron Instruments 15.1 Slow neutrons can be estimated with pocket ioniza- tion chambers containing boron either in the walls or in the ms, 5752. Calibration of these chambers can be made in accordance with paragraph 10.8, 15.3 Fast neutrons can be estimated through proton- recoil tracks in special photographic emulsions prepared to be relatively insensitive to radiation, ‘The developed emulsion must be examined with a microscope. sune—a—a 18Slow neutrons and fast neutrons can be monitored with the ‘same photographic emulsion if a portion of the film is covered cadmium shield. ‘The cadmium absorbs the slow neutrons $0 that the proton-recoil tracks in. the shielded Portion of the film will be due to tho proton-recoil reaction of fast neutrons with hydrogen; and the tracks in the portion of the film that is behind the open window will be due both to the N¥ (a, p) C¥ reaction, which is produced by slow neurons and the proton Hl reaction with hy en 154. ‘The photographic plates can. be calibra a determination” of the truck density ian sah kt exposed to a standard neutron source, Y. Instrument Requirements 16. General 1o tyeflllzadiological-protection instruments should repro- dluce their own readings to +10 percent of full-scale reading at any Point along the scale. Survey instruments should he Provided with sensitivity adjustments capable of changing the sensitivity by a ratio of about 2 to 1 s0 that ealibeatons can be maintained. ‘The sensitivity adjustment. shall me {quire the use of a screwdriver or other tool for operation, or iC should be recessed and covered or sealed in such a Way, as 10 discourage its use except during calibration adjustment of tho instrument, ini’? Battery life should provide at least 100 hr of con- tinuous operation, and the instrument sensitivity shall ot qlange by more than 10 pereent with 50 hr of operation, Battsry connections shall be made with snap, serew, oF plug terminals and not by solderin 16.3 Weight shall be kept at a minimum, 16.4 All external surfaces shall be hard and smooth to {ectlitate decontamination. Cracks and joints shall be kept ton minimum. Crackle paint finishes are not acceptable 16.5 All instruments should operate under amblent sone ditions of 90 percent relative humidity and over a tempera: ture range of 20° to 125° F. All instruments used for measuring electromagnetic radiation should have scales marked in milliroenigens’ oe fa illiroentgens per hour. | Instruments used only for detec ing alpha and beta particles shall have seales graduated in arbitrary units, 16.7 If multirange indicating meters exhibit only the seale corresponding to the sensitivity at which they are set 4 it is recom code: nnded that they conform to the following color a ny fe = i ee ae | Rios te oa048 2 Light bine. 16.8 All instruments shall be constructed according to the accepted standards of high-quality electronic instrurens tation, As far as possible, standard circuit components and batteries shall be. used. "Wherever possible, components shall conform to Joint ‘Army-Navy. specifications, A cit. cuit diagram should be secured inside the case to facilitate servicing. 17. Detecting Instruments 17.1 G-M tubes should have a well-defined 'p the counting rate with a constant source of radi not change by more than 5 percent per 100 v. 17.2 The length of tho plateau so defined should not be Jess than 15 percent of the voltage at the center of the plateau. 17.3 G-M tubes for general use should have an opaque seating of effete thickness not grenter than 5 mien to prevent any discharges due to visible light when the tube exposed to direct sunlight. ‘The coating shall not requ: renewal during the life of tho tube. It shall remain intact after 24 hr of immersion in water. 174 G-M tubes used for detecting both beta and gamma radiation (except for the beta radiation from C" and 3) should have an effective wall thickness not greater: than 30 mgjem?, 4 aha 17.5, GM tubes used for detecting beta radiation from C# and S* should have an effective wvindow thickness ot ter than 5 mg/em and the thickness should be uniform Ao'this tay predade the use of opaque eoating on the window, the tube must. be inherently nonphotosensitive. 27,8 Any movable shield designed to stop beta radiation. should have a thickness at least equal to oe: mestmun Fange of the fastest beta rays (approximately. 1.0 gjem:), ‘The effect of bremsstrahlung can be reduced by using mate: b lateau where iation shouldtials of low atomic number on the side of the shield next to the source and high atomic number material on the othee side, if necessary. 