National Collegiate

Athletic Association

The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA)[a] is a nonprofit organization that regulates
student athletes from up to 1,268 North American institutions and conferences. It also organizes
the athletic programs of colleges and universities in the United States and Canada, and helps
over 480,000 college student-athletes who compete annually in college sports. The organization
is headquartered in Indianapolis, Indiana.
 National Collegiate Athletic Association

Abbreviation NCAA

Founded March 31, 1906 (IAAUS)[1]

1910 (NCAA)

Legal status Association

Headquarters Indianapolis, Indiana, U.S.

Region served United States and Canada[2]

Membership 1,268 schools/institutions, conferences or other

associations

President Mark Emmert

Main organ Board of Governors

Website NCAA official website (https://www.ncaa.com/)

NCAA administrative website (https://www.ncaa.o

rg/)

In August 1973, the current three-division system of Division I, Division II, and Division III was
adopted by the NCAA membership in a special convention. Under NCAA rules, Division I and
Division II schools can offer scholarships to athletes for playing a sport. Division III schools may
not offer any athletic scholarships. Generally, larger schools compete in Division I and smaller
schools in II and III. Division I football was further divided into I-A and I-AA in 1978. In 2006,
Divisions I-A and I-AA were respectively renamed the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) and
Football Championship Subdivision (FCS). In its 2016–17 fiscal year, the NCAA took in
$1.06 billion in revenue, over 82% of which was generated by the Division I Men's Basketball
Tournament.
Controversially, the NCAA formerly capped the benefits that collegiate athletes could receive
from their schools. The consensus among economists is these caps for men's basketball and
football players benefit the athletes' schools (through rent-seeking) at the expense of the
athletes.[3][4][5] Economists have subsequently characterized the NCAA as a cartel.[6][7][8] On June
21, 2021, the Supreme Court of the United States unanimously ruled that the education-related
benefit caps the NCAA imposes on student athletes are in violation of US antitrust law.[9]

History

Formation and early years

Intercollegiate sports began in the United States in 1852 when crews from Harvard and Yale
universities met in a challenge race in the sport of rowing.[10] As rowing remained the
preeminent sport in the country into the late-1800s, many of the initial debates about collegiate
athletic eligibility and purpose were settled through organizations like the Rowing Association of
American Colleges and the Intercollegiate Rowing Association. As other sports emerged,
notably football and basketball, many of these same concepts and standards were adopted.
Football, in particular, began to emerge as a marquee sport, but the rules of the game itself were
in constant flux and often had to be adapted for each contest.

The NCAA dates its formation to two White House conferences convened by President
Theodore Roosevelt in the early 20th century in response to repeated injuries and deaths in
college football which had "prompted many college and universities to discontinue the sport."[1]
Following those White House meetings and the reforms which had resulted, Chancellor Henry
MacCracken of New York University organized a meeting of 13 colleges and universities to
initiate changes in football playing rules; at a follow-on meeting on December 28, 1905, in New
York, 62 higher-education institutions became charter members of the Intercollegiate Athletic
Association of the United States (IAAUS).[1] The IAAUS was officially established on March 31,
1906, and took its present name, the NCAA, in 1910.[1]

For several years, the NCAA was a discussion group and rules-making body, but in 1921, the first
NCAA national championship was conducted: the National Collegiate Track and Field
Championships. Gradually, more rules committees were formed and more championships were
created, including a basketball championship in 1939.[11]

A series of crises brought the NCAA to a crossroads after World War II. The "Sanity Code" –
adopted to establish guidelines for recruiting and financial aid – failed to curb abuses, and the
Association needed to find more effective ways to curtail its membership.[12] Postseason
football games were multiplying with little control, and member schools were increasingly
concerned about how the new medium of television would affect football attendance.[11]

The complexity of those problems and the growth in membership and championships
demonstrated the need for full-time professional leadership. Walter Byers, previously a part-time
executive assistant, was named executive director in 1951, and a national headquarters was
established in Kansas City, Missouri in 1952.[11]

Byers wasted no time placing his stamp on the Association. A program to control live television
of football games was approved, the annual Convention delegated enforcement powers to the
Association's Council, and legislation was adopted governing postseason bowl games.[11]

1970s–present

NCAA logo, 1971–1979

As college athletics grew, the scope of the nation's athletics programs diverged, forcing the
NCAA to create a structure that recognized varying levels of emphasis. In 1973, the association's
membership was divided into three legislative and competitive divisions – I, II, and III.[13] Five
years later in 1978, Division I members voted to create subdivisions I-A and I-AA (renamed the
Football Bowl Subdivision and the Football Championship Subdivision in 2006) in football.[11]

Until the 1980s, the association did not govern women's athletics. Instead, the Association for
Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW), with nearly 1,000 member schools, governed
women's collegiate sports in the United States. The AIAW was in a vulnerable position that
precipitated conflicts with the NCAA in the early-1980s. Following a one-year overlap in which
both organizations staged women's championships, the AIAW discontinued operation, and most
member schools continued their women's athletics programs under the governance of the
NCAA.[14] By 1982 all divisions of the NCAA offered national championship events for women's
athletics. A year later in 1983, the 75th Convention approved an expansion to plan women's
athletic program services and pushed for a women's championship program.[11]

By the 1980s, televised college football had become a larger source of income for the NCAA. In
September 1981, the Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma and the University of
Georgia Athletic Association filed suit against the NCAA in district court in Oklahoma. The
plaintiffs stated that the NCAA's football television plan constituted price fixing, output
restraints, boycott, and monopolizing, all of which were illegal under the Sherman Act. The NCAA
argued that its pro-competitive and non-commercial justifications for the plan – protection of
live gate, maintenance of competitive balance among NCAA member institutions, and the
creation of a more attractive "product" to compete with other forms of entertainment –
combined to make the plan reasonable. In September 1982, the district court found in favor of
the plaintiffs, ruling that the plan violated antitrust laws. It enjoined the association from
enforcing the contract. The NCAA appealed all the way to the United States Supreme Court, but
lost in 1984 in a 7–2 ruling NCAA v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma.[15] (If the
television contracts the NCAA had with ABC, CBS, and ESPN had remained in effect for the 1984
season, they would have generated some $73.6 million for the association and its members.)

In 1999, the NCAA was sued for discriminating against female athletes under Title IX for
systematically giving men in graduate school more waivers than a woman to participate in
college sports. In National Collegiate Athletic Association v. Smith, 525 U.S. 459 (1999) the U.S.
Supreme Court ruled that the NCAA was not subject to that law, without reviewing the merits of
the discrimination claim.[16]

Over the last two decades recruiting international athletes has become a growing trend among
NCAA institutions. For example, most German athletes outside of Germany are based at US
universities. For many European athletes, the American universities are the only option to pursue
an academic and athletic career at the same time. Many of these students come to the US with
high academic expectations and aspirations.[17]

In 2009, Simon Fraser University in Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada, became the NCAA's first
non-US member institution, joining Division II.[18][19] In 2018, Division II membership approved
allowing schools from Mexico to apply for membership; CETYS of Tijuana, Baja California
expressed significant interest in joining at the time.[20][21]
In 2014, the NCAA set a record high of $989M in net revenue. Just shy of $1 billion, it is among
the highest of all large sports organizations.

