UNIT I:

VECTOR CALCULUS:
BY
RAMYA.M
DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED MATHEMATICS
SRI VENKATESWARA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

1
INTRODUCTION:
In a real world, we use vector calculus to know the variation of temperature
from one place to another, fluid velocity, the vorticity of air flow over a wing
of an airplane, electromagnetic field around an aerial, etc.
To find all such questions, it is simply not good enough to deal with the
normal differential calculus & integral calculus. We must instead know how
to integrate & differentiate vector quantities with three components (in
directions 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘) which depend on three co-ordinates 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧.
Vector:
𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑤𝑕𝑖𝑐𝑕 𝑎𝑠 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑕 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
Eg: velocity, acceleration.
Scalar:
𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑤𝑕𝑖𝑐𝑕 𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑛𝑜
𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
Eg: Temperature, mass.

2
 Scalar Point Function:
𝐴 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Eg: Temperature at any point in space.
Vector point function:
𝐴 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
Eg: Velocity of a moving particle.
Field:
𝑊𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓
𝑎 𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑.
Scalar field:
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑖𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟
Vector field:
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑖𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
3 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟.
 Vector differential operator:
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝛻(𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑙) 𝑖𝑠
𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻=𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟
𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑋, 𝑌, 𝑍.
Gradient:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑙𝑦
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑕 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒. 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝜑 𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜑 𝑜𝑟 𝛻𝜑 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜑 = 𝛻𝜑 = 𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

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Problems:
1. 𝐼𝑓 𝜑 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 . 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝛻𝜑 𝑎𝑡 (1,1, −1).
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝜑 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
By definition, 𝛻𝜑 = 𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
𝑇𝑕𝑒𝑛, = 2𝑥 , = 2𝑦 , = 2𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
∴ 𝛻𝜑 = 𝑖 2𝑥 + 𝑗 2𝑦 + 𝑘 2𝑧
𝛻𝜑) 1,1,−1 = 𝑖 2 + 𝑗 2 + 𝑘 −2
∴ 𝛁𝝋) 𝟏,𝟏,−𝟏 = 𝟐𝒊 + 𝟐𝒋 − 𝟐𝒌

2. 𝐼𝑓 𝜑 = log(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 ) , find 𝛻φ.

Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝜑 = log 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
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 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
By definition, 𝛻𝜑 = 𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
2𝑥 2𝑦 2𝑧
= 𝑖 2 2 2
+𝑗 2 2 2
+𝑘 2
𝑥 +𝑦 +𝑧 𝑥 +𝑦 +𝑧 𝑥 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2
2
= 2 2 2
𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘
𝑥 +𝑦 +𝑧
2
= 2 2 2
𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘
𝑥 +𝑦 +𝑧
2
= 2 𝑟 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟 = 𝑟 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )
𝑟
𝟐𝒓
𝛁𝝋 = 𝟐
𝒓

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 3. 𝐼𝑓 𝑟 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡
𝑟
𝑖 𝛻 𝑟 =
𝑟
𝑖𝑖 𝛻 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑟 𝑛−2 𝑟
𝑟
𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝛻 log 𝑟 = 2
𝑟
𝑓 ′ (𝑟)
𝑖𝑣 𝛻 𝑓 𝑟 = 𝑟.
𝑟
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑟 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘
∴ 𝑟 = 𝑟 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2
=> 𝑟 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
𝜕𝑟 1 𝑥 𝑥
∴ = 2𝑥 = =
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 𝑟2 𝑟
𝜕𝑟 1 𝑦 𝑦
= 2𝑦 = =
𝜕𝑦 2 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧
2 2 2 𝑟 2 𝑟
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 𝜕𝑟 1 𝑧 𝑧
= 2𝑧 = =
𝜕𝑧 2 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧
2 2 2 𝑟 2 𝑟
𝜕𝑟 𝑥 𝜕𝑟 𝑦 𝜕𝑟 𝑧
∴ = , = , =
𝜕𝑥 𝑟 𝜕𝑦 𝑟 𝜕𝑧 𝑟
𝑟
𝑖 𝑇𝑜 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒: 𝛻 𝑟 =
𝑟
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝛻 𝑟 = 𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
=𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
1 𝑟
= 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘 =
𝑟 𝑟
𝒓
∴ 𝛁 𝒓 =
𝒓

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 𝑖𝑖 𝑇𝑜 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝛻 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑟 𝑛−2 𝑟
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝑛
𝜕 𝑟 𝜕 𝑟 𝜕(𝑟 )
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝛻 𝑟 = 𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑛−1
𝜕𝑟 𝑛−1
𝜕𝑟 𝑛−1
𝜕𝑟
= 𝑖 𝑛𝑟 + 𝑗 𝑛𝑟 + 𝑘 𝑛𝑟
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑛−1
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
= 𝑛𝑟 𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑛−1
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
= 𝑛𝑟 𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝑛−1
𝑟
= 𝑛𝑟 = 𝑛𝑟 𝑛−2 𝑟
𝑟
∴ 𝛁 𝒓𝒏 = 𝒏𝒓𝒏−𝟐 𝒓
𝑟
𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑇𝑜 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒: 𝛻 log 𝑟 =
𝑟2
𝜕 log 𝑟 𝜕 log 𝑟 𝜕 log 𝑟
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝛻 log 𝑟 = 𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
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 1 𝜕𝑟 1 𝜕𝑟 1 𝜕𝑟
=𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘
𝑟 𝜕𝑥 𝑟 𝜕𝑦 𝑟 𝜕𝑧
1 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
= 𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘
𝑟 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
1 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
= 𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
1 𝑟 𝑟
= = 2
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝒓
∴ 𝛁 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒓 = 𝟐
𝒓
𝑓′ (𝑟)
𝑖𝑣 𝑇𝑜 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒: 𝛻 𝑓 𝑟 = 𝑟
𝑟
𝜕 𝑓(𝑟) 𝜕 𝑓(𝑟) 𝜕(𝑓(𝑟))
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝛻 𝑓(𝑟) = 𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
′
𝜕𝑟 ′
𝜕𝑟 ′
𝜕𝑟
= 𝑖 𝑓 (𝑟) + 𝑗 𝑓 (𝑟) + 𝑘 𝑓 (𝑟)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
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 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑟) 𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
′
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
= 𝑓 (𝑟) 𝑖 + 𝑗 + 𝑘
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝑟 ′
𝑓 (𝑟)
=𝑓 𝑟 ′ = 𝑟
𝑟 𝑟
𝒇′ (𝒓)
∴ 𝛁 𝒇 𝒓 = 𝒓
𝒓
Normal derivative of 𝝋:
𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝜑
= 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = |𝛻𝜑|
Problem:
𝑊𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝜑 = 𝑥𝑦𝑧 2 𝑎𝑡 1,0,3 .
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒?

11
 Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝜑 = 𝑥𝑦𝑧 2
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
By definition, 𝛻𝜑 = 𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= 𝑖(𝑦𝑧 2 ) + 𝑗(𝑥𝑧 2 ) + 𝑘(2𝑥𝑦𝑧)
= 𝑦𝑧 2 𝑖 + 𝑥𝑧 2 𝑗 + 2𝑥𝑦𝑧𝑘
𝛻𝜑) 1,0,3 = 0𝑖 + 1 9 𝑗 + 0𝑘 = 9𝑗
𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝜑 = 𝛻𝜑 = 92
𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝝋 = 𝟗

Directional derivative:
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝜑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑛 𝑖𝑠
𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝛻𝜑. 𝑛
𝑛
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 =
|𝑛|
12
 Problems:
1. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑥𝑦𝑧 − 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 3 𝑎𝑡
𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 1,2, −1 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖 − 𝑗 − 3𝑘.
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝜑 = 𝑥𝑦𝑧 − 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 3 & 𝑛 = 𝑖 − 𝑗 − 3𝑘
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝛻𝜑. 𝑛
𝑛
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 =
|𝑛|
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
By definition, 𝛻𝜑 = 𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= 𝑖((1)𝑦𝑧 − 1 𝑦 2 𝑧 3 ) + 𝑗(𝑥(1)𝑧 − 𝑥(2𝑦)𝑧 3 )
+ 𝑘 𝑥𝑦 1 − 𝑥𝑦 2 3𝑧 2
= 𝑖 𝑦𝑧 − 𝑦 2 𝑧 3 + 𝑗 𝑥𝑧 − 2𝑥𝑦𝑧 3 + 𝑘 𝑥𝑦 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 2
𝛻𝜑) 1,2,−1 = −2 − 4 −1 𝑖 + −1 − 2 2 −1 𝑗 +
2−3 4 1 𝑘
13
 𝛻𝜑) 1,2,−1 = 2𝑖 + 3𝑗 − 10𝑘
𝑛 𝑖 − 𝑗 − 3𝑘 𝑖 − 𝑗 − 3𝑘
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜, 𝑛= = =
|𝑛| 1+1+9 11
𝑖 − 𝑗 − 3𝑘
𝑛=
11
∴ 𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 𝛻𝜑. 𝑛
𝑖 − 𝑗 − 3𝑘
= 2𝑖 + 3𝑗 − 10𝑘 .
11
2 1 + 3 −1 − 10(−3)
=
11
2 − 3 + 30 29
= =
11 11
𝟐𝟗
∴ 𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 =
14
𝟏𝟏
 2. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜑 = 𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑦𝑧 3 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 2, −1,1 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒
𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑥 log 𝑧 − 𝑦 2 + 4 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
−1,2,1 .
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝜑 = 𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑦𝑧 3 .
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝛹 = 𝑥 log 𝑧 − 𝑦 2 + 4
𝑛
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝛻𝜑. 𝑛 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 =
|𝑛|
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
= 𝛻𝛹𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡.
𝜕𝛹 𝜕𝛹 𝜕𝛹
By definition, 𝛻𝛹 = 𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑥
= 𝑖 log 𝑧 + 0 + 𝑗 0 − 2𝑦 + 𝑘
𝑧
𝛻𝛹) −1,2,1 = log 1 𝑖 − 2 2 𝑗 − 1𝑘 = −4𝑗 − 𝑘
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑛 = −4𝑗 − 𝑘
15
 ∴ 𝑛 = 16 + 1 = 17
𝑛 −4𝑗 − 𝑘
∴𝑛= =
𝑛 17
−4𝑗 − 𝑘
∴ 𝑛=
17
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜑 = 𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑦𝑧 3
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
By definition, 𝛻𝜑 = 𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= 𝑖 𝑦 2 + 𝑗 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 3 + 𝑘(3𝑦𝑧 2 )
𝛻𝜑) 2,−1,1 = 𝑖 + −4 + 1 𝑗 + −3 𝑘
𝛻𝜑) 2,−1,1 = 𝑖 − 3𝑗 − 3𝑘
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 𝛻𝜑. 𝑛
−4𝑗 − 𝑘
= 𝑖 − 3𝑗 − 3𝑘 .
16
17
 1 0 − 3 −4 − 3(−1) 15
= =
17 17
𝟏𝟓
𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 =
𝟏𝟕

3. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝜑 = 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 + 4𝑥𝑧 2

𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑃 1, −2, −1 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑄,
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑄 𝑖𝑠 3, −3, −2 .
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝜑 = 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 + 4𝑥𝑧 2
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑄
𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝛻𝜑. 𝑃𝑄
𝑃𝑄
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑃𝑄 =
|𝑃𝑄|
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
By definition, 𝛻𝜑 = 𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘
17 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 = 𝑖 2𝑥𝑦𝑧 + 4𝑧 2 + 𝑗 𝑥 2 𝑧 + 0 + 𝑘(𝑥 2 𝑦 + 8𝑥𝑧)
𝛻𝜑) 1,−2,−1 = 𝑖 2 2 + 4 + 𝑗 −1 + 𝑘 −2 − 8
∴ 𝛻𝜑) 1,−2,−1 = 8𝑖 − 𝑗 − 10𝑘
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑃 𝑖𝑠 1, −2, −1 & 𝑄 𝑖𝑠 (3, −3, −2)
𝑇𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑂𝑄 − 𝑂𝑃
= 3𝑖 − 3𝑗 − 2𝑘 − 𝑖 − 2𝑗 − 𝑘 = 2𝑖 − 𝑗 − 𝑘
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑃𝑄 = 4 + 1 + 1 = 6
𝑃𝑄 2𝑖 − 𝑗 − 𝑘
∴ 𝑃𝑄 = =
|𝑃𝑄| 6
2𝑖 − 𝑗 − 𝑘
∴ 𝑃𝑄 =
6
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 𝛻𝜑. 𝑃𝑄
2𝑖 − 𝑗 − 𝑘
= 8𝑖 − 𝑗 − 10𝑘 .
18 6
 8 2 − 1 −1 − 10 −1 16 + 1 + 10
= =
6 6
𝟐𝟕
𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 =
𝟔
Unit normal:
𝐴 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝜑 𝑖𝑠
𝛻𝜑
𝑛=
|𝛻𝜑|
Problem:
1. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑧 = 10 𝑎𝑡 1,1,1 .
Solution:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝜑 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑧 − 10
𝛻𝜑
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑛 =
|𝛻𝜑|
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
19 By definition, 𝛻𝜑 = 𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 = 𝑖 2𝑥 + 𝑗 2𝑦 + 𝑘(−1)
𝛻φ) 1,1,1 = 2𝑖 + 2𝑗 − 𝑘
𝛻φ = 4 + 4 + 1 = 3
𝛻𝜑 2𝑖 + 2𝑗 − 𝑘
∴ 𝑛= =
|𝛻𝜑| 3
𝟐𝒊 + 𝟐𝒋 − 𝒌
∴ 𝒏=
𝟑

2. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 2 − 4

𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 1, −1,2 .
Solution:
Hint:
𝛻φ) 1,−1,2 = 𝑖 + 𝑗 + 4𝑘
𝛻𝜑 𝑖 + 𝑗 + 4𝑘
∴ 𝑛= =
20 |𝛻𝜑| 18
 Angle between the surfaces:
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝜑1 = 𝑐1 &
𝜑2 = 𝑐2 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦
𝛻𝜑1 . 𝛻𝜑2
cos 𝜃 =
𝛻𝜑1 𝛻𝜑2
Note:
𝐼𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑕𝑜𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝛻𝜑1 . 𝛻𝜑2 = 0
Problems:
1. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 − 𝑧 2 = 11
& 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦𝑧 − 𝑧𝑥 = 18 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 6,4,3 .
Solution:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝜑1 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 − 𝑧 2 − 11
𝜑2 = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦𝑧 − 𝑧𝑥 − 18
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝜑1 = 𝑐1 &𝜑2 = 𝑐2 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛
𝛻𝜑1 .𝛻𝜑2
𝑏𝑦 cos 𝜃 =
𝛻𝜑1 𝛻𝜑2

21
 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
By definition, 𝛻𝜑 = 𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜑1 𝜕𝜑1 𝜕𝜑1
∴ 𝛻𝜑1 = 𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= 𝑖 2𝑥 + 𝑗 −2𝑦 + 𝑘(−2𝑧)
𝛻𝜑1 ) 6,4,3 = 12𝑖 − 8𝑗 − 6𝑘
𝛻𝜑1 = 144 + 64 + 36
𝛻𝜑1 = 244
𝜕𝜑2 𝜕𝜑2 𝜕𝜑2
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜, 𝛻𝜑2 = 𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= 𝑖 𝑦 − 𝑧 + 𝑗 𝑥 + 𝑧 + 𝑘(𝑦 − 𝑥)
𝛻𝜑2 ) 6,4,3 = 𝑖 + 9𝑗 − 2𝑘
𝛻𝜑2 = 1 + 81 + 4 𝛻𝜑2 = 86
22
 𝛻𝜑1 . 𝛻𝜑2
cos 𝜃 =
𝛻𝜑1 𝛻𝜑2
12𝑖 − 8𝑗 − 6𝑘 . 𝑖 + 9𝑗 − 2𝑘
=
244 86
12 1 − 8 9 − 6 −2
=
244 86
−48
=
244 86
−1
−48
∴ 𝜃 = cos
244 86

2. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒

𝑥𝑦 = 𝑧 2 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 −2, −2,2 & 1,9, −3 .
Solution:

23
 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝜑 = 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑧 2
𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝛻𝜑 = 𝑖 𝑦 + 𝑗 𝑥 + 𝑘 −2𝑧
𝛻𝜑)(−2,−2,2) = −2𝑖 − 2𝑗 − 4𝑘 = 𝛻𝜑1
𝛻𝜑) 1,9,−3 = 9𝑖 + 𝑗 + 6𝑘 = 𝛻𝜑2
∴ 𝛻𝜑1 = 24 & 𝛻𝜑2 = 118
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦
𝛻𝜑1 . 𝛻𝜑2
cos 𝜃 =
𝛻𝜑1 𝛻𝜑2
−2𝑖 − 2𝑗 − 4𝑘 . 9𝑖 + 𝑗 + 6𝑘
=
24 118
−18 − 2 − 24 −44
= =
24 118 24 118
−1
−44
∴ 𝜃 = cos
24 118
24
 3. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑎 & 𝑏 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑕 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑥 2 − 𝑏𝑦𝑧 = 𝑎 + 2 𝑥 &
4𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑧 3 = 4 𝑐𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑕𝑜𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑡 1, −1,2 .
Solution:
𝐼𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑕𝑜𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛
𝛻𝜑1 . 𝛻𝜑2 = 0
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝜑1 = 𝑎𝑥 2 − 𝑏𝑦𝑧 − 𝑎 + 2 𝑥 &
𝜑2 = 4𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑧 3 − 4
∴ 𝛻𝜑1 = 𝑖 2𝑎𝑥 − 𝑎 + 2 + 𝑗 −𝑏𝑧 + 𝑘(−𝑏𝑦)
𝛻𝜑1 ) 1,−1,2 = 2𝑎 − 𝑎 − 2 𝑖 − 2𝑏𝑗 + 𝑏𝑘
𝛻𝜑1 ) 1,−1,2 = 𝑎 − 2 𝑖 − 2𝑏𝑗 + 𝑏𝑘
Also, 𝛻𝜑2 = 𝑖 8𝑥𝑦 + 𝑗 4𝑥 2 + 𝑘(3𝑧 2 )
𝛻𝜑2 ) 1,−1,2 = −8 𝑖 + 4𝑗 + 12𝑘
𝛻𝜑2 ) 1,−1,2 = −8𝑖 + 4𝑗 + 12𝑘

25
 since, 𝛻𝜑1 . 𝛻𝜑2 = 0
𝑎 − 2 𝑖 − 2𝑏𝑗 + 𝑏𝑘 . −8𝑖 + 4𝑗 + 12𝑘 = 0
𝑎 − 2 −8 − 2𝑏 4 + 𝑏 12 = 0
−8𝑎 + 16 + 4𝑏 = 0
2𝑎 − 𝑏 = 4 → 1
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 1, −1,2 𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
∴ 𝜑1 ) 1,−1,2 = 𝑎 − 𝑏 −2 − 𝑎 + 2 = 0
2𝑏 − 2 = 0
∴ 𝑏=1
sub 𝑏 = 1 in 1 , we get
2𝑎 − 1 = 4
2𝑎 = 5
5
𝑎=
2

26
 Divergence and Curl:
Divergence:
𝐼𝑓 𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑙𝑦
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒. 𝑇𝑕𝑒
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐹 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐹 𝑜𝑟 𝛻. 𝐹 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻. 𝐹 = 𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘 . 𝐹1 𝑖 + 𝐹2 𝑗 + 𝐹3 𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝐹1 𝜕𝐹2 𝜕𝐹3
𝛻. 𝐹 = + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Solenoidal vector:
𝐼𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐹 = 0 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝐹 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑙.
Note:
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐹 𝑜𝑟 𝛻. 𝐹 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟.

27
 Curl:
𝐼𝑓 𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑙𝑦
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒. 𝑇𝑕𝑒
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝐹 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹 𝑜𝑟 𝛻 × 𝐹 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻×𝐹 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐹1 𝐹2 𝐹3
Irrotational vector:
𝐼𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹 = 0 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝐹 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙.
Note:
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹 𝑜𝑟 𝛻 × 𝐹 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟.

28
 Problems:
1. 𝐼𝑓 𝐹 = 𝛻φ 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜑 = 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧 2 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐹 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹.
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝜑 = 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧 2 & 𝐹 = 𝛻φ
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
∴𝐹=𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
∴ 𝐹 = 2𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 2 𝑖 + 2𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 2 𝑗 + 2𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧𝑘
𝑻𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒅𝒊𝒗 𝑭:
𝜕𝐹1 𝜕𝐹2 𝜕𝐹3
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐹 = 𝛻. 𝐹 = + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 2 2
𝜕 2 2
𝜕
= 2𝑥𝑦 𝑧 + 2𝑥 𝑦𝑧 + 2𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= 2𝑦 2 𝑧 2 + 2𝑥 2 𝑧 2 + 2𝑥 2 𝑦 2
∴ 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐹 (1,1,1) = 2 + 2 + 2 = 6
∴ 𝒅𝒊𝒗 𝑭 𝟏,𝟏,𝟏
=𝟔
29
 𝑻𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍 𝑭:
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹 = 𝛻 × 𝐹 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐹1 𝐹2 𝐹3
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
2𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 2 2𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 2 2𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧
= 𝑖 4𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 − 4𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 − 𝑗 4𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 − 4𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 + 𝑘 4𝑥𝑦𝑧 2 − 4𝑥𝑦𝑧 2
=0
∴ 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍 𝑭 (𝟏,𝟏,𝟏)
=𝟎

30
 2. 𝑃𝑇 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐹 = 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 4𝑧 𝑖 + 2𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 4𝑧 𝑗 +
4𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 8𝑧 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑕 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑙 & 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙.
Solution:
𝑻𝑷 𝑭 𝒊𝒔 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒐𝒊𝒅𝒂𝒍: 𝒊𝒆. , 𝑻𝑷 𝛁. 𝑭 = 𝟎
𝜕𝐹1 𝜕𝐹2 𝜕𝐹3
𝛻. 𝐹 = + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= (3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 4𝑧) + (2𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 4𝑧) + (4𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 8𝑧)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
=3+5−8=0
∴ 𝑭 𝒊𝒔 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒐𝒊𝒅𝒂𝒍
𝑻𝑷 𝑭 𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍: 𝒊𝒆. , 𝑻𝑷 𝛁 × 𝑭 = 𝟎
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻×𝐹 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐹1 𝐹2 𝐹3
31
 𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 4𝑧 2𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 4𝑧 4𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 8𝑧
=𝑖 4−4 +𝑗 4−4 +𝑘 2−2 =0
∴ 𝑭 𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍
3. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎, 𝑖𝑓 𝐹 = 2𝑥 − 5𝑦 𝑖 + 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗 + 3𝑥 − 𝑧 𝑘
𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑙.
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝐹 = 2𝑥 − 5𝑦 𝑖 + 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗 + 3𝑥 − 𝑧 𝑘
𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑙.
∴ 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐹 = 0
𝑻𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂:
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐹 = 0
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
2𝑥 − 5𝑦 + 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 + 3𝑥 − 𝑧 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
2 + 𝑎 − 1 = 0 => 𝒂 = −𝟏
32
4. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 𝑠𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐹 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧 𝑖 + 𝑏𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 𝑗 + −𝑥 + 𝑐𝑦 + 2𝑧 𝑘
𝑚𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑒 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙.
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝐹 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧 𝑖 + 𝑏𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 𝑗 + −𝑥 + 𝑐𝑦 + 2𝑧 𝑘
𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙
∴ 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹 = 0
𝑻𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂, 𝒃 & 𝒄:
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
=0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧 𝑏𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 −𝑥 + 𝑐𝑦 + 2𝑧
𝑖 𝑐 + 1 + 𝑗 −1 − 𝑎 + 𝑘 𝑏 − 1 = 0
𝑇𝑕𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑕 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜.
∴ 𝑐 + 1 = 0 , −1 − 𝑎 = 0 , 𝑏 − 1 = 0
=> 𝒂 = −𝟏 , 𝒃 = 𝟏 , 𝒄 = −𝟏
33
 5. 𝑆𝑕𝑜𝑤 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝐹 = 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥𝑧 2 𝑖 + 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑧 𝑗 +
2𝑥 2 𝑧 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 & 𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙.
Solution:
𝑻𝑷 𝑭 𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍: 𝒊𝒆. , 𝑻𝑷 𝛁 × 𝑭 = 𝟎
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻×𝐹 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑦 2 + 2𝑥𝑧 2 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑧 2𝑥 2 𝑧 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧
=0
∴ 𝑭 𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍
𝑻𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝐹 𝑏𝑒 𝜑.
∴ 𝐹 = 𝛻𝜑
34
 2 2 2
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑧 𝑖 + 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑧 𝑗 + 2𝑥 𝑧 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 𝑘 = 𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖, 𝑗 &𝑘 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑕 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠
𝜕𝜑
= 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥𝑧 2 → (1),
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝜑
= 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑧 → (2),
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝜑
= 2𝑥 2 𝑧 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 → 3
𝜕𝑧
𝑻𝒐 𝒈𝒆𝒕 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝝋:
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 1 , 2 & 3 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 𝑥, 𝑦 & 𝑧
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦, 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡
𝜑 = 𝑦 2 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑧 2 + 𝑓 𝑦, 𝑧
𝜑 = 𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝑧𝑦 + 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑧
𝜑 = 𝑥 2 𝑧 2 − 𝑦𝑧 + 𝑧 2 + 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡,
𝝋 = 𝒙𝒚𝟐 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒛𝟐 − 𝒚𝒛 + 𝒛𝟐 + 𝒄
35
 6. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑠𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡
𝐹 = 𝑎𝑥𝑦 + 𝑏𝑧 3 𝑖 + 3𝑥 2 − 𝑐𝑧 𝑗 + 3𝑥𝑧 2 − 𝑦 𝑘
𝑚𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑒 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙. 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑
𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙.
Solution:
Hint:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝐹 = 𝑎𝑥𝑦 + 𝑏𝑧 2 𝑖 + 3𝑥 2 − 𝑐𝑧 𝑗 + 3𝑥𝑧 2 − 𝑦 𝑘
𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙
∴ 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹 = 0
𝑎 = 6, 𝑏 = 1, 𝑐 = 1
∴ 𝐹 = 6𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 3 𝑖 + 3𝑥 2 − 𝑧 𝑗 + 3𝑥𝑧 2 − 𝑦 𝑘
𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦
𝝋 = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝒚 + 𝒙𝒛𝟑 − 𝒚𝒛 + 𝒄

36
 Definition: (Laplace Equation):
𝐼𝑓 𝜑 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝛻 2 𝜑 = 0 𝑖𝑠
𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
Note:
• 𝛻 2 𝜑 = 𝛻. 𝛻 𝜑 = 𝛻. 𝛻𝜑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜑
• 𝐼𝑓 𝜑 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛
𝛻. 𝜑𝐹 = 𝜑 𝛻. 𝐹 + 𝛻𝜑 . 𝐹 &
𝛻 × 𝜑𝐹 = 𝜑 𝛻 × 𝐹 + 𝛻𝜑 × 𝐹
Problems:
1. 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝛻 2 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑛 𝑛 + 1 𝑟 𝑛−2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑
1
𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝛻 2
𝑟
Solution:
𝑻𝑷 𝛁𝟐 𝒓𝒏 = 𝒏 𝒏 + 𝟏 𝒓𝒏−𝟐

37
 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝛻 2 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝛻. 𝛻𝑟 𝑛
= 𝛻. 𝑛𝑟 𝑛−2 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝛻𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑟 𝑛−2 𝑟
= 𝑛 𝛻 𝑟 𝑛−2 . 𝑟 + 𝑟 𝑛−2 𝛻. 𝑟
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝛻. 𝜑𝐹 = 𝜑 𝛻. 𝐹 + 𝛻𝜑 . 𝐹
= 𝑛 𝑛 − 2 𝑟 𝑛−4 𝑟. 𝑟 + 𝑟 𝑛−2 3
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝛻. 𝑟 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 =1+1+1=3
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝛻 2 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑛 𝑛 − 2 𝑟 𝑛−4 𝑟 2 + 𝑟 𝑛−2 3
= 𝑛 𝑛 − 2 𝑟 𝑛−2 + 3𝑟 𝑛−2
= 𝑛 𝑛 + 1 𝑟 𝑛−2
∴ 𝜵𝟐 𝒓𝒏 = 𝒏 𝒏 + 𝟏 𝒓𝒏−𝟐
𝟏
𝑻𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝛁𝟐 :
𝒓
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝛻 2 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑛 𝑛 + 1 𝑟 𝑛−2