177 | The instrument shall have a sensitivity such that a significant indication is obtained with normal, natural back. ground radiation, 17.8 The meter should not read less than full scale when exposed to radiation intensities from 1 to 100 tanes thar required to produce full-scale deflection, 18. Measuring Instruments 18.1 . Jonization chambers designed for mensuring electro- magnetic radiation shall agreo within +20 percent ‘with ¢ Gandard chamber (see paragraph 11.6) for quantum energies between 100 ker and 2 Mev. “Chambers with greater necu- racy are available if desire 18.2 When calibrated with the gamma radiation from CoH gr from radium in equilibrium with its decay prodicts and shielded with 0.5 mm o platinum or ts equivalent, the instrument shall read correctly within +10 percent of fell seule over all portions of the scale 18.3 Whenever consistent with the wall thickness neces- jury for obtaining the required energy response, chamber jetigned for measuring only slectromagnetie radiation should times normal atmospheric pressure (76 om of morewsat aoa, should show changes of sensitivity of not more they nd Percent over this preseire rang. 1st Instruments dlesizned for measuring only. eleetro- tagnetie radiation should. maintain eaibnation Sige oy oreent after 24 hr at 100-percent relative humdi wo tee ‘sual ambient temperatura 18.5 Ionization chambers should be made as small as is consistent with the required semsticit: 186 Tonization chambers designed. to measure alpha particles in the presence of beta and gamma radiation ote we dimensions such that the ratio of the alpha rsoense a the beta response is as lane us possible 18.7 Ionization-chamber instrumenis with eloctrometere tube amplifiers should have an overall Une cee that two-thirds of final reading is attained im not went ce 5 sec for ranges at 50 mr or more per hour and tots (ea 0 or or eaten ranges, 18.8 The insulation leakage in integrating-type. ionize- tion chambers with ranges of 100 mar or sreater abel bone ‘that a charged chamber placed in a region fee trent 16. normal, natural background radiation shall have a discharge rate not exceeding 2 percent of full-sealo reading per 24 Ie, 19. Personnel Instruments 19.1 | The provisions of paragraphs 16.1, 16.3, 16.4, 16.5, 166, 18.1, 182, 18.3, 184, 18.5, and 18.8 shail also apply, to personnel instruments of the ionization chamber type 192” Pocket- truments with built-in optical sys- tems shall be sufficiently rigid to preserve proper alinenont and focusing when the instrument is dropped in any orienta, tion from a height of 4 ft onto a wood floor. 19.8 Hlectrometer-type instruments with built-in seales shall be so constructed that relative rotation of seale and fiber is impossible. 194 The scale reticle shall be so constructed that it is not damaged by exposure of the instrument to direct sunlight, 19.6 he seas Reading of eect epee should not change by more than 2 pereent of full-scale reading With any change in orientation. If this condition cannot be ‘met, operating instructions should include a statement abot Proper reading position, 19.6 Pocket ionization chambers and dosimeters should be color coded in accordance with the following code: 19.7 | Alarm meters should be so constructed that the level of alarm may be preset to any value between 40 and 100 ‘mr, but this adjustment shall’ be inaccessible to. the wearer. 19.8 The standard photographic film meter should con- sist of sensitive film in a standard, dental size” packet (approximately 14 by 1% in). 19.9 The packet should contain one film with a useful rango of approximately 0.05 to 2.0 r.. If desired, a second film with a useful range of approximately 1.0 to 10'r may be put in the same packet. Useful range is defined as the por. tion of the plot of optical density against log exposure thet pas a slope not less than one-half that of the essentially Tinear portion. ‘The useful range will depend to some extent agn the film processing procedures used. Paragraph, 28:3 lists the sensitivity ranges of some commonly eed Shoes, graphic emulsions, 19.10 Approximately one-half of the film area should be ith a shold of hi atonie-number materi ax specified in paragraph 14.3. ‘The shield should be so arran, iPat a porton of the fin has ocr botiedan! ot VI. Radiation-Survey Methods ‘The purpose of this section is to outline the recommended procedures for making surveys of X-ray units and other xed sources of radiation and areas where radionctive mate, rials are being handled and stored. It is moro difficult to be Specific when radioactive materials are involved a the source Seanad may be less sharply Toealizad, ‘conditions many change rapidly with time, and the hazard eannot be reduce or eliminated by turning off the veer: Particular attention 's directed to those radiation hazards that are frequently overlooked. ‘These will be discussed under each type 4 vues, Care sould be taken to instre that all instrumenta used are