Notable court cases

In the late-1940s, there were only two colleges in the country, Notre Dame and Pennsylvania,
with national TV contracts, a considerable source of revenue. In 1951, the NCAA voted to
prohibit any live TV broadcast of college football games during the season. No sooner had the
NCAA voted to ban television than public outcry forced it to retreat. Instead, the NCAA voted
to restrict the number of televised games for each team to stop the slide in gate attendance.
University of Pennsylvania president Harold Stassen defied the monopoly and renewed its
contract with ABC. Eventually, Penn dropped its suit when the NCAA, refusing Penn's request
that the U.S. Attorney General rule on the legality of the NCAA's restrictive plan,[22] threatened
to expel the university from the association. Notre Dame continued televising its games
through 1953, working around the ban by filming its games, then broadcasting them the next
evening.[23]

In 1957, the Colorado Supreme Court dismissed a lawsuit filed by the family of deceased
Trinidad College football player Ray Herbert Dennison. Despite suffering a lethal concussion
injury on the field in a game versus Fort Lewis A&M College, Dennison was not entitled to any
compensation because he was not under a contractual obligation to play football.
Furthermore, the court stated that the "college did not receive a direct benefit from the
activities, since the college was not in the football business and received no benefit from this
field of recreation".[24]

In 1977, prompted partly by the Tarkanian Case, the US Congress initiated an investigation into
the NCAA.[25] It, combined with Tarkanian's case, forced the NCAA's internal files into the
public record.[26]

In 1998, the NCAA settled a $2.5 million lawsuit filed by former UNLV basketball coach, Jerry
Tarkanian. Tarkanian sued the NCAA after he was forced to resign from UNLV, where he had
been head coach from 1973 to 1992. The suit claimed the agency singled him out, penalizing
the university's basketball program three times in that span. Tarkanian said, "They can never,
ever, make up for all the pain and agony they caused me. All I can say is that for 25 years they
beat the hell out of me". The NCAA said that it regretted the long battle and it now has more
understanding of Tarkanian's position and that the case has changed the enforcement
process for the better.[27]
In 1999, the NCAA was sued for discriminating against female athletes under Title IX for
systematically giving men in graduate school more waivers than a woman to participate in
college sports. In National Collegiate Athletic Association v. Smith, the U.S. Supreme Court
ruled that the NCAA was not subject to that law, without reviewing the merits of the
discrimination claim.[28]

In 2007, the case of White et al. v. NCAA, No. CV 06-999-RGK (C.D. Cal. September 20, 2006)
was brought by former NCAA student-athletes Jason White, Brian Pollack, Jovan Harris, and
Chris Craig as a class action lawsuit. They argued that the NCAA's current limits on a full
scholarship or grant-in-aid was a violation of federal antitrust laws. Their reasoning was that in
the absence of such a limit, NCAA member schools would be free to offer any financial aid
packages they desired to recruit the student and athlete. The NCAA settled before a ruling by
the court, by agreeing to set up the Former Student-Athlete Fund to "assist qualified
candidates applying for receipt of career development expenses and/or reimbursement of
educational expenses under the terms of the agreement with plaintiffs in a federal antitrust
lawsuit."[29]

In 2013, Jay Bilas claimed that the NCAA was taking advantage of individual players through
jersey sales in its store. Specifically, he typed the names of several top college football
players, among them Tajh Boyd, Teddy Bridgewater, Jadeveon Clowney, Johnny Manziel, and
A. J. McCarron, into the search engine of the NCAA's official online store. The search results
returned corresponding numbered team jerseys. The NCAA subsequently removed the team
jerseys listed on its site.[30]

In March 2014, four players filed a class action antitrust lawsuit, alleging that the NCAA and its
five dominant conferences are an "unlawful cartel". The suit charges that NCAA caps on the
value of athletic scholarships have "illegally restricted the earning power of football and men's
basketball players while making billions off their labor".[31] Tulane University Sports Law
Program Director Gabe Feldman called the suit "an instantly credible threat to the NCAA." On
September 30, 2015, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit ruled that limiting
compensation to the cost of an athlete's attendance at a university was sufficient. It
simultaneously ruled against a federal judge's proposal to pay student athletes $5,000 per
year in deferred compensation.[32]

In August 2015, the National Labor Relations Board reversed a decision settled in the prior
year that classified members of Northwestern University's scholarship football players as
employees, thus, granting them the right to collectively bargain for their rights. The
unionization efforts were a direct effort led by the College Athletes Player Association and
Kain Colter, who operated with the support of the United Steelworkers group.[33] The case was
 ultimately struck down due to difficulties in applying the ruling across both public and private
institutions. The NCAA made several improvements to the value of athletic scholarships and
the quality of healthcare coverage in response to this movement by the Northwestern football
players.[33] These reforms included guaranteeing the entire four years of scholarship in the
event of a career-ending injury, the implementation of “cost of attendance” stipends, the
institution of “unlimited” athlete meal plans, and protections for the name, image, and likeness
of athletes by third parties such as Electronic Arts.[33]

In 2018 former UCF kicker Donald De La Haye filed a lawsuit alleging that the university
violated his First Amendment rights when it rescinded his full athletic scholarship over the
income De La Haye made from his monetized YouTube channel, which he started before he
attended college. UCF argued De La Haye violated the NCAA policy forbidding student-
athletes from using their likenesses to make money.[34] De La Haye ultimately settled with UCF
so that he could obtain his degree from the university.

In June 2021 the Supreme Court of the United States unanimously affirmed a ruling that
provides for an incremental increase in how college athletes can be compensated. Justice
Neil Gorsuch wrote the court's opinion, which upheld a district court judge's decision that the
NCAA was violating antitrust law by placing limits on the education-related benefits that
schools can provide to athletes. The decision allows schools to provide their athletes with
unlimited compensation as long as it is some way connected to their education. The idea that
college athletes should not be paid, a fundamental tenet of the 115-year-old NCAA, has faced
increasing scrutiny in recent years. Federal antitrust lawsuits have slowly eroded strict
amateurism rules during the past decade.[35]

Headquarters

National Office, Indianapolis

The modern era of the NCAA began in July 1955 when its executive director, Kansas City,
Missouri native Walter Byers, moved the organization's headquarters from the LaSalle Hotel in
Chicago (where its offices were shared by the headquarters of the Big Ten Conference) to the
Fairfax Building in Downtown Kansas City. The move was intended to separate the NCAA from
the direct influence of any individual conference and keep it centrally located.

The Fairfax was a block from Municipal Auditorium which had hosted men's basketball Final
Four games in 1940, 1941, and 1942. After Byers moved the headquarters to Kansas City, the
championships would be held in Municipal Auditorium in 1953, 1954, 1955, 1957, 1961, and
1964.

The Fairfax office consisted of three rooms with no air conditioning. Byers' staff consisted of
four people: an assistant, two secretaries, and a bookkeeper.[36]

In 1964, it moved three blocks away to offices in the Midland Theatre. In 1973, it moved to
Shawnee Mission Parkway in suburban Mission, Kansas in a $1.2 million building on 3.4 acres
(14,000 m2). In 1989, it moved 6 miles (9.7 km) farther south to Overland Park, Kansas. The new
building was on 11.35 acres (45,900 m2) and had 130,000 square feet (12,000 m2) of space.[37]

The NCAA was dissatisfied with its Johnson County, Kansas suburban location, noting that its
location on the south edges of the Kansas City suburbs was more than 40 minutes from Kansas
City International Airport. They also noted that the suburban location was not drawing visitors to
its new visitors' center.[38]

In 1997, it asked for bids for a new headquarters. Various cities competed for a new
headquarters with the two finalists being Kansas City and Indianapolis. Kansas City proposed to
relocate the NCAA back downtown near the Crown Center complex and would locate the
visitors' center in Union Station. However Kansas City's main sports venue Kemper Arena was
nearly 30 years old.[38] Indianapolis argued that it was in fact more central than Kansas City in
that two-thirds of the members are east of the Mississippi River.[38] The 50,000-seat RCA Dome
far eclipsed the 17,000-seat Kemper Arena. In 1999, the NCAA moved its 300-member staff to
its new headquarters in the White River State Park in a four-story 140,000-square-foot
(13,000 m2) facility on the west edge of downtown Indianapolis, Indiana. Adjacent to the
headquarters is the 35,000-square-foot (3,300 m2) NCAA Hall of Champions.[39]

Structure
The NCAA's Board of Governors (formerly known as the Executive Committee) is the main body
within the NCAA. This body elects the NCAA's president.[40]

The NCAA's legislative structure is broken down into cabinets and committees, consisting of
various representatives of its member schools. These may be broken down further into sub-
committees. The legislation is then passed on to the Management Council, which oversees all
the cabinets and committees, and also includes representatives from the schools, such as
athletic directors and faculty advisers. Management Council legislation goes on to the Board of
Directors, which consists of school presidents, for final approval. The NCAA national office staff
provides support, acting as guides, liaisons, researchers, and public and media relations.