38
 𝑆𝑢𝑏 𝑛 = −1 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡,
1
𝛻2 = −1 0 𝑟 −3 = 0
𝑟
𝟐
𝟏
𝛁 =𝟎
𝒓

2. 𝑃𝑇 𝛻. 𝑟 𝑛 𝑟 = 𝑛 + 3 𝑟 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛻 × 𝑟 𝑛 𝑟 = 0.
Solution:
𝑻𝑷 𝛁. 𝒓𝒏 𝒓 = 𝒏 + 𝟑 𝒓𝒏 :
consider 𝛻. 𝑟 𝑛 𝑟 = 𝛻𝑟 𝑛 . 𝑟 + 𝑟 𝑛 𝛻. 𝑟
= 𝑛𝑟 𝑛−2 𝑟 . 𝑟 + 𝑟 𝑛 3
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝛻𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑟 𝑛−2 𝑟 &𝛻. 𝑟 = 3
= 𝑛𝑟 𝑛−2 𝑟. 𝑟 + 3𝑟 𝑛
= 𝑛𝑟 𝑛−2 𝑟 2 + 3𝑟 𝑛
= 𝑛𝑟 𝑛 + 3𝑟 𝑛
∴ 𝛁. 𝒓𝒏 𝒓 = 𝒏 + 𝟑 𝒓𝒏
39
 𝐓𝐏 𝛁 × 𝒓𝒏 𝒓 = 𝟎:
cosider, 𝛻 × 𝑟 𝑛 𝑟 = 𝛻𝑟 𝑛 × 𝑟 + 𝑟 𝑛 𝛻 × 𝑟
= 𝑛𝑟 𝑛−2 𝑟 × 𝑟 + 𝑟 𝑛 0
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝛻𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑟 𝑛−2 𝑟 &𝛻 × 𝑟 = 0
= 𝑛𝑟 𝑛−2 𝑟 × 𝑟 = 0 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟 × 𝑟 = 0)
𝛁 × 𝒓𝒏 𝒓 = 𝟎

1
3. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝛻. 𝑟
𝑟
Solution:
1 1 1
𝛻. 𝑟 = 𝛻 . 𝑟 + 𝛻. 𝑟 → 1
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
1 𝜕 1 𝜕 1 𝜕 1
consider, 𝛻 =𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘
𝑟 𝜕𝑥 𝑟 𝜕𝑦 𝑟 𝜕𝑧 𝑟
1 𝜕𝑟 1 𝜕𝑟 1 𝜕𝑟
= − 2 𝑖+ − 2 𝑗+ − 2 𝑘
40
𝑟 𝜕𝑥 𝑟 𝜕𝑦 𝑟 𝜕𝑧
 1 𝑥 1 𝑦 1 𝑧
= − 2 𝑖+ − 2 𝑗+ − 2 𝑘
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
1 𝑟
= − 3 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘 = − 3
𝑟 𝑟
1 𝑟
𝛻 =− 3 → 2
𝑟 𝑟
𝑠𝑢𝑏 2 𝑖𝑛 1 , 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡
1 𝑟 1
𝛻. 𝑟 = − 3 . 𝑟 + 3
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝑟2 3 2
=− 3+ =
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝟏 𝟐
𝛁. 𝒓 =
𝒓 𝒓

41
 2
4. 𝑃𝑇𝛻2 𝑓 𝑟 = 𝑓"(𝑟) + 𝑓′(𝑟).
𝑟
Solution:
consider, 𝛻2 𝑓 𝑟 = 𝛻. 𝛻𝑓 𝑟
𝑓′ 𝑟 𝑓′ 𝑟
= 𝛻. 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝛻𝑓 𝑟 = 𝑟
𝑟 𝑟
𝑓′ 𝑟 𝑓′ 𝑟
𝛻2 𝑓 𝑟 =𝛻 .𝑟 + 𝛻. 𝑟 → (1)
𝑟 𝑟
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟,
𝑓′ 𝑟 𝜕 𝑓′ 𝑟 𝜕 𝑓′ 𝑟 𝜕 𝑓′ 𝑟
𝛻 =𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘
𝑟 𝜕𝑥 𝑟 𝜕𝑦 𝑟 𝜕𝑧 𝑟
𝑟𝑓"(𝑟) − 𝑓′(𝑟) 𝜕𝑟 𝑟𝑓"(𝑟) − 𝑓′(𝑟) 𝜕𝑟
= 2
𝑖+ 2
𝑗
𝑟 𝜕𝑥 𝑟 𝜕𝑦
𝑟𝑓"(𝑟) − 𝑓′(𝑟) 𝜕𝑟
+ 2
𝑘
𝑟 𝜕𝑧
42
 𝑟𝑓"(𝑟) − 𝑓′(𝑟) 𝑟
=
𝑟2 𝑟
𝑟𝑓"(𝑟) − 𝑓′(𝑟)
= 3
𝑟 → 2
𝑟
𝑠𝑢𝑏 2 𝑖𝑛 1 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡,
𝑓 ′ 𝑟 𝑓 ′ 𝑟
𝛻2 𝑓 𝑟 = 𝛻 .𝑟 + 𝛻. 𝑟
𝑟 𝑟
𝑟𝑓"(𝑟) − 𝑓′(𝑟) 𝑓′ 𝑟
= 3
𝑟. 𝑟 + 3
𝑟 𝑟
𝑟𝑓"(𝑟) − 𝑓′(𝑟) 2 𝑓′ 𝑟
= 3
𝑟 +3
𝑟 𝑟
𝑟𝑓"(𝑟) − 𝑓′(𝑟) 𝑓′ 𝑟
= +3
𝑟 𝑟
𝟐
𝟐
𝛁 𝒇 𝒓 = 𝒇"(𝒓) + 𝒇′(𝒓)
𝒓

43
 5. 𝐼𝑓 𝐹 = 3𝑥 2 𝑖 + 5𝑥𝑦 2 𝑗 + 𝑥𝑦𝑧 3 𝑘, 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝛻. 𝐹 , 𝛻 𝛻. 𝐹 , 𝛻 × 𝐹 ,
𝛻. 𝛻 × 𝐹 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛻 × 𝛻 × 𝐹 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 1,1,1 .
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝐹 = 3𝑥 2 𝑖 + 5𝑥𝑦 2 𝑗 + 𝑥𝑦𝑧 3 𝑘
𝑻𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝛁. 𝑭:
𝜕 2
𝜕 2
𝜕
𝛻. 𝐹 = 3𝑥 + 5𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦𝑧 3
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝛻. 𝐹 = 6𝑥 + 10𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑦𝑧 2 → 1
𝛻. 𝐹 1,1,1 = 6 + 10 + 3 = 19
𝛁. 𝑭 (𝟏,𝟏,𝟏)
= 𝟏𝟗
𝑻𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝛁 𝛁. 𝑭 :

𝛻 𝛻. 𝐹 = 𝛻 6𝑥 + 10𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑦𝑧 2 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 1

= 6 + 10𝑦 + 3𝑦𝑧 2 𝑖 + 10𝑥 + 3𝑥𝑧 2 𝑗 + 6𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝑘
44
 𝛁 𝛁. 𝑭 (𝟏,𝟏,𝟏)
= 𝟏𝟗𝒊 + 𝟏𝟑𝒋 + 𝟔𝒌

𝑻𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝛁 × 𝑭:
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻×𝐹 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
3𝑥 2 5𝑥𝑦 2 𝑥𝑦𝑧 3
= 𝑖 𝑥𝑧 3 − 0 − 𝑗 𝑦𝑧 3 − 0 + 𝑘 5𝑦 2 − 0
𝛻 × 𝐹 = 𝑥𝑧 3 𝑖 − 𝑦𝑧 3 𝑗 + 5𝑦 2 𝑘 → (2)
𝛁×𝑭 𝟏,𝟏,𝟏
= 𝒊 − 𝒋 + 𝟓𝒌
𝑻𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝛁. 𝛁 × 𝑭 :
𝛻. 𝛻 × 𝐹 = 𝛻. 𝑥𝑧 3 𝑖 − 𝑦𝑧 3 𝑗 + 5𝑦 2 𝑘 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 2
= 𝑧3 − 𝑧3
𝛁. 𝛁 × 𝑭 (𝟏,𝟏,𝟏)
=𝟎
45
 𝑻𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝛁 × 𝛁 × 𝑭 :
𝛻 × 𝛻 × 𝐹 = 𝛻 × 𝑥𝑧 3 𝑖 − 𝑦𝑧 3 𝑗 + 5𝑦 2 𝑘
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑥𝑧 3 −𝑦𝑧 3 5𝑦 2
= 𝑖 10𝑦 + 3𝑦𝑧 2 − 𝑗 0 − 3𝑥𝑧 2 + 𝑘 0 − 0
𝛁× 𝛁×𝑭 𝟏,𝟏,𝟏
= 𝟏𝟑𝒊 + 𝟑𝒋

46
 Vector Integration:
Line integral:

𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙

𝐶
𝑜𝑓 𝐹 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝐶.
Conservative vector field:
𝐼𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝐹 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑.
Note:
𝐼𝑓 𝐹 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹 = 0.
Work done by a force:
𝐼𝑓 𝐹 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
𝐶 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝐶 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 .

47
 Problems:
1. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐶 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝐶 𝑖𝑛 𝑥𝑦 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒,
𝑦 = 𝑥 3 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 1,1 𝑡𝑜 2,8 𝑖𝑓 𝐹 = 5𝑥𝑦 − 6𝑥 2 𝑖 +
2𝑦 − 4𝑥 𝑗 .
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝐹 = 5𝑥𝑦 − 6𝑥 2 𝑖 + 2𝑦 − 4𝑥 𝑗
𝑻𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝑪 𝑭. 𝒅𝒓 :
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 𝑖𝑛 𝑥𝑦 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
=> 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑑𝑥𝑖 + 𝑑𝑦𝑗
𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟
= 5𝑥𝑦 − 6𝑥 2 𝑖 + 2𝑦 − 4𝑥 𝑗 . 𝑑𝑥𝑖 + 𝑑𝑦𝑗
∴ 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = 5𝑥𝑦 − 6𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 4𝑥 𝑑𝑦 → (1)
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝐶: 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 => 𝑑𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = 5𝑥𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
48
 ∴ 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = 5𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 5 − 12𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐶 𝑥 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 1 𝑡𝑜 2
2

∴ 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = 5𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 5 − 12𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
𝐶 1
= − 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 6 − 3𝑥 4 12
𝑥5
= 32 − 1 − 2 8 − 1 + 64 − 1 − 3 16 − 1
= 31 − 14 + 63 − 45 = 35

∴ 𝑭. 𝒅𝒓 = 𝟑𝟓
𝑪

49
 2. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝐹 = 3𝑥 2 𝑖 + 2𝑥𝑧 − 𝑦 𝑗 − 𝑧𝑘 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡 = 0 𝑡𝑜 1
𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝐶: 𝑥 = 2𝑡 2 , 𝑦 = 𝑡, 𝑧 = 4𝑡 3 .
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝐹 = 3𝑥 2 𝑖 + 2𝑥𝑧 − 𝑦 𝑗 − 𝑧𝑘
𝑻𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆:
𝒊. 𝒆. , 𝒕𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝑪 𝑭. 𝒅𝒓 :
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘
=> 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑑𝑥𝑖 + 𝑑𝑦𝑗 + 𝑑𝑧𝑘
𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = 3𝑥 2 𝑖 + 2𝑥𝑧 − 𝑦 𝑗 − 𝑧𝑘 . (𝑑𝑥𝑖 + 𝑑𝑦𝑗 + 𝑑𝑧𝑘)
𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑧 − 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑧𝑑𝑧
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝐶: 𝑥 = 2𝑡 2 , 𝑦 = 𝑡, 𝑧 = 4𝑡 3
=> 𝑑𝑥 = 4𝑡𝑑𝑡, 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑡, 𝑑𝑧 = 12𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑡𝑜 1

50
 ∴ 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = 3 2𝑡 2 2
4𝑡𝑑𝑡 + 2 2𝑡 2 4𝑡 3 − 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 − 4𝑡 3 12𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
= 48𝑡 5 + 16𝑡 5 − 𝑡 − 48𝑡 5 𝑑𝑡
𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = 16𝑡 5 − 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1

∴ 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = ( 16𝑡 5 − 𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝐶 0
6 2 1
𝑡 𝑡
= 16 −
6 2 0
8 1
= 1−0 − 1−0
3 2
8 1 13
= − =
3 2 6
𝟏𝟑
∴ 𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 = 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔
𝟔

51
 3. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐶 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐹 = 2𝑦 + 3 𝑖 + 𝑥𝑧𝑗 + 𝑦𝑧 − 𝑥 𝑘
𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 0,0,0 𝑡𝑜 2,1,1 .
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝐹 = 2𝑦 + 3 𝑖 + 𝑥𝑧𝑗 + 𝑦𝑧 − 𝑥 𝑘
𝑑𝑟 = 𝑑𝑥𝑖 + 𝑑𝑦𝑗 + 𝑑𝑧𝑘
𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = 2𝑦 + 3 𝑖 + 𝑥𝑧𝑗 + 𝑦𝑧 − 𝑥 𝑘 . (𝑑𝑥𝑖 + 𝑑𝑦𝑗 + 𝑑𝑧𝑘)
𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = 2𝑦 + 3 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑧𝑑𝑦 + 𝑦𝑧 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑧
𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝐶 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠
0,0,0 𝑡𝑜 (2,1,1)
𝑆𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑧 − 𝑧1
= =
𝑥1 − 𝑥2 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 𝑧1 − 𝑧2
𝑥−0 𝑦−0 𝑧−0
=> = =
0−2 0−1 0−1
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
=> = = = 𝑡 𝑠𝑎𝑦
52 2 1 1
 => 𝑥 = 2𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑡, 𝑧 = 𝑡 => 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑑𝑡, 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑡, 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑡
* 𝑊𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0 => 𝑡 = 0 & 𝑥 = 2 => 𝑡 = 1
𝑦 = 0 => 𝑡 = 0 & 𝑦 = 1 => 𝑡 = 1
𝑧 = 0 => 𝑡 = 0 & 𝑧 = 1 => 𝑡 = 1 +
∴ 𝑡: 0 𝑡𝑜 1
𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = 2𝑡 + 3 2𝑑𝑡 + 2𝑡 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑡 𝑡 − 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= 4𝑡 + 6 + 2𝑡 2 + 𝑡 2 − 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= 3𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 + 6 𝑑𝑡
1

𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = 3𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 + 6 𝑑𝑡
𝐶 0
= + 6𝑡 10
𝑡 + 𝑡2
3

= 1−0 + 1−0 +6 1−0 =8

𝑭. 𝒅𝒓 = 𝟖
𝑪
53
 4. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝐹 = 𝑧𝑖 + 𝑥𝑗 + 𝑦𝑘,
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
𝑟 = cos 𝑡 𝑖 + sin 𝑡 𝑗 + 𝑡𝑘 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡 = 0 𝑡𝑜 2𝜋.
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝐹 = 𝑧𝑖 + 𝑥𝑗 + 𝑦𝑘 &
𝐶: 𝑟 = cos 𝑡 𝑖 + sin 𝑡 𝑗 + 𝑡𝑘
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑕𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡,
𝑥 = cos 𝑡 , 𝑦 = sin 𝑡 , 𝑧 = 𝑡
=> 𝑑𝑥 = − sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡, 𝑑𝑦 = cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡, 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑡 ∶ 0 𝑡𝑜 2𝜋

∴ 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟
𝐶
𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑧𝑖 + 𝑥𝑗 + 𝑦𝑘 . 𝑑𝑥𝑖 + 𝑑𝑦𝑗 + 𝑑𝑧𝑘
= 𝑧𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝑦𝑑𝑧
= 𝑡 − sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + cos 𝑡 (cos 𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
54
 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = −𝑡 sin 𝑡 + cos 2 𝑡 + sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2𝜋

𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = −𝑡 sin 𝑡 + cos 2 𝑡 + sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝐶 0
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋

=− 𝑡 sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + cos 2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

0 0 0
*𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 ′
𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑖 𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎
c𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑢 = 𝑡 & 𝑑𝑣 = sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
=> 𝑢′ = 1& 𝑣 = − cos 𝑡
=> 𝑢′′ = 0 &𝑣1 = − sin 𝑡 +

𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟
𝐶
2𝜋
= − −𝑡 cos 𝑡 + sin 𝑡 0
2𝜋
1 + cos 2𝑡
+ 𝑑𝑡 + ,− cos 𝑡-02𝜋
2
55 0
 1 sin 2𝑡 2𝜋
= − − 2𝜋 cos 2𝜋 − 0 + sin 2𝜋 − sin 0 + 𝑡 +
2 2 0
+ ,− cos 2𝜋 + cos 0-
1
= − −2𝜋 + 0 + 2𝜋 − 0 − 0 − 0
2
+ −1 + 1
= 2𝜋 + 𝜋 = 3𝜋
∴ 𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 = 𝟑𝝅 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔
5. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐶 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟, 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4 𝑖𝑛
𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑓 𝐹 = 2𝑥 − 𝑦 − 𝑧 𝑖 + 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 2 𝑗
+ 3𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 4𝑧 𝑘
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝐹 = 2𝑥 − 𝑦 − 𝑧 𝑖 + 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 2 𝑗
+ 3𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 4𝑧 𝑘
𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = 2𝑥 − 𝑦 − 𝑧 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑦 + 3𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 4𝑧 𝑑𝑧
56
 𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝐶: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑥𝑦 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑧 = 0 => 𝑑𝑧 = 0
∴ 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = 2𝑥 − 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐶 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒, 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑞𝑛 𝑜𝑓
𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑥 = 2 cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 2 sin 𝜃
=> 𝑑𝑥 = −2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃, 𝑑𝑦 = 2 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = (4 cos 𝜃
− 2 sin 𝜃) −2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 + 2 cos 𝜃 + 2 sin 𝜃 2 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
= ,−8 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 + 4𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃 + 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 4 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃-𝑑𝜃
= 4 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 + 4 𝑑𝜃 = ,2 sin 2𝜃 + 4-𝑑𝜃
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝜃: 0 𝑡𝑜 2𝜋
2𝜋
∴ 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = ,2 sin 2𝜃 + 4-𝑑𝜃
𝐶 0
2𝜋
cos 2𝜃
= 2 + 4𝜃
2 0
57
= cos 2𝜋 − cos 0 + 4 2𝜋 − 0
 = 1 − 1 + 8𝜋 = 8𝜋

∴ 𝑭. 𝒅𝒓 = 𝟖𝝅
𝑪

6. 𝑃𝑇 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹 = 2𝑥 + 𝑦𝑧 𝑖 + 𝑥𝑧 − 3 𝑗 + 𝑥𝑦𝑘 𝑖𝑠

𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒.
𝑜𝑟
𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝐹 = 2𝑥 + 𝑦𝑧 𝑖 +
𝑥𝑧 − 3 𝑗 + 𝑥𝑦𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑕.
𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏:
𝑻𝑷 𝑭 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒊. 𝒆. , 𝑻𝑷 𝛁 × 𝑭 = 𝟎
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻×𝐹 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
2𝑥 + 𝑦𝑧 𝑥𝑧 − 3 𝑥𝑦
=𝑖 𝑥−𝑥 −𝑗 𝑦−𝑦 +𝑘 𝑧−𝑧 =0
58 𝑭 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒐𝒓 𝑭 𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒉.
 Integral Theorems:
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚,
𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑕 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒, 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 &
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠
1. 𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒.
2. 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠 ′ 𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚.
3. 𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑘𝑒 ′ 𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚.

59
 Green’s theorem:
𝐼𝑓 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 & 𝑣 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑕𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 &
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝐶 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
(𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦) = − 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝐶 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑅
Note:
𝐼𝑓 𝑅 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
1
𝐶, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑅 𝑖𝑠 𝑥𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦𝑑𝑥
2
𝑐

60
 Problems:
1. 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦 𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟

𝑥 2 1 + 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 3 + 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑦 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒
𝐶
𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑥 = ±𝑎, 𝑦 = ±𝑎.
Solution:
𝑻𝒐 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒚 𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏′ 𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒎: 𝒊. 𝒆. , 𝒕𝒐 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒚
𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒖
𝒖𝒅𝒙 + 𝒗𝒅𝒚 = − 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚
𝑪 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
𝑹

𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝑥 2 1 + 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 3 + 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑦
𝐶
∴ 𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 = 𝑥 2 1 + 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 3 + 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑦
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 1 + 𝑦 & 𝑣 = 𝑦 3 + 𝑥 3

61
 𝑳𝑯𝑺: 𝑻𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝑪
𝒖𝒅𝒙 + 𝒗𝒅𝒚 :

= + + + → 1
𝐶 𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶 𝐶𝐷 𝐷𝐴

𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝑨𝑩:
𝑂𝑛 𝐴𝐵, 𝑥: −𝑎 𝑡𝑜 𝑎 & 𝑦 = −𝑎 => 𝑑𝑦 = 0
∴ 𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 = 𝑥 2 1 − 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 + −𝑎3 + 𝑥 3 0
= 𝑥 2 1 − 𝑎 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 = 𝑥 2 1 − 𝑎 𝑑𝑥
𝐴𝐵 −𝑎
3 𝑎
𝑥
= 1−𝑎
3 −𝑎
𝑎3 − −𝑎3
= 1−𝑎
3
62
 2𝑎3
= 1−𝑎
3
2𝑎3 2𝑎4
𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 = − → 2
3 3
𝐴𝐵
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝑩𝑪:
𝑂𝑛 𝐵𝐶, 𝑦: −𝑎 𝑡𝑜 𝑎 & 𝑥 = 𝑎 => 𝑑𝑥 = 0
∴ 𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 = 𝑎2 1 + 𝑦 0 + 𝑦 3 + 𝑎3 𝑑𝑦
= 𝑦 3 + 𝑎3 𝑑𝑦
𝑎

𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 = 𝑦 3 + 𝑎3 𝑑𝑦
𝐵𝐶 −𝑎
𝑎
𝑦4
= + 𝑎3 𝑦
4 −𝑎
4 4
𝑎 − 𝑎
= + 𝑎3 𝑎 − −𝑎 = 2𝑎4
4
63
 𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑎4 → 3
𝐵𝐶
𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝑪𝑫:
𝑂𝑛 𝐶𝐷, 𝑥: 𝑎 𝑡𝑜 − 𝑎 & 𝑦 = 𝑎 => 𝑑𝑦 = 0
∴ 𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 = 𝑥 2 1 + 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑎3 + 𝑥 3 0
= 𝑥 2 1 + 𝑎 𝑑𝑥
−𝑎

𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 = 𝑥 2 1 + 𝑎 𝑑𝑥
𝐶𝐷 𝑎
3 −𝑎
𝑥
= 1+𝑎
3 𝑎
−𝑎3 − 𝑎3
= 1+𝑎
3
2𝑎3
= 1+𝑎 −
3
64
 2𝑎3 2𝑎4
𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 = − − → 4
3 3
𝐶𝐷
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝑫𝑨:
𝑂𝑛 𝐷𝐴, 𝑦: 𝑎 𝑡𝑜 − 𝑎 & 𝑥 = −𝑎 => 𝑑𝑥 = 0
∴ 𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 = 𝑎2 1 + 𝑦 0 + 𝑦 3 − 𝑎3 𝑑𝑦
= 𝑦 3 − 𝑎3 𝑑𝑦
−𝑎

𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 = 𝑦 3 − 𝑎3 𝑑𝑦
𝐷𝐴 𝑎
−𝑎
𝑦4
= − 𝑎3 𝑦
4 𝑎
4
𝑎 − 𝑎 4
= − 𝑎3 −𝑎 − 𝑎 = 2𝑎4
4

65
 𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 = −2𝑎4 → 5
𝐷𝐴

𝑆𝑢𝑏 2 , 3 , 4 & 5 𝑖𝑛 1 , 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡

𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦
𝐶
2𝑎3 2𝑎4 2𝑎 3
2𝑎 4
= − + 2𝑎4 − − + 2𝑎4
3 3 3 3
4𝑎 4 8𝑎 4
=− 4
+ 4𝑎 =
3 3
8𝑎4
𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 = → (𝐼)
𝐶 3

66
 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒖
𝑹𝑯𝑺: 𝑻𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝑹 − 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 1 + 𝑦 & 𝑣 = 𝑦3 + 𝑥3
𝜕𝑢 2
𝜕𝑣
=> =𝑥 & = 3𝑥 2
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥: −𝑎 𝑡𝑜 𝑎 & 𝑦: −𝑎 𝑡𝑜 𝑎
𝑎 𝑎
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
∴ − 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 −𝑎 −𝑎
𝑅
𝑎 𝑎
= 2𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
−𝑎 −𝑎
𝑎 𝑎
2𝑥 3
= 𝑑𝑦
−𝑎 3 −𝑎
𝑎
2
= 𝑎3 − −𝑎3 𝑑𝑦
3 −𝑎
2
= 2𝑎3 𝑦 𝑎
−𝑎
67 3
 4𝑎3 8𝑎4
= 𝑎+𝑎 =
3 3
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 8𝑎4
∴ − 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = → 𝐼𝐼
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 3
𝑅
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐼 & 𝐼𝐼 , 𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆
𝑯𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏′ 𝒔𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒎 𝒊𝒔 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒅.

2. 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦 𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑋𝑌 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟

3𝑥 − 8𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 6𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒
𝐶
𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1.
Solution:
𝑻𝒐 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒚 𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏′ 𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒎: 𝒊. 𝒆. , 𝒕𝒐 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒚
𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒖
𝒖𝒅𝒙 + 𝒗𝒅𝒚 = − 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚
𝑪 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
𝑹

68
 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 3𝑥 − 8𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 6𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝐶
∴ 𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 8𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 6𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑢 = 3𝑥 − 8𝑦 2 & 𝑣 = 4𝑦 − 6𝑥𝑦
𝑳𝑯𝑺: 𝑻𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝑪 𝒖𝒅𝒙 + 𝒗𝒅𝒚 :
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, = + + → 1
𝐶 𝑂𝐴 𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝑂
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝑶𝑨:
𝑂𝑛 𝑂𝐴, 𝑥: 0 𝑡𝑜 1 & 𝑦 = 0 => 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 8 0 𝑑𝑥 + 4 0 − 0 0
= 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 1
3𝑥 2 3
∴ 𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 = 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = =
𝑂𝐴 0 2 0
2
3
∴ 𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 = → 2
𝑂𝐴 2
69
 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝑨𝑩:
𝑂𝑛 𝐴𝐵, 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1 => 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑦
=> 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑑𝑦 & 𝑦: 0 𝑡𝑜 1
𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 = 3 1 − 𝑦 − 8𝑦 2 −𝑑𝑦 + 4𝑦 − 6 1 − 𝑦 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
= − 3 − 3𝑦 − 8𝑦 2 + 4𝑦 − 6𝑦 + 6𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
= ,14𝑦 2 + 𝑦 − 3-𝑑𝑦
1
∴ 𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 = 14𝑦 2 + 𝑦 − 3 𝑑𝑦
𝐴𝐵 0
1
𝑦3 𝑦2
= 14 + − 3𝑦
3 2 0
14 1
= 1−0 + 1−0 −3 1−0
3 2
14 1 13
= + −3=
3 2 6
13
∴ 𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 = → 3
𝐴𝐵 6
70
 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝑩𝑶:
𝑂𝑛 𝐵𝑂, 𝑦: 1 𝑡𝑜 0 & 𝑥 = 0 => 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 = 0 − 8𝑦 2 0 + 4𝑦 − 0 𝑑𝑦
= 4𝑦 𝑑𝑦
0
𝑦2 0
∴ 𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 = 4𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 4
𝐵𝑂 1 2 1
= 2 0 − 1 = −2

∴ 𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 = −2 → 4
𝐵𝑂
𝑆𝑢𝑏 2 , 3 & 4 𝑖𝑛 1 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡,
3 13 5
𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 = + −2=
𝐶 2 6 3
𝟓
∴ 𝒖𝒅𝒙 + 𝒗𝒅𝒚 = → 𝐼
𝑪 𝟑

71
 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒖
𝑹𝑯𝑺: 𝑻𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝑹 𝝏𝒙
− 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚
𝝏𝒚
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑢 = 3𝑥 − 8𝑦 2 & 𝑣 = 4𝑦 − 6𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
=> = −16𝑦 & = −6𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅, 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑕𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥: 0 𝑡𝑜 1 − 𝑦 & 𝑦: 0 𝑡𝑜 1
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
− 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = −6𝑦 + 16𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑅
𝑅

= 10𝑦𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑅
1 1−𝑦
= 10𝑦𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
0 0

1
1−𝑦
= 10 𝑦𝑥 0 𝑑𝑦
0
72
 1
= 10 𝑦 1 − 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
0
1
= 10 𝑦 − 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
0

2 3 1
𝑦 𝑦
= 10 −
2 3 0
1 1 5
= 10 − =
2 3 3
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 5
∴ − 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = → 𝐼𝐼
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 3
𝑅

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐼 & 𝐼𝐼 , 𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆

𝑯𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏′ 𝒔𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒎 𝒊𝒔 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒅.