suitable for the type and energy range of the re ditions, “Further information on surrey methods ena te obtained from NBS Handbook 41, section 2 20. General Recommendations 20.1. ‘The survey should include a study of the laboratory operating procedures, personnel habits, and the methods roc] in handling sources. ‘The survey should be made under representative conditions and. techniques, and under contin tions where the possible hazard would be greatest, 20.2 | Except where noted, a preliminary seanning is recom: mended with G-M survey meter or with an insttument of similar sensitivity. Because of the wavelength and dites ional dependence of such instruments, seanning should he supplemented with ion-chamber readings if the preliminary. tests show a dosage rate of more than one-tenth of the permissible value, 0.3 | The instruments used for the survey sho the following requirements: (a) Proper cal maintenance thereof, (b) proper sensitivity, (c) small dive tional effect, (d) small energy dependence in the region of interest, (e) small sensitive area, (f) saturation voltage for lesratiba chamber, end ©) GgwerMaller counter not subject to blocking or falling back of the reading when tm fields grossly above scale. 18 204 Written records of all surveys shall be maintained. Reports of results of final surveys chould be made tone Person responsible forthe installation 20.5, Dosage rates at critical points should be indicated in millroentgene per hon (or milloentgens per 100 gsr for radiography). "If the locations cannot be Positively tee, tified by suitable deseription, they should be marked acy scale drawing of theinstallation. If, atany of dhese Resigene the permissible dose would be exceeded in a 484 wreck he ‘anima timo tht the peronndl my remain at Yh tion shall be indicated. »‘Bheso positions ean be itentifen by umes oer on the sale druvng A table ean te ive the dosage rates and times for each of these positions "70.6 The Teport hall taalad recommendations as to corrections in the operational techniques, barrier thickness mechanical restriction of the radiation beam, or an oui? factors that will eliminate radiation hazards in creel sitions, 201 Lt radintion hazards ar found to exist, the survepor should mako a reexamination after the faalt has tee Femedied, 20,8" Personnel monitoring should be recommended where needed, and present techniques modified if unsatistastore 21. Radioactive-Isotope Monitoring 21.1 | In making surveys it is desirable to establish as soon as possible what isotopes are involved, This can usually be done from an operational history of the areas. If other radiouetive materials are being used in nearby areas, the possibility of eross-contamination must be considered, If there is any uncertainty as to the isotopes involved, they should be determined from assays. 21.2. Airborne contamination should receive first. con- sideration, Air samples should be taken for the type of activity anticipated. If possible, these should be taken at the breathing zone, Airborne contaminants are hasanows and may become widespread in a relatively short time, 21.3 In area surveys, the speed of search should be adjusted to the response time of the instrament used and to the limits imposed by statistical fhictuations. . With aural sual indication the response time does not impose a limit on searching speed. i 214 Area surveys must be thorough. A spot that is hard to reach with iin instrument may be readily accessible to contamination. All reasonably possible locations should be suspeet until proved otherwise, 1921.5. If contamination is found, decontamination should bo started promptly. See National Bureau of Standards Handbook 48 # for details. 21.6 If any possibility of personnel contamination exists frequent surveys with scanning instruments should be made, 21.7 All personnel should have their hands (front_and back) and shoes checked when they leave a potentially contaminated area, 21.8 All manipulative techniques should be carefully observed and dosage rates measured at the vatious phases of the operations. ‘Time limits should be established for all found to produce hazard. It should be ry procedure be carefully pianned and re- hearsed with nonradioactive materials, 21.9 All shielding: should be carefully inspected for con- {amination and for possible radiation leaks. ‘This should include floor ilings, and adjoining spaces. 21.10 Periodic surveys of the surroundings should be made. If possible, the ducts from hoods should be surveyed throughout their entire length. Sludge from sewers should be assayed for activity, and air samples taken from air duct exhausis. Careful surveys should be made and. samples taken for assay from any suspect traps. 