The NCAA runs the officiating software company ArbiterSports, based in Sandy, Utah, a joint
venture between two subsidiaries of the NCAA, Arbiter LLC and eOfficials LLC. The NCAA's
stated objective for the venture is to help improve the fairness, quality, and consistency of
officiating across amateur athletics.[41][42]

Presidents of the NCAA

The NCAA had no full-time administrator until 1951, when Walter Byers was appointed executive
director.[1] In 1988, the title was changed to president.[43]

Walter Byers 1951–1988

James Frank 1981–1983 (Executive Director)

Dick Schultz 1988–1993

Judith Sweet 1991–1993

Cedric Dempsey 1994–2002[43]

Myles Brand 2003–2009[43][44]

Jim Isch (interim) 2009–2010[45]

Mark Emmert 2010–present

Chief medical officer

In 2013, the NCAA hired Brian Hainline as its first chief medical officer.[46]

Division history
 Years Division

1906–1956 None

College Division
1956–1972 University Division (Major College)
(Small College)

1973–present Division I Division II Division III

Division I-A Division I-AA

1978–2006 Division I-AAA Division II Division III
(football only) (football only)

Division I FBS Division I FCS Division I

2006–present Division II Division III
(football only) (football only) (non-football)

Player eligibility

To participate in college athletics in their freshman year, the NCAA requires that students meet
three criteria: having graduated from high school, be completing the minimum required
academic courses, and having qualifying grade-point average (GPA) and SAT or ACT scores.[47]

The 16 academic credits are four courses in English, two courses in math, two classes in social
science, two in natural or physical science, and one additional course in English, math, natural or
physical science, or another academic course such as a foreign language.[48]

To meet the requirements for grade point average and SAT scores, the lowest possible GPA a
student may be eligible with is a 1.70, as long as they have an SAT score of 1400. The lowest
SAT scores a student may be eligible with is 700 as long as they have a GPA of 2.500.[47]

As of the 2017–18 school year, a high school student may sign a letter of intent to enter and play
football for a Division I or Division II college in either of two periods.[b] The first, introduced in
2017–18, is a three-day period in mid-December, coinciding with the first three days of the
previously existing signing period for junior college players.[50] The second period, which before
2017 was the only one allowed for signings of high school players, starts on the first Wednesday
in February.[51] In August 2011, the NCAA announced plans to raise academic requirements for
postseason competition, including its two most prominent competitions, football's now-defunct
Bowl Championship Series (replaced in 2014 by the College Football Playoff) and the Division I
Men's Basketball Tournament; the new requirement, which are based on an "Academic Progress
Rate" (APR) that measures retention and graduation rates, and is calculated on a four-year,
rolling basis.[52] The changes raise the rate from 900 to 930, which represents a 50% graduation
rate.[52]

Student-athletes can accept prize money from tournaments or competitions if they do not
exceed the total expenses from the event. During high school, D1 tennis players may take up to
$10,000 in total prize money. If the student surpassed the amount of $10,000 of prize money in a
calendar year, they would lose eligibility.[53]

Students are generally allowed to compete athletically for four years. Athletes are allowed to sit
out a year while still attending school but not lose a year of eligibility by redshirting.

NCAA sponsored sports

The NCAA currently awards 90 national championships yearly – 46 women's, 41 men's, and coed
championships for fencing, rifle, and skiing. Sports sanctioned by the NCAA include the
following: basketball, baseball (men), beach volleyball (women), softball (women), football
(men), cross country, field hockey (women), bowling (women), golf, fencing (coeducational),
lacrosse, soccer, gymnastics, rowing (women only), volleyball, ice hockey, water polo, rifle
(coeducational), tennis, skiing (coeducational), track and field, swimming and diving, and
wrestling (men). The newest sport to be officially sanctioned is beach volleyball, which held its
first championship in the 2015–16 school year.

The Football Bowl Subdivision of Division I determines its own champion separately from the
NCAA via the "College Football Playoff"; this is not an official NCAA championship (see below).
The most recently added championship is a single all-divisions championship in women's beach
volleyball, which was approved by leaders of all three divisions in late 2014 and early 2015. The
first championship was held in spring 2016.[54] The NCAA had called the sport "sand volleyball"
until June 23, 2015, when it announced that it would use the internationally recognized name of
"beach volleyball".[55]

The NCAA awards championships in the following sports:

NCAA sports
Division I Division III Division I Division II Division III
Division II (M) Sport
(M) (M) (W) (W) (W)

1947– 1968– 1976– Baseball

1939– 1957– 1975– Basketball 1982– 1982– 1982–

Bowling 2004–

1938– 1958– 1973– Cross country 1981– 1981– 1981–

1941– Fencing 1941–

Field hockey 1981– 1981– 1981–

1978–
(FBS)

1973– 1973– Football

1978–
(FCS)

1996–99; 1996–99;
1939– 1963– 1975– Golf 1982–
2000– 2000–

1938– 1968–84 Gymnastics 1982– 1982–86

1978–84; 1993–
1948– 1984– Ice hockey 2001– 2002–
99

1974–79; 1980– 1974–79;

1971– Lacrosse 1982– 2001– 1985–
81; 1993– 1980–

1980– Rifle 1980–

Rowing 1997– 2002– 2002–

1954– Skiing 1954–

1954– 1972– 1974– Soccer 1982– 1988– 1986–

Softball 1982– 1982– 1982–

Swimming &
1924– 1964– 1975– 1982– 1982– 1982–
Diving

1946– 1963– 1976– Tennis 1982– 1982– 1982–

Track & field 1985; 1985;

1965– 1985– 1985– 1983–
(indoor) 1987– 1987–

1921– 1963– 1974– Track & field 1982– 1982– 1982–

 (outdoor)

Volleyball
1970– 2012– 1981– 1981– 1981–
(indoor)

Volleyball
2016–
(beach)

1969– Water polo 2001–

1928– 1963– 1974– Wrestling

In addition to the sports above, the NCAA sanctioned a boxing championship from 1948 to
1960. The NCAA discontinued boxing following declines in the sport during the 1950s and
following the death of a boxer at the 1960 NCAA tournament.

The number of teams (school programs) that compete in each sport in their respective division
as of the 2019–2020 season are as follows:[56]
Men's programs

Division Division
Sport Division III
I II

Baseball 299 261 389

Basketball 351 309 422

Cross Country 318 280 403

Fencing[note 1] 21 2 11

American Football 255 168 246

Golf 298 220 306

Gymnastics 14 0 1

Ice Hockey 60 7 84

Lacrosse 74 74 247

Rifle[note 1] 17 2 3

Skiing[note 1] 10 6 15

Soccer 204 213 417

Swimming and Diving 132 77 241

Tennis 251 160 331

Track and Field (Indoor) 270 177 295

Track and Field (Outdoor) 289 224 326

Volleyball 23 25 108

Water Polo 25 8 16

Wrestling 78 64 108

Women's programs
 Division Division
Sport Division III
I II

Basketball 349 310 437

Beach Volleyball 62 17 5

Bowling 34 34 19

Cross Country 348 301 422

Fencing[note 1] 27 2 15

Field Hockey 77 36 168

Golf 266 196 240

Gymnastics 60 6 15

Ice Hockey 36 5 67

Lacrosse 117 114 292

Rifle[note 1] 22 2 3

Rowing 88 16 46

Skiing[note 1] 11 7 15

Soccer 335 265 438

Softball 296 288 411

Swimming and Diving 193 104 269

Tennis 311 221 368

Track and Field (Indoor) 333 202 302

Track and Field (Outdoor) 340 254 338

Volleyball 333 297 432

Water Polo 34 12 19

Notes:

1. Coed Championship sport

Emerging sports for women

In addition to the above sports, the NCAA recognizes Emerging Sports for Women. These sports
have scholarship limitations for each sport, but do not currently have officially sanctioned NCAA
championships. A member institution may use these sports to meet the required level of sports
sponsorship for its division. An "Emerging Sport" must gain championship status (minimum 40
varsity programs for team sports, except 28 for Division III) within 10 years, or show steady
progress toward that goal to remain on the list.[57] Until then, it is under the auspices of the
NCAA and its respective institutions. Emerging Sport status allows for competition to include
club teams to satisfy the minimum number of competitions bylaw established by the NCAA.