73
 3. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚,
𝑒 −𝑥 sin 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + cos 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 , 𝐶 𝑏𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑕𝑒
𝐶
𝜋 𝜋
𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 0,0 , 𝜋, 0 , 𝜋, & 0, .
2 2
Solution:
𝐵𝑦 𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚 𝑤𝑒 𝑕𝑎𝑣𝑒,
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 = − 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝐶 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑅

𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝑒 −𝑥 sin 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + cos 𝑦 𝑑𝑦

𝐶
𝑻𝒐 𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑪
𝒖𝒅𝒙 + 𝒗𝒅𝒚 :
𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒖
𝑰𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒏𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 𝒊𝒇 𝒘𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝑹 𝝏𝒙
− 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚 :
𝝏𝒚
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑢 = 𝑒 −𝑥 sin 𝑦 & 𝑣 = 𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑦
𝜕𝑢 −𝑥
𝜕𝑣
=> = 𝑒 cos 𝑦 & = −𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜋
74 & 𝑥: 0 𝑡𝑜 𝜋 , 𝑦: 0 𝑡𝑜
2
 ∴ 𝑒 −𝑥 sin 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + cos 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝐶

= −𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑦 − 𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑅
𝜋
𝜋
2
= −2𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
0 0
𝜋
2
𝜋
= −2 −𝑒 −𝑥 0 cos 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
0
𝜋
2
= −2 −𝑒 −𝜋 + 𝑒 0 sin 𝑦 0
= 2 𝑒 −𝜋 − 1 1 − 0

∴ 𝒆−𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒚 𝒅𝒙 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒚 𝒅𝒚 = 𝟐 𝒆−𝝅 − 𝟏

𝑪

75
 4. 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦 𝐺𝑇 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑋𝑌 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑥 & 𝑦 = 𝑥2
Solution:
Hint:
𝑻𝒐 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒚 𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏′ 𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒎: 𝒊. 𝒆. , 𝒕𝒐 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒚
𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒖
𝒖𝒅𝒙 + 𝒗𝒅𝒚 = − 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚
𝑪 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
𝑹

𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦
𝐶
∴ 𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑢 = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 & 𝑣 = 𝑥 2
𝐿𝐻𝑆: = + → 1
𝐶 𝑂𝐴 𝐴𝑂

76
 𝐴𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑂𝐴, 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 => 𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑥: 0 𝑡𝑜 1
1
19
∴ = 3𝑥 3 + 𝑥4 𝑑𝑥 = → 2
𝑂𝐴 0 20
𝐴𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝑂, 𝑦 = 𝑥 => 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥: 1 𝑡𝑜 0
0
∴ = 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = −1 → 3
𝐴𝑂 1
𝑠𝑢𝑏 2 & 3 𝑖𝑛 (1)
1
=− → 𝐼
𝐶 20
𝑅𝐻𝑆:
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑢 = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 & 𝑣 = 𝑥 2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
=> = 𝑥 + 2𝑦, = 2𝑥
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑦: 𝑥 2 𝑡𝑜 𝑥 & 𝑥: 0 𝑡𝑜 1
77
 1 𝑥
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
− 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 0 𝑥2
𝑅
1
=− → 𝐼𝐼
20
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐼 & 𝐼𝐼 , 𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆.

5. 𝑃𝑇 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝐶 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛

1 𝑥2 𝑦2
𝑏𝑦 𝑥𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦𝑑𝑥 . 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑠𝑒 2 + 2 = 1.
2 𝐶 𝑎 𝑏
Solution:
𝐵𝑦 𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚 𝑤𝑒 𝑕𝑎𝑣𝑒,
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 = − 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝐶 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑅
1
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟, 𝑥𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦𝑑𝑥
2 𝐶
78
 𝑦 𝑥
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑢 = − &𝑣 =
2 2
𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑣 1
=> =− , =
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥 2
1 1 1
∴ 𝑥𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
2 𝐶 2 2
𝑅

= 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑅
= 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝐶
𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
𝑻𝑶 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒑𝒔𝒆 + 𝟐 = 𝟏:
𝒂𝟐 𝒃
1
𝐵𝑦 𝐺𝑇, 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑥𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦𝑑𝑥
2 𝐶
𝑥2 𝑦2
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶: 2 + 2 = 1
𝑎 𝑏
79
 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐶 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒, 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑞𝑛 𝑜𝑓
𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑠𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 𝑏 sin 𝜃
=> 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑎 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃, 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑏 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝜃: 0 𝑡𝑜 2𝜋
𝑥𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃 + 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑑𝜃
= 𝑎𝑏 1 𝑑𝜃
1 1 2𝜋
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑥𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎𝑏𝑑𝜃
2 𝐶 2 0
𝑎𝑏 2𝜋
= ,𝜃-0 = 𝜋𝑎𝑏
2
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒑𝒔𝒆 = 𝝅𝒂𝒃

80
 Gauss Divergence Theorem:
𝐼𝑓 𝐹 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑙𝑦
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 & 𝑉 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑆 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝐹 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑆 𝑖𝑠
𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑉

𝛻. 𝐹 𝑑𝑉 = 𝐹 . 𝑛 𝑑𝑆
𝑉 𝑆
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑆.

81
 Problem:
1. 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑕𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟
𝐹 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑧 𝑖 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑥𝑧 𝑗 + 𝑧 2 − 𝑥𝑦 𝑘 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒
𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑑 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎, 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑏, 0 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 𝑐
Solution:
𝑻𝒐 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒚 𝑮𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒔 𝑫𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒎:

𝒊. 𝒆. 𝒕𝒐 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒚 𝛁. 𝑭 𝒅𝑽 = 𝑭. 𝒏 𝒅𝑺
𝑽 𝑺
𝑳𝑯𝑺: 𝑻𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝑽 𝛁. 𝑭 𝒅𝑽 ∶
𝐺𝑛, 𝐹 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑧 𝑖 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑥𝑧 𝑗 + 𝑧 2 − 𝑥𝑦 𝑘
𝜕 2 𝜕 2 𝜕
𝛻. 𝐹 = 𝑥 − 𝑦𝑧 + 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑧 + 𝑧 2 − 𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 2𝑧
𝛻. 𝐹 = 2 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧
82
83
 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
& 𝑥: 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑎, 𝑦: 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑏, 𝑧: 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑐.
𝑐 𝑏 𝑎

𝛻. 𝐹 𝑑𝑉 = 2 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝑉 0 0 0
𝑐 𝑏 𝑎
𝑥2
=2 + 𝑦𝑥 + 𝑧𝑥 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
2 0
0 0
𝑐 𝑏
𝑎2 − 0
=2 + 𝑦 𝑎 − 0 + 𝑧 𝑎 − 0 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
2
0 0
𝑐 𝑏
𝑎2
=2 + 𝑦𝑎 + 𝑧𝑎 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
2
0 0
𝑐 𝑏
𝑎2 𝑦2
=2 𝑦+𝑎 + 𝑧𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑧
2 2 0
84 0
 𝑐
𝑎2 𝑏2
=2 𝑏 + 𝑎 + 𝑧𝑎𝑏 𝑑𝑧
2 2
0
𝑐
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑧2
=2 𝑏𝑧 + 𝑎 𝑧 + 𝑎𝑏
2 2 2 0
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
=2 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑎 𝑐 + 𝑎𝑏
2 2 2

𝛁. 𝑭 𝒅𝑽 = 𝒂𝒃𝒄 𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝒄 → 𝐼
𝑽
𝑹𝑯𝑺: 𝑻𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝑺
𝑭. 𝒏 𝒅𝑺 :
𝑇𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑤𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 6 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠.

85
 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐹 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑧 𝑖 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑥𝑧 𝑗 + 𝑧 2 − 𝑥𝑦 𝑘
𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒏 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 𝑭. 𝒏 𝒅𝑺 𝑳𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒔
𝑺𝟏 𝐴𝐺𝐸𝐷 𝑖 𝑌𝑍 𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝑦: 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑏
𝑥=𝑎 = 𝑎2 𝑧: 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑐
− 𝑦𝑧
𝑺𝟐 𝑂𝐵𝐹𝐶 −𝑖 𝑌𝑍 −𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝑦: 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑏
𝑥=0 = 𝑦𝑧 𝑧: 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑐
𝑺𝟑 𝐺𝐵𝐹𝐸 𝑗 𝑋𝑍 𝑦 2 − 𝑥𝑧 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 𝑥: 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑎
𝑦=𝑏 = 𝑏 2 − 𝑥𝑧 𝑧: 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑐
𝑺𝟒 𝑂𝐴𝐷𝐶 −𝑗 𝑋𝑍 −𝑦 2 + 𝑥𝑧 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 𝑥: 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑎
𝑦=0 = 𝑥𝑧 𝑧: 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑐
𝑺𝟓 𝐷𝐸𝐹𝐶 𝑘 𝑋𝑌 𝑧 2 − 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑥: 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑎
𝑧=𝑐 = 𝑐 2 − 𝑥𝑦 𝑦: 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑏
𝑺𝟔 𝑂𝐴𝐺𝐵 −𝑘 𝑋𝑌 −𝑧 2 + 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑥: 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑎
𝑧=0 = 𝑥𝑦 𝑦: 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑏
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑆
86
 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑆1 ,
𝑐 𝑏

𝐹 . 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑎2 − 𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝑆1 0 0
𝑐 𝑏
𝑦 2
= 𝑎2 𝑦 − 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
2 0
0
𝑐 𝑐
𝑏 2 𝑏 2 𝑧2
= 𝑎2 𝑏 − 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑎2 𝑏𝑧 −
2 2 2 0
0
𝑏 2𝑐2
𝐹 . 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑎2 𝑏𝑐 −
4
𝑆1
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑆2 ,
𝑐 𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
𝑦2
𝐹 . 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
2 0
87 𝑆2 0 0 0
 𝑐 𝑐
𝑏2 2
𝑏 𝑧 2
= 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 =
2 2 2 0
0
𝑏2 𝑐 2
𝐹 . 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 =
4
𝑆2
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑆3 ,
𝑐 𝑎

𝐹 . 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑏 2 − 𝑥𝑧 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧
𝑆3 0 0
𝑐
2 2 2 𝑐
2
𝑎 2
𝑎 𝑧
= 𝑏 𝑎 − 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑏 𝑎𝑧 −
2 2 2 0
0
2 2
2
𝑎 𝑐
𝐹 . 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑏 𝑎𝑐 −
4
𝑆3

88
 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑆4 ,
𝑐 𝑎

𝐹 . 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑥𝑧 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧
𝑆4 0 0
𝑐 𝑐
𝑎2 𝑎2 𝑧 2
= 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 =
2 2 2 0
0
𝑎2 𝑐 2
𝐹 . 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 =
4
𝑆4
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑆5 ,
𝑏 𝑎

𝐹 . 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑐 2 − 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝑆5 0 0
𝑏 𝑏
𝑎2 2
𝑎 𝑦 2
= 𝑐2𝑎 − 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐 2 𝑎𝑦 −
2 2 2 0
89 0
 𝑎 2 𝑏2
𝐹 . 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑐 2 𝑎𝑏 −
4
𝑆5
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑆6 ,
𝑏 𝑎

𝐹 . 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝑆6 0 0
𝑏 𝑏
𝑎2 2
𝑎 𝑦 2
= 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 =
2 2 2 0
0
𝑎2 𝑏 2
𝐹 . 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 =
4
𝑆6

90
 2 2 2 2
2
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏 𝑐
∴ 𝐹 . 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑎 𝑏𝑐 − + + 𝑏 2 𝑎𝑐
4 4
𝑆
𝑎2 𝑐 2 𝑎2 𝑐 2 2
𝑎2 𝑏 2 𝑎2 𝑏2
− + + 𝑐 𝑎𝑏 − +
4 4 4 4
2 2 2
= 𝑎 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑏 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑐 𝑎𝑏

∴ 𝑭. 𝒏 𝒅𝑺 = 𝒂𝒃𝒄 𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝒄 → 𝐼𝐼
𝑺
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐼 & 𝐼𝐼 , 𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆
𝑯𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑮. 𝑫. 𝑻 𝒊𝒔 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒅.

2. 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦 𝐺𝐷𝑇 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐹 = 𝑥 2 𝑖 + 𝑧𝑗 + 𝑦𝑧𝑘 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒

𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑥 = ±1, 𝑦 = ±1, 𝑧 = ±1.
Solution:
𝑻𝒐 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒚 𝑮𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒔 𝑫𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒎:

𝒊. 𝒆. 𝒕𝒐 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒚 𝛁. 𝑭 𝒅𝑽 = 𝑭. 𝒏 𝒅𝑺
𝑽 𝑺
91
92
 𝑳𝑯𝑺: 𝑻𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝑽
𝛁. 𝑭 𝒅𝑽 ∶
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝐹 = 𝑥 2 𝑖 + 𝑧𝑗 + 𝑦𝑧𝑘
∴ 𝛻. 𝐹 = 2𝑥 + 0 + 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 𝑦
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
&𝑥: −1 𝑡𝑜 1, 𝑦: −1 𝑡𝑜 1 , 𝑧: −1 𝑡𝑜 1
1 1 1

𝛻. 𝐹 𝑑𝑉 = 2𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝑉 −1 −1 −1
1 1
1
= 𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑥 −1 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
−1 −1
1 1 1

= 2𝑦𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = ,𝑦 2 -1−1 𝑑𝑧 = 0
−1 −1 −1

∴ 𝛁. 𝑭 𝒅𝑽 = 𝟎 → 𝐼
93 𝑽
 𝑹𝑯𝑺: 𝑻𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝑺 𝑭. 𝒏 𝒅𝑺 :
𝑇𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑤𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 6 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠.
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐹 = 𝑥 2 𝑖 + 𝑧𝑗 + 𝑦𝑧𝑘
𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒏 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 𝑭. 𝒏 𝒅𝑺 𝑳𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒔
𝑺𝟏 𝐴𝐺𝐸𝐷 𝑖 𝑌𝑍 𝑥 2 = 1 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝑦: −1 𝑡𝑜 1
𝑥=1 𝑧: −1 𝑡𝑜 1
𝑺𝟐 𝐻𝐵𝐹𝐶 −𝑖 𝑌𝑍 −𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝑦: −1 𝑡𝑜 1
𝑥 = −1 = −1 𝑧: −1 𝑡𝑜 1
𝑺𝟑 𝐺𝐵𝐹𝐸 𝑗 𝑋𝑍 𝑧 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 𝑥: −1 𝑡𝑜 1
𝑦=1 𝑧: −1 𝑡𝑜 1
𝑺𝟒 𝐻𝐴𝐷𝐶 −𝑗 𝑋𝑍 −𝑧 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 𝑥: −1 𝑡𝑜 1
𝑦 = −1 𝑧: −1 𝑡𝑜 1
𝑺𝟓 𝐷𝐸𝐹𝐶 𝑘 𝑋𝑌 𝑦𝑧 = 𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑥: −1 𝑡𝑜 1
𝑧=1 𝑦: −1 𝑡𝑜 1
𝑺𝟔 𝐻𝐴𝐺𝐵 −𝑘 𝑋𝑌 −𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑥: −1 𝑡𝑜 1
𝑧 = −1 =𝑦 𝑦: −1 𝑡𝑜 1
94 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑆
 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑆1 ,
1 1 1
1
𝐹 . 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = 𝑦 −1 𝑑𝑧
𝑆1 −1 −1 −1
1
1
= 2 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝑧 −1
−1

𝐹 . 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = 4
𝑆1
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑆2 ,
1 1 1
1
𝐹 . 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = −𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = − 𝑦 −1 𝑑𝑧
𝑆2 −1 −1 −1
1
1
=− 2 𝑑𝑧 = − 2𝑧 −1
95
−1
 𝐹 . 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = −4
𝑆2
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑆3 ,
1 1 1
1
𝐹 . 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑧𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 = 𝑧𝑥 −1 𝑑𝑧
𝑆3 −1 −1 −1
1
𝑧 2 1
= 2 𝑧𝑑𝑧 = 2
2 −1
−1

𝐹 . 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = 0
𝑆3
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑆4 ,
1 1 1
1
𝐹 . 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = −𝑧𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 = − 𝑧𝑥 −1 𝑑𝑧

96 𝑆4 −1 −1 −1
 1 1
𝑧 2
=− 2 𝑧𝑑𝑧 = −2
2 −1
−1

𝐹 . 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = 0
𝑆4
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑆5 ,
1 1 1
1
𝐹 . 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑦𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 𝑦𝑥 −1 𝑑𝑦
𝑆5 −1 −1 −1
1
𝑦 2 1
= 2 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 2
2 −1
−1

𝐹 . 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = 0
𝑆5
97
 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑆6 ,
1 1 1
1
𝐹 . 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = −𝑦𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = − 𝑦𝑥 −1 𝑑𝑦
𝑆6 −1 −1 −1
1
2 1
𝑦
=− 2 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = −2
2 −1
−1

𝐹 . 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = 0
𝑆6

𝐹 . 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = 4 − 4 + 0 = 0
𝑆

𝑭. 𝒏 𝒅𝑺 = 𝟎 → 𝐼𝐼
𝑺
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐼 & 𝐼𝐼 , 𝑮𝑫𝑻 𝒊𝒔 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒅
98
 Stoke’s Theorem:
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹 𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝐶 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟
𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑆 𝑕𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶 𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑡 ′ 𝑠 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦

𝛻 × 𝐹 . 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟
𝑆 𝐶
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒.
Problems:
1. 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦 𝑆𝑇 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐹 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑖 − 2𝑥𝑦𝑗 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑥 = ±𝑎, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑦 = 𝑏.
Solution:
𝑻𝒐 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒚 𝑺𝒕𝒐𝒌𝒆′ 𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒎:

𝒊. 𝒆. 𝒕𝒐 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒚 𝛁 × 𝑭 . 𝒏 𝒅𝑺 = 𝑭. 𝒅𝒓
𝑺 𝑪
99
 𝑳𝑯𝑺: 𝑻𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝛁 × 𝑭 . 𝒏 𝒅𝑺
𝑺
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝐹 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑖 − 2𝑥𝑦𝑗
𝛻 × 𝐹 = 𝑖 0 − 0 − 𝑗 0 − 0 + 𝑘 −2𝑦 − 2𝑦
𝛻 × 𝐹 = −4𝑦𝑘
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑋𝑌 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
𝑛 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝑘
∴ 𝛻 × 𝐹 . 𝑛 = −4𝑦𝑘 . 𝑘 = −4𝑦
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 & 𝑥: −𝑎 𝑡𝑜 𝑎, 𝑦: 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑏
𝑏 𝑎

𝛻 × 𝐹 . 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = −4𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑆 0 −𝑎
𝑏

= −4 𝑥 𝑎 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
−𝑎
0

100
 𝑏

= −4 2𝑎 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
0
2 𝑏
𝑦
= −8𝑎 = −4𝑎𝑏 2
2 0

𝛁 × 𝑭 . 𝒏 𝒅𝑺 = −𝟒𝒂𝒃𝟐 → 𝐼
𝑺
𝑹𝑯𝑺: 𝑻𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝑭. 𝒅𝒓
𝑪
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝐹 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑖 − 2𝑥𝑦𝑗
∴ 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦

𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = + + + → 1
𝐶 𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶 𝐶𝐷 𝐷𝐴
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝐴𝐵:
𝑜𝑛 𝐴𝐵, 𝑥 = 𝑎 => 𝑑𝑥 = 0
101
 ∴ 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑎2 + 𝑦 2 0 − 2𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = −2𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑦: 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑏
𝑏 𝑏
𝑦2
= −2𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = −2𝑎
2 0
𝐴𝐵 0

= −𝑎𝑏 2 → 2
𝐴𝐵
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝐵𝐶:
𝑜𝑛 𝐵𝐶, 𝑦 = 𝑏 => 𝑑𝑦 = 0
∴ 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 2 𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑏(0) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 2 𝑑𝑥
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑥: 𝑎 𝑡𝑜 − 𝑎
−𝑎 −𝑎
𝑥 3
= 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 2 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑏2 𝑥
3 𝑎
𝐵𝐶 𝑎
−𝑎3 − 𝑎3
= + 𝑏 2 −𝑎 − 𝑎
102 3
 𝑎3
= −2 + −2𝑎𝑏 2
3
𝑎3
= −2 + −2𝑎𝑏 2 → 3
3
𝐵𝐶
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝐷:
𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝐷, 𝑥 = −𝑎 => 𝑑𝑥 = 0
∴ 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑎2 + 𝑦 2 0 + 2𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑦: 𝑏 𝑡𝑜 0
0 0
𝑦 2
= 2𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑎
2 𝑏
𝐶𝐷 𝑏

= −𝑎𝑏 2 → 4
𝐶𝐷
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝐴:
𝑜𝑛 𝐷𝐴 , 𝑦 = 0 => 𝑑𝑦 = 0
103
 ∴ 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑥 2 + 02 𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑥(0)(0) = 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑥: −𝑎 𝑡𝑜𝑎
𝑎 𝑎
𝑥 3
= 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 =
3 −𝑎
𝐷𝐴 −𝑎
𝑎3+ 𝑎3 𝑎3
= =2
3 3
𝑎3
=2 → 5
3
𝐷𝐴
𝑆𝑢𝑏 2 , 3 , 4 & 5 𝑖𝑛 1 ,
𝑎 3 𝑎 3
𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = −𝑎𝑏 2 − 2 + −2𝑎𝑏 2 − 𝑎𝑏 2 + 2
3 3
𝐶

𝑭. 𝒅𝒓 = −𝟒𝒂𝒃𝟐 → 𝐼𝐼
𝑪
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐼 & 𝐼𝐼 , 𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆 𝑺𝒕𝒐𝒌𝒆′ 𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒎 𝒊𝒔 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒅.
104
 2. 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦 𝑆𝑇 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐹 = 𝑦 − 𝑧 + 2 𝑖 + 𝑦𝑧 + 4 𝑗 − 𝑥𝑧𝑘 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒
𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = 0,
𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 1, 𝑧 = 1 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑥𝑜𝑦 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒.
Solution:
𝑻𝒐 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒚 𝑺𝒕𝒐𝒌𝒆′ 𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒎:

𝒊. 𝒆. 𝒕𝒐 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒚 𝛁 × 𝑭 . 𝒏 𝒅𝑺 = 𝑭. 𝒅𝒓
𝑺 𝑪
𝑳𝑯𝑺: 𝑻𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝑺 𝛁 × 𝑭 . 𝒏 𝒅𝑺
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝐹 = 𝑦 − 𝑧 + 2 𝑖 + 𝑦𝑧 + 4 𝑗 − 𝑥𝑧𝑘
𝛻 × 𝐹 = 𝑖 0 − 𝑦 − 𝑗 −𝑧 + 1 + 𝑘 0 − 1
𝛻 × 𝐹 = −𝑦𝑖 − −𝑧 + 1 𝑗 − 𝑘
𝑇𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑤𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 6 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑥𝑜𝑦 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑑.
∴ 𝑂𝐴𝐺𝐵 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑑.
105
 Here, 𝛻 × 𝐹 = −𝑦𝑖 − −𝑧 + 1 𝑗 − 𝑘
𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒏 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 (𝛁 × 𝑭). 𝒏 𝒅𝑺 𝑳𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒔
𝑺𝟏 𝐴𝐺𝐸𝐷 𝑖 𝑌𝑍 −𝑦 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝑦: 0 𝑡𝑜 1
𝑥=1 𝑧: 0 𝑡𝑜 1
𝑺𝟐 𝑂𝐵𝐹𝐶 −𝑖 𝑌𝑍 𝑦 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝑦: 0 𝑡𝑜 1
𝑥=0 𝑧: 0 𝑡𝑜 1
𝑺𝟑 𝐺𝐵𝐹𝐸 𝑗 𝑋𝑍 𝑧−1 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 𝑥: 0 𝑡𝑜 1
𝑦=1 𝑧: 0 𝑡𝑜 1
𝑺𝟒 𝑂𝐴𝐷𝐶 −𝑗 𝑋𝑍 −𝑧 + 1 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 𝑥: 0 𝑡𝑜 1
𝑦=0 𝑧: 0 𝑡𝑜 1
𝑺𝟓 𝐷𝐸𝐹𝐶 𝑘 𝑋𝑌 −1 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑥: 0 𝑡𝑜 1
𝑧=1 𝑦: 0 𝑡𝑜 1
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑆
106
 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑆1 ,
1 1 1 1
𝑦 2
= −𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 = − 𝑑𝑧
2 0
𝑆1 0 0 0
1
1 1
=− 𝑑𝑧 = −
2 2
0
1
=− → (1)
2
𝑆1
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑆2 ,
1 1 1
2 1
𝑦
= 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑧
2 0
𝑆2 0 0 0
1
1 1
= 𝑑𝑧 =
107
2 2
0
 1
= → (2)
2
𝑆2
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑆3 ,
1 1 1

= (𝑧 − 1) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑧 − 1 𝑥 10 𝑑𝑧
𝑆3 0 0 0
1 1
𝑧2
= (𝑧 − 1)𝑑𝑧 = −𝑧
2 0
0
1
=− → (3)
2
𝑆3
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑆4 ,
1 1 1

= −(𝑧 − 1) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 = − 𝑧 − 1 𝑥 10 𝑑𝑧
108
𝑆4 0 0 0
 1 1
𝑧2
=− 𝑧 − 1 𝑑𝑧 = − −𝑧
2 0
0
1
= → (4)
2
𝑆4
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑆5 ,
1 1 1

= − 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = − 𝑥 10 𝑑𝑦
𝑆5 0 0 0
1

=− 𝑑𝑦 = −1
0

=−1 → (5)
𝑆5

109
 𝛁 × 𝑭 . 𝒏 𝒅𝑺 = −𝟏 → 𝐼
𝑺

𝑹𝑯𝑺: 𝑻𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝑪 𝑭. 𝒅𝒓 :
𝑇𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑂𝐴𝐺𝐵 𝑖𝑛
𝑥𝑜𝑦 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 & 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 4 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠.

𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = + + +
𝐶 𝑂𝐴 𝐴𝐺 𝐺𝐵 𝐵𝑂
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝐹 = 𝑦 − 𝑧 + 2 𝑖 + 𝑦𝑧 + 4 𝑗 − 𝑥𝑧𝑘
𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑦 − 𝑧 + 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦𝑧 + 4 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑥𝑧𝑑𝑧
𝐼𝑛 𝑥𝑜𝑦 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒, 𝑧 = 0 => 𝑑𝑧 = 0
∴ 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑦 + 2 𝑑𝑥 + 4 𝑑𝑦
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑂𝐴,
𝑂𝑛 𝑂𝐴, 𝑦 = 0 => 𝑑𝑦 = 0, 𝑥: 0 𝑡𝑜 1
∴ 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = 2 𝑑𝑥
110
 1

= 2 𝑑𝑥 = 2
𝑂𝐴 0

=2
𝑂𝐴
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝐴𝐺,
𝑂𝑛 𝐴𝐺, 𝑥 = 1 => 𝑑𝑥 = 0, 𝑦: 0 𝑡𝑜 1
∴ 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = 4𝑑𝑦
1

= 4 𝑑𝑦 = 4
𝐴𝐺 0

=4
𝐴𝐺
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝐺𝐵,
𝑂𝑛 𝐺𝐵, 𝑦 = 1 => 𝑑𝑦 = 0, 𝑥: 1 𝑡𝑜 0
111
∴ 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = 1 + 2 𝑑𝑥
 0

= 3 𝑑𝑥 = −3
𝐺𝐵 1

=−3
𝐺𝐵
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝐵𝑂,
𝑂𝑛 𝐵𝑂, 𝑥 = 0 => 𝑑𝑥 = 0, 𝑦: 1 𝑡𝑜 0
∴ 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = 4𝑑𝑦
0

= 4 𝑑𝑦 = −4
𝐵𝑂 1

=−4
𝐵𝑂

112
 𝑭. 𝒅𝒓 = −𝟏 → (𝐼𝐼)
𝑪
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐼 & 𝐼𝐼 , 𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆
𝑺𝒕𝒐𝒌𝒆′ 𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒎 𝒊𝒔 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒅.