21.11, Whenever there is any possibility that radionctive isotopes have entered the body; urine samples, and breath samples if indicated, should be taken and subjected to laboratory analysis, 21.12 “The ultimate disposition of radionctive wastes should be carefully checked, It should be borne in mind that decontamination procedures merely move the contam- inants from one place to another. 22. Medical Installations © 22.1 Dental X-ray units, ‘These nits are usually operated at 50 to 70 ky at.a current of 10 ma. Common hazards (a) exposure to the direct beam if pointed toward occu areas in the same or adjacent, rooms, (b) scattered radiation, especially that from the patient, and (c) multiple sourees particularly if several units are’ in the same room. ‘The szogure rate is usally too igh for G-M scanning except in’ adjacent rooms, An ion chamber calibrated for ioe energy photons should be used at the operator's position and at other occupied regions in the room. Masonry walls ‘Haoook ay, Conte and removal auctive contin in in boro 89 Sie a, algal Buna Uf Manne nego Riot aber ‘ao vs, eon 4a and Handek 36 yee eas 20 and conerete floors and ceilings usually provide sufficient shielding for adjacent rooms, 22.2 “Fluoroscopy. ‘These units usually operate at volt ages up to 100 kv ‘at 8 to 5 ma. Common hazards are (2) thenseul eam shat may extend beyond the fluoroscopic sereen and its lead glass at maximum beam size and targets sereen distance, (b) seattered radiation from the patient and the undersurface of the table top, (absence of cone ‘tween tube housing and table top, (d) inadequate shi ing of the tube enclosure against the direct beam, (e) too short a target-table distance and omission of filter, (f) filter too thin or totally Incking. ‘An. auxiliary fluoroscopic sereen can be used to sean for useful-beam leakage, partivularly at the edges of the screen. A G-M scanning meter is usually too sensitive for use in the Aluoroscopic room, but it may be useful im adjacent areas, An ion chamber can be used in front of the lead glass and at all occupied positions in the fluoroscopic room, Measurements should be made of the dose to the patient (i. ¢., at table surface) at maximum operating voltage and current. All protective materials such as gloves and aprons, should he tested to determine if they comply with the recommen- dagins of NBS Handbook 41, 223 Radiography. Usual operating conditions are 40 to 135 oy at currents tp to 500 ma. Common hazards ares (a) Scattered radiation around or over protective screens oF into control booth where no door is provided. (b) Scattering under doors and at junctions of walls with floor and ceiling if no lead baille is provided. (@) Useful bean and seattered radiation passing through windows i outside wals into oocuped regions nearby. (Q) Holding the patient or film during exposure. the X-ray tube should be operated at a reduced current but at the usual operating voltage to permit suffieiont time for reading survey meters without overloading the X-ray tube and to minimize the possibility of lack of saturation in ionization chambers or blocking of G-M. tubes, Scanning of adjacent rooms and the floor below should be done with a G-M survey meter or equivalent instrument. Measurements should be inade with the X-ray beam pointing directly ‘at the instrument, Ton-chamber measurements should be made at the operator's position and at other habit= ually occupied locations where the G-M survey-meter reading exceeds one-tenth of the permissible value. ‘Tests should be ‘made in processing and film storage rooms to insure that aunexposed film cannot be exposed to more than 0.3 mr during its total storage period 22.4 Therapy up to 400 ke. ‘Therapy units operate at from 10 to 400 kv, depending upon the type of equipment. Common sources of hazards are: (a) Scattering around or ever protective sereens or into control booth where no door is provided (b) Seattering under doors and at junctions of walls with floor and eeiling if no lead batfle is provided. (c) Useful beam and scattered radiation passing through windows in outside walls into occupied areas nearby. (2) Scattering from nearby buildings or from the floor of the room below if the treatment-room floor is insufficiently shielded. (6) Leakage around doors and observation windows, ‘he equipment should be operated at maximum field size and at maximum current and voltage, with the minimum filter used for that voltage. Measurement. on the useful beam should be made (a) without a patient in place, (b) in all directions in which the beam can be used. and (ec) with the beam directed toward the instrument. Measurements of scattered radiation should be made during the treatment of a patient or with a phantom, 22.5 Therapy units above 400 kv. ‘These aro discussed in paragraph 23.8 23. Industrial