The five sports currently designated as Emerging Sports for Women are:

Acrobatics & tumbling

Equestrian

Rugby

Triathlon

Wrestling

Sports added and dropped

The popularity of each of these sports programs has changed over time. Between 1988–89 and
2010–11, NCAA schools had net additions of 510 men's teams and 2,703 women's teams.[58]

The following tables show the changes over time in the number of NCAA schools across all
three divisions combined sponsoring each of the men's and women's team sports.

Men's sports

The men's sports with the biggest net gains during the 1988/89 to 2010/11 period were indoor
track and field, lacrosse, and cross country (each with more than 100 net gains). The men's
sports with the biggest losses were wrestling (−104 teams), tennis, and rifle; the men's team
sport with the most net losses was water polo.[58]
Other reports show that 355 college wrestling
programs have been eliminated since 2000; 212 men's gymnastics programs have been
eliminated since 1969 with only 17 programs remaining as of 2013.[59]

Additionally, eight NCAA sports—all men's sports—were sponsored by fewer Division I schools in
2020 than in 1990, despite the D-I membership having increased by nearly 60 schools during
that period. Four of these sports, namely wrestling, swimming & diving, gymnastics, and tennis,
lost more than 20 net teams during that timeframe. As a proportion of D-I membership, men's
tennis took the greatest hit; 71.5% of D-I members had men's tennis in 2020, compared to 93.2%
in 1990.[60]

Men's Team Sports:

Number of Schools Sponsoring[61]

No. Sport 1981–82 2011–12 Change Percent

1 Basketball 741 1,060 +259 +43%

2 Baseball 642 927 +285 +44%

3 Soccer 521 803 +282 +54%

4 Football 497 651 +154 +31%

5 Lacrosse 138 295 +157 +116%

6 Ice hockey 130 135 +5 +4%

7 Volleyball 63 98 +35 +56%

8 Water polo 49 43 –6 –12%

The following table lists the men's individual DI sports with at least 5,000 participating athletes.
Sports are ranked by number of athletes.

Men's individual sports

Teams Teams
No. Sport [61] [61]
Change Athletes[61] Season
(2015) (1982)

1 Track (outdoor) 780 577 +203 28,177 Spring

2 Track (indoor) 681 422 +259 25,087 Winter

3 Cross country 989 650 +339 14,330 Fall

Swimming &
4 427 377 +50 9,715 Winter
diving

5 Golf 831 590 +241 8,654 Spring

6 Tennis 765 690 +75 8,211 Spring

7 Wrestling 229 363 −134 7,049 Winter

Women's sports
The women's sports with the biggest net gains during the 1988–89 to 2010–11 period were
soccer (+599 teams), golf, and indoor track and field; no women's sports programs experienced
double-digit net losses.[58]

Women's Team Sports:

Number of Schools Sponsoring

Sport 1981–82 2011–12 Change Percent

Basketball 705 1,084 +379 +54%

Volleyball 603 1,047 +444 +74%

Soccer 80 996 +916 +1245%

Softball 348 976 +628 +180%

Lacrosse 105 376 +271 +258%

Field hockey 268 266 –2 –1%

Ice hockey 17 86 +69 +406%

Water polo — 64 +64 ——

[61]

The following table lists the women's individual NCAA sports with at least 1,000 participating
athletes. Sports are ranked by number of athletes.

Women's individual sports[61]

Teams Teams
No. Sport [61]
Change Athletes[61] Season
(2015) (1982)[61]

1 Track (outdoor) 861 427 +434 28,797 Spring

2 Track (indoor) 772 239 +533 26,620 Winter

3 Cross country 1,072 417 +655 16,150 Fall

Swimming &
4 548 348 +200 12,428 Winter
diving

5 Tennis 930 610 +320 8,960 Spring

6 Golf 651 125 +526 5,221 Spring

7 Equestrian 47 41* +6* 1,496

8 Gymnastics 82 179 −97 1,492 Winter

 Equestrian was not a women's varsity sport in 1982 and the NCAA report does not include the
number of teams for that year. Equestrian is first listed in the NCAA report in 1988–89 with 41
teams, and so the number of teams for that season is listed in the table above.

Championships

2006 NCAA championship banners hang from the ceiling of the NCAA Hall of Champions in Indianapolis

NCAA National Championship trophies, rings, and watches won by UCLA teams

Trophies
For every NCAA sanctioned sport other than Division I FBS football, the NCAA awards trophies
with gold, silver, and bronze plating for the first-, second-, and third-place teams respectively. In
the case of the NCAA basketball tournaments, both semifinalists who did not make the
championship game receive bronze plated trophies for third place (prior to 1982 the teams
played a "consolation" game to determine third place). Similar trophies are awarded to both
semifinalists in the NCAA football tournaments (which are conducted in Division I FCS and both
lower divisions), which have never had a third-place game. Winning teams maintain permanent
possession of these trophies unless it is later found that they were won via serious rules
violations.

Starting with the 2001–02 season, and again in the 2007–08 season, the trophies were changed.
Starting in the 2006 basketball season, teams that make the Final Four in the Division I
tournament receive bronze-plated "regional championship" trophies upon winning their Regional
Championship which state the region they won and have the Final Four logo. The teams that
make the National Championship game receive an additional trophy that is gold-plated for the
winner. Starting in the mid-1990s, the National Champions in men's and women's basketball
receive an elaborate trophy with a black marble base and crystal "neck" with a removable crystal
basketball following the presentation of the standard NCAA Championship trophy.

As of April 18, 2021,[62] Stanford, UCLA, and Southern California (USC) have the most NCAA
championships. Stanford has won 128 and UCLA has won 119 NCAA team championships in
men's and women's sports, while USC is third with 107.

Football Bowl Subdivision

The NCAA has never sanctioned an official championship for its highest level of football, now
known as Division I FBS. Instead, several outside bodies award their own titles. The NCAA does
not hold a championship tournament or game for Division I FBS football. In the past, teams that
placed first in any of a number of season-ending media polls, most notable the AP Poll of writers
and the Coaches Poll, were said to have won the "national championship".

Starting in 2014, the College Football Playoff – a consortium of the conferences and
independent schools that compete in Division I FBS and six bowl games – has arranged to place
the top four teams (based on a thirteen-member committee that selects and seeds the teams)
into two semifinal games, with the winners advancing to compete in the College Football Playoff
National Championship, which is not officially sanctioned or recognized by the NCAA. The
winner of the game receives a trophy; since the NCAA awards no national championship for
Division I FBS football, this trophy does not denote NCAA as other NCAA college sports national
championship trophies do.

Conferences

The NCAA is divided into three levels of conferences, Division I, Division II, and Division III,
organized in declining program size, as well as numerous sub-divisions.