3. 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦 𝑆𝑇 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛𝐹 = 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥 2 𝑖 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 𝑗 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒

𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑠
𝑦 2 = 𝑥 & 𝑥 2 = 𝑦.
Solution:
Hint:
𝑻𝒐 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒚 𝑺𝒕𝒐𝒌𝒆′ 𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒎:

𝒊. 𝒆. 𝒕𝒐 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒚 𝛁 × 𝑭 . 𝒏 𝒅𝑺 = 𝑭. 𝒅𝒓
𝑺 𝑪

𝑳𝑯𝑺: 𝑻𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝛁 × 𝑭 . 𝒏 𝒅𝑺
113
𝑺
 𝛻 × 𝐹 = −4𝑥𝑘
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 𝑘
𝛻 × 𝐹 . 𝑛 = −4𝑥
𝑥: 𝑦 2 𝑡𝑜 𝑦 & 𝑦: 0 𝑡𝑜 1
1 𝑦

𝛻 × 𝐹 . 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = −4𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑆 0 𝑦2
1

= −2 𝑦 − 𝑦 4 𝑑𝑦
0
3
𝛻 × 𝐹 . 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = −
5
𝑆

𝑅𝐻𝑆: 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = +
𝐶 𝑂𝐴 𝐴𝑂
114 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥2 − 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
 𝑂𝑛 𝑂𝐴, 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 => 𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑥: 0 𝑡𝑜 1
1

= −𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 5 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑂𝐴 0
𝑂𝑛 𝐴𝑂, 𝑥 = 𝑦2 => 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑦𝑑𝑦
𝑦: 1 𝑡𝑜 0
0
4 5
3 2
= 3𝑦 − 2𝑦 + 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = −
5
𝐴𝑂 1
3
𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = −
5
𝐶
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆
𝑺𝒕𝒐𝒌𝒆′ 𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒎 𝒊𝒔 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒅.

115
 4. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐶 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 𝑏𝑦 𝑆𝑇 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶
𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 1,0 , −1,0 , 0,1 & 0, −1
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
∴ 𝐹 = 𝑥𝑦𝑖 + 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑗
𝑻𝒐 𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑪 𝑭. 𝒅𝒓

𝑰𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒏𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 𝒕𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝛁 × 𝑭 . 𝒏 𝒅𝑺
𝑺
𝛻 × 𝐹 = 𝑦2 − 𝑥 𝑘
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑛 = 𝑘
∴ 𝛻 × 𝐹 . 𝑛 = 𝑦2 − 𝑥
& 𝑥: −1 𝑡𝑜 1 & 𝑦: −1 𝑡𝑜 1

𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = 𝛻 × 𝐹 . 𝑛 𝑑𝑆
𝐶 𝑆
116
 1 1

= 𝑦 2 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
−1 −1
1
2 1
𝑥
= 𝑦2𝑥 − 𝑑𝑦
2 −1
−1
1

= 𝑦 2 1 + 1 − 0 𝑑𝑦
−1
1 1
𝑦 3
=2 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 = 2
3 −1
−1
𝟒
𝑭. 𝒅𝒓 =
𝟑
𝑪

117
1 BY
M.RAMYA
APPLIED MATHEMATICS
Introduction:
Differential equation:
𝐴𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 & 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠 & 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
𝑖𝑒. 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒, 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒
𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑥, 𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
& , 2 , 𝑒𝑡𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 2 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒𝑠
𝑖 𝑶. 𝑫. 𝑬:
𝐴 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑕𝑖𝑐𝑕 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠
𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑂. 𝐷. 𝐸.
𝑑𝑦
𝐸𝑔: = sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
2
 𝑖𝑖 𝑷. 𝑫. 𝑬:
𝐴 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑕𝑖𝑐𝑕 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠 & 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡
𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑃. 𝐷. 𝐸.
𝜕2𝑉 𝜕2𝑉 𝜕2𝑉
𝐸𝑔: 2
+ 2+ 2 =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑶𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝑫. 𝑬:
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝐷. 𝐸 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑕𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑒𝑠𝑡
𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑡.
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝐸𝑔: 2
−3 + 2𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 2.
𝑫𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑫. 𝑬:
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝐷. 𝐸 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑕𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟.
𝐼𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝐷. 𝐸 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 3
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝐷. 𝐸.
Higher order linear differential equation with
constant co efficient:
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠
𝑑𝑛 𝑦 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑦 𝑑 𝑛−2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑛
+ 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑏
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑑𝑥
→ (1)
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 & 𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓
𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙 𝐷 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2𝑦 𝑑 𝑛𝑦
𝑖𝑒, = 𝐷𝑦, 2 = 𝐷2 𝑦, … , 𝑛 = 𝐷𝑛 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∴ 1 =>
𝐷𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝐷𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝐷 + 𝑎𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑏 → (2)
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 + 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 4
Complementary function:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 … 𝑏𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛,
𝑖 𝐼𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 & 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑒 𝑚1 ≠ 𝑚2 ≠ ⋯
𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝐶𝐹 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑚1 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 𝑚2𝑥 + 𝐶𝑒 𝑚3𝑥 + ⋯
𝑖𝑖 𝐼𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 & 2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 𝑚 𝑠𝑎𝑦 &𝑚3 ≠ 𝑚4 , …
𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝐶𝐹 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 + 𝐶𝑒 𝑚3𝑥 + ⋯
𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐼𝑓 2 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑚 = 𝛼 ± 𝑖𝛽 & 𝑜𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙
𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝐶𝐹 = 𝑒 𝛼𝑥 𝐴 cos 𝛽𝑥 + 𝐵 sin 𝛽𝑥 + 𝐶𝑒 𝑚3𝑥 + ⋯

Type I: 𝑹𝑯𝑺 = 𝟎
Rules:
1. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐿𝐻𝑆 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝐷. 𝐸
2. 𝑊𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝐶𝐹.
5
3. 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑅𝐻𝑆 = 0, 𝑃𝐼 = 0
4. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 = 𝐶𝐹.
Problems:
1. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑦" − 6𝑦′ + 25𝑦 = 0
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝑦" − 6𝑦′ + 25𝑦 = 0
=> 𝐷2 − 6𝐷 + 25 𝑦 = 0
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑎𝑢𝑥𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑚2 − 6𝑚 + 25 = 0
6 ± 36 − 100 6 ± −64
∴𝑚= =
2 2
6 ± 𝑖8
= = 3 ± 𝑖4
2
𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥, 𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛼 = 3 &𝛽 = 4
∴ 𝐶𝐹 = 𝑒 3𝑥 𝐴 cos 4𝑥 + 𝐵 sin 4𝑥
∴ 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 = 𝐶𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅𝐻𝑆 = 0
=> 𝒚 = 𝒆𝟑𝒙 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟒𝒙 + 𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟒𝒙

6
 2. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝐷2 + 1 𝑦 = 0, 𝑔𝑛 𝑦 0 = 0, 𝑦 ′ 0 = 1.
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝐷2 + 1 𝑦 = 0
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑎𝑢𝑥𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑚2 + 1 = 0
=> 𝑚 = ±𝑖 (𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛼 = 0 & 𝛽 = 1)
∴ 𝐶𝐹 = 𝐴 cos 𝑥 + 𝐵 sin 𝑥
∴ 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 = 𝐶𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅𝐻𝑆 = 0

=> 𝑦 𝑥 = 𝐴 cos 𝑥 + 𝐵 sin 𝑥

𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑦 0 = 0 & 𝑦 ′ 0 = 1
=> 𝑦 0 = 𝐴 cos 0 + 𝐵 sin 0 => 𝐴 = 0
𝑦 ′ 𝑥 = 𝐴 − sin 𝑥 + 𝐵 cos 𝑥
=> 𝑦 ′ 0 = −𝐴 sin 0 + 𝐵 cos 0 => 𝐵 = 1

∴ 𝑦 = 0 cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 => 𝒚 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙

7
 3. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝐷3 + 3𝐷2 − 4 𝑦 = 0
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝐷3 + 3𝐷2 − 4 𝑦 = 0
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑎𝑢𝑥𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑚3 + 3𝑚2 − 4 = 0
𝐼𝑓 𝑚 = 1, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 1 + 3 − 4 = 0
∴ 𝑚 = 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡
∴ 𝑚3 + 3𝑚2 − 4 = 0
=> 𝑚 − 1 𝑚2 + 4𝑚 + 4 = 0
=> 𝑚 − 1 = 0 & 𝑚2 + 4𝑚 + 4 = 0
=> 𝑚 = 1 & 𝑚 = −2 𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑐𝑒
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑡 & 2 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙
∴ 𝐶𝐹 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑥 + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)𝑒 −2𝑥
∴ 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 = 𝐶𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅𝐻𝑆 = 0
=> 𝒚 = 𝑨𝒆𝒙 + 𝑩𝒙 + 𝑪 𝒆−𝟐𝒙

8
 4. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝐷4 − 𝑎4 𝑦 = 0
Solution:
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑎𝑢𝑥𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑚4 − 𝑎4 = 0
=> 𝑚2 + 𝑎2 𝑚2 − 𝑎2 = 0
=> 𝑚2 + 𝑎2 = 0 & 𝑚2 − 𝑎2 = 0
=> 𝑚 = ±𝑖𝑎 & 𝑚 = ±𝑎
(𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑟𝑡 ′ 𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 & 2 𝑟𝑡 ′ 𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 &
𝑢𝑛𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙)
∴ 𝐶𝐹 = 𝐴 cos 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐵 sin 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐶𝑒 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐷𝑒 −𝑎𝑥
∴ 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 = 𝐶𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅𝐻𝑆 = 0
𝒚 = 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒂𝒙 + 𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒂𝒙 + 𝑪𝒆𝒂𝒙 + 𝑫𝒆−𝒂𝒙

9
Type II: 𝑹𝑯𝑺 = 𝒆𝒂𝒙
Rules:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓 𝐷 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥
1. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝐹 .
1
2. 𝑃𝐼 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥
𝑓 𝐷
3. 𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐷 𝑏𝑦 𝑎
Case of failure:
𝐼𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜,
4. 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑦 𝑥 & 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒
𝑥
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑒, 𝑃𝐼 = ′ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥
𝑓 𝐷
5. 𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 3.

10
Problems:
1. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝐷 − 2 2 𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑥
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝐷 − 2 2 𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑥
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑎𝑢𝑥𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑚 − 2 2 = 0
=> 𝑚 = 2,2 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠
∴ 𝐶𝐹 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 𝑒 2𝑥
1 2𝑥
𝑃𝐼 = 𝑒
𝐷−2 2
1 2𝑥
= 𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐷 𝑏𝑦 2
0
𝑥 2𝑥
𝑥 2𝑥
∴ 𝑃𝐼 = 𝑒 = 𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐷 𝑏𝑦 2
2 𝐷−2 0
𝑥 2 2𝑥
= 𝑒
2 1
𝑥 2 2𝑥 11
𝑃𝐼 = 𝑒
2
 ∴ 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 = 𝐶𝐹 + 𝑃𝐼
𝒙 𝟐
𝒚 = 𝑨𝒙 + 𝑩 𝒆𝟐𝒙 + 𝒆𝟐𝒙
𝟐

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 2
+4 + 5𝑦 = −2 cosh 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution:
𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝐷2 + 4𝐷 + 5 𝑦 = −2
2
𝐷2 + 4𝐷 + 5 𝑦 = − 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑎𝑢𝑥𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑚2 + 4𝑚 + 5 = 0
−4 ± 16 − 20
=> 𝑚 = = −2 ± 𝑖
2
(𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛼 = −2 & 𝛽 = 1)
∴ 𝐶𝐹 = 𝑒 −2𝑥 (𝐴 cos 𝑥 + 𝐵 sin 𝑥)
12
 1
𝑃𝐼 = 2 − 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥
𝐷 + 4𝐷 + 5
1 𝑥
1
= − 2 𝑒 − 2 𝑒 −𝑥
𝐷 + 4𝐷 + 5 𝐷 + 4𝐷 + 5
1 𝑥
1
=− 𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑥
1+4+5 1−4+5
,𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐷 𝑏𝑦 1 𝑖𝑛 1𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 & − 1 𝑖𝑛 2𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚-
1 𝑥 1 −𝑥
𝑃𝐼 = − 𝑒 − 𝑒
10 2
∴ 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 = 𝐶𝐹 + 𝑃𝐼
−𝟐𝒙
𝟏 𝒙 𝟏 −𝒙
𝒚 = 𝒆 (𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 + 𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙) − 𝒆 − 𝒆
𝟏𝟎 𝟐

13
 3. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝐷2 + 2𝐷 + 2 𝑦 = 3 + 2𝑒 𝑥
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝐷2 + 2𝐷 + 2 𝑦 = 3𝑒 0 + 2𝑒 𝑥
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑎. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚2 + 2𝑚 + 2 = 0
−2 ± 4 − 8
=> 𝑚 = = −1 ± 𝑖
2
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛼 = −1 & 𝛽 = 1
∴ 𝐶𝐹 = 𝑒 −𝑥 𝐴 cos 𝑥 + 𝐵 sin 𝑥
1
𝑃𝐼 = 2 3𝑒 0 + 2𝑒 𝑥
𝐷 + 2𝐷 + 2
1 0
1
= 2 3𝑒 + 2 2𝑒 𝑥
𝐷 + 2𝐷 + 2 𝐷 + 2𝐷 + 2
1 0
1
= 3𝑒 + 2𝑒 𝑥
0+0+2 1+2+2
𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐷 𝑏𝑦 0 𝑖𝑛 1𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 & 1 𝑖𝑛 2𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
3 2 𝑥 14
𝑃𝐼 = + 𝑒
2 5
 ∴ 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 = 𝐶𝐹 + 𝑃𝐼
−𝒙
𝟑 𝟐 𝒙
𝒚 = 𝒆 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 + 𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 + + 𝒆
𝟐 𝟓
Type III: 𝑹𝑯𝑺 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒂𝒙 𝒐𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒂𝒙
Rules:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓 𝐷 𝑦 = sin 𝑎𝑥 𝑜𝑟 cos 𝑎𝑥
1. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝐹.
1 1
2. 𝑃𝐼 = ,sin 𝑎𝑥- 𝑜𝑟 ,cos 𝑎𝑥-
𝑓 𝐷 𝑓 𝐷
3. 𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐷2 𝑏𝑦 − 𝑎2
4. 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 & 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑦
Case of failure:
𝐴𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑖𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜,
5. 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑦 𝑥 & 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑒,
𝑥 𝑥
𝑃𝐼 = ′ sin 𝑎𝑥 (𝑜𝑟) ′ cos 𝑎𝑥
𝑓 𝐷 𝑓 𝐷 15
6. 𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 3.
Problems:
1. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑃𝐼 𝑜𝑓 𝐷2 + 4 𝑦 = cos 2𝑥 .
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝐷2 + 4 𝑦 = cos 2𝑥
1
𝑃𝐼 = 2 cos 2𝑥
𝐷 +4
1
= cos 2𝑥 𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐷2 = −4
−4 + 4
1
= cos 2𝑥 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒
0
𝑥
∴ 𝑃𝐼 = cos 2𝑥
2𝐷
𝑥1 𝑥
= cos 2𝑥 = cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2𝐷 2
𝒙
∴ 𝑷𝑰 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒙
𝟒 16
 2. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝐷2 − 4𝐷 + 3 𝑦 = sin 3𝑥 cos 2𝑥
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝐷2 − 4𝐷 + 3 𝑦 = sin 3𝑥 cos 2𝑥
1
= sin 5𝑥 + sin 𝑥
2
1
sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 = sin 𝐴 + 𝐵 + sin 𝐴 − 𝐵
2
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑎. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚2 − 4𝑚 + 3 = 0 => 𝑚 = 3,1 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 & 𝑢𝑛𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙
∴ 𝐶𝐹 = 𝐴𝑒 3𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 𝑥
𝑻𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝑷𝑰:
1 1
𝑃𝐼 = 2 sin 5𝑥 + sin 𝑥
𝐷 − 4𝐷 + 3 2
1 1 1
= 2
sin 5𝑥 + 2 sin 𝑥
2 𝐷 − 4𝐷 + 3 𝐷 − 4𝐷 + 3
1
𝑃𝐼 = 𝑃𝐼1 + 𝑃𝐼2 17
2
 1
𝑃𝐼1 = 2 sin 5𝑥
𝐷 − 4𝐷 + 3
1
= sin 5𝑥 𝐷2 → −25
−25 − 4𝐷 + 3
1
= sin 5𝑥
−4𝐷 − 22

−4𝐷 + 22
= sin 5𝑥
−4𝐷 − 22 −4𝐷 + 22
−4𝐷 sin 5𝑥 + 22 sin 5𝑥
=
16𝐷2 − 484
−20 cos 5𝑥 + 22 sin 5𝑥 2
= 𝐷 → −25
16 −25 − 484
−20 cos 5𝑥 + 22 sin 5𝑥
=
−884
20 cos 5𝑥 − 22 sin 5𝑥
𝑃𝐼1 = 18
884
 1
𝑃𝐼2 = 2 sin 𝑥
𝐷 − 4𝐷 + 3
1
= sin 𝑥 𝐷2 → −1
−1 − 4𝐷 + 3
1
= sin 𝑥
−4𝐷 + 2
−4𝐷 − 2
= sin 𝑥
−4𝐷 + 2 −4𝐷 − 2
−4𝐷 sin 𝑥 − 2 sin 𝑥
=
16𝐷2 − 4
−4 cos 𝑥 − 2 sin 𝑥 2
= 𝐷 →−
16 −1 − 4
−4 cos 𝑥 − 2 sin 𝑥
=
−20
2 cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥
𝑃𝐼2 =
10
19
 1
𝑃𝐼 = 𝑃𝐼1 + 𝑃𝐼2
2
1 20 cos 5𝑥 − 22 sin 5𝑥 2 cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥
𝑃𝐼 = +
2 884 10
∴ 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝒚 = 𝑪𝑭 + 𝑷𝑰

3. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝐷2 + 6𝐷 + 8 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝐷2 + 6𝐷 + 8 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥
1 + cos 2𝑥 𝑒 0 + cos 2𝑥
= =
2 2
2
1 + cos 2𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 =
2
𝑻𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝑪𝑭:
𝑎. 𝑒. 𝑖𝑠 𝑚2 + 6𝑚 + 8 = 0 => 𝑚 = −4, −2 20
∴ 𝐶𝐹 = 𝐴𝑒 −4𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −2𝑥
 1 𝑒 0 + cos 2𝑥
𝑃𝐼 = 2
𝐷 + 6𝐷 + 8 2
1 1 0
1
= 2
𝑒 + 2 cos 2𝑥
2 𝐷 + 6𝐷 + 8 𝐷 + 6𝐷 + 8
1
∴ 𝑃𝐼 = 𝑃𝐼1 + 𝑃𝐼2
2
1 0
1 0
𝑃𝐼1 = 2 𝑒 = 𝑒
𝐷 + 6𝐷 + 8 8
1
𝑃𝐼1 =
8
1
𝑃𝐼2 = 2 cos 2𝑥
𝐷 + 6𝐷 + 8
1
= cos 2𝑥 𝐷2 → −4
−4 + 6𝐷 + 8
1 6𝐷 − 4
= cos 2𝑥 = cos 2𝑥
6𝐷 + 4 6𝐷 + 4 6𝐷 − 4 21
 6𝐷 cos 2𝑥 − 4 cos 2𝑥
=
36𝐷2 − 16

6(−2 sin 2𝑥) − 4(cos 2𝑥)

=
36 −4 − 16
−12 sin 2𝑥 − 4 cos 2𝑥
=
−160
3 sin 2𝑥 + cos 2𝑥
𝑃𝐼2 =
40
1
𝑃𝐼 = 𝑃𝐼1 + 𝑃𝐼2
2
1 1 3 sin 2𝑥 + cos 2𝑥
𝑃𝐼 = +
2 8 40

∴ 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝒚 = 𝑪𝑭 + 𝑷𝑰
22
Type IV: 𝑹𝑯𝑺 = 𝒙𝒎
Rules:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓 𝐷 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑚
1. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝐹.
1
2. 𝑃𝐼 = ,𝑥 𝑚 -
𝑓 𝐷
3. 𝑅𝑒𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
1
1±𝜑 𝐷 𝑖𝑒 𝑃𝐼 = 𝑥𝑚
1±𝜑 𝐷
4. 𝑃𝐼 = 1 ± 𝜑 𝐷 −1 𝑥 𝑚
5. 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑑 & 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑦.
Note:
𝑖 1 + 𝑥 −1 = 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 + ⋯
𝑖𝑖 1 − 𝑥 −1 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + ⋯

23
Problems:
1. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝐼 𝑜𝑓 𝐷2 + 4 𝑦 = 𝑥 2
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝐷2 + 4 𝑦 = 𝑥 2
𝑻𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝑷𝑰:
1
𝑃𝐼 = 2 𝑥2
𝐷 +4
1 2
= 𝑥
𝐷2
4 1+
4
2 −1
1 𝐷
= 1+ 𝑥2
4 4
1 𝐷2 𝐷4
= 1− + − ⋯ 𝑥2
4 4 16
1 2 2 1 2 1
= 𝑥 − +0−⋯ = 𝑥 − 24
4 4 4 2
 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝑷𝑰 = 𝒙 −
𝟒 𝟐
2. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝐷2 + 5𝐷 + 4 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 9
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝐷2 + 5𝐷 + 4 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 9
𝑎. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚2 + 5𝑚 + 4 = 0 => 𝑚 = −4, −1
∴ 𝐶𝐹 = 𝐴𝑒 −4𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑥
1
𝑃𝐼 = 2 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 9
𝐷 + 5𝐷 + 4
1 2 + 7𝑥 + 9
= 𝑥
𝐷2 + 5𝐷
4 1+
4
−1
1 𝐷2 + 5𝐷
= 1+ 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 9
4 4
2
1 𝐷2 + 5𝐷 𝐷2 + 5𝐷
= 1− + −⋯ 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 9
4 4 4 25
 1 𝐷 2 5𝐷 25𝐷 2
= 1− − + 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 9
4 4 4 16
*𝐷 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 9 = 2𝑥 + 7,
𝐷2 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 9 = 2+
1 2 2 5 2𝑥 + 7 25 2
𝑃𝐼 = 𝑥 + 7𝑥 + 9 − − +
4 4 4 16
1 2 1 5𝑥 35 25
= 𝑥 + 7𝑥 + 9 − − − +
4 2 2 4 8
1 2 9𝑥 23
𝑃𝐼 = 𝑥 + +
4 2 8
∴ 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝒚 = 𝑪𝑭 + 𝑷𝑰

26
 3. 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝐷3 + 2𝐷2 + 𝐷 𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥
Solution:
𝑎. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚3 + 2𝑚2 + 𝑚 = 0
=> 𝑚 𝑚2 + 2𝑚 + 1 = 0 => 𝑚 = 0, −1, −1
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑡
𝐶𝐹 = 𝐴𝑒 0𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 𝑒 −𝑥
1 2𝑥 2
𝑃𝐼 = 3 2
𝑒 + 𝑥 +𝑥
𝐷 + 2𝐷 + 𝐷
1 2𝑥
1 2
= 3 2
𝑒 + 3 2
(𝑥 + 𝑥)
𝐷 + 2𝐷 + 𝐷 𝐷 + 2𝐷 + 𝐷
𝑃𝐼 = 𝑃𝐼1 + 𝑃𝐼2
1 2𝑥
𝑃𝐼1 = 3 𝑒
𝐷 + 2𝐷2 + 𝐷
1
= 𝑒 2𝑥 𝐷 → 2
8+2 4 +2
27
 𝑒 2𝑥
𝑃𝐼1 =
18
1 2
𝑃𝐼2 = 3 2
𝑥 +𝑥
𝐷 + 2𝐷 + 𝐷
1 2+𝑥
= 𝑥
𝐷 1 + 𝐷2 + 2𝐷
1
= 1 + 𝐷2 + 2𝐷 −1 𝑥 2 + 𝑥
𝐷
1
= 1 − 𝐷2 + 2𝐷 + 𝐷2 + 2𝐷 2 − ⋯ 𝑥 2 + 𝑥
𝐷
𝐷 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 1, 𝐷2 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 = 2
1
= 1 − 𝐷2 − 2𝐷 + 4𝐷2 𝑥 2 + 𝑥
𝐷
1
= 1 + 3𝐷2 − 2𝐷 𝑥 2 + 𝑥
𝐷
1
= 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 3 2 − 2 2𝑥 + 1 28
𝐷
 1 2
= 𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 4
𝐷
𝑥 3 3𝑥 2
𝑃𝐼2 = − + 4𝑥
3 2
∴ 𝑃𝐼 = 𝑃𝐼1 + 𝑃𝐼2
𝑒 2𝑥 𝑥 3 3𝑥 2
𝑃𝐼 = + − + 4𝑥
18 3 2
∴ 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝒚 = 𝑪𝑭 + 𝑷𝑰

4. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝐷4 + 𝐷3 + 𝐷2 𝑦 = 5𝑥 2 + cos 𝑥
Solution:
𝑎. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚4 + 𝑚3 + 𝑚2 = 0
=> 𝑚2 𝑚2 + 𝑚 + 1 = 0
=> 𝑚2 = 0 , 𝑚2 + 𝑚 + 1 = 0
−1 ± 𝑖 3
=> 𝑚 = 0,0 , 29
2
 1
−2𝑥 3 3
𝐶𝐹 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 +𝑒 𝐶 cos 𝑥 + 𝐷 sin 𝑥
2 2
1 2 + cos 𝑥
𝑃𝐼 = 4 5𝑥
𝐷 + 𝐷3 + 𝐷2
1 2
1
= 2 2 5𝑥 + 2 2 cos 𝑥
𝐷 𝐷 +𝐷+1 𝐷 𝐷 +𝐷+1
𝑃𝐼 = 𝑃𝐼1 + 𝑃𝐼2
1
𝑃𝐼1 = 2 2 5𝑥 2
𝐷 𝐷 +𝐷+1
1
= 2 1 + 𝐷2 + 𝐷 −1 5𝑥 2
𝐷
1
= 2 1 − 𝐷2 + 𝐷 + 𝐷2 + 𝐷 2 + ⋯ 5𝑥 2
𝐷
1
= 2 1 − 𝐷2 − 𝐷 + 𝐷2 5𝑥 2
𝐷
𝐷 5𝑥 2 = 10𝑥, 𝐷2 5𝑥 2 = 10 30
 1
= 2 5𝑥 2 − 10 − 10𝑥 + 10
𝐷
1
= 2 5𝑥 2 − 10𝑥
𝐷
1 𝑥3 𝑥2
= 5 − 10
𝐷 3 2
𝑥4 𝑥3
𝑃𝐼1 = 5 − 5
12 3
1
𝑃𝐼2 = 2 2 cos 𝑥
𝐷 𝐷 +𝐷+1
1
= cos 𝑥 𝐷2 → −1
−1 −1 + 𝐷 + 1
1
= cos 𝑥 = − sin 𝑥
−𝐷
𝑃𝐼2 = − sin 𝑥
∴ 𝑃𝐼 = 𝑃𝐼1 + 𝑃𝐼2 31
∴ 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝒚 = 𝑪𝑭 + 𝑷𝑰
 5. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝐷2 − 3𝐷 + 2 𝑦 = 2 cos 2𝑥 + 3 + 2𝑒 𝑥
Solution:
𝑎. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚2 − 3𝑚 + 2 = 0 => 𝑚 = 2,1
𝐶𝐹 = 𝐴𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 𝑥
1
𝑃𝐼 = 2 2 cos 2𝑥 + 3 + 2𝑒 𝑥
𝐷 − 3𝐷 + 2
1 1
= 2 2 cos 2𝑥 + 3 + 2 2𝑒 𝑥
𝐷 − 3𝐷 + 2 𝐷 − 3𝐷 + 2
𝑃𝐼 = 𝑃𝐼1 + 𝑃𝐼2
1
𝑃𝐼1 = 2 2 cos 2𝑥 + 3
𝐷 − 3𝐷 + 2
1
=2 cos 2𝑥 + 3 𝐷2 → −4
−4 − 3𝐷 + 2
1
=2 cos 2𝑥 + 3
−3𝐷 − 2
−3𝐷 + 2
=2 2
cos 2𝑥 + 3 32
9𝐷 − 4
 −3 −2 sin 2𝑥 + 3 + 2 cos 2𝑥 + 3
=2
−40
−6 sin 2𝑥 + 3 − 2 cos 2𝑥 + 3
=
20
−3 sin 2𝑥 + 3 − cos 2𝑥 + 3
𝑃𝐼1 =
10
1
𝑃𝐼2 = 2 2𝑒 𝑥
𝐷 − 3𝐷 + 2
1
= 2𝑒 𝑥 𝐷 → 1
1−3+2
𝑥
𝑃𝐼2 = 2𝑒 𝑥
2𝐷 − 3
𝑥
= 2𝑒 𝑥
2−3
𝑃𝐼2 = −2𝑥𝑒 𝑥
∴ 𝑃𝐼 = 𝑃𝐼1 + 𝑃𝐼2
33
∴ 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝒚 = 𝑪𝑭 + 𝑷𝑰
Type V: 𝑹𝑯𝑺 = 𝒆𝒂𝒙 𝑽, 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑽 𝒊𝒔 𝒔𝒐𝒎𝒆 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒙
Rules:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓 𝐷 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑉
1. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝐹
1
2. 𝑃𝐼 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑉
𝑓 𝐷
𝑎𝑥 1
3. 𝑃𝐼 = 𝑒 𝑉
𝑓 𝐷+𝑎