Installations 23.1 Television receivers, ‘The X-rays produced in tele- vision receiver tubes usually have energies of 15 to 25 ky and hence are almost completely absorbed in the tube face. Furthermore, many sets are provided with a plastic or glass sereen in front of the viewing surface, and this furcher de. creases the radiation hazard. However, there is a tendency toward the use of higher voltages. » Projection-type tubes (which operate at above 25 kv) may have insufficient atten uation to X-rays as a thinner envelope can be used in these smaller tubes. "Tt is essential, therefore, that each type of television tube be tested for X-ray emission, ‘The survey should be made at maximum anode voltage and with maximum current for the voltage. The raster sive should be at least as large as the window of the ion chamber for measurements at contact. The X-ray dosage rate is approximately inversely proportional to the raster size at gontact, but at ordinary viewing distances, size is not an important factor. G-M survey meter or equivalent should be used for scanning to locate the source and direction of maximum rad ation. “Usually the emission of detectable X-radiation ss limited to the face of the television picture tube, Quantitative measurements should be made with an ion chamber that has a minimum wavelength dependence tthe, television voltage range as determined by calfbration aguince a standard free-air chamber, ‘The usual heavy-walled chars bers are unsuitable for this voltage, 25.2 Electronic tubes. Any electroni¢ tube operating at 1,000 v or more is a potential soureo of X-rays, he aint tion may be soft but it may also be iniense because of the relatively large currents, "In most eases the tube enclose is suliciont to attenuate the soft X-rays adeuatdye tee this is not always the case. ‘The emission of X-rays from rectifier tubes may increase when a low filament temperature inereases the voltage deep geron the ibe when it sconlctng. tadiaion may ole from a “cold discharge” or from the presence of ges, The radiation from individual tubes, even of the samme fype, may therefore vary widely: In general, radiation hazards from this type of equipment can only be determined with instruments eapable of measur ing very sott 3 23.3 Xray diffraction units. ‘Tho main hazard is ac dental exposure 10 the intense useful beam, which may hago a dosage rate of more than 50,000 rjmin’ “This haart ie particularly serious where the equipment is used for proniuce tion work such as erystal orientation, ‘The radiation survey shall be carried out with instrumonts suitable for tho measurement of very soft radiation in besene of small cross section. Misleading and dangerous coeeies ions would be reached by measurements with an osiiaary logan cha oe, conditions gu tha the Inet part of the radiation is absorbed by the chamber, or thet the cross section of the beam is smaller than the cross sections of the ionization chamber Because of the high intensity, special precautions should be taken to insure saturation of the ionization chomber, 33.4 Hlectron microscopes. "The principal sources of stray radiation aro the primary viewing port, the specimen port, the difraction port, and viewing port, In older unite aad «quate shielding was frequently. provided at these ports aia] the dosage rate vas above the permiible Tov Kray films are very useful in locating these sourees of radiation leakage. ‘The determination of the radiation levels requises 23precautions similar to those mentioned above under X-ray diffraction units. 23.5 Fluoroscopie installations. In some respects indus- trial fluoroscopy presents greater hazards than medieal fluor. oscopy. Industrial installations frequently are operated Shr-a day and the object seldom covers the entire fluoro- seopic screen. On the other hand, it is possible to protect the operator completely against scattered radiation. ‘The common sources of radiation leakage are through and around the lead glass, Where no mirror is used, the useful beam is directed at the operator, and even a small crack in the shielding may cause serious injuries. “Such eracks can be detected with the Geiger counter or by means of a fluoro- seopie sereen or X-ray films. 23.6 Radiography. ‘The survey procedure is similar to that used for medical radiographic installations. The i dustrial installations, however, present greater hazards as the load factor is usually higher and the orientation of the useful beam less restricted, Furthermore, the X-ray tube distance to occupied areas is frequently short, especially for eabinet-type installations. 