Division I
Notes
FBS conferences in football are denoted with an asterisk (*)

FCS conferences in football are denoted with two asterisks (**)

Conferences that do not sponsor football or basketball are in italics

American Athletic Conference (The American) *

America East Conference

ASUN Conference

Atlantic 10 Conference (A-10)

Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) *

Big 12 Conference (Big 12) *

Big East Conference

Big Sky Conference **

Big South Conference **

Big Ten Conference (Big Ten or B1G) *

Big West Conference

Coastal Collegiate Sports Association (CCSA)

Colonial Athletic Association (CAA) **

Conference USA (C-USA) *

Horizon League

Ivy League **

Metro Atlantic Athletic Conference (MAAC)

Mid-American Conference (MAC) *

Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference (MEAC) **

Missouri Valley Conference (MVC)

Mountain Pacific Sports Federation (MPSF)

Mountain West Conference (MW) *

Northeast Conference (NEC) **

Ohio Valley Conference (OVC) **

Pac-12 Conference (Pac-12) *

Patriot League **
 Southeastern Conference (SEC) *

Southern Conference (SoCon) **

Southland Conference **

Southwestern Athletic Conference (SWAC) **

The Summit League (The Summit)

Sun Belt Conference (SBC) *

West Coast Conference (WCC)

Western Athletic Conference (WAC)

NCAA Division I Independents

Division I FCS football-only conferences

Missouri Valley Football Conference

Pioneer Football League

Map of NCAA Division I FCS schools

Division I hockey-only conferences

Men only
Atlantic Hockey

Central Collegiate Hockey Association (CCHA) – revived in 2021; previously operated from
1971–2013

National Collegiate Hockey Conference (NCHC)

 Women only
College Hockey America

New England Women's Hockey Alliance (NEWHA)

Western Collegiate Hockey Association (WCHA)

Men and women
ECAC Hockey

Hockey East

Division II
 California Collegiate Athletic Association (CCAA)

Central Atlantic Collegiate Conference (CACC)

Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association (CIAA)

Conference Carolinas (CC)

East Coast Conference (ECC)

Great American Conference (GAC)

Great Lakes Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (GLIAC)

Great Lakes Valley Conference (GLVC)

Great Midwest Athletic Conference (G-MAC)

Great Northwest Athletic Conference (GNAC)

Gulf South Conference (GSC)

Lone Star Conference (LSC)

Mid-America Intercollegiate Athletics Association (MIAA)

Mountain East Conference (MEC)

Northeast-10 Conference (NE-10)

Northern Sun Intercollegiate Conference (NSIC)

Pacific West Conference (PacWest)

Peach Belt Conference (PBC)

Pennsylvania State Athletic Conference (PSAC)

Rocky Mountain Athletic Conference (RMAC)

South Atlantic Conference (SAC)

Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (SIAC)

Sunshine State Conference (SSC)

NCAA Division II Independents

Division III
Allegheny Mountain Collegiate Conference (AMCC)

American Rivers Conference (ARC)

American Southwest Conference (ASC)

Atlantic East Conference (AEC)

Centennial Conference (Centennial)

City University of New York Athletic Conference (CUNYAC)

Coast to Coast Athletic Conference (C2C)

College Conference of Illinois and Wisconsin (CCIW)

Colonial States Athletic Conference (CSAC)

Commonwealth Coast Conference (CCC)

Empire 8 (E8)

Great Northeast Athletic Conference (GNAC)

Heartland Collegiate Athletic Conference (HCAC)

Landmark Conference (Landmark)

Liberty League (Liberty)

Little East Conference (LEC)

Massachusetts State Collegiate Athletic Conference (MASCAC)

Michigan Intercollegiate Athletic Association (MIAA)

Middle Atlantic Conferences (MAC) – An umbrella organization of the following three

conferences:
MAC Commonwealth, sponsoring competition in 14 sports, but not football

MAC Freedom, sponsoring competition in the same set of 14 sports

Middle Atlantic Conference, sponsoring 13 sports, including football

Midwest Conference (Midwest or MWC)

Minnesota Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (MIAC)

New England Collegiate Conference (NECC)

New England Small College Athletic Conference (NESCAC)

 New England Women's and Men's Athletic Conference (NEWMAC)

New Jersey Athletic Conference (NJAC)

North Atlantic Conference (NAC)

North Coast Athletic Conference (NCAC)

North Eastern Athletic Conference (NEAC)

Northern Athletics Collegiate Conference (NACC)

Northwest Conference (NWC)

Ohio Athletic Conference (OAC)

Old Dominion Athletic Conference (ODAC)

Presidents' Athletic Conference (PAC)

Skyline Conference (Skyline)

Southern Athletic Association (SAA)

Southern California Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (SCIAC)

Southern Collegiate Athletic Conference (SCAC)

State University of New York Athletic Conference (SUNYAC)

St. Louis Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (SLIAC)

University Athletic Association (UAA)

Upper Midwest Athletic Conference (UMAC)

USA South Athletic Conference (USA South)

Wisconsin Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (WIAC)

NCAA Division III Independents

Division III football-only conferences

Commonwealth Coast Football (CCC Football) – Started play as the New England Football
Conference in 1965; taken over by the Commonwealth Coast Conference after the 2016
football season, though the football league remains a separate legal entity.

Eastern Collegiate Football Conference (ECFC)

Other Division III single-sport conferences
Continental Volleyball Conference (CVC) – men's volleyball

ECAC East – men's and women's ice hockey

ECAC Northeast – men's ice hockey

ECAC West – men's and women's ice hockey

Midwest Collegiate Volleyball League (MCVL) – men's volleyball

Midwest Lacrosse Conference (MLC) – men's lacrosse

Midwest Women's Lacrosse Conference (MWLC) – women's lacrosse

Northern Collegiate Hockey Association (NCHA) – men's and women's ice hockey

Ohio River Lacrosse Conference (ORLC) – men's and women's lacrosse

United Collegiate Hockey Conference (UCHC) – men's and women's ice hockey

United Volleyball Conference (UVC) – men's volleyball

Media

The NCAA has current media rights contracts with CBS Sports, CBS Sports Network, ESPN,
ESPN Plus, Turner Sports and the Golf Channel for coverage of its 88 championships. According
to the official NCAA website,[63] ESPN and its associated networks have rights to 21
championships, CBS to 65, Turner Sports to one and NBC's Golf Channel to two. The following
are the most prominent championships and rights holders:

CBS: Men's basketball (NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament, with Turner Sports, and
NCAA Division II Men's Basketball Tournament), track and field, ice hockey (women's division
I), golf (Divisions II and III, both genders)

ESPN: Women's basketball (all divisions), baseball, softball, ice hockey (men's Division I),
football (all divisions including Div. I FCS), soccer (Division I for both genders)

Turner Sports: NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament with CBS

NBC and Golf Channel: golf (Division I, both genders)

WestwoodOne has exclusive radio rights to the men's and women's basketball Final Fours to the
men's College World Series (baseball). DirecTV has an exclusive package expanding CBS'
coverage of the men's basketball tournament.
From 1998 to 2013, Electronic Arts had a license to develop college sports video games with the
NCAA's branding, which included its NCAA Football, NCAA Basketball (formerly NCAA March
Madness) and MVP Baseball series. The NCAA's licensing was not required to produce the
games, as rights to use teams are not licensed through the NCAA, but through entities such as
individual schools and the Collegiate Licensing Company. EA only acquired the license so that it
could officially incorporate the Division I Men's Basketball Tournament into its college basketball
game series. The NCAA withdrew EA's license due to uncertainties surrounding a series of
lawsuits, most notably O'Bannon v. NCAA, involving the use of player likenesses in college sports
video games.[64][65]

Office of Inclusion

Inclusion and Diversity Campaign

The week-long program took place October 1–5, 2018. The aim was to utilize social media
platforms in order to promote diversity and inclusion within intercollegiate athletics. Throughout
the NCAA's history, there has been controversy as to the levels of diversity present within
intercollegiate athletics, and this campaign is the NCAA's most straightforward approach to
combatting these issues.[30]

NCAA Inclusion Statement

As a core value, the NCAA believes in and is committed to diversity, inclusion and gender equity
among its student-athletes, coaches and administrators. It seeks to establish and maintain an
inclusive culture that fosters equitable participation for student-athletes and career
opportunities for coaches and administrators from diverse backgrounds. Diversity and inclusion
improve the learning environment for all student-athletes and enhance excellence within the
Association.[30]

The Office of Inclusion will provide or enable programming and education, which sustains
foundations of a diverse and inclusive culture across dimensions of diversity including but not
limited to age, race, sex, class, national origin, creed, educational background, religion, gender
identity, disability, gender expression, geographical location, income, marital status, parental
status, sexual orientation and work experiences.

This statement was adopted by the NCAA Executive Committee in April 2010, and amended by
the NCAA Board of Governors in April 2017.[30]
Gender equity and Title IX

While no concrete criteria is given as to a state of gender equity on campuses, an athletics

program is considered gender equitable when both women's and men's sports programs reach a
consensus.[66]

The basis of Title IX, when amended in 1972 to the 1964 Civil Rights Act, criminalized
discrimination on the basis of sex.[67] This plays into intercollegiate athletics in that it helps to
maintain gender equity and inclusion in intercollegiate athletics. The NCAA provides many
resources to provide information and enforce this amendment.