4. 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑖𝑓 𝑉 𝑖𝑠 sin 𝑎𝑥 𝑜𝑟 cos 𝑎𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝐼𝑉 𝑖𝑓 𝑉 𝑖𝑠 𝑥 𝑚

Problems:
1. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝐷2 − 2𝐷 + 5 𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑥 sin 𝑥
Solution:
𝑎. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚2 − 2𝑚 + 5 = 0 => 𝑚 = 1 ± 2𝑖
𝐶𝐹 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝐴 cos 2𝑥 + 𝐵 sin 2𝑥
1
𝑃𝐼 = 2 𝑒 2𝑥 sin 𝑥 34
𝐷 − 2𝐷 + 5
 2𝑥
1
=𝑒 2
sin 𝑥
𝐷+2 −2 𝐷+2 +5
2𝑥
1
=𝑒 2
sin 𝑥
𝐷 + 4𝐷 + 4 − 2𝐷 − 4 + 5
2𝑥
1
=𝑒 2
sin 𝑥
𝐷 + 2𝐷 + 5
2𝑥
1
=𝑒 sin 𝑥 𝐷2 → −1
−1 + 2𝐷 + 5
2𝑥
1
=𝑒 sin 𝑥
2𝐷 + 4
2𝑥
2𝐷 − 4
=𝑒 2
sin 𝑥
4𝐷 − 16
2𝑥
2 cos 𝑥 − 4 sin 𝑥
=𝑒 𝐷2 → −1
−20
2𝑥
2 sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥
𝑃𝐼 = 𝑒
10
35
∴ 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝒚 = 𝑪𝑭 + 𝑷𝑰
 2. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝐷2 − 4𝐷 + 3 𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑒 3𝑥 + 3𝑒 𝑥 cos 2𝑥
Solution:
𝑎. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚2 − 4𝑚 + 3 = 0 => 𝑚 = 1,3
𝐶𝐹 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 3𝑥
1 3𝑥
1
𝑃𝐼 = 2 2𝑥𝑒 + 2 3𝑒 𝑥 cos 2𝑥
𝐷 − 4𝐷 + 3 𝐷 − 4𝐷 + 3
𝑃𝐼 = 𝑃𝐼1 + 𝑃𝐼2
1
𝑃𝐼1 = 2 2𝑥𝑒 3𝑥
𝐷 − 4𝐷 + 3
3𝑥
1
= 2𝑒 2
𝑥 𝐷 →𝐷+3
𝐷+3 −4 𝐷+3 +3
3𝑥
1
= 2𝑒 2
𝑥
𝐷 + 6𝐷 + 9 − 4𝐷 − 12 + 3
3𝑥 −1
1 2𝑒 𝐷
= 2𝑒 3𝑥 2 𝑥= 1+ 𝑥
𝐷 + 2𝐷 2𝐷 2
𝑒 3𝑥 𝐷 36
= 1− 𝑥 𝐷 𝑥 =1
𝐷 2
 𝑒 3𝑥 1
= 𝑥−
𝐷 2
2
3𝑥
𝑥 𝑥
𝑃𝐼1 = 𝑒 −
2 2
1
𝑃𝐼2 = 2 3𝑒 𝑥 cos 2𝑥
𝐷 − 4𝐷 + 3
𝑥
1
= 3𝑒 2
cos 2𝑥
𝐷+1 −4 𝐷+1 +3
𝐷 →𝐷+1
𝑥
1
= 3𝑒 2 cos 2𝑥
𝐷 − 2𝐷
𝑥
1
= 3𝑒 cos 2𝑥 𝐷2 → −4
−4 − 2𝐷
𝑥
2𝐷 − 4
= −3𝑒 cos 2𝑥
2𝐷 + 4 2𝐷 − 4
𝑥
2𝐷 − 4 37
= −3𝑒 2
cos 2𝑥
4𝐷 − 16
 2 −2 sin 2𝑥 − 4 cos 2𝑥 2
= −3𝑒 𝑥 𝐷 → −4
4 −4 − 16
𝑥
4 sin 2𝑥 + 4 cos 2𝑥
= −3𝑒
32
3 𝑥
𝑃𝐼2 = − 𝑒 ,sin 2𝑥 + cos 2𝑥-
8
∴ 𝑃𝐼 = 𝑃𝐼1 + 𝑃𝐼2
∴ 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝒚 = 𝑪𝑭 + 𝑷𝑰

3. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝐷2 − 6 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 sin2 𝑥
Solution:
𝑎. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚2 − 6 = 0 => 𝑚 = ± 6
𝐶𝐹 = 𝐴𝑒 6𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 − 6𝑥
1 𝑥
1 − cos 2𝑥
𝑃𝐼 = 2 𝑒
𝐷 −6 2 38
 1 𝑒𝑥 1 𝑒 𝑥 cos 2𝑥
= 2 −
𝐷 − 6 2 𝐷2 − 6 2
𝑃𝐼 = 𝑃𝐼1 − 𝑃𝐼2
1 𝑒𝑥 1 1
𝑃𝐼1 = 2 = 𝑒𝑥 𝐷 → 1
𝐷 −6 2 21 − 6
𝑒𝑥
𝑃𝐼1 = −
10
1 𝑒 𝑥 cos 2𝑥
𝑃𝐼2 = 2
𝐷 −6 2
𝑒 𝑥 1
= 2
cos 2𝑥
2 𝐷+1 −6
𝑒𝑥 1
= 2
cos 2𝑥
2 𝐷 + 2𝐷 − 5
𝑒 𝑥 1
= cos 2𝑥 𝐷2 → −4
2 2𝐷 − 9
𝑒 𝑥 2𝐷 + 9
= 2
cos 2𝑥 39
2 4𝐷 − 81
 𝑒 𝑥 2(−2 sin 2𝑥) + 9 (cos 2𝑥)
= 𝐷 2 → −4
2 −97
𝑒𝑥
𝑃𝐼2 = ,4 sin 2𝑥 − 9 cos 2𝑥-
194
∴ 𝑃𝐼 = 𝑃𝐼1 − 𝑃𝐼2
∴ 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝒚 = 𝑪𝑭 + 𝑷𝑰

𝑻𝒚𝒑𝒆 𝑽𝑰: 𝑹𝑯𝑺 = 𝒙𝒏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒂𝒙 𝒐𝒓 𝒙𝒏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒂𝒙

𝑹𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔:
1. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝐹
1 1
2. 𝑃𝐼 = 𝑥 𝑛 sin 𝑎𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 𝑛 cos 𝑎𝑥
𝑓 𝐷 𝑓 𝐷
1 1
3. 𝑃𝐼 = 𝐼𝑃 𝑒 𝑖𝑎𝑥 𝑥 𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑃(𝑒 𝑖𝑎𝑥 )𝑥 𝑛
𝑓 𝐷 𝑓 𝐷
4. 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑓𝑦.

40
Problems:
1. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑦" + 2𝑦′ + 𝑦 = 𝑥 cos x
Solution:
𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝐷2 + 2𝐷 + 1 𝑦 = 𝑥 cos 𝑥
𝑎. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚2 + 2𝑚 + 1 = 0 => 𝑚 = −1, −1
𝐶𝐹 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 𝑒 −𝑥
1
𝑃𝐼 = 2 𝑥 cos 𝑥
𝐷 + 2𝐷 + 1
1
= 2 𝑅𝑃𝑒 𝑖𝑥 𝑥
𝐷 + 2𝐷 + 1
1
= 𝑅𝑃 2 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 𝑥
𝐷 + 2𝐷 + 1
𝑖𝑥
1
= 𝑅𝑃𝑒 2
𝑥
(𝐷 + 𝑖) +2(𝐷 + 𝑖) + 1
𝑖𝑥
1
= 𝑅𝑃𝑒 2
𝑥
𝐷 + 2𝑖𝐷 − 1 + 2𝐷 + 2𝑖 + 1
41
 𝑖𝑥
1
= 𝑅𝑃𝑒 2
𝑥
𝐷 + 2𝐷 𝑖 + 1 + 2𝑖
𝑖𝑥
1
= 𝑅𝑃𝑒 2 𝑥
𝐷 + 2𝐷 𝑖 + 1
2𝑖 1 +
2𝑖
2 −1
𝑖𝑥
1 𝐷 + 2𝐷 𝑖 + 1
= 𝑅𝑃𝑒 1+ 𝑥
2𝑖 2𝑖
1 𝐷 2 + 2𝐷 𝑖 + 1
= 𝑅𝑃𝑒 𝑖𝑥 1− +⋯ 𝑥
2𝑖 2𝑖
𝑖𝑥
1 2 𝑖+1
= 𝑅𝑃𝑒 𝑥− 𝐷 𝑥 =1
2𝑖 2𝑖
𝑖𝑥
1 1
= 𝑅𝑃𝑒 𝑥−1−
2𝑖 𝑖
1
= 𝑅𝑃 cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑥 2𝑖 𝑥 − 1 − 1
−2 42
1
= − − cos 𝑥 − 𝑥 − 1 sin 𝑥
2
 1
𝑃𝐼 = cos 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 1 sin 𝑥
2
∴ 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝒚 = 𝑪𝑭 + 𝑷𝑰

2. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝐷2 + 4 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 sin 2𝑥
Solution:
𝑎. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚2 + 4 = 0 => 𝑚 = ±2𝑖
𝐶𝐹 = 𝐴 cos 2𝑥 + 𝐵 sin 2𝑥
1
𝑃𝐼 = 2 𝑥 2 sin 2𝑥
𝐷 +4
1
= 2 𝑥 2 𝐼𝑃𝑒 𝑖2𝑥
𝐷 +4
1
= 𝐼𝑃 2 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑖2𝑥
𝐷 +4
𝑖2𝑥
1 2
= 𝐼𝑃𝑒 2
𝑥 𝐷 → 𝐷 + 2𝑖
𝐷 + 2𝑖 + 4
43
 1
= 𝐼𝑃𝑒 𝑖2𝑥2
𝑥2
𝐷 + 4𝑖𝐷 − 4 + 4
𝑖2𝑥
1 2
= 𝐼𝑃𝑒 𝑥
𝐷 2 + 4𝑖𝐷
𝑒 𝑖2𝑥 𝐷 −1 2
= 𝐼𝑃 1+ 𝑥
4𝑖𝐷 4𝑖
𝑒 𝑖2𝑥 𝐷 𝐷 2
= 𝐼𝑃 1− + + ⋯ 𝑥2
4𝑖𝐷 4𝑖 4𝑖
𝑒 𝑖2𝑥 2 2𝑥 2
= 𝐼𝑃 𝑥 − +
4𝑖𝐷 4𝑖 −16
𝐷 𝑥 2 = 2𝑥, 𝐷2 𝑥 2 = 2
𝑒 𝑖2𝑥 8𝑖𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 𝑖
= 𝐼𝑃
4𝑖𝐷 8𝑖
𝑒 𝑖2𝑥
= 𝐼𝑃 8𝑖𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 𝑖
−32𝐷
1 𝑥3
= − 𝐼𝑃 cos 2𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 2𝑥 8 − 𝑥 𝑖 − 2𝑥 2 44
32 3
 1 𝑥3
=− 8 − 𝑥 cos 2𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 sin 2𝑥
32 3
1 𝑥3
𝑃𝐼 = − 8 − 𝑥 cos 2𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 sin 2𝑥
32 3
∴ 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝒚 = 𝑪𝑭 + 𝑷𝑰
3. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝐼 𝑜𝑓 𝐷2 − 2𝐷 + 1 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥
Solution:
1
𝑃𝐼 = 2 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥
𝐷 − 2𝐷 + 1
𝑥
1
=𝑒 2
𝑥 sin 𝑥
𝐷+1 −2 𝐷+1 +1
𝑥
1
=𝑒 2 𝑥 sin 𝑥
𝐷 + 2𝐷 + 1 − 2𝐷 − 2 + 1
𝑥
1
= 𝑒 2 𝑥 sin 𝑥
𝐷 45
𝑥
1
=𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥
𝐷
 *𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑖 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎,
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑢 = 𝑥 &𝑑𝑣 = sin 𝑥+
= 𝑒 𝑥 −𝑥 sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥 − cos 𝑥
𝑷𝑰 = −𝒆𝒙 ,𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 + 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙-

46
Cauchy’s Linear Differential Equation:
𝐴𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝑛 𝑛−1
𝑛
𝑑 𝑦 𝑛−1
𝑑 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑥 𝑛
+ 𝑎1 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑏 → (1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 & 𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝑜𝑟
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑢𝑐𝑕𝑦 ′ 𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
1 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑. 𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑐𝑜 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧 => 𝑧 = log 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑
𝑥 = 𝐷′𝑦 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐷′ =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧
𝑑 2𝑦
𝑥 2 2 = 𝐷′ 𝐷′ − 1 𝑦
𝑑𝑥
3
3
𝑑 𝑦 ′ 𝐷 ′ − 1 𝐷 ′ − 2 𝑦 & 𝑠𝑜 𝑜𝑛.
𝑥 = 𝐷
𝑑𝑥 3
47
Problems:
𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
1 . 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑥 2 −𝑥 +𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑥 2 𝐷2 − 𝑥𝐷 + 1 𝑦 = 0
𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧 => 𝑧 = log 𝑥
𝑑
𝑥𝐷 = 𝐷′ , 𝑥 2 𝐷2= 𝐷′ 𝐷′
− 1 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐷′ =
𝑑𝑧
∴ 𝐷′ 𝐷′ − 1 − 𝐷′ + 1 𝑦 = 0
2
=> 𝐷′ − 𝐷′ − 𝐷′ + 1 𝑦 = 0
2
=> 𝐷′ − 2𝐷′ + 1 𝑦 = 0
𝑎. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚2 − 2𝑚 + 1 = 0
=> 𝑚 = 1,1
𝐶𝐹 = (𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵)𝑒 𝑧
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 = 𝐶𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅𝐻𝑆 = 0
∴ 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵 𝑒 𝑧 48

=> 𝒚 = 𝑨 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙 + 𝑩 𝒙
 2
2
𝑑 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 5
2. 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑥 2
+𝑥 − 9𝑦 = 10 + 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
Solution:
5
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑥 2 𝐷2
+ 𝑥𝐷 − 9 𝑦 = 10 + 2
𝑥
𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧 => 𝑧 = log 𝑥
𝑑
𝑥𝐷 = 𝐷′ , 𝑥 2 𝐷2
= 𝐷′ 𝐷′
− 1 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐷′ =
𝑑𝑧
′ ′ ′ 0
5
𝐷 𝐷 − 1 + 𝐷 − 9 𝑦 = 10𝑒 + 𝑧 2
𝑒
𝐷′ 2 − 9 𝑦 = 10𝑒 0 + 5𝑒 −2𝑧
𝑎. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚2 − 9 = 0 => 𝑚 = ±3
𝐶𝐹 = 𝐴𝑒 3𝑧 + 𝐵𝑒 −3𝑧
𝑃𝐼 = 𝑃𝐼1 + 𝑃𝐼2
1 0
10 0 ′
𝑃𝐼1 = ′ 2 10𝑒 = 𝑒 𝐷 →0
𝐷 −9 −9 49
 10
𝑃𝐼1 = −
9
1 −2𝑧
𝑃𝐼2 = 5𝑒
𝐷′ 2 − 9
1
=5 𝑒 −2𝑧 𝐷′ → −2
4−9
𝑃𝐼2 = −𝑒 −2𝑧
∴ 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 = 𝐶𝐹 + 𝑃𝐼
3𝑧 −3𝑧
10
=> 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 + 𝐵𝑒 − − 𝑒 −2𝑧
9
3 log 𝑥 −3 log 𝑥
10
=> 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 + 𝐵𝑒 − − 𝑒 −2 log 𝑥
9
𝟑 −𝟑
𝟏𝟎
=> 𝒚 = 𝑨𝒙 + 𝑩𝒙 − − 𝒙−𝟐
𝟗
50
 3. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑥 2 𝐷2 − 3𝑥𝐷 + 4 𝑦 = (log 𝑥)2 + cos(log 𝑥)
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑥 2 𝐷2 − 3𝑥𝐷 + 4 𝑦 = (log 𝑥)2 + cos(log 𝑥)
𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧 => 𝑧 = log 𝑥
′ 2 2 ′ ′
𝑑
𝑥𝐷 = 𝐷 , 𝑥 𝐷 = 𝐷 𝐷 − 1 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐷′ =
𝑑𝑧
𝐷′ 𝐷′ − 1 − 3𝐷′ + 4 𝑦 = 𝑧 2 + cos 𝑧
=> 𝐷′ 2 − 4𝐷′ + 4 𝑦 = 𝑧 2 + cos 𝑧
𝑎. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚2 − 4𝑚 + 4 = 0 => 𝑚 = 2,2
𝐶𝐹 = 𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵 𝑒 2𝑧
𝑃𝐼 = 𝑃𝐼1 + 𝑃𝐼2
1 2
𝑃𝐼1 = ′ 2 ′
𝑧 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝐼𝑉
𝐷 − 4𝐷 + 4
−1
1 𝐷′ 2 − 4𝐷′
= 1+ 𝑧2
4 4 51
 ′ 2 ′ ′ 2 ′ 2
1 𝐷 − 4𝐷 𝐷 − 4𝐷
= 1− + 𝑧2
4 4 4
1 𝐷′ 2
= 1− + 𝐷′ + 𝐷′2 𝑧 2
4 4
𝐷′ 𝑧 2 = 2𝑧, 𝐷′ 2 𝑧 2 = 2
1 2 3
𝑃𝐼1 = 𝑧 + + 2𝑧
4 2
1
𝑃𝐼2 = ′ 2 ′
cos 𝑧 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝐷 − 4𝐷 + 4
1 ′ 2 → −1
= cos 𝑧 𝐷
−1 − 4𝐷′ + 4
1 −4𝐷′ − 3
= ′
cos 𝑧 = ′ 2
cos 𝑧
−4𝐷 + 3 16 𝐷 − 9

52
 4 sin 𝑧 − 3 cos 𝑧
𝑃𝐼2 =
−25
∴ 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 = 𝐶𝐹 + 𝑃𝐼
2𝑧
1 2 3 4 sin 𝑧 − 3 cos 𝑧
=> 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵 𝑒 + 𝑧 + + 2𝑧 −
4 2 25
𝟐
𝟏 𝟐
𝟑
𝒚 = 𝑨 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙 + 𝑩 𝒙 + 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙 + + 𝟐 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙
𝟒 𝟐
𝟒 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙) − 𝟑 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙)
−
𝟐𝟓

2
2 2
log 𝑥
4. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑥 𝐷 − 𝑥𝐷 + 1 𝑦 = + 𝑥 sin(log 𝑥)
𝑥
Solution:
log 𝑥 2
𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑥 2 𝐷2 − 𝑥𝐷 + 1 𝑦 = + 𝑥 sin(log 𝑥)
𝑥
𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧 => 𝑧 = log 𝑥 53
𝑑
𝑥𝐷 = 𝐷′ , 𝑥 2 𝐷2 = 𝐷′ 𝐷′ − 1 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐷′ =
𝑑𝑧
 𝑧 2
𝐷′ 𝐷′ − 1 − 𝐷′ + 1 𝑦 = 𝑧 + 𝑒 𝑧 sin 𝑧
𝑒
=> 𝐷′ 2 − 2𝐷′ + 1 𝑦 = 𝑒 −2𝑧 𝑧 2 + 𝑒 𝑧 sin 𝑧
𝑎. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚2 − 2𝑚 + 1 = 0 => 𝑚 = 1,1
𝐶𝐹 = (𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵)𝑒 𝑧
𝑃𝐼 = 𝑃𝐼1 + 𝑃𝐼2
1 −2𝑧 𝑧 2 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝑉
𝑃𝐼1 = ′ 2 𝑒
𝐷 − 2𝐷′ + 1
−2𝑧
1 2
=𝑒 𝑧
𝐷′ − 2 2 − 2(𝐷′ −2) + 1
𝐷′ → 𝐷′ − 2
−2𝑧
1 2
=𝑒 ′ 2 ′
𝑧 (𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝐼𝑉)
𝐷 − 6𝐷 + 9
−1
𝑒 −2𝑧 𝐷′ 2 − 6𝐷′
= 1+ 𝑧2
9 9
54
 𝑒 −2𝑧 𝐷′ 2 − 6𝐷′ 36 𝐷′ 2 2
= 1− + 𝑧
9 9 81
𝑒 −2𝑧 2 2 2 2𝑧 36 2
= 𝑧 − + +
9 9 3 81
𝑒 −2𝑧 2 2 4𝑧 8
= 𝑧 − + +
9 9 3 9
𝑒 −2𝑧 2
4𝑧 6
𝑃𝐼1 = 𝑧 + +
9 3 9
1 𝑧
𝑃𝐼2 = ′ 2 ′
𝑒 sin 𝑧 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝑉
𝐷 − 2𝐷 + 1
𝑧
1
=𝑒 ′ 2 ′
sin 𝑧
𝐷 + 1 − 2(𝐷 +1) + 1
𝐷′ → 𝐷′ + 1
𝑧
1
=𝑒 ′ 2
sin 𝑧 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝐷
𝑧
1
=𝑒 sin 𝑧 𝐷′ 2 → −1 55
−1
 𝑃𝐼2 = −𝑒 𝑧 sin 𝑧
∴ 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 = 𝐶𝐹 + 𝑃𝐼
−2𝑧
𝑧
𝑒 4𝑧 6
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵 𝑒 + 𝑧 + + − 𝑒 𝑧 sin 𝑧
2
9 3 9
𝒙−𝟐 𝟐
𝟒 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙 𝟔
𝒚 = 𝑨 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙 + 𝑩 𝒙 + 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙 + +
𝟗 𝟑 𝟗
−𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙)

5. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑥 2 𝐷2 + 𝑥𝐷 + 1 𝑦 = log 𝑥 sin log 𝑥

Solution:
𝐺𝑛 𝑥 2 𝐷2 + 𝑥𝐷 + 1 𝑦 = log 𝑥 sin log 𝑥
𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧 => 𝑧 = log 𝑥
′ 2 2 ′ ′
𝑑
𝑥𝐷 = 𝐷 , 𝑥 𝐷 = 𝐷 𝐷 − 1 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐷′ =
𝑑𝑧
𝐷′ 𝐷′ − 1 + 𝐷′ + 1 𝑦 = 𝑧 sin 𝑧
=> 𝐷′ 2 + 1 𝑦 = 𝑧 sin 𝑧
𝑎. 𝑒 𝑚2 + 1 = 0 => 𝑚 = ±𝑖 56

𝐶𝐹 = 𝐴 cos 𝑧 + 𝐵 sin 𝑧
 1
𝑃𝐼 = 𝑧 sin 𝑧 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝑉𝐼
𝐷′ 2 +1
1 𝑖𝑧
= 𝑧 𝐼𝑃 𝑒
𝐷′ 2 + 1
𝑖𝑧
1 ′ ′
= 𝐼𝑃𝑒 ′ 2
𝑧 𝐷 → 𝐷 +𝑖
𝐷 +𝑖 +1
𝑖𝑧
1
= 𝐼𝑃𝑒 ′ 2 ′
𝑧
𝐷 + 2𝑖𝐷 − 1 + 1
𝑖𝑧
1
= 𝐼𝑃𝑒 ′ 2 ′
𝑧
𝐷 + 2𝑖𝐷
′ −1
1 𝐷
= 𝐼𝑃𝑒 𝑖𝑧 ′
1+ 𝑧
2𝑖𝐷 2𝑖
1 𝐷 ′
= 𝐼𝑃𝑒 𝑖𝑧 ′
1− 𝑧
2𝑖𝐷 2𝑖
57
 1 1
= 𝐼𝑃𝑒 𝑖𝑧 𝑧−
2𝑖𝐷 ′ 2𝑖
2
𝑖𝑧
1 𝑧 𝑧
= 𝐼𝑃𝑒 −
2𝑖 2 2𝑖
1
= 𝐼𝑃 cos 𝑧 + 𝑖 sin 𝑧 𝑖𝑧 2 − 𝑧
−4
1 2
𝑃𝐼 = − ,𝑧 cos 𝑧 − 𝑧 sin 𝑧-
4
∴ 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 = 𝐶𝐹 + 𝑃𝐼
1 2
𝑦 = 𝐴 cos 𝑧 + 𝐵 sin 𝑧 − 𝑧 cos 𝑧 − 𝑧 sin 𝑧
4
𝟏
𝒚 = 𝑨 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒙) + 𝑩 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒙) − ,(𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒙)𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒙
𝟒
− 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒙)-