3.7 Radiography in unprotected rooms, This type of installation is safe only if its operation is restricted by limitations set by the protection survey. Tt is important, therefore, that the radiation levels be accurately determined for all operating positions of the X-ray tube and orientations of the useful beam. Beeause of the high radiation level, precautions should be taken to assure saturation voltage in fonization chambers, Any limitations that must be imposed should be conspicuously posted near the equipment controls, 23.8 X-ray installations from 401 to 8,000 ko, |The sur- vey procedures for medical and industrial installations in this voltage range are nearly identical, and this section, therefore, includes both applications Concrete is generally used for shielding, and it is essential to make a very complete scanning in order to detect hidden cracks and air spaces. Often, the protective value of the barrier i reduced by ventilating duets, electric pull. boxes snd ‘expansion joints.The possiblity of leakage. aroun Sliding doors and observation windows should also be checked by scanning. Another frequent source of radiation hazards is multiple scattering into occupied areas. This is especially the case wrth industrial installations where wide beams are-used and the walls are not extended to the ceiling. Bn VIL. Appendix 24. Air-Sampling Equipment and Methods 24.1. ‘The concentration of radioactive material in alr is determined by aiaboratory count made on suitably collected and prepared samples. Titers, electrostatic precipitator, or impngers of various designs eat bo used to collect tie samples. Care must be taken to insure that the ‘Sampling device collects ail particle sizes desired. 24.2 "In a filter collector a known volume of air is drawn through » specially designed fiter paper on which the particulates are deposited he ativty of the paper ernest with sual aboratar) type 1.8. Particulates earsied by a known volume of air can be deposed. jn. eloctonate preiitator from witch the eoleting letras ean bh removed and either used na an electrode in' proportional eounter oF counted by ather meat 244 Electrostatic precipitators should not be used where explosive fumes may be present, 24.5. Impingers collet particulates asa Jot of air is dircotod against a glass add ot other suitable backing wien is usually eonted with © fultiaver of°oil or vaseline,” “The deposit from a known air volume fs counted by usual methods, 24.6, Noncondensable gases shall be sampled with special equip- rent devised for the particilar material, Perret 24.7 The size of the air sample may vary, depending on the con- ditions, “Asample of 10 ifs slfcient for practical aay of alpha Contaminants down to one-tenth of the maximum permissible con centration. 24.8 Direet counting from the surfaces on which the sample has been ‘collected i desirable. Beta and gamma radiations ean be deter: mined by using a G-At tube of known geometrical effictency. Alpha panicles can Be counted ina proportional eounter or an Yontzation Shamber of known geometrical effeteney. 24.0. When alpha particles are being counted, correct ‘be made for the loss due to penetration into the filter material. orrection factors ean be obtained by ehetical analysis of « number of filters exposed in the same locaton, 25. Anal; of Water Samples 25.1. If itis known which particular fsotope may be the contami nant a specite analysts Tor thi material maybe made, 25.3 the betarmiting contaminant is not known of there ae several posriblites, a direct measurement of the rede from evapart- Won ean'be made’ “Some uncerainties rest, beeause of unkeow® Scifahtorption and absorp inthe counter window. 28.5." Heslts obtained by slp emiter are generally quaaive in nature, Specie soaleee fre mich more senitive and reliable. 25.1 If the activity 1s of gaseots or volatile nature, again specie ‘analyses should be mado, 4 25'5"" For obtaining @aulfcontly sensitive result, tt wil be found that the smallest workable sample of the order of 100 to 2526. Beta-Particle Counting 26.1 Reasonably aceurate values for most isotopes mounted on rel mate cae bined byte te ot enna ele souter tien Window or windowless-low type) oF by the use of proper pro Portional counters Ae tt 26,2 |The counting rato should be corrected for the following factors for the individval isotope concernet: (@) Geometry, The solid angle subtended by the counter and. the souroe is usualy not equal to the piyseal soll angle Decne She Uilinown sensitive woluine of the tue (0). Souree : than fora point source because of te sna {he acivity’at the edge of the sure, For this reason and bees ooo ‘the diets" of producing uniform coating oa the vate nce ‘error i possible i the measurement (©) Backscatter, |X fraction of the particles leaving the source in the" opposite-diretion from the counter will be" seatteral Sats: te counter by the plate on which the source's mounted, its sey he Imeaured by placing a souree on thin (0.2 to 0. male) Sim apt tueasuring with and without the backiog. This factor Is teasnatic sonetant for the same backing materia with topes of machine ‘nergy above about 0.6 Mew. Appracimate values of backscatter for, several materiale measured with ‘29 percent geometry and a'3 mgjon? mica indore (@) Aborption in window. Because of the continuous spectrum of partiles emitted from a beta source a fraction of the parties wl be sbeorbed in the window of a mlctwindow counter ad ie tha ae Jetwecn the counter and the soures, Ar the hast part of ti atest ctiey curve for a beta emitter is approximately linear on a semiionateeae pilot this effect ean be meastred by counting the soures with sevens Ein’ abmorbers ald extenpolating through the thicksossel the win and air to zero absarber.” "The slope of tis lie can be eapeteeed ee ‘nie cation Neen sen the ote kaw" CR Ws measured counting rate, Ny is the extrapolated routing Fa, ts ‘tte corbin ecto hike ofthe window and ie (©) Selh-absorjion. When the sammpie’ contains’ large enough uso of mater traction of che paris wil be aban inthe sample lisell ‘This can be measured by prepariag’a serie of ates with varying amounts of stabio material and the tamne amount of wn fetive Istoper This etrve can then bo used for correcting analstea ‘An approximation of the self-absorption factor ean be made by use of the eatin a ta 26 what wilted ston ee Ww pic Lae Sh rece ac eee sae Ml daca $s ad i's oc ame eee aime ania ai seal oa ar aarp erase ce Te Hap ope ey Sorel eee ero acer ee rine ora eee ee ea igs oman Seek er rate het rl 7 i en ere eth i ee Sete patie al eet oe ne ne ee lp tel elena cine Mem Perrier eee ie Tp eaee Coens ee mele gee ater eretenes eee eee pi ea dP ah ch hep ai age cle ach ue el ta pe i ea ee aoe, ct cement rman on ple aed 0 Taal sia opiate caer a oat Peni rae Se erate a” rere ee Seen eer ce ae oe 27. Alpha-Particle Counting 27.1 Alpha emitters an bo measured with pulse counters, propor ig coat rset Cann he For ea, OF’ Charnstristion of the measurcnent Wh a introduce @) Selfatrorption. Because ofthe short range af the alpha partici eaeteltabeorptan camel ey tnporane Caner er Separation ih advisable the eaipleeontaina much Tac asians ieqpnae aeons the chamber Muy shambers have woes ts sensi at tho odgs. The chamber ahoukd be checked with a pie Source wo inion the magitade ofthis los nth ihe camp sie ae (6) Coincidence loner Tove pulse counters nth hae fon ese ‘ia vi a high-ctition fe "Thin eat be etal beating a number of Towactivity sources indidally dea tBeethe 8 Air samples collected on filter paper or with an electrostatic recipitator ean be counted directly on pulse or proportional counters WPeoprection is made for self-absorption and for te aiphu-coting aughters of radon and thoron, ZEA "A correction for the thoron content of the air sampled may be mail by use of the equation It ‘where A is the counting rato of an alpha emitter with a long halflife, ‘Ni isa measurement made 4 to @ hr after the sample is taken (to allow {the radon daughters to decay), Nis 4 second moasurement made 18 to 24 hr after the sample is talen, Ais the time interval between measure ‘ments, and is the disintegration constant of Th B. af 28. Useful Pertinent Data 3841 Proton ranges in parafin are shown in figure 1, 22:3 Rane of beta paticos in aluminum is repreesied in gure 2 sions, *ylening table shows sensitive ranger of phineeorh mplfone The vals ven are based (xeept as noted, of asian the developer listed ‘weful optical density of 3.0 as obvained en esis) G8 ie a ae ef ‘ea ) ga ef ges ‘a et ae B28 Ege seem 8 ee | Pees eae | oe see erent | a a 38 ES Sars |e iB ie | | See A 23 383 28-4 Gamma activity of radon i given in gure 8, 35, Hata et uly of radon dang Se ctor shown in . Agures, DOSY F842 of alphaemitting radon daughters appear gure a gtisut® 8 represents the decay rate of bota-emitth tors. radon aug 280 200 Frovre 1 ENERGY, Mey Proton rangen in parafin,ib is HL Ficvre 3, HOURS AFTER SEALING Gamma activity of radon, 30 2000 BETA EMITTERS, 4000 ‘ALPHA EMITTERS| 2000 1000 800 DISINTEGRATIONS PER MINUTE 600 400 oe 20 40 60 8000S COLLECTION TINE, MINUTES Frovax 4, Kate of buildup of radon daughters on collector Cotton rate nals ne dsnteration per soon eh daghter per mite6000 000 S000 2000 5 600 5 1000 . i; E200 ° 160 40 eo “ 2 ° noReETeO a) ° we 0 uo 120 ‘Te Aven coucecrion Enos. nites re Sven coueerin enos,wnsres Fagune Decay rte of betacemting daughters of raion as 8. Deny rae of aiph-emiting dau of radon, hon lit rn the domaephre fee fine petal “hon need om te etmcphan I aa ed stm mi hve ptt ron Pa [Colection rt qua oe dsntration pe eon a cach dager pret, Submitted for the National Comn Protection, tee on Radiation Lavaisron $. Tartor, Chairman, Washington, September 1951.