The NCAA has kept these core values central to its decisions regarding the allocation of
championship bids. In April 2016, the Board of Governors announced new requirements for host
cities that include protection against discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender
identity for all people involved in the event. This decision was prompted by several states
passing laws that permit discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity in
accordance with religious beliefs.[68]

LGBTQ

The LGBTQ community has been under scrutiny and controversy in the public eye of collegiate
athletics, but the NCAA moves to support the inclusion of these groups. The NCAA provides
many resources concerning the education of the college community on this topic and policies in
order to foster diversity.[69]

Title IX protects the transgender community within intercollegiate athletics and on college
campuses. While controversy surrounds the topic, the NCAA's current policy on transgender
student-athlete participation is dependent on testosterone levels. A transgender male student-
athlete is not allowed to compete on a male sports team unless they have undergone medical
treatment of testosterone for gender transition, and a transgender female student-athlete is not
allowed to compete on a women's sports team until completing one calendar year of
testosterone suppression treatment. Transgender males are no longer eligible to compete on a
women's team, and transgender females are no longer eligible to compete on a men's team
without changing it to a mixed team status.[70]

In 2010, the NCAA Executive Committee announced its support and commitment to diversity,
inclusion, and gender equality among its student-athletes, coaches, and administrators. The
statement included the NCAA's commitment to ensuring that all students have equal
opportunities to achieve their academic goals, and coaches and administrators have equal
opportunities for career development in a climate of respect.[69] In 2012, the LGBTQ
Subcommittee of the NCAA association-wide Committee on Women's Athletics and the Minority
Opportunities and Interests Committee commissioned Champions of Respect, a document that
provides resources and advocacy that promotes inclusion and equality for LGBTQ student-
athletes, coaches, administrators and all others associated with intercollegiate athletics. This
resource uses guides from the Women's Sports Foundation It Takes a Team! project for
addressing issues related to LGBTQ equality in intercollegiate athletics.[71] The document
provides information on specific issues LGBTQ sportspeople face, similarities and differences of
these issues on women's and men's teams, policy recommendations and best practices, and
legal resources and court cases.[72]

The NCAA expressed concern over Indiana's Religious Freedom Restoration Act that allows
businesses to discriminate against people based on their sexual orientation. This bill was
proposed just before Indianapolis was set to host the 2015 Men's Basketball Final Four
tournament.[73] The bill clashed with the NCAA core values of inclusion and equality, and forced
the NCAA to consider moving events out of Indiana. Under pressure from across the nation and
fearing the economic loss of being banned from hosting NCAA events, the governor of Indiana,
Mike Pence, revised the bill so that businesses could not discriminate based on sexual
orientation, race, religion, or disability. The NCAA accepted the revised bill and continues to host
events in Indiana.[74] The bill was enacted into law on July 1, 2015.[75]

On September 12, 2016, the NCAA announced that it would pull all seven planned championship
events out of North Carolina for the 2016–2017 academic year.[76] This decision was a response
to the state passing the Public Facilities Privacy and Security Act (H.B. 2) on March 23, 2016.
This law requires people to use public restrooms that correspond with their sex assigned at birth
and stops cities from passing laws that protect against discrimination towards gay and
transgender people. The NCAA Board of Governors determined that this law would make
ensuring an inclusive atmosphere in the host communities challenging, and relocating these
championship events best reflects the association's commitment to maintaining an environment
that is consistent with its core values.[76] North Carolina has lost the opportunity to host the
2018 Final Four Tournament which was scheduled to be in Charlotte, but is relocated to San
Antonio. If H.B. 2 is not repealed, North Carolina could be barred from bidding for events from
2019 to 2022.[77]

Race and ethnicity

Racial/Ethnic minority groups in the NCAA are protected by inclusion and diversity policies put in
place to increase sensitivity and awareness to the issues and challenges faced across
intercollegiate athletics. The NCAA provides a demographics database that can be openly
viewed by the public.[30]

Historically, the NCAA has used its authority in deciding on host cities to promote its core
values. The Association also prohibits championship events in states that display the
Confederate flag, and at member schools that have abusive or offensive nicknames or mascots
based on Native American imagery. Board members wish to ensure that anyone associated with
an NCAA championship event will be treated with fairness and respect.[68]

Student-athletes with disabilities

The NCAA defines a disability as a current impairment that has a substantial educational impact
on a student's academic performance and requires accommodation. Student-Athletes with
disabilities are given education accommodations along with an adapted sports model. The
NCAA hosts adapted sports championships for both track and field and swimming and diving as
of 2015.[69]

International student athletes

Over the last two decades recruiting international athletes has become a growing trend among
NCAA institutions. For example, most German athletes outside of Germany are based at US
universities. For many European athletes, the American universities are the only option to pursue
an academic and athletic career at the same time. Many of these students come to the US with
high academic expectations and aspirations.[69]

College team name changes

As of 2018, there has been a continuation of changing school mascots that are said by some to
be based on racist or offensive stereotypes. Universities under NCAA policy are under scrutiny
for specifically Native American-inspired mascots. While many colleges have changed their
mascots, some have gotten legal permission from the tribe represented and will continue to
bear the mascot. This Native American mascot controversy has not been completely settled;
however, many issues have been resolved.[78]

Here is a list of notable colleges that changed Native American mascots and/or nicknames in
recent history:

Stanford – Indians to Cardinals (1972); became Cardinal in 1981

 UMass – Redmen and Redwomen to Minutemen and Minutewomen (1972)

Dartmouth – Indians to Big Green (1974)

Siena – Indians to Saints (1988)

Eastern Michigan – Hurons to Eagles (1991)

St. John's (NY) – Redmen to Red Storm (1994)

Marquette – Warriors to Golden Eagles (1994)

Chattanooga – Moccasins to Mocs, suggestive of mockingbirds (1996)

Miami (OH) – Redskins to RedHawks (1997)

Seattle – Chieftains to Redhawks (2000)

Colgate - Red Raiders to Raiders (2001)

Quinnipiac - Braves to Bobcats (2002)

Southeast Missouri State – Indians (men) and Otahkians (women) to Redhawks (2005)

Louisiana–Monroe – Indians to Warhawks (2006)

Arkansas State – Indians to Red Wolves (2008)[79]

North Dakota – Formally dropped Fighting Sioux in 2012; adopted Fighting Hawks in 2015[80]

Others:

Illinois – Removed Chief Illiniwek as official symbol in 2007. Athletics teams are still called
Fighting Illini.

Bradley, Alcorn State – Both schools stopped using Native American mascots but have
retained their Braves nickname.

William & Mary – Adjusted Tribe logo to remove feathers to comply with NCAA. Athletics
teams are still called Tribe. (2007)

Chattanooga – removed the mascot, Chief Moccanooga and the Moccasin Shoe imagery in
1996; Kept the term, "Mocs", but reassigned its representation to the official State Bird.

Of note: Utah (Utes), Central Michigan (Chippewas), Florida State (Seminoles) and Mississippi
College (Choctaws) all appealed successfully to the NCAA after being deemed "hostile and
offensive." Each cited positive relationships with neighboring tribes in appeal.[79] UNC Pembroke
(Braves), an institution originally created to educate Native Americans and enjoying close ties to
the local Lumbee tribe, was approved to continue the use of native-derived imagery without
needing an appeal.

Rules violations

Member schools pledge to follow the rules promulgated by the NCAA. Creation of a mechanism
to enforce the NCAA's legislation occurred in 1952 after careful consideration by the
membership.

Allegations of rules violations are referred to the NCAA's enforcement staff, who monitor
information about potential violations, investigate and process violations, provide notice of
alleged violations, and bring cases before the NCAA's Committees on Infractions.[81] A
preliminary investigation is initiated to determine if an official inquiry is warranted and to
categorize any resultant violations as secondary or major. If several violations are found, the
NCAA may determine that the school as a whole has exhibited a "lack of institutional control."
The institution involved is notified promptly and may appear on its own behalf before the NCAA
Committee on Infractions.