58
Legendre’s Differential Equation:
𝐴𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝑑 𝑛𝑦 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑛 𝑛−1
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑛
+ 𝑘1 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + ⋯ + 𝑘𝑛−1 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥
+ 𝑘𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑏 → (1)
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘1 , 𝑘2 , … , 𝑘𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 & 𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓
𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑒′𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
1 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑. 𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑐𝑜 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 𝑒 𝑧 => 𝑧 = log(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)
𝑑𝑦 𝑑
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 𝑎𝐷′𝑦 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐷′ =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧
2
2
𝑑 𝑦 2 ′ ′
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 2
= 𝑎 𝐷 𝐷 −1 𝑦
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 3𝑦
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 3 3 = 𝑎3 𝐷′ 𝐷′ − 1 𝐷′ − 2 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 59
& 𝑠𝑜 𝑜𝑛.
Problems:
1. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑥 + 2 2 𝐷2 − 𝑥 + 2 𝐷 + 1 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 4
Solution:
𝑔𝑛, 𝑥 + 2 2 𝐷2 − 𝑥 + 2 𝐷 + 1 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 4
𝑆𝑢𝑏 𝑥 + 2 = 𝑒 𝑧 => 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧 − 2
𝑧 = log 𝑥 + 2
𝑑
𝑥+2 𝐷 = 𝐷′ ,
𝑥+2 2 𝐷2
= 𝐷′ 𝐷′− 1 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐷′ =
𝑑𝑧
=> 𝐷′ 𝐷′ − 1 − 𝐷′ + 1 𝑦 = 3 𝑒 𝑧 − 2 + 4
=> (𝐷′ )2 − 2𝐷′ + 1 𝑦 = 3𝑒 𝑧 − 2𝑒 0
𝑎. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚2 − 2𝑚 + 1 = 0 => 𝑚 = 1,1
𝐶𝐹 = 𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵 𝑒 𝑧
𝑃𝐼 = 𝑃𝐼1 + 𝑃𝐼2
1 𝑧
𝑃𝐼1 = ′ 2 ′
3𝑒 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝐼𝐼
𝐷 − 2𝐷 + 1
60
 1
= 3𝑒 𝑧 𝐷′ → 1
1−2+1
𝑧 𝑧
𝑧 𝑧 ′
∴ 𝑃𝐼1 = ′
3𝑒 = 3𝑒 𝐷 →1
2𝐷 − 2 2−2
𝑧2 𝑧
∴ 𝑃𝐼1 = 3𝑒
2
1 0 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝐼𝐼
𝑃𝐼2 = ′ 2 −2 𝑒
𝐷 − 2𝐷′ + 1
1
= −2 𝑒 0
0−0+1
𝑃𝐼2 = −2
∴ 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 = 𝐶𝐹 + 𝑃𝐼
𝑧 2
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵 𝑒 𝑧 + 3𝑒 𝑧 − 2
2
𝒚 = 𝑨 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙 + 𝟐 + 𝑩 𝒙 + 𝟐 +
𝟑
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙 + 𝟐 𝟐 𝒙 + 𝟐 − 𝟐 61
𝟐
 2. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 3𝑥 + 2 2 𝐷2 + 3 3𝑥 + 2 𝐷 − 36 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1
Solution:
𝑔𝑛 3𝑥 + 2 2 𝐷2 + 3 3𝑥 + 2 𝐷 − 36 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1
𝑧
𝑧
𝑒 −2
𝑃𝑢𝑡 3𝑥 + 2 = 𝑒 => 𝑥 =
3
𝑧 = log 3𝑥 + 2
′ 2 2 ′ ′
𝑑
3𝑥 + 2 𝐷 = 3𝐷 , 3𝑥 + 2 𝐷 = 9𝐷 𝐷 − 1 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐷′ =
𝑑𝑧
𝑒 𝑧−2 2 𝑒 𝑧 −2
=> 9𝐷′ 𝐷′ − 1 + 9𝐷′ − 36 𝑦 = 3 +4 +1
9 3
9 𝐷′ 2 − 9𝐷′ + 9𝐷′ − 36 𝑦
1 2𝑧 𝑧
4 𝑧
= 𝑒 − 4𝑒 + 4 + 𝑒 − 2 + 1
3 3
𝑒 2𝑧 1
′ 2
9 𝐷 − 36 𝑦 = −
3 3
2
𝑎. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 9𝑚 − 36 = 0 => 𝑚 = ±2
62
2𝑧
𝐶𝐹 = 𝐴𝑒 + 𝐵𝑒 −2𝑧

𝑃𝐼 = 𝑃𝐼1 + 𝑃𝐼2
 1 𝑒 2𝑧
𝑃𝐼1 = ′ 2
𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝐼𝐼
9 𝐷 − 36 3
1 1
= 𝑒 2𝑧 𝐷′ → 2
3 36 − 36
1 𝑧 2𝑧
1 𝑧 2𝑧 ′
∴ 𝑃𝐼1 = ′
𝑒 = 𝑒 𝐷 →2
3 18𝐷 3 36
1
∴ 𝑃𝐼1 = 𝑧𝑒 2𝑧
108
1 𝑒0
∴ 𝑃𝐼2 = ′ 2
− 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝐼𝐼
9 𝐷 − 36 3
1 1 0
1
=− 𝑒 =
3 0 − 36 108
1
∴ 𝑃𝐼2 =
108
∴ 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 = 𝐶𝐹 + 𝑃𝐼
63
 1 1
𝑦= 𝐴𝑒 2𝑧 + 𝐵𝑒 −2𝑧+ 2𝑧
𝑧𝑒 +
108 108
𝒚 = 𝑨 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟐 𝟐 + 𝑩 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟐 −𝟐 +
𝟏 𝟐
𝟏
𝐥𝐨𝐠(𝟑𝒙 + 𝟐) 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟐 +
𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝟏𝟎𝟖

3. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑥 + 1 2 𝐷2 + 𝑥 + 1 𝐷 + 1 𝑦 = 4 cos log 𝑥 + 1

Solution:
𝐺𝑛, 𝑥 + 1 2 𝐷2 + 𝑥 + 1 𝐷 + 1 𝑦 = 4 cos log 𝑥 + 1
𝑆𝑢𝑏 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑒 𝑧 => 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧 − 1
𝑧 = log 𝑥 + 1
′ 2 2 ′ ′
𝑑
𝑥 + 1 𝐷 = 𝐷 , 𝑥 + 1 𝐷 = 𝐷 𝐷 − 1 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐷′ =
𝑑𝑧
=> 𝐷′ 𝐷′ − 1 + 𝐷′ + 1 𝑦 = 4 cos 𝑧
𝐷′ 2 + 1 𝑦 = 4 cos 𝑧
𝑎. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚2 + 1 = 0 => 𝑚 = ±𝑖
𝐶𝐹 = 𝐴 cos 𝑧 + 𝐵 sin 𝑧 64
 1
𝑃𝐼 = 4 cos 𝑧 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝐷′ 2 +1
1
= 4 cos 𝑧 𝐷′ 2 → −1
−1 + 1
𝑧
∴ 𝑃𝐼 = ′
4 cos 𝑧
2𝐷
= 2𝑧 cos 𝑧 𝑑𝑧

𝑃𝐼 = 2𝑧 sin 𝑧
∴ 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 = 𝐶𝐹 + 𝑃𝐼
𝑦 = 𝐴 cos 𝑧 + 𝐵 sin 𝑧 + 2𝑧 sin 𝑧
𝒚 = 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙 + 𝟏 + 𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙 + 𝟏 +
𝟐 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙 + 𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙 + 𝟏

65
Simultaneous first order linear equations with
constant co efficient:
𝐼𝑓 𝑥 & 𝑦 𝑎𝑟𝑒 2 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠 & 𝑡 𝑖𝑠
𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑜𝑓𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝑓1 𝐷 𝑥 + 𝑓2 𝐷 𝑦 = 𝑇1 → (1)
𝑔1 𝐷 𝑥 + 𝑔2 𝐷 𝑦 = 𝑇2 → (2)
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 , 𝑔1 , 𝑔2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑑
𝐷= & 𝑇1 & 𝑇2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑
𝑑𝑡
𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑑. 𝑒.
𝑇𝑜 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2 , 𝑤𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑔𝑒𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠.

66
Problems:
1. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑛′ 𝑠
𝑑𝑥
+ 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 2𝑒 2𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦
+ 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑡
Solution:
𝐺𝑛,
𝑑𝑥
+ 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 2𝑒 2𝑡 => 𝐷𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 2𝑒 2𝑡
𝑑𝑡
=> 𝐷 + 2 𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 2𝑒 2𝑡 → (1)
𝑑𝑦
+ 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 0 => 𝐷𝑦 + 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑡
=> 3𝑥 + 𝐷 + 2 𝑦 = 0 → (2)
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 1 & 2
1 × 𝐷 + 2 => 𝐷 + 2 2 𝑥 + 3 𝐷 + 2 𝑦 = 2 𝐷 + 2 𝑒 2𝑡 → 3
2 × 3 => 9𝑥 + 3 𝐷 + 2 𝑦 = 0 → 4
3 − 4 => 𝐷 + 2 2 𝑥 − 9𝑥 = 2 𝐷 + 2 𝑒 2𝑡 67

=> 𝐷2 + 4𝐷 + 4 − 9 𝑥 = 2 2𝑒 2𝑡 + 2𝑒 2𝑡
 => 𝐷2 + 4𝐷 − 5 𝑥 = 8𝑒 2𝑡
𝑎. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚2 + 4𝑚 − 5 = 0 => 𝑚 = −5,1
𝐶𝐹 = 𝐴𝑒 −5𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 𝑡
1
𝑃𝐼 = 2 8𝑒 2𝑡 (𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝐼𝐼)
𝐷 + 4𝐷 − 5
1
= 8𝑒 2𝑡 𝐷 → 2
4+8−5
8 2𝑡
𝑃𝐼 = 𝑒
7
∴ 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑥 = 𝐶𝐹 + 𝑃𝐼
−5𝑡 𝑡
8 2𝑡
=> 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 + 𝐵𝑒 + 𝑒 → 5
7
𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓 5 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡. 𝑡
𝑑𝑥 −5𝑡 𝑡
16 2𝑡
= −5𝐴𝑒 + 𝐵𝑒 + 𝑒 → 6
𝑑𝑡 7
𝑆𝑢𝑏 5 & 6 𝑖𝑛 1 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡, 68
𝑑𝑥
1 => + 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 2𝑒 2𝑡
𝑑𝑡
 −5𝑡 𝑡
16 2𝑡 −5𝑡
8 2𝑡
−5𝐴𝑒 + 𝐵𝑒 + 𝑒 + 2 𝐴𝑒 + 𝐵𝑒 + 𝑒 + 3𝑦 = 2𝑒 2𝑡
𝑡
7 7
−5𝑡 𝑡
16 2𝑡 −5𝑡
16 2𝑡
− 5𝐴𝑒 + 𝐵𝑒 + 𝑒 + 2𝐴𝑒 + 2𝐵𝑒 + 𝑒 + 3𝑦 = 2𝑒 2𝑡
𝑡
7 7
−5𝑡
32 2𝑡
−3𝐴𝑒 + 3𝐵𝑒 + 𝑒 + 3𝑦 = 2𝑒 2𝑡
𝑡
7
2𝑡 −5𝑡 𝑡
32 2𝑡
3𝑦 = 2𝑒 + 3𝐴𝑒 − 3𝐵𝑒 − 𝑒
7
−5𝑡 𝑡
6 2𝑡
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 − 𝐵𝑒 − 𝑒
7
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒
−𝟓𝒕 𝒕
𝟖 𝟐𝒕 −𝟓𝒕 𝒕
𝟔 𝟐𝒕
𝒙 = 𝑨𝒆 + 𝑩𝒆 + 𝒆 , 𝒚 = 𝑨𝒆 − 𝑩𝒆 − 𝒆
𝟕 𝟕

69
 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
2. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 + 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 5𝑡, − 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑥 0 = 0 & 𝑦 0 = −1.
Solution:
𝑑𝑥
𝐺𝑛, + 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 5𝑡 => 𝐷 + 2 𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 5𝑡
𝑑𝑡
→ (1)
𝑑𝑦
− 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 0 => −3𝑥 + 𝐷 + 2 𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑡
→ (2)
1 × 𝐷 + 2 =>
𝐷 + 2 2𝑥 − 3 𝐷 + 2 𝑦 = 5 𝐷 + 2 𝑡 → 3
2 × −3 => 9𝑥 − 3 𝐷 + 2 𝑦 = 0 → 4
3 − 4 => 𝐷 + 2 2 𝑥 − 9𝑥 = 5 𝐷 + 2 𝑡
=> 𝐷2 + 4𝐷 − 5 𝑥 = 5 1 + 2𝑡
𝑎. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚2 + 4𝑚 − 5 = 0 => 𝑚 = −5,1
𝐶𝐹 = 𝐴𝑒 −5𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 𝑡 70
 1
𝑃𝐼 = 2 5 1 + 2𝑡
𝐷 + 4𝐷 − 5
5 1
= − 1 + 2𝑡
5 𝐷 2 + 4𝐷
1−
5
2 −1
𝐷 + 4𝐷
=− 1− 1 + 2𝑡
5
𝐷2 + 4𝐷
=− 1+ + ⋯ 1 + 2𝑡
5
4
= − 1 + 2𝑡 + 2 𝐷 1 + 2𝑡 = 2
5
13
𝑃𝐼 = − 2𝑡 +
5
∴ 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑥 = 𝐶𝐹 + 𝑃𝐼
−5𝑡 𝑡
13
=> 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 + 𝐵𝑒 − 2𝑡 + → 5
5 71
 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓 4 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡. 𝑡
𝑑𝑥
= −5𝐴𝑒 −5𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 𝑡 − 2 → 6
𝑑𝑡
𝑆𝑢𝑏 5 & 6 𝑖𝑛 1 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡,
𝑑𝑥
1 => + 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 5𝑡
𝑑𝑡
13
−5𝐴𝑒 −5𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 𝑡
−2+2 𝐴𝑒 −5𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 𝑡
− 2𝑡 + − 3𝑦 = 5𝑡
5
−5𝑡 𝑡 −5𝑡 𝑡
13
−5𝐴𝑒 + 𝐵𝑒 − 2 + 2𝐴𝑒 + 2𝐵𝑒 − 2 2𝑡 + − 3𝑦 = 5𝑡
5
−5𝑡 𝑡
36
−3𝑦 = 5𝑡 + 3𝐴𝑒 − 3𝐵𝑒 + 4𝑡 +
5
−5𝑡 𝑡
12
𝑦 = −𝐴𝑒 + 𝐵𝑒 − 3𝑡 − → 7
5
𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑥 0 = 0 & 𝑦 0 = −1
−5 0 0
13
∴ 𝑥 0 = 𝐴𝑒 + 𝐵𝑒 − 0 + =0
5
13 72
=> 𝐴 + 𝐵 = → 8
5
 12
−𝐴𝑒 0
&𝑦(0) = + 𝐵𝑒 0
+0− = −1
5
7
=> −𝐴 + 𝐵 = → 9
5

13 7
8 + 9 => 2𝐵 = + => 2𝐵 = 4
5 5
=> 𝐵 = 2
𝑆𝑢𝑏 𝐵 = 2 𝑖𝑛 8 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡
13 3
𝐴= − 2 => 𝐴 =
5 5
∴ 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒
𝟑 −𝟓𝒕 𝒕
𝟏𝟑
𝒙= 𝒆 + 𝟐𝒆 − 𝟐𝒕 + ,
𝟓 𝟓
𝟑 −𝟓𝒕 𝒕
𝟏𝟐
𝒚=− 𝒆 + 𝟐𝒆 − 𝟑𝒕 −
𝟓 𝟓
73
 3. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝐷𝑥 + 𝑦 = sin 𝑡 , 𝑥 + 𝐷𝑦 = cos 𝑡
𝑔𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 2 & 𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 0
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝐷𝑥 + 𝑦 = sin 𝑡 → 1
& 𝑥 + 𝐷𝑦 = cos 𝑡 → 2
1 × 𝐷 => 𝐷2 𝑥 + 𝐷𝑦 = 𝐷 sin 𝑡 → 3
2 × 1 => 𝑥 + 𝐷𝑦 = cos 𝑡 → 4
3 − 4 => 𝐷2 𝑥 − 𝑥 = cos 𝑡 − cos 𝑡
=> 𝐷2 − 1 𝑥 = 0
𝑎. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚2 − 1 = 0 => 𝑚 = ±1
𝐶𝐹 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑡
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅𝐻𝑆 = 0 => 𝑃𝐼 = 0
∴ 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑥 = 𝐶𝐹 => 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑡 → (5)
𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓 5 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡. 𝑡
𝑑𝑥
= 𝐴𝑒 𝑡 − 𝐵𝑒 −𝑡 → 6
𝑑𝑡 74
𝑆𝑢𝑏 6 𝑖𝑛 1
𝐴𝑒 𝑡 − 𝐵𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝑦 = sin 𝑡
 ∴ 𝑦 = −𝐴𝑒 𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑡 + sin 𝑡 → 7
𝑔𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 2 & 𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 0
𝑥 0 = 𝐴𝑒 0 + 𝐵𝑒 0 = 2 => 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 2 → 8
𝑦 0 = −𝐴𝑒 0 + 𝐵𝑒 0 + sin 0 = 0
=> −𝐴 + 𝐵 = 0 → 9
8 + 9 => 2𝐵 = 2 => 𝐵 = 1
𝑆𝑢𝑏 𝐵 = 1 𝑖𝑛 8 => 𝐴 = 1
∴ 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝒙 = 𝒆𝒕 + 𝒆−𝒕 , 𝒚 = −𝒆𝒕 + 𝒆−𝒕 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒕

4. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝐷𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 𝑡, 𝐷𝑦 − 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑡
Solution:
𝐺𝑛, 𝐷 + 2 𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 𝑡 → 1
−3𝑥 + 𝐷 + 2 𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑡 → 2
1 × 𝐷 + 2 => 𝐷 + 2 2 𝑥 − 3 𝐷 + 2 𝑦 = 𝐷 + 2 𝑡 → 3
2 × 3 => −9𝑥 + 3 𝐷 + 2 𝑦 = 3𝑒 2𝑡 → 4
3 + 4 => 𝐷 + 2 2 𝑥 − 9𝑥 = 𝐷 + 2 𝑡 + 3𝑒 2𝑡 75

𝐷2 + 4𝐷 − 5 𝑥 = 1 + 2𝑡 + 3𝑒 2𝑡
 𝑎. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚2 + 4𝑚 − 5 = 0 => 𝑚 = −5,1
𝐶𝐹 = 𝐴𝑒 −5𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 𝑡
1
𝑃𝐼1 = 2 1 + 2𝑡
𝐷 + 4𝐷 − 5
1 1
=− 2 1 + 2𝑡
5 𝐷 + 4𝐷
1−
5
−1
1 𝐷2 + 4𝐷
=− 1− 1 + 2𝑡
5 5
1 𝐷2 + 4𝐷
=− 1+ + ⋯ 1 + 2𝑡
5 5
1 4
=− 1 + 2𝑡 + 2 𝐷 1 + 2𝑡 = 2
5 5
1 13
𝑃𝐼 = − 2𝑡 +
5 5
76
 1 2𝑡
𝑃𝐼2 = 3𝑒
𝐷 2 + 4𝐷 − 5
1
= 3 𝑒 2𝑡
4+8−5
3 2𝑡
𝑃𝐼2 = 𝑒
7
∴ 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑥 = 𝐶𝐹 + 𝑃𝐼
−5𝑡 𝑡
1 13 3 2𝑡
𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 + 𝐵𝑒 − 2𝑡 + + 𝑒 → 5
5 5 7
𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓 5 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 𝑡
𝑑𝑥 −5𝑡 𝑡
2 6 2𝑡
= −5𝐴𝑒 + 𝐵𝑒 − + 𝑒 → 6
𝑑𝑡 5 7
𝑆𝑢𝑏 5 & 6 𝑖𝑛 1 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡,
𝑑𝑥
1 => + 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
−5𝑡 𝑡
2 6 2𝑡 −5𝑡 𝑡
2 13
−5𝐴𝑒 + 𝐵𝑒 − + 𝑒 + 2𝐴𝑒 + 2𝐵𝑒 − 2𝑡 +
5 7 5 5 77
6 2𝑡
+ 𝑒 − 3𝑦 = 𝑡
7
 4 12 36
−3𝐴𝑒 −5𝑡 + 3𝐵𝑒 𝑡 − 𝑡 + 𝑒 2𝑡 − − 3𝑦 = 𝑡
5 7 25
−5𝑡 𝑡
4 12 2𝑡 36
−3𝑦 = 𝑡 + 3𝐴𝑒 − 3𝐵𝑒 + 𝑡 − 𝑒 +
5 7 25
−5𝑡 𝑡
9 12 2𝑡 36
−3𝑦 = 3𝐴𝑒 − 3𝐵𝑒 + 𝑡 − 𝑒 +
5 7 25
3 4 12
𝑦 = −𝐴𝑒 −5𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 𝑡 − 𝑡 + 𝑒 2𝑡 −
5 7 25
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠
−𝟓𝒕 𝒕
𝟏 𝟏𝟑 𝟑 𝟐𝒕
𝒙 = 𝑨𝒆 + 𝑩𝒆 − 𝟐𝒕 + + 𝒆 ,
𝟓 𝟓 𝟕
−𝟓𝒕 𝒕
𝟑 𝟒 𝟐𝒕 𝟏𝟐
𝒚 = −𝑨𝒆 + 𝑩𝒆 − 𝒕 + 𝒆 −
𝟓 𝟕 𝟐𝟓

78
Method of variation of parameter:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑑. 𝑒
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2
+𝑎 + 𝑏𝑦 = 𝑋 → 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝐶𝐹 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝐹 = 𝐴𝑓1 + 𝐵𝑓2
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑊 = 𝑓1 𝑓2′ − 𝑓2 𝑓1′ 𝑏𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑊𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
𝑇𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑃𝐼 = 𝑃𝑓1 + 𝑄𝑓2
𝑓2 𝑋 𝑓1 𝑋
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑃 = − 𝑑𝑥 & 𝑄 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑊 𝑊
∴ 𝑦 = 𝐶𝐹 + 𝑃𝐼
Note:
1
1. tan 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − log cos 𝑎𝑥
𝑎
1
2. cot 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = log sin 𝑎𝑥
𝑎
1
3. sec 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = log sec 𝑎𝑥 + tan 𝑎𝑥
𝑎
1 79
4. cosec 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − log cosec 𝑎𝑥 + cot 𝑎𝑥
𝑎
Problems:
1. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝐷2 + 4 𝑦 = cot 2𝑥 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑕𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓
𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟.
Solution:
𝐺𝑛, 𝐷2 + 4 𝑦 = cot 2𝑥
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑎. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚2 + 4 = 0 => 𝑚 = ±2𝑖
∴ 𝐶𝐹 = 𝐴 cos 2𝑥 + 𝐵 sin 2𝑥 (𝐴𝑓1 + 𝐵𝑓2 )
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓1 = cos 2𝑥 => 𝑓1′ = −2 sin 2𝑥
𝑓2 = sin 2𝑥 => 𝑓2′ = 2 cos 2𝑥
𝑊 = 𝑓1 𝑓2′ − 𝑓2 𝑓1′ = cos 2𝑥 2 cos 2𝑥 − sin 2𝑥 −2 sin 2𝑥
= 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝑥 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2𝑥 = 2
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑋 = cot 2𝑥
𝑇𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑃𝐼 = 𝑃𝑓1 + 𝑄𝑓2
𝑓2 𝑋 sin 2𝑥 cot 2𝑥
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑃 = − 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑑𝑥
𝑊 2
80
 1 cos 2𝑥
=− sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 sin 2𝑥
1
= − cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2
sin 2𝑥
𝑃=−
4
𝑓1 𝑋 cos 2𝑥 cot 2𝑥
𝑄= 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑊 2
1 cos 2 2𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥
2 sin 2𝑥
1 1 − sin2 2𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥
2 sin 2𝑥

1 81
= cosec 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2
 1 1 1
= − log cosec 2𝑥 + cot 2𝑥 + cos 2𝑥
2 2 2
1 1
𝑄 = − log cosec 2𝑥 + cot 2𝑥 + cos 2𝑥
4 4

∴ 𝑃𝐼 = 𝑃𝑓1 + 𝑄𝑓2
sin 2𝑥
= − cos 2𝑥
4
1 1
+ − log cosec 2𝑥 + cot 2𝑥 + cos 2𝑥 sin 2𝑥
4 4
sin 2𝑥
𝑃𝐼 = − log cosec 2𝑥 + cot 2𝑥
4
∴ 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 = 𝐶𝐹 + 𝑃𝐼
𝒚 = 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝒙 + 𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒙 −
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒙
𝐥𝐨𝐠 cosec 𝟐𝒙 + 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝟐𝒙
𝟒 82
 2. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝐷2 + 𝑎2 𝑦 = sec 𝑎𝑥
Solution:
𝐺𝑛, 𝐷2 + 𝑎2 𝑦 = sec 𝑎𝑥
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑎. 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚2 + 𝑎2 = 0 => 𝑚 = ±𝑎𝑖
∴ 𝐶𝐹 = 𝐴 cos 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐵 sin 𝑎𝑥 (𝐴𝑓1 + 𝐵𝑓2 )
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓1 = cos 𝑎𝑥 => 𝑓1′ = −𝑎 sin 𝑎𝑥
𝑓2 = sin 𝑎𝑥 => 𝑓2′ = 𝑎 cos 𝑎𝑥
𝑊 = 𝑓1 𝑓2′ − 𝑓2 𝑓1′ = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑋 = sec 𝑎𝑥
𝑇𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑃𝐼 = 𝑃𝑓1 + 𝑄𝑓2
𝑓2 𝑋 sin 𝑎𝑥 sec 𝑎𝑥
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑃 = − 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑑𝑥
𝑊 𝑎
1
=− tan 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
1 1
= − − log(cos 𝑎𝑥) 83
𝑎 𝑎
 1
𝑃 = 2 log(cos 𝑎𝑥)
𝑎
𝑓1 𝑋 cos 𝑎𝑥 sec 𝑎𝑥
𝑄= 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑊 𝑎
1 𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑎 𝑎
𝑥
𝑄=
𝑎
1 𝑥
∴ 𝑃𝐼 = 𝑃𝑓1 + 𝑄𝑓2 = 2 log cos 𝑎𝑥 cos 𝑎𝑥 + sin 𝑎𝑥
𝑎 𝑎
∴ 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 = 𝐶𝐹 + 𝑃𝐼
𝟏
𝒚 = 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒂𝒙 + 𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒂𝒙 + 𝟐 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒂𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒂𝒙
𝒂
𝒙
+ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒂𝒙
𝒂 84
 3. 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝐷2 − 2𝐷 + 1 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 log 𝑥
Solution:
𝐺𝑛, 𝐷2 − 2𝐷 + 1 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 log 𝑥
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑚 = 1,1
∴ 𝐶𝐹 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 𝑥
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓1 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 => 𝑓1′ = 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 (1)
𝑓2 = 𝑒 𝑥 => 𝑓2′ = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑊 = 𝑓1 𝑓2′ − 𝑓2 𝑓1′ = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥
=> 𝑊 = −𝑒 2𝑥
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑋 = 𝑒 𝑥 log 𝑥
𝑓2 𝑋 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 log 𝑥
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑃 = − 𝑑𝑥 = − 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑊 −𝑒

= log 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑃 = 𝑥 log 𝑥 − 𝑥 85
 𝑓1 𝑋 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 log 𝑥
𝑄= 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑊 −𝑒

=− 𝑥 log 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠, 𝑢 = log 𝑥 , 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑥 𝑥2
=> 𝑑𝑢 = ,𝑣 =
𝑥 2
𝑥2 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑄=− 𝑥 log 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − log 𝑥 −
2 2 𝑥
𝑥2 𝑥
= − log 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥
2 2
𝑥2 𝑥2
𝑄 = − log 𝑥 +
2 4 86
 ∴ 𝑃𝐼 = 𝑃𝑓1 + 𝑄𝑓2
𝑥 2 𝑥 2
= 𝑥 log 𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + − log 𝑥 + 𝑒𝑥
2 4
𝑥 2𝑒 𝑥 𝑥 2𝑒 𝑥
= 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 log 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 − log 𝑥 +
2 4
𝑥 2𝑒 𝑥 3𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥
𝑃𝐼 = log 𝑥 −
2 4
∴ 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 = 𝐶𝐹 + 𝑃𝐼
𝟐 𝒙 𝟐 𝒙
𝒙
𝒙 𝒆 𝟑𝒙 𝒆
𝒚 = 𝑨𝒙 + 𝑩 𝒆 + 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙 −
𝟐 𝟒

4. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝐷2 + 1 𝑦 = cosec 𝑥 cot 𝑥

Solution:
𝐺𝑛, 𝐷2 + 1 𝑦 = cosec 𝑥 cot 𝑥
𝑎. 𝑒. 𝑖𝑠 𝑚2 + 1 = 0 => 𝑚 = ±𝑖
𝐶𝐹 = 𝐴 cos 𝑥 + 𝐵 sin 𝑥 87
 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓1 = cos 𝑥 => 𝑓1′ = − sin 𝑥
𝑓2 = sin 𝑥 => 𝑓2′ = cos 𝑥
𝑊 = 𝑓1 𝑓2′ − 𝑓2 𝑓1′
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 = 1
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑋 = cosec 𝑥 cot 𝑥
𝑇𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑃𝐼 = 𝑃𝑓1 + 𝑄𝑓2
𝑓2 𝑋 sin 𝑥 cosec 𝑥 cot 𝑥
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑃 = − 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑑𝑥
𝑊 1

=− cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑃 = − log(sin 𝑥)
𝑓1 𝑋 cos 𝑥 cosec 𝑥 cot 𝑥
𝑄= 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑊 1