Findings of the Committee on Infractions and the resultant sanctions in major cases are
reported to the institution. Sanctions will generally include having the institution placed on
"probation" for a period of time, in addition to other penalties. The institution may appeal the
findings or sanctions to an appeals committee. After considering written reports and oral
presentations by representatives of the Committee on Infractions and the institution, the
committee acts on the appeal. Action may include accepting the infractions committee's
findings and penalty, altering either, or making its own findings and imposing an appropriate
penalty.[82]

In cases of particularly egregious misconduct, the NCAA has the power to ban a school from
participating in a particular sport, a penalty is known as the "Death Penalty". Since 1985, any
school that commits major violations during the probationary period can be banned from the
sport involved for up to two years. However, when the NCAA opts not to issue a death penalty for
a repeat violation, it must explain why it did not do so. This penalty has only been imposed three
times in its modern form, most notably when Southern Methodist University's (SMU) football
team had its 1987 season canceled due to massive rules violations dating back more than a
decade. SMU opted not to field a team in 1988 as well due to the aftershocks from the
sanctions, and the program has never recovered; it has only four winning seasons and four bowl
appearances since then (mostly under June Jones, the team's head coach from 2008 until his
resignation during the 2014 season). The devastating effect the death penalty had on SMU has
reportedly made the NCAA skittish about issuing another one. Since the SMU case, there are
only three instances where the NCAA has seriously considered imposing it against a Division I
school; it imposed it against Division II Morehouse College's men's soccer team in 2003 and
Division III MacMurray College's men's tennis team in 2005. In addition to these cases, the most
recent Division I school to be considered was Penn State. This was because of the Jerry
Sandusky Incident that consequently almost landed Penn State on the hook for the death
penalty. They received a $60 million fine, in addition to forfeited seasons and other sanctions as
well. The NCAA later reversed itself by restoring all forfeited seasons and overturning the
remaining sanctions.

Additionally, in particularly egregious cases of rules violations, coaches, athletic directors, and
athletic support staff can be barred from working for any NCAA member school without
permission from the NCAA. This procedure is known as a "show-cause penalty" (not to be
confused with an order to show cause in the legal sense).[83] Theoretically, a school can hire
someone with a "show cause" on their record during the time the show cause order is in effect
only with permission from the NCAA Infractions Committee. The school assumes the risks and
stigma of hiring such a person. It may then end up being sanctioned by the NCAA and the
Infractions Committee for their choice, possibly losing athletic scholarships, revenue from
schools who would not want to compete with that other school, and the ability for their games to
be televised, along with restrictions on recruitment and practicing times. As a result, a show-
cause order essentially has the effect of blackballing individuals from being hired for the
duration of the order.

One of the most famous scandals in NCAA history involved FBS Division I Quarterback Cam
Newton of the Auburn Tigers in 2011. As a direct effect of not being compensated for his
college athletics, Cam Newton's family sought upwards of 100,000 dollars for him to instead
play at Mississippi State. This was revealed days before the conference SEC championship
game; however, Cam Newton was later reinstated as there was insufficient evidence against
him.[84]

Sponsors

The NCAA has a two-tier sponsorship division. AT&T, Coca-Cola, and CapitalOne are NCAA
Corporate Champions, all others are NCAA Corporate Partners.[85]
Company Category Since

Buffalo Wild Wings Bar and restaurant 2015

AT&T Telecommunications 2001

Coca-Cola Non-alcoholic beverages 2002

GEICO Insurance 2018

Enterprise Rent-A-Car Car rental 2005

Lowe's Home improvement 2005

CapitalOne Banking and credit cards 2008

Nabisco (Ritz and Oreo) Snack foods 2017

Hershey's (Reese's) Confections 2009

Google Cloud Computing 2017

UPS Package delivery and logistics 2009

Nissan (Infiniti) Car & parts 2010

Wendy's Fast-food restaurant 2016

Pizza Hut Restaurant 2016

Intel Computing 2017

General Motors (Buick) Car and parts 2013

Marriott Hotels and hospitality 2017

Uber Eats Software/Food delivery 2018

Finances

As a governing body for amateur sports the NCAA is classified as a tax-exempt not-for-profit
organization.[86] As such, it is not required to pay most taxes on income that for-profit private
and public corporations are subject to. The NCAA's business model of prohibiting salaries for
collegial athletes has been challenged in court, but a 2015 case was struck down.[87] As of 2014
the NCAA reported that it had over $600 million in unrestricted net assets in its annual report.[88]
During 2014 the NCAA also reported almost a billion dollars of revenue, contributing to a "budget
surplus" – revenues in excess of disbursements for that year – of over $80 million.[88] Over
$700 million of that revenue total was from licensing TV rights to its sporting events.[88] In
addition, the NCAA also earns money through investment growth of its endowment fund.
Established in 2004 with $45 million, the fund has grown to over $380 million in 2014.[89]

NCAA expenditures

According to the NCAA, it receives most of its annual revenue from two sources: Division I Men's
Basketball television and marketing rights, and championships ticket sales. According to the
NCAA, "that money is distributed in more than a dozen ways – almost all of which directly
support NCAA schools, conferences and nearly half a million student-athletes."[90]

In 2017 total NCAA revenues were in excess of $1.06 billion.[91] Division I basketball television
and marketing rights generated $821.4 million, and "championships ticket sales" totaled
$129.4 million. Other "smaller streams of revenue, such as membership dues" contributed an
unspecified amount.[90]

Expenses by category

The NCAA provided a breakdown of how those revenues were in turn spent, organizing pay-outs
and expenses into some 14 basic categories. By far the largest went to Sports Scholarship and
Sponsorship Funds, funding for sports and student scholarships under the Division I Basketball
Performance Fund, expenses incurred in producing Division I Championships (including team
food, travel, and lodging), the Student Assistance Fund, and Student Athlete Services. Together
these top five recipients accounted for 65% of all NCAA expenditures. General and
Administrative expenses for running the NCAA day-to-day operations totaled approximately 4%
of monies paid out, and other association-wide expenses, including legal services,
communications, and business insurance totaled 8%.[90]

The categories:

$210.8M Sport Sponsorship and Scholarship Funds

Distributed to Division I schools to help fund NCAA sports and provide scholarships for
college athletes.
$160.5M Division I Basketball Performance Fund
Distributed to Division I conferences and independent schools based on their performance in
the men’s basketball tournament over a six-year rolling period. The money is used to fund
NCAA sports and provide scholarships for college athletes.
$96.7M Division I Championships
 Provides college athletes the opportunity to compete for a championship and includes
support for team travel, food and lodging.
$82.2M Student Assistance Fund
Distributed to Division I student-athletes for essential needs that arise during their time in
college.
$71.8M Student-Athlete Services
Includes funding for catastrophic injury insurance, drug testing, student-athlete leadership
programs, postgraduate scholarships and additional Association-wide championships
support.
$50.3M Division I Equal Conference Fund
Distributed equally among Division I basketball-playing conferences that meet athletic and
academic standards to play in the men's basketball tournament. The money is used to fund
NCAA sports and provide scholarships for college athletes.
$46.7M Academic Enhancement Fund
Distributed to Division I schools to assist with academic programs and services.
$42.3M Division II Allocation
Funds championships, grants and other initiatives for Division II college athletes.
$39.6M Membership Support Services
Covers costs related to NCAA governance committees and the annual NCAA Convention.
$28.2M Division III Allocation
Funds championships, grants and other initiatives for Division III college athletes.
$9.5M Division I Conference Grants
Distributed to Division I conferences for programs that enhance officiating, compliance,
minority opportunities and more.
$3.3M Educational Programs
Supports various educational services for members to help prepare student-athletes for life,
including the Women Coaches Academy, the Emerging Leaders Seminars and the Pathway
Program.
$74.3M Other Association-Wide Expenses
Includes support for Association-wide legal services, communications and business
insurance.
$39.7M General and Administrative Expenses
Funds the day-to-day operations of the NCAA national office, including administrative and
financial services, information technology and facilities management.