88
 cos2 𝑥
= 2
𝑑𝑥
sin 𝑥
1 − sin2 𝑥
= 2
𝑑𝑥 = cosec 2 𝑥 − 1 𝑑𝑥
sin 𝑥
𝑄 = − cot 𝑥 − 𝑥
𝑃𝐼 = − log(sin 𝑥) cos 𝑥 − cot 𝑥 + 𝑥 sin 𝑥
∴ 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 = 𝐶𝐹 + 𝑃𝐼
𝒚 = 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 + 𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 − 𝐥𝐨𝐠(𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
− 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙 + 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙

89
 By
M RAMYA
Applied Mathematics
SVCE

1
Laplace Transform:
𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 ∀ 𝑡 ≥ 0,
∞
𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑡 , 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑
0
𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡 & 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝐹 𝑠 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐿 𝑖𝑠
𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟.
Exponential Order:
𝐴 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓 𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑓
lim 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 = 0
𝑡→∞
Piecewise continuous:
𝐴 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙
𝑎, 𝑏 𝑖𝑓 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑕 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒
𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑏𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑢𝑝 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑎 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏 −
𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑕𝑖𝑐𝑕 𝑓 𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠.
Condition of existence:
𝐼𝑓 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓 𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎
𝑎, 𝑏 & 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑡 ′ 𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 2
𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠.
Formulas:
1
1. 𝐿 1 = , 𝑠 > 0
𝑠
𝑛
𝑛!
2. 𝐿 𝑡 = 𝑛+1 , 𝑛 = 0,1,2, …
𝑠
𝑛
𝛤𝑛+1
3. 𝐿 𝑡 = 𝑛+1 , 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
𝑠
𝑎𝑡
1
4. 𝐿 𝑒 = ,𝑠 > 𝑎
𝑠−𝑎
−𝑎𝑡
1
5. 𝐿 𝑒 = , 𝑠 > −𝑎
𝑠+𝑎
𝑎
6. 𝐿 sin 𝑎𝑡 = 2 2
,𝑠 > 0
𝑠 +𝑎
𝑠
7. 𝐿 cos 𝑎𝑡 = 2 2
,𝑠 > 0
𝑠 +𝑎
𝑎
8. 𝐿 sinh 𝑎𝑡 = 2 2
,𝑠 > 𝑎
𝑠 −𝑎
𝑠
9. 𝐿 cosh 𝑎𝑡 = 2 2
, 𝑠 > |𝑎|
𝑠 −𝑎 3
Note:
1. 𝑒 −∞ = 0, 𝑒 0 = 1
∞ 𝑛 −𝑥
2. 𝛤𝑛+1 = 0 𝑥 𝑒 𝑑𝑥
3. 𝛤𝑛+1 = 𝑛! (𝐼𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟)
4. 𝛤𝑛+1 = 𝑛𝛤𝑛
5. 𝛤1 = 𝜋
2
𝑒 𝑎𝑥
6. 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 sin 𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 2 [𝑎 sin 𝑏𝑥 − 𝑏 cos 𝑏𝑥]
𝑎 +𝑏
𝑒 𝑎𝑥
7. 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 cos 𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 2 [𝑎 cos 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑏 sin 𝑏𝑥]
𝑎 +𝑏

4
Result 1:
1
𝑃𝑇 𝐿 1 = , 𝑠 > 0.
𝑠
Proof:
𝐵𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑇, 𝑤𝑒 𝑕𝑎𝑣𝑒
∞
𝐿𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 𝑡 = 1
∞ −𝑠𝑡 ∞
𝑒
∴𝐿 1 = 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =
0 −𝑠 0
1 −∞ 0
1
=− 𝑒 −𝑒 =− 0−1
𝑠 𝑠
𝟏
∴ 𝑳𝟏 =
𝒔

5
Result 2:
𝑎𝑡
1
𝑃𝑇 𝐿 𝑒 = ,𝑠 > 𝑎
𝑠−𝑎
Proof:
∞ −𝑠𝑡
𝐵𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑇, 𝑤𝑒 𝑕𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 = 0
𝑒 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡
∞
∴ 𝐿 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
∞
= 𝑒 −(𝑠−𝑎)𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
−(𝑠−𝑎)𝑡 ∞
𝑒
=
−(𝑠 − 𝑎) 0
1 −∞ 0
1
=− 𝑒 −𝑒 =− 0−1
(𝑠 − 𝑎) (𝑠 − 𝑎)
𝒂𝒕
𝟏
∴ 𝑳𝒆 =
𝒔−𝒂 6
Result 3:
−𝑎𝑡
1
𝑃𝑇 𝐿 𝑒 = ,𝑠 > 𝑎
𝑠+𝑎
Proof:
∞ −𝑠𝑡
𝐵𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑇, 𝑤𝑒 𝑕𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 = 0
𝑒 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡
∞
∴ 𝐿 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
∞
= 𝑒 −(𝑠+𝑎)𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
−(𝑠+𝑎)𝑡 ∞
𝑒
=
−(𝑠 + 𝑎) 0
1 −∞ 0
1
=− 𝑒 −𝑒 =− 0−1
(𝑠 + 𝑎) (𝑠 + 𝑎)
−𝒂𝒕
𝟏
∴ 𝑳𝒆 =
𝒔+𝒂 7
Result 4:
𝑎
𝑃𝑇 𝐿 sin 𝑎𝑡 = 2
𝑠 + 𝑎2
Proof:
∞ −𝑠𝑡
𝐵𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑇, 𝑤𝑒 𝑕𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 = 0
𝑒 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 𝑡 = sin 𝑎𝑡
∞
∴ 𝐿 sin 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 sin 𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
∞
−𝑠𝑡
𝑒
= −𝑠 sin 𝑎𝑡 − 𝑎 cos 𝑎𝑡 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 = −𝑠 & 𝑏 = 𝑎
𝑠2 + 𝑎2
0
𝑒 −∞ 𝑒 −0
= 2 2
−𝑠 sin ∞ − 𝑎 cos ∞ − 2 2
−𝑠 sin 0 − 𝑎 cos 0
𝑠 +𝑎 𝑠 +𝑎
1
=0− 2 2
0−𝑎
𝑠 +𝑎
𝒂
∴ 𝑳 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒂𝒕 = 𝟐
𝒔 + 𝒂𝟐 8
Result 5:
𝑠
𝑃𝑇 𝐿 cos 𝑎𝑡 = 2
𝑠 + 𝑎2
Proof:
∞ −𝑠𝑡
𝐵𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑇, 𝑤𝑒 𝑕𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 = 0
𝑒 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 𝑡 = cos 𝑎𝑡
∞
∴ 𝐿 cos 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 cos 𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
∞
−𝑠𝑡
𝑒
= −𝑠 cos 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑎 sin 𝑎𝑡
𝑠2 + 𝑎2
0
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 = −𝑠 & 𝑏 = 𝑎
𝑒 −0
= 0− 2 2
−𝑠 − 0
𝑠 +𝑎
𝒔
∴ 𝑳 𝒄𝒐𝐬 𝒂𝒕 = 𝟐
𝒔 + 𝒂𝟐
9
Result 6:
𝑎
𝑃𝑇 𝐿 sinh 𝑎𝑡 = 2
𝑠 − 𝑎2
Proof:
𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑤. 𝑘. 𝑡 sinh 𝑥 =
2
𝑒 𝑎𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡
=> L[sinh 𝑎𝑡] = 𝐿
2
1
= 𝐿 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 − 𝐿 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡
2
1 1 1 1 𝑠+𝑎−𝑠+𝑎
= − =
2 𝑠−𝑎 𝑠+𝑎 2 𝑠 2 − 𝑎2
1 2𝑎
=
2 𝑠 2 − 𝑎2
𝒂
∴ 𝑳 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒂𝒕 = 𝟐
𝒔 − 𝒂𝟐
10
Result 7:
𝑠
𝑃𝑇 𝐿 cosh 𝑎𝑡 = 2
𝑠 − 𝑎2
Proof:
𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑤. 𝑘. 𝑡 cosh 𝑥 =
2
𝑒 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡
=> L[cosh 𝑎𝑡] = 𝐿
2
1
= 𝐿 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 + 𝐿 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡
2
1 1 1 1 𝑠+𝑎+𝑠−𝑎
= + =
2 𝑠−𝑎 𝑠+𝑎 2 𝑠 2 − 𝑎2
1 2𝑠
=
2 𝑠 2 − 𝑎2
𝒔
∴ 𝑳 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒂𝒕 = 𝟐
𝒔 − 𝒂𝟐
11
Result 8:
𝛤𝑛+1
𝑃𝑇 𝐿 𝑡𝑛= 𝑛+1 , 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
𝑠
𝑛!
𝑜𝑟 𝐿 𝑡 𝑛 = 𝑛+1 , 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
𝑠
Proof:
∞ −𝑠𝑡
𝐵𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑇, 𝑤𝑒 𝑕𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 = 0
𝑒 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑡 𝑛
∞
∴ 𝐿 𝑡𝑛 = 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑡 𝑛 𝑑𝑡
0
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑡 = 𝑥 => 𝑠 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑊𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = 0 => 𝑥 = 0 & 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = ∞ => 𝑥 = ∞
∞
𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥
∴ 𝐿 𝑡𝑛 = 𝑒 −𝑥
0 𝑠 𝑠
∞
1
= 𝑛+1 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥
𝑠 0
12
 𝜞𝒏+𝟏
∴ 𝑳 𝒕𝒏 = 𝒏+𝟏 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
𝒔
∞
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝛤𝑛+1 = 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝐼𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝛤𝑛+1 = 𝑛!
𝒏
𝒏!
∴ 𝑳 𝒕 = 𝒏+𝟏 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
𝒔

Property 1: [Linearity Property]

𝐼𝑓 𝑎 & 𝑏 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 𝑡 & 𝑔 𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑜𝑓 𝑡, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝐿 𝑎𝑓 𝑡 ± 𝑏𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑎𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 ± 𝑏𝐿 𝑔 𝑡
Proof:
∞ −𝑠𝑡
𝐵𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑇, 𝑤𝑒 𝑕𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 = 0 𝑒 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
∞
𝐿 𝑎𝑓 𝑡 ± 𝑏𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑓 𝑡 ± 𝑏𝑔 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
∞
= 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑓 𝑡 ± 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑔 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 13

0
 ∞ ∞
=𝑎 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ± 𝑏 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑔 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0 0
𝑳 𝒂𝒇 𝒕 ± 𝒃𝒈 𝒕 = 𝒂𝑳 𝒇 𝒕 ± 𝒃𝑳 𝒈 𝒕

Problems:
1. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿𝑇 𝑜𝑓 sin 6𝑡 + 𝑒 −8𝑡 + 16𝑡 + 7.
Solution:
𝐿 sin 6𝑡 + 𝑒 −8𝑡 + 16𝑡 + 7 = 𝐿 sin 6𝑡 + 𝐿 𝑒 −8𝑡 + 𝐿 16𝑡 + 𝐿 7
6 1 1 1
= 2 + + 16 2 + 7
𝑠 + 36 𝑠 + 8 𝑠 𝑠
𝟔 𝟏 𝟏𝟔 𝟕
∴ 𝑳 = 𝟐 + + 𝟐+
𝒔 + 𝟑𝟔 𝒔 + 𝟖 𝒔 𝒔

14
 2. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿𝑇 𝑜𝑓 sin3 3𝑡
Solution:
𝑤. 𝑘. 𝑡 sin 3𝑥 = 3 sin 𝑥 − 4 sin3 𝑥
3
1
=> sin 𝑥 = 3 sin 𝑥 − sin 3𝑥
4
3
1
∴ 𝐿 sin 3𝑡 = 𝐿 3 sin 3𝑡 − sin 9𝑡
4
3 1
= 𝐿 sin 3𝑡 − 𝐿 sin 9𝑡
4 4
3 3 1 9
= 2
−
4 𝑠 +9 4 𝑠 2 + 81
𝟑
𝟗 𝟏 𝟏
𝑳 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟑𝒕 = 𝟐
− 𝟐
𝟒 𝒔 + 𝟗 𝒔 + 𝟖𝟏

15
 3. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿𝑇 𝑜𝑓 cos 5𝑡 sin 8𝑡
Solution:
𝑤. 𝑘. 𝑡 2 cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵 = sin 𝐴 + 𝐵 − sin 𝐴 − 𝐵
1
=> cos 5𝑡 sin 8𝑡 = sin 13𝑡 − sin −3𝑡
2
1
𝐿 cos 5𝑡 sin 8𝑡 = 𝐿[sin 13𝑡 ] + 𝐿 sin 3𝑡
2
𝟏 𝟏𝟑 𝟑
𝑳 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟓𝒕 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟖𝒕 = 𝟐
+ 𝟐
𝟐 𝒔 + 𝟏𝟔𝟗 𝒔 + 𝟗

sin 𝑡 , 0≤𝑡≤𝜋
4. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝐿𝑇 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑡 =
0, 𝑡>𝜋
Solution:
𝐵𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑇, 𝑤𝑒 𝑕𝑎𝑣𝑒
∞
𝐿𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
16
 𝜋 ∞
= 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0 𝜋
𝜋
= 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 0
0
𝜋
𝑒 −𝑠𝑡
= −𝑠 sin 𝑡 − cos 𝑡
𝑠 2 + 12
0
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 = −𝑠& 𝑏 = 1
𝑒 −𝜋𝑠 𝑒 −0
= 2 2
−𝑠 sin 𝜋 − cos 𝜋 − 2 2
−𝑠 sin 0 − cos 0
𝑠 +1 𝑠 +1
𝑒 −𝜋𝑠
= 2 2
1 +1
𝑠 +1
(𝒆−𝝅𝒔 + 𝟏)
𝑳[𝒇(𝒕) = 𝟐
𝒔 + 𝟏𝟐

17
Property 2:[First Shifting Property]:
𝐼𝑓 𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐹 𝑠 , 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝐿 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐹 𝑠 + 𝑎 .
Proof:
𝐵𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑇, 𝑤𝑒 𝑕𝑎𝑣𝑒
∞
𝐿𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹 𝑠
0
∞
∴ 𝐿 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
∞
= 𝑒− 𝑠+𝑎 𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
𝑳 𝒆−𝒂𝒕 𝒇 𝒕 =𝑭 𝒔+𝒂

𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦, 𝐿 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 =𝐹 𝑠−𝑎

18
Problems:
1 . 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 cos 𝑏𝑡
Solution:
𝐿 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 cos 𝑏𝑡
𝑠
𝐿 cos 𝑏𝑡 = 2
𝑠 + 𝑏2
−𝑎𝑡
𝑠
∴𝐿 𝑒 cos 𝑏𝑡 = 2
𝑠 + 𝑏 2 𝑠→𝑠+𝑎
−𝒂𝒕
𝒔+𝒂
𝑳𝒆 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒃𝒕 =
𝒔 + 𝒂 𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐

2. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿[𝑒 −3𝑡 cos 2 2𝑡]

Solution:
1 + cos 4𝑡
𝐿 cos 2 2𝑡 =𝐿
2
1
= 𝐿 1 + 𝐿 cos 4𝑡
2 19
 1 1 𝑠
= + 2
2 𝑠 𝑠 + 16
−3𝑡 2
1 1 𝑠
𝐿𝑒 cos 2𝑡 = + 2
2 𝑠 𝑠 + 16 𝑠→𝑠+3
1 1 𝑠+3
= +
2 𝑠+3 𝑠 + 3 2 + 16

3. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿[𝑒 4𝑡 sin 2𝑡 sin 𝑡]

Solution:
1
𝐿 sin 2𝑡 sin 𝑡 = 𝐿 cos 𝑡 − cos 3𝑡
2
*2 sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 = cos 𝐴 − 𝐵 − cos 𝐴 + 𝐵
1
= 𝐿 cos 𝑡 − 𝐿 cos 3𝑡
2
1 𝑠 𝑠
= 2
− 2
2 𝑠 +1 𝑠 +9
20
 1 𝑠 𝑠
𝐿 𝑒 4𝑡 sin 2𝑡 sin 𝑡 = 2
− 2
2 𝑠 +1 𝑠 +9 𝑠→𝑠−4
𝟏 𝒔−𝟒 𝒔−𝟒
𝑳 𝒆𝟒𝒕 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒕 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒕 = 𝟐
−
𝟐 𝒔−𝟒 +𝟏 𝒔−𝟒 𝟐+𝟗

4. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿[cosh 𝑡 cos 2𝑡]

Solution:
𝑒 𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑡
𝐿 cosh 𝑡 cos 2𝑡 = 𝐿 cos 2𝑡
2
1
= 𝐿 𝑒 𝑡 cos 2𝑡 + 𝐿 𝑒 −𝑡 cos 2𝑡
2
𝑠
𝐿 cos 2𝑡 = 2
𝑠 +4
1 𝑠 𝑠
𝐿 cosh 𝑡 cos 2𝑡 = 2
+ 2
2 𝑠 + 4 𝑠→𝑠−1 𝑠 +4 𝑠→𝑠+1
21
 𝟏 𝒔−𝟏 𝒔+𝟏
𝑳 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝒕 = +
𝟐 𝒔−𝟏 𝟐+𝟒 𝒔+𝟏 𝟐+𝟒

Derivatives and Integrals of transforms:

Theorem 1: [Derivative of transform]
𝐼𝑓 𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐹 𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝐿 𝑡𝑓 𝑡 = −𝐹 ′ 𝑠 .
Proof:
∞
𝐺𝑛 𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹 𝑠
0
𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑏. 𝑠 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 ′𝑠 ′ 𝑤𝑟 𝑔𝑒𝑡
∞
𝑑
𝐹′ 𝑠 = 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑠 0
∞
= 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 −𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
∞
=− 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = −𝐿 𝑡𝑓 𝑡
0
22
 ∴ 𝑳 𝒕𝒇 𝒕 = −𝑭′ 𝒔
𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 , 𝐿 𝑡 2 𝑓 𝑡 = −1 2 𝐹"(𝑠)
𝐿 𝑡 3 𝑓 𝑡 = −1 3 𝐹 ′′′ 𝑠 & 𝑠𝑜 𝑜𝑛.

Problems:
1. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿 𝑡 cos 𝑡
Solution:
𝑠
𝐿 cos 𝑡 = 2
𝑠 +1
𝑑 𝑠
𝐿 𝑡 cos 𝑡 = −
𝑑𝑠 𝑠 2 + 1
(𝑠 2 +1) 1 − 𝑠(2𝑠) 1 − 𝑠2
=− 2 2
=− 2
(𝑠 +1) (𝑠 +1)2
𝒔𝟐 − 𝟏
𝑳 𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒕 = 𝟐
(𝒔 +𝟏)𝟐

23
2. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿[𝑡 sinh 𝑎𝑡]
Solution:
𝑎
𝐿 sinh 𝑎𝑡 = 2
𝑠 − 𝑎2
𝑑 𝑎
𝐿 𝑡 sinh 𝑎𝑡 = −
𝑑𝑠 𝑠 2 − 𝑎2
𝑠 2 − 𝑎2 0 − 𝑎 2𝑠
=−
𝑠 2 − 𝑎2 2
𝟐𝒂𝒔
𝑳 𝒕 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒂𝒕 = 𝟐
𝒔 − 𝒂𝟐 𝟐

3. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑡 cos 𝑡
Solution:
𝑠
𝐿 cos 𝑡 = 2
𝑠 +1
24
 𝑑 𝑠
𝐿 𝑡 cos 𝑡 = −
𝑑𝑠 𝑠 2 + 1
(𝑠 2 +1) 1 − 𝑠(2𝑠)
= −
(𝑠 2 +1)2
1 − 𝑠2
𝐿[𝑡 cos 𝑡] = − 2
(𝑠 +1)2
𝐿 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑡 cos 𝑡 = 𝐿 𝑡 cos 𝑡 𝑠→𝑠+1
𝑠2 − 1
=
(𝑠 2 +1)2 𝑠→𝑠+1
𝒔 + 𝟏 𝟐−𝟏
𝑳 𝒆−𝒕 𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒕 =
((𝒔 + 𝟏)𝟐 +𝟏)𝟐

25
4. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿𝑇 𝑜𝑓 𝐿 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑡 2 sin 𝑡
Solution:
1
𝐿 sin 𝑡 = 2
𝑠 +1

2 2
2
𝑑 𝑑 1
𝐿 𝑡 sin 𝑡 = 2 𝐿 sin 𝑡 = 2 2
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑠 + 1
𝑑 2𝑠
= − 2
𝑑𝑠 𝑠 +1 2
𝑠 2 + 1 2 2 − 2𝑠 2 𝑠 2 + 1 2𝑠
=−
𝑠2 + 1 4
2 𝑠 2 + 1 [𝑠 2 + 1 − 4𝑠 2
=−
𝑠2 + 1 4
1 − 3𝑠 2
𝐿 𝑡 2 sin 𝑡 = −2 2
(𝑠 +1)3
26
 ∴ 𝐿 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑡 2 sin 𝑡 = 𝐿 𝑡 2 sin 𝑡 𝑠→𝑠+1
3𝑠 2 − 1
= 2 2
(𝑠 +1)2 𝑠→𝑠+1
𝟑(𝒔 + 𝟏) 𝟐 −𝟏
∴ 𝑳 𝒆−𝒕 𝒕𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒕 = 𝟐
((𝒔 + 𝟏)𝟐 +𝟏)𝟑

5. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿 𝑡 2 𝑒 −3𝑡 sin 2𝑡

Solution:
2
𝐿 sin 2𝑡 = 2
𝑠 +4
𝐿 𝑒 −3𝑡 sin 2𝑡 = 𝐿 sin 2𝑡 𝑠→𝑠+3
2 2
= 2 =
𝑠 + 4 𝑠→𝑠+3 𝑠+3 2+4
−3𝑡
2
𝐿𝑒 sin 2𝑡 = 2
𝑠 + 6𝑠 + 13
27
 2
𝑑
𝐿 𝑡 2 𝑒 −3𝑡 sin 2𝑡 = 2 𝐿 𝑒 −3𝑡 sin 2𝑡
𝑑𝑠
𝑑2 2
=
𝑑𝑠 2 𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + 13
𝑑 2𝑠 + 6
=2 − 2
𝑑𝑠 𝑠 + 6𝑠 + 13 2
2
𝑠 2 +6𝑠+13 1 − 𝑠+3 2 𝑠 2 +6𝑠+13 2𝑠+6
= −4
𝑠 2 +6𝑠+13 4
𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + 13
−2 𝑠+3 2 𝑠+3
= −4
𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + 13 3
𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + 13 − 4 𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + 9
= −4
𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + 13 3
𝟐
𝟐 −𝟑𝒕
−𝟑𝒔 − 𝟏𝟖𝒔 − 𝟐𝟑
𝑳 𝒕 𝒆 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒕 = −𝟒
𝒔𝟐 + 𝟔𝒔 + 𝟏𝟑 𝟑

28
Theorem 2:[Integral of transform]
𝑓 𝑡
𝐼𝑓 𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐹 𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛
𝑡→0 𝑡
∞
𝑓 𝑡
𝐿 = 𝐹 𝑠 𝑑𝑠 .
𝑡 𝑠
Note:
𝑑𝑥 1 −1
𝑥
1. 2 2
= tan
𝑥 +𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 1 2 + 𝑎2
2. = log 𝑥
𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 2

29
Problems:
sin 𝑎𝑡
1. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿
𝑡
Solution:
𝑎
𝐿 sin 𝑎𝑡 = 2
𝑠 + 𝑎2
∞
sin 𝑎𝑡
𝐿 = 𝐿 sin 𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑠
𝑡 𝑠
∞
𝑎
= 2 2
𝑑𝑠
𝑠 𝑠 +𝑎
∞
1 𝑠
= 𝑎 tan−1
𝑎 𝑎 𝑠
−1 −1
𝑠
= tan ∞ − tan
𝑎
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒂𝒕 𝝅 −𝟏
𝒔
𝑳 = − 𝐭𝐚𝐧
𝒕 𝟐 𝒂

30
 1−𝑒 𝑡
2. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿
𝑡
Solution:
𝐿 1 − 𝑒𝑡 = 𝐿 1 − 𝐿 𝑒𝑡
𝑡
1 1
𝐿 1−𝑒 = −
𝑠 𝑠−1
∞
1 − 𝑒𝑡 1 1
𝐿 = − 𝑑𝑠
𝑡 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠−1
= log 𝑠 − log 𝑠 − 1 ∞ 𝑠
𝑠 ∞
= log
𝑠−1 𝑠
∞ ∞
𝑠 1
= log = log
1 1
𝑠 1− 1−
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
1
= log 1 − log
1
1−
𝑠 31
 1 𝑠
= 0 − log = − log
1 𝑠−1
1−
𝑠
𝟏 − 𝒆𝒕 𝒔−𝟏
𝑳 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠
𝒕 𝒔

cos 𝑎𝑡−cos 𝑏𝑡
3. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿
𝑡
Solution:
𝐿 cos 𝑎𝑡 − cos 𝑏𝑡 = 𝐿 cos 𝑎𝑡 − 𝐿 cos 𝑏𝑡
𝑠 𝑠
𝐿 cos 𝑎𝑡 − cos 𝑏𝑡 = 2 2
− 2
𝑠 +𝑎 𝑠 + 𝑏2
∞
cos 𝑎𝑡 − cos 𝑏𝑡 𝑠 𝑠
𝐿 = 2 2
− 2 2
𝑑𝑠
𝑡 𝑠 𝑠 +𝑎 𝑠 +𝑏
∞
1 1
= log 𝑠 2 + 𝑎2 − log 𝑠 2 + 𝑏 2
2 2 𝑠
32
 ∞
1 𝑠2
+ 𝑎 2
= log 2
2 𝑠 + 𝑏2 𝑠
∞ ∞
2 𝑎2 𝑎 2
1 𝑠 1+ 2 1 1+ 2
𝑠 𝑠
= log = log
2 2 𝑏2 2 𝑏2
𝑠 1+ 2 1+ 2
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
𝑎2
1 1+ 2
𝑠
= log 1 − log
2 𝑏2
1+ 2
𝑠
1 𝑠 2 + 𝑎2
= − log 2
2 𝑠 + 𝑏2
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒂𝒕 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒃𝒕 𝟏 𝒔𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐
𝑳 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟐
𝒕 𝟐 𝒔 + 𝒂𝟐

33
 sin 2𝑡
4. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿 𝑒 −3𝑡
𝑡
Solution:
2
𝐿 sin 2𝑡 = 2
𝑠 +4
∞
sin 2𝑡 2
𝐿 = 2
𝑑𝑠
𝑡 𝑠 𝑠 +4
∞
1 𝑠
= 2 tan−1
2 2 𝑠
−1 −1
𝑠
= tan ∞ − tan
2
sin 2𝑡 𝜋 −1
𝑠
𝐿 = − tan
𝑡 2 2
−3𝑡
sin 2𝑡 sin 2𝑡
𝐿 𝑒 = 𝐿
𝑡 𝑡 𝑠→𝑠+3
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒕 𝝅 𝒔+𝟑
𝑳 𝒆−𝟑𝒕 = − 𝐭𝐚𝐧 −𝟏
𝒕 𝟐 𝟐 34
 1−cos 𝑡
5. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿
𝑡
Solution:
1 𝑠
𝐿 1 − cos 𝑡 = − 2
𝑠 𝑠 +1
∞
1 − cos 𝑡 1 𝑠
𝐿 = − 2 𝑑𝑠
𝑡 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 +1
∞
1
= log 𝑠 − log 𝑠 2 + 1
2 𝑠
∞ ∞
𝑠 1
= log = log
2
𝑠 +1 𝑠 1
1+ 2
𝑠 𝑠
1 𝑠
= log 1 − log = − log
1 𝑠2 + 1
1+ 2
𝑠
𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒕 𝒔𝟐 + 𝟏
𝑳 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 35
𝒕 𝒔
Transform of derivatives & integrals:
Laplace transform of derivative:
𝐼𝑓 𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐹 𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛
𝐿 𝑓 ′ 𝑡 = 𝑠𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑓 0
& 𝐿[𝑓"(𝑡)] = 𝑠 2 𝐿[𝑓(𝑡)] − 𝑠𝑓(0) − 𝑓′(0).