According to the NCAA, the 2017 fiscal year was the first in which its revenues topped
$1.0 billion. The increase in revenue from 2016 came from hikes in television and marketing
fees, plus greater monies generated from championship events and investment income.[91]

An ESPN critique of the organization's 2017 financials indicated some $560.3 million of the total
$956 million paid out went back to its roughly 1,100 member institutions in 24 sports in all three
divisions, as well as $200 million for a one-time payment the NCAA made to schools to fund
additional programs.[92]

The Division I basketball tournament alone generated some $761 million, with another
$60 million in 2016–17 marketing rights. With increases in rights fees it is estimated the
basketball tournament will generate some $869 million for the 2018 championship.[92]

Player compensation proposals

The NCAA has limited the amount of compensation that individual players can receive to
scholarships equal to school tuition and related expenses. This rule has generated controversy,
in light of the large amounts of revenues that schools earn from sports from TV contracts, ticket
sales, and licensing and merchandise. Several commentators have discussed whether the NCAA
limit on player compensation violates antitrust laws. There is a consensus among economists
that the NCAA's compensation caps for men's basketball and football players benefit the
athletes' schools (through rent-seeking) at the expense of the athletes.[3] Economists have
subsequently characterized the NCAA as a cartel and collusive monopsony.[6][8][7][93][94]

Pro-rating payouts to Division I basketball players in proportion to the size of revenues its
championship tournament generates relative to the NCAA's total annual revenues would be one
possible approach, but will open the door to litigation by students and schools adversely
affected by such a formula.

According to a national study by the National College Players Association (NCPA) and the Drexel
University Sport Management Department, the average FBS “full” athletic scholarship falls short
of the full cost of attending each school by an average of $3285 during 2011–12 school year,
and leaves the vast majority of full scholarship players living below the federal poverty line. [95]

In 2020, the NCAA Board of Governors announced that they supported rule changes that would
permit players to receive athletics-related endorsements from third-parties.[96] All divisions were
expected to adopt new rules relating to the use of players' names, images, and likenesses before
the 2021-2022 academic year begins.

On May 6, 2021, Governor Brian Kemp signed Bill 617 into law, giving collegiate athletes the
ability to profit off their Name, Image and Likeness. The University of Georgia have said they will
immediately compensate their student athletes, while Georgia Tech and Georgia State University
have not set anything yet.[97]

On June 21, 2021, the U.S. Supreme Court held unanimously in National Collegiate Athletic
Association v. Alston that the NCAA's restrictions on education-related payments were unlawfully
in violation of Sherman Act's anti-trust and trade regulations.[98][99] Though this holding did not
address restrictions on direct compensation payment to athletes, it also opened the door for the
possibly of future court cases concerning this matter.[100][98]

The NCAA announced on July 1, 2021, that as a result of O'Bannon and numerous state laws
giving college players the ability to manage their publicity, the board had agreed to new rules
that removed restrictions on college athletes from entering paid endorsements and other
sponsorship deals, and from using agents to manage their publicity. Students would still be
required to inform the school of all such activities, with the school to make determinations if
those activities violate state and local laws.[101]

Individual awards

See also: Academic All-America, Best Female College Athlete ESPY Award,[102] Best Male College
Athlete ESPY Award,[102] Senior CLASS Award, Honda Sports Award, College baseball awards,
and Sports Illustrated 2009 all-decade honors (college basketball & football)
See footnote[103]

The NCAA presents a number of different individual awards, including:

NCAA Award of Valor (not given every year); selection is based on the heroic action occurring
during the academic year.

NCAA Gerald R. Ford Award, honoring an individual who has provided significant leadership as
an advocate for intercollegiate athletics.

NCAA Inspiration Award (not given every year); selection is based on inspirational action.

NCAA Sportsmanship Award, honoring student-athletes who have demonstrated one or more
of the ideals of sportsmanship.

NCAA Theodore Roosevelt Award, the highest honor that the NCAA can confer on an
individual.

NCAA Woman of the Year Award, honoring a senior student-athlete who has distinguished
herself throughout her collegiate career in academics, athletics, service, and leadership.
 Elite 90 Award, honoring the student-athlete with the highest cumulative GPA who has reached
the competition at the finals site for each of the NCAA's 90 men's and women's
championships (in Divisions I, II, and III, plus "National Collegiate" championships open to
schools from more than one division).

Silver Anniversary Awards, honoring six distinguished former student-athletes on the 25th
anniversary of their college graduation.

The Flying Wedge Award, one of the NCAA's highest honors exemplifying outstanding
leadership and service to the NCAA.

Today's Top 10 Award, honoring ten outstanding senior student-athletes.

Walter Byers Scholarship, honoring the top male and female scholar-athletes.

In previous years, the NCAA has presented the following awards at its NCAA Honors event:
Astronaut Salute, Business Leader Salute, Congressional Medal of Honor Salute, Governor
Salute, Olympians Salute, Performing Arts Salute, Presidents Cabinet Salute, Prominent National
Media Salute, Special Recognition Awards, U.S. House of Representatives Salute, and U.S.
Senate Salute.[104]

Other collegiate athletic organizations

The NCAA is the dominant, but not the only, collegiate athletic organization in the United States.
Several other such collegiate athletic organizations exist.

In the United States

National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA)

National Junior College Athletic Association (NJCAA) – two-year colleges (does not operate in
California or the Pacific Northwest)

California Community College Athletic Association (CCCAA) – two-year colleges in California

Northwest Athletic Conference (NWAC) – two-year colleges in Washington, Oregon and Idaho

National Christian College Athletic Association (NCCAA)

United States Collegiate Athletic Association (USCAA)

Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW) – disbanded in 1982, after NCAA
began sponsoring championships in women's sports
Foreign equivalents
Australia: UniSport Australia and other school affiliations such as Athletic Association of the
Great Public Schools of New South Wales (GPS), and Combined Associated Schools (CAS)

Canada: U Sports, and Canadian Collegiate Athletic Association (CCAA)

Indonesia: Liga Mahasiswa (LIMA)

Philippines National Collegiate Athletic Association (Philippines) (NCAA), and University

Athletic Association of the Philippines (UAAP)

United Kingdom: British Universities & Colleges Sport

International governing body

International University Sports Federation (FISU) (Fédération Internationale du Sport
Universitaire)

See also

College athletics in the United States

College club sports in the United States

College recruiting

College rivalries

Higher education in the United States

Homosexuality in modern sports

List of college athletic programs by U.S. state

List of college sports team nicknames

List of U.S. college mascots

NCAA Native American mascot decision

Notes and references

Notes
a. NCAA is usually pronounced "N C double A", though some pronounce the initialism one letter at a time,
"N-C-A-A". However, the organization itself officially pronounces the former.
 b. The NCAA prohibits Division III members from using the National Letter of Intent program, or requiring
that prospective athletes sign any pre-enrollment document that is not executed by other prospective
students at that institution. The NCAA does allow the signing of a standard, non-binding celebratory form
upon the student's acceptance of enrollment, but this signing cannot take place at the institution's
campus, and staff members of that school cannot be present at the signing.[49]

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Further reading

Carter, W. Burlette (2006). "The Age of Innocence: The First 25 Years of the NCAA, 1906–
1931" (http://scholarship.law.gwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1425&context=faculty_pub
lications) (PDF). Vanderbilt Journal of Entertainment and Technology. 8 (2): 211–91.

Carter, W. Burlette (2000). "Student Athlete Welfare in a Restructured NCAA" (http://scholarshi

p.law.gwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2223&context=faculty_publications) (PDF).
Virginia Journal of Sports and the Law. 8 (1): 1–103.

Carter, W. Burlette (2002). "Sounding the Death Knell for In Loco Parentis" (http://scholarship.l
aw.gwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2224&context=faculty_publications) (PDF). Indiana
Law Review. 35 (3): 851–923.

External links

Official website (https://www.ncaa.com/)

NCAA administrative website (https://www.ncaa.org/)

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