Laplace transform of integral:

𝑡
1
𝐼𝑓 𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐹 𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹 𝑠 .
0 𝑠

Problems:
𝑡
1. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿 0 sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Solution:
𝑡
𝑇𝑕𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
36
 1
𝐿 sin 𝑡 = 2
𝑠 +1
𝑡
1
𝐿 sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿 sin 𝑡
0 𝑠
𝒕
𝟏 𝟏
𝑳 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 =
𝟎 𝒔 𝒔𝟐 + 𝟏

−𝑡 𝑡
2. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿 𝑒 0
𝑡 cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Solution:
𝑠
𝐿 cos 𝑡 = 2
𝑠 +1
𝑑 𝑑 𝑠
𝐿 𝑡 cos 𝑡 = − [𝐿 cos 𝑡] = −
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑠 2 + 1
1 − 𝑠2
=− 2
𝑠 +1 2
𝑠2 − 1
𝐿 𝑡 cos 𝑡 = 2 37
𝑠 +1 2
 𝑡
1
𝐿 𝑡 cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿 𝑡 cos 𝑡
0 𝑠
𝑡
𝑠2 − 1
𝐿 𝑡 cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =
0 𝑠 𝑠2 + 1 2

𝑡 𝑡
𝐿 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑡 cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿 𝑡 cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0 0
𝑠→𝑠+1
2
𝑠 −1
=
𝑠 𝑠 2 + 1 2 𝑠→𝑠+1
𝑠+1 2−1
= 2
𝑠+1 𝑠+1 2 +1
𝒕
𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐𝒔
𝑳 𝒆−𝒕 𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝟐 + 𝟐𝒔 + 𝟐
𝟎 𝒔 + 𝟏 𝒔

38
 𝑡 sin 3𝑡
3. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿 𝑒 2𝑡 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑡
Solution:
3
𝐿 sin 3𝑡 = 2
𝑠 +9
∞
sin 3𝑡 3
𝐿 = 2
𝑑𝑠
𝑡 𝑠 𝑠 +9
𝑠 ∞
= tan−1
3𝑠
sin 3𝑡 𝜋 −1
𝑠
𝐿 = − tan
𝑡 2 3
𝑡
sin 3𝑡 1 sin 3𝑡
𝐿 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿
0 𝑡 𝑠 𝑡
𝑡
sin 3𝑡 1 𝜋 −1
𝑠
𝐿 𝑑𝑡 = − tan
0 𝑡 𝑠 2 3

39
 𝑡 𝑡
sin 3𝑡 sin 3𝑡
𝐿 𝑒 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
0 𝑡 0 𝑡
𝑠→𝑠−2
1 𝜋 −1
𝑠
= − tan
𝑠 2 3 𝑠→𝑠−2
𝒕
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟑𝒕 𝟏 𝝅 𝒔−𝟐
𝑳 𝒆𝟐𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = − 𝐭𝐚𝐧 −𝟏
𝟎 𝒕 𝒔−𝟐 𝟐 𝟑

𝑡 −𝑡
4. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿 0
𝑒 cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Solution:
𝑠
𝐿 cos 𝑡 = 2
𝑠 +1
𝑠
𝐿 𝑒 −𝑡 cos 𝑡 = 𝐿 cos 𝑡 𝑠→𝑠+1 =
𝑠2 + 1 𝑠→𝑠+1
𝑠+1
𝐿 𝑒 −𝑡 cos 𝑡 =
𝑠+1 2+1
40
 𝑡
1
𝐿 𝑒 −𝑡 cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿 𝑒 −𝑡 cos 𝑡
0 𝑠
𝒕
𝒔+𝟏
𝑳 𝒆−𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝟐
𝟎 𝒔 𝒔+𝟏 +𝟏

𝑡
5. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿 0 𝑡𝑒 −𝑡 sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Solution:
1
𝐿 sin 𝑡 = 2
𝑠 +1
−𝑡
1
𝐿 𝑒 sin 𝑡 = 𝐿 sin 𝑡 𝑠→𝑠+1 = 2
𝑠 + 1 𝑠→𝑠+1
−𝑡
1 1
𝐿 𝑒 sin 𝑡 = 2
= 2
𝑠 + 1 + 1 𝑠 + 2𝑠 + 2

41
 𝑑 1
𝐿𝑡𝑒 −𝑡 sin 𝑡 = −
𝑑𝑠 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 2
−(2𝑠 + 2)
= − 2
𝑠 + 2𝑠 + 2 2
−𝑡
2𝑠 + 2
𝐿 𝑡𝑒 sin 𝑡 = 2
𝑠 + 2𝑠 + 2 2
𝑡
1
𝐿 𝑡𝑒 sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿 𝑡𝑒 −𝑡 sin 𝑡
−𝑡
0 𝑠
𝒕
𝟐𝒔 + 𝟐
𝑳 𝒕𝒆−𝒕 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 =
𝟎 𝒔 𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐𝒔 + 𝟐 𝟐

42
Property 3: [Second Shifting Property]
𝐼𝑓 𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐹 𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛
𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑎 𝑈𝑎 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 𝐹 𝑠 , 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑
0, 0<𝑡<𝑎
𝑈𝑎 𝑡 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
1, 𝑎<𝑡<∞
Proof:
∞ −𝑠𝑡
𝐵𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑇, 𝑤𝑒 𝑕𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 = 0 𝑒 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹 𝑠
∞
∴ 𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑎 𝑈𝑎 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑎 𝑈𝑎 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
𝑎 ∞
= 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑎 𝑈𝑎 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑎 𝑈𝑎 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0 𝑎
∞
=0+ 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑎 𝑑𝑡
𝑎
𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑡 − 𝑎 = 𝑥 => 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑊𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = 𝑎 => 𝑥 = 0 & 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = ∞ => 𝑥 = ∞
∞
∴ 𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑎 𝑈𝑎 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑠 𝑥+𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 43
0
 ∞
= 𝑒 −𝑠𝑎 𝑒 −𝑠𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
∞
= 𝑒 −𝑠𝑎 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
∴ 𝑳 𝒇 𝒕 − 𝒂 𝑼𝒂 𝒕 = 𝒆−𝒔𝒂 𝑭(𝒔)

Property 4:[Change of scale property]

1 𝑠
𝐼𝑓 𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐹 𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝐿 𝑓 𝑎𝑡 = 𝐹 .
𝑎 𝑎
Proof:
∞ −𝑠𝑡
𝐵𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑇, 𝑤𝑒 𝑕𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 = 0
𝑒 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹 𝑠
∞
∴ 𝐿 𝑓 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑥 => 𝑎𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑊𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = 0 => 𝑥 = 0 & 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = ∞ => 𝑥 = ∞
44
 ∞ 𝑠𝑥
−𝑎 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 𝑓 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑓 𝑥
0 𝑎
∞
1 𝑠
− 𝑎 𝑥
= 𝑒 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 0
∞
1 𝑠
− 𝑎 𝑡
= 𝑒 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑎 0
𝟏 𝒔
𝑳 𝒇 𝒂𝒕 = 𝑭
𝒂 𝒂

45
Problems:
∞ −2𝑡
1. 𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐿𝑇 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 0 𝑒 sin 3𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Solution:
∞
𝐵𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑇, 𝑤𝑒 𝑕𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 = 0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹 𝑠
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 𝑡 = sin 3𝑡 & 𝑠 = 2
3
𝐿 sin 3𝑡 = 2
𝑠 +9
∞
−𝟐𝒕
𝟑 𝟑
∴ 𝒆 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟑𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = =
𝟎 𝟒 + 𝟗 𝟏𝟑

∞ −3𝑡
2. 𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐿𝑇 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 0
𝑡𝑒 sin 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Solution:
∞
𝑤. 𝑘. 𝑡 𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹 𝑠
0
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑡 sin 2𝑡 & 𝑠 = 3
46
 𝑑
𝐿 𝑡 sin 2𝑡 = − 𝐿 sin 2𝑡
𝑑𝑠
𝑑 2 4𝑠
= − 2
= 2
𝑑𝑠 𝑠 + 4 (𝑠 + 4)2
∞
−3𝑡
4 3
𝑡𝑒 sin 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =
0 9+4 2
∞
−𝟑𝒕
𝟏𝟐
𝒕𝒆 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒕 𝒅𝒕 =
𝟎 𝟏𝟔𝟗

1
3. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿 & 𝐿[ 𝑡]
𝑡
Solution:
𝛤𝑛+1
𝐿 𝑡𝑛 = 𝑛+1 , 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
𝑠
𝛤1
1 1
−2 −2+1
𝐿 =𝐿 𝑡 = 1
𝑡 𝑠 −2+1 47
 𝛤1
2 𝜋
= 1 =
𝑠
𝑠2
𝟏 𝝅
𝑳 =
𝒕 𝒔
𝛤3 1 1
𝛤
𝐿 𝑡 = 2
= 2 2
3 3
𝑠2 𝑠2
𝝅
𝑳 𝒕 = 𝟑
𝟐𝒔𝟐

4. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿 sin 𝑡
Solution:
3 5
𝑡 𝑡
sin 𝑡 = 𝑡 − + +⋯
3! 5!
3 5
1 𝑡2 𝑡2
= 𝑡2 − + +⋯ 48
3! 5!
 3 5
1 𝑡2 𝑡2
𝐿 sin 𝑡 = 𝐿 𝑡2 − + −⋯
3! 5!
3 5 7
𝛤 1 𝛤 1𝛤 2
2 2
= 3 − 3! 5 + 5! 7 −⋯
𝑠2 𝑠2 𝑠2
1 1 1 31 𝜋 1 531 𝜋
= 3 𝜋− + 2
−⋯
2 3! 2 2 𝑠 5! 2 2 2 𝑠
𝑠2
𝜋 1 3 1 53 1
= 3 1− + 2
−⋯
3.2 2𝑠 5.4.3.2 2 2 𝑠
2𝑠 2
𝜋 1 1
= 3 1− + 2
−⋯
4𝑠 2 4𝑠
2𝑠 2
𝝅 −𝟏
𝑳 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒕 = 𝟑 𝒆 𝟒𝒔
𝟐𝒔𝟐
49
Transform of periodic function:
Periodic function:
𝐴 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓 𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑓
𝑓 𝑡 + 𝑝 = 𝑓 𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝.
𝐼𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙, 𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑝 𝑐𝑎𝑛
𝑏𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑓 𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑕 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 + 𝑝 = 𝑓 𝑡 + 2𝑝 = ⋯

Laplace Transform of periodic function:

𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝐿𝑇 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓 𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑝
𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦
𝑝
1 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐿𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑒
1 − 𝑒 −𝑠𝑝 0

50
Problems:
1. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝐿𝑇 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑡, 0 < 𝑡 < 2 𝑤𝑕𝑖𝑐𝑕 𝑖𝑠
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑝 = 2
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑓 𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 2
∴ 𝐿𝑇 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦
𝑝
1 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐿𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑒
1 − 𝑒 −𝑠𝑝 0
2
1 −𝑠𝑡
= −𝑠2
𝑒 𝑡𝑑𝑡
1−𝑒 0
𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝐵𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑖 𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎, 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑢 = 𝑡 , 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
′

𝑒 −𝑠𝑡
=> 𝑢′ = 1, 𝑣 =
−𝑠
𝑒 −𝑠𝑡
=> 𝑢" = 0, 𝑣1 = 2
𝑠
−𝑠𝑡 −𝑠𝑡 2
1 𝑒 𝑒
∴𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 = −2𝑠
𝑡 −1
𝑠2 0 51
1−𝑒 −𝑠
 1 𝑒 −2𝑠 𝑒 −2𝑠 1
= −2 − 2 − 0− 2
1 − 𝑒 −2𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
𝟏 −𝟐𝒔𝒆−𝟐𝒔 − 𝒆−𝟐𝒔 + 𝟏
𝑳𝒇 𝒕 =
𝟏 − 𝒆−𝟐𝒔 𝒔𝟐

sin 𝜔𝑡 , 0 < 𝑡 < 𝜋 𝜔

2. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝐿𝑇 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝜋 2𝜋
0, 𝜔<𝑡 < 𝜔
2𝜋
&𝑓 𝑡+ = 𝑓(𝑡)
𝜔
Solution:
2𝜋
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑓 𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
𝜔
1 𝑝 −𝑠𝑡
∴ 𝐿𝑇 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 = −𝑠𝑝 0 𝑒 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1−𝑒
2𝜋
1 𝜔
= 2𝜋 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−𝑠 𝜔 0
1− 𝑒
52
 𝜋
1 𝜔
= 2𝜋 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 0
−𝑠 𝜔 0
1−𝑒
𝑎𝑥
𝑒
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 sin 𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 2
[𝑎 sin 𝑏𝑥 − 𝑏 cos 𝑏𝑥]
𝑎 +𝑏
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 = −𝑠 & 𝑏 = 𝜔
𝜋
𝜔
1 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡
= 2𝜋 2 2
−𝑠 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡
−𝑠 𝜔 𝑠 +𝜔
1−𝑒 0
𝜋
−𝑠𝜔
1 𝑒
= 2𝜋 −𝑠 sin 𝜋 − 𝜔 cos 𝜋
−𝑠 𝜔 𝑠2 + 𝜔2
1 −𝑒

𝑒 −0
− 2 2
−𝑠 sin 0 − 𝜔 cos 0
𝑠 +𝜔
53
 𝜋
−𝑠𝜔
1 𝑒 1
= 2𝜋 0+𝜔 − 2 0−𝜔
−𝑠 𝜔 𝑠2 + 𝜔2 𝑠 + 𝜔2
1−𝑒
1 𝜋
−𝑠𝜔
= 2𝜋 𝜔𝑒 +𝜔
−𝑠 𝜔
1− 𝑒 𝑠2 + 𝜔2
𝝅
−𝒔𝝎
𝝎 𝒆 +𝟏
𝑳[𝒇 𝒕 ] = 𝟐𝝅
−𝒔 𝝎
𝟏− 𝒆 𝒔𝟐 + 𝝎𝟐

𝐸, 0 < 𝑡 < 𝑎 2
3. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝐿𝑇 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑡 = & 𝑓 𝑡 + 𝑎 = 𝑓(𝑡)
−𝐸, 𝑎 2 < 𝑡 < 𝑎
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑓 𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑎
∴ 𝐿𝑇 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦
𝑝
1 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐿𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑒
1 − 𝑒 −𝑠𝑝 0
𝑎
1 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑒 54
1 − 𝑒 −𝑠𝑎 0
 𝑎
𝑎
1 2
= 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝐸𝑑𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 −𝐸 𝑑𝑡
1 − 𝑒 −𝑠𝑎 0
𝑎
2
𝑎
𝑎
𝐸 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 2 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡
= −
1 − 𝑒 −𝑠𝑎 −𝑠 0
−𝑠 𝑎
2
𝐸 1 −𝑠𝑎 1 −𝑠𝑎 −𝑠
𝑎
= −𝑠𝑎
− 𝑒 2 −1 + 𝑒 −𝑒 2
1−𝑒 𝑠 𝑠
𝐸 𝑎
−𝑠 2 −𝑠𝑎
𝑎
−𝑠 2
= −𝑠𝑎
−𝑒 +1+𝑒 −𝑒
𝑠 1−𝑒
𝐸 −𝑠
𝑎
= 1 − 2𝑒 2 + 𝑒 −𝑠𝑎
𝑠 1 − 𝑒 −𝑠𝑎
𝐸 𝑎 2
−𝑠
= 𝑎 𝑎 1 − 𝑒 2
𝑠 1 − 𝑒 −𝑠 2 1 + 𝑒 −𝑠 2

55
 𝑎
−𝑠 2
𝐸 1−𝑒
=
𝑠 1 + 𝑒 −𝑠𝑎2
𝑬 𝒔𝒂
𝑳 𝒇 𝒕 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡
𝒔 𝟒
𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 1 − 𝑒 −2𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 tanh 𝑥 = 𝑥 −𝑥
=
𝑒 +𝑒 1 + 𝑒 −2𝑥

𝑡, 0 < 𝑡 < 𝑎
4. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿𝑇 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕 𝑓 𝑡 + 2𝑎 = 𝑓 𝑡
2𝑎 − 𝑡, 𝑎 < 𝑡 < 2𝑎
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑓 𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 2𝑎
∴ 𝐿𝑇 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦
𝑝
1 −𝑠𝑡
𝐿𝑓 𝑡 = −𝑠𝑝
𝑒 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1−𝑒 0
2𝑎
1 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑒
1 − 𝑒 −𝑠2𝑎 0 56
 𝑎 2𝑎
1
= 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑑𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 2𝑎 − 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1 − 𝑒 −2𝑎𝑠 0 𝑎
1
= −2𝑎𝑠
𝐼1 + 𝐼2 → (1)
1−𝑒
𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝐵𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑖 ′ 𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎,
𝑎 2𝑎
𝐼1 = 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑑𝑡 , & 𝐼2 = 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 2𝑎 − 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0 𝑎
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑢 = 𝑡 , 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑢 = 2𝑎 − 𝑡 , 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑒 −𝑠𝑡
𝑒 −𝑠𝑡
𝑢′
=> = 1, 𝑣 = => 𝑢′ = −1, 𝑣 =
−𝑠 −𝑠
𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡
=> 𝑢" = 0, 𝑣1 = 2 => 𝑢" = 0, 𝑣1 = 2
𝑠 𝑠
−𝑠𝑡 𝑎
𝑒 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 2𝑎
∴ 𝐼1 = 𝑡 −1 2 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡
−𝑠 𝑠 0 ∴ 𝐼2 = 2𝑎 − 𝑡 − −1 2
𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 1 −𝑠 𝑠 𝑎
= −𝑎 − 2 − 0− 2
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑒 −2𝑎𝑠 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠
𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 1 = 0 + 2 − −𝑎 + 2
𝐼1 = −𝑎 − 2 + 2 → (2) 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
𝑒 −2𝑎𝑠 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠
𝐼2 = 2 + 𝑎 − 2 → 3 57
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
𝑠𝑢𝑏 2 & 3 𝑖𝑛 1 , 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡
𝐿𝑓 𝑡
1 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 1 𝑒 −2𝑎𝑠 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠
= −2𝑎𝑠
−𝑎 − 2 + 2+ 2 +𝑎
1−𝑒 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
𝑒 −𝑎𝑠
− 2
𝑠
1 2𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 1 𝑒 −2𝑎𝑠
= −2𝑎𝑠
− 2 + 2+ 2
1−𝑒 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
1 −𝑎𝑠 + 𝑒 −2𝑎𝑠
= 1 − 2𝑒
1 − 𝑒 −2𝑎𝑠 𝑠 2
1 −𝑎𝑠 2
= 1 − 𝑒
1 − 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 1 + 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 𝑠 2
1 1 − 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠
= 2
𝑠 1 + 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠
𝟏 𝒔𝒂
𝑳[𝒇(𝒕)] = 𝟐 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡
𝒔 𝟐 58
 By
RAMYA M
SVCE

1
The Inverse Laplace Transform:
𝐼𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓 𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝐹 𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛
𝑓 𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑓 𝐹 𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑠
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐿−1 ,𝐹 𝑠 -
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐿−1 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟.

Some Standard inverse Laplace Transform are:

1
1. 𝐿−1 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡
𝑠−𝑎
1
2. 𝐿−1 𝑠+𝑎
= 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡
1 sin 𝑎𝑡
3. 𝐿−1 𝑠 2 +𝑎2
=
𝑎
𝑠
4. 𝐿−1 𝑠 2 +𝑎2
= cos 𝑎𝑡
1 sin ℎ 𝑎𝑡
5. 𝐿−1 𝑠 2 −𝑎2
=
𝑎
2
 𝑠
6. 𝐿−1 = cos 𝑕 𝑎𝑡
𝑠 2 −𝑎2
1
7. 𝐿−1 =1
𝑠
−1 1 𝑡𝑛
8. 𝐿 =
𝑠 𝑛+1 𝑛!

Property 1: ( Linear Property)

𝐼𝑓𝐹1 𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹2 𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓
𝑓1 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓2 𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛
𝐿−1 𝑐1 𝐹1 𝑠 + 𝑐2 𝐹2 𝑠 = 𝑐1 𝐿−1 𝐹1 𝑠 + 𝑐2 𝐿−1 ,𝐹2 𝑠 -
Problems :
2𝑠
1. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 2 .
𝑠 +36
Solution:
−1
2𝑠 −1
𝑠
𝐿 2
= 2𝐿
𝑠 + 36 𝑠 2 + 36
= 2 cos 6𝑡
3
 𝑠+3
2. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿−1
𝑠2
Solution:
𝑠+3 𝑠 3
𝐿−1 2
=𝐿−1
2
+ 2
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
−1 1 3
=𝐿 + 2
𝑠 𝑠
1 3
= 𝐿−1 + 𝐿−1
𝑠 𝑠2
−𝟏 𝒔+𝟑
𝑳 = 𝟏 + 𝟑𝒕
𝒔𝟐
−1 5𝑠−3
3. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑𝐿
𝑠 2 −9
Solution:
5𝑠 − 3 5𝑠 3
𝐿−1 2
=𝐿−1
2
− 2
𝑠 −9 𝑠 −9 𝑠 −9
5𝑠 3
= 𝐿−1 − 𝐿−1
𝑠 2 −32 𝑠 2 −32
4
 𝑠 1
= 5𝐿−1 − 3𝐿−1
𝑠 2 −32 𝑠 2 −32
3
= 5 cos 3𝑡 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑡
3
𝟓𝒔 − 𝟑
𝑳−𝟏 𝟐
= 𝟓 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟑𝒕 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑𝒕
𝒔 −𝟗

5
4. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿−1
9𝑠 2 −100

Solution:
5 5
𝐿−1 =𝐿−1
2
9𝑠 − 100 2 100
9 𝑠 −
9
5 1
= 𝐿−1 10 2
9 𝑠2− 3

5
 5 3 10
= sinh 𝑡
9 10 3
𝟓 𝟏 𝟏𝟎
𝑳−𝟏 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 𝒕
𝟗𝒔𝟐 −𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟔 𝟑

Property 2: ( First Shifting Property)

𝐼𝑓 𝐹 𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑡 𝑖. 𝑒. ,
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐿−1 ,𝐹 𝑠 - 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛
𝐿−1 𝐹 𝑠 + 𝑎 = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝐿−1 𝐹 𝑠
Similarly, 𝐿−1 𝐹 𝑠 − 𝑎 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐿−1 𝐹 𝑠
Problems on first shifting property:
1
1. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿−1
𝑠−𝑎 2 +𝑏2
Solution:
1 1
𝐿−1 2 2
𝑎𝑡
=𝑒 𝐿 −1
𝑠−𝑎 +𝑏 𝑠 2 + 𝑏2

6
 1 −1 𝑏
= 𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝐿
𝑏 𝑠 2 + 𝑏2
𝟏 𝒆𝒂𝒕
𝑳−𝟏 𝟐 𝟐
= 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒃𝒕
𝒔−𝒂 +𝒃 𝒃
𝑠−1
2. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿−1
𝑠−1 2 −4
Solution:
𝑠−1 𝑠
𝐿−1 2 2
𝑡
=𝑒 𝐿−1
𝑠−1 −𝑏 𝑠 2 − 22
−𝟏
𝒔−𝟏 𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝒕
𝑳 = 𝒆
𝒔−𝟏 𝟐−𝟒
𝑠
3. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿−1
𝑠+2 2 +4
Solution:

7
 𝑠 𝑠+2−2
𝐿−1 = 𝐿−1
𝑠+2 2 +4 𝑠+2 2 +4
−1 𝑠+2 −1 −2
= 𝐿 +𝐿
𝑠+2 2 +4 𝑠+2 2 +4
𝑠 1
= 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝐿−1 2 2 − 2𝑒 −2𝑡 𝐿−1 2 2
𝑠 +2 𝑠 +2
−2𝑡 2 −2𝑡
= 𝑒 cos 2𝑡 − 𝑒 sin 2𝑡
2
𝒔
𝑳−𝟏 = 𝒆 −𝟐𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝒕 − 𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒕
𝒔+𝟐 𝟐+𝟒
1 5 𝑠+3
4. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿−1 + +
𝑠−4 5 𝑠−2 2 +52 𝑠+3 2 +62
Solution:
1 5 𝑠+3
𝐿−1 5
+ 2 2
+
𝑠−4 𝑠−2 +5 𝑠 + 3 2 + 62
1 5 𝑠+3
= 𝐿−1 + 𝐿−1 + 𝐿−1
𝑠−4 5 𝑠−2 2 +52 𝑠+3 2 +62

8
 1 5 𝑠
= 𝑒 4𝑡 𝐿−1 5
+𝑒 𝐿2𝑡 −1
2 2
−3𝑡
+𝑒 𝐿 −1
𝑠 𝑠 +5 𝑠 2 + 62
𝟏 𝟓 𝒔+𝟑
𝑳−𝟏 + 𝟐 𝟐
+
𝒔−𝟒 𝟓 𝒔−𝟐 +𝟓 𝒔 + 𝟑 𝟐 + 𝟔𝟐
𝟒
𝒕
= 𝒆𝟒𝒕 + 𝒆𝟐𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟓𝒕 + 𝒆−𝟑𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟔𝒕
𝟒!

Result 1:
𝐼𝑓 𝐿−1 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑓 𝑡 , 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝐿−1 𝐹 ′ 𝑠 = −𝑡𝐿−1 𝐹 𝑠 =>
−1 −1 −1 ′
𝐿 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝐿 𝐹 𝑠 .
𝑡
Note:
This formula is used to find
𝐿−1 log , 𝐿−1 tan−1 , 𝐿−1 cot−1 .
Problem:
1. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿−1 ,tan−1 𝑠- 9
Solution:
Let 𝐹 𝑠 = tan−1 𝑠
′
1
Then 𝐹 𝑠 =
1 + 𝑠2
−1
−1 −1 ′
By result 1,𝐿 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝐿 𝐹 𝑠
𝑡
−1 −1 −1 −1 1
∴ 𝐿 tan 𝑠 = 𝐿
𝑡 1 + 𝑠2
−𝟏 −1 −𝟏
𝑳 ,tan 𝒔- = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕
𝒕
𝑠 2 𝑠+3
𝐿−1
2. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 log
𝑠−5
Solution:
𝑠2 𝑠 + 3
Let 𝐹 𝑠 = log
𝑠−5
= log 𝑠 2 + log 𝑠 + 3 − log (s−5)
= 2 log 𝑠 + log(𝑠 + 3) − log(𝑠 − 5) 10
 2 1 1
Then 𝐹′
𝑠 = + −
𝑠 𝑠+3 𝑠−5
−1
−1 −1 ′
By result 1,𝐿 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝐿 𝐹 𝑠
𝑡
𝑠 2 𝑠+3 −1 −1 2 1 1
−1
∴ 𝐿 log = 𝐿 + −
𝑠−5 𝑡 𝑠 𝑠+3 𝑠−5
−1 −1 2 −1
1 −1
1
= 𝐿 +𝐿 −𝐿
𝑡 𝑠 𝑠+3 𝑠−5
𝟐
−𝟏
𝒔 𝒔+𝟑 −𝟏
𝑳 log = 𝟐 + 𝒆−𝟑𝒕 − 𝒆𝟓𝒕
𝒔−𝟓 𝒕
−1 𝑠 2 +𝑎2
3. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿 log 2 2
𝑠 −𝑏
Solution:
𝑠 2 + 𝑎2
Let 𝐹 𝑠 = log 2
𝑠 − 𝑏2
= log(𝑠 2 +𝑎2 ) − log(𝑠 2 −𝑏 2 )
11
 1 1
Then 𝐹′ 𝑠 = 2 2
2𝑠 − 2 2
(2𝑠)
𝑠 +𝑎 𝑠 −𝑏
−1
−1 −1 ′
By result 1,𝐿 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝐿 𝐹 𝑠
𝑡
2 2
−1
𝑠 + 𝑎 −1 −1 2𝑠 2𝑠
∴ 𝐿 log 2 2
= 𝐿 2 2
− 2
𝑠 −𝑏 𝑡 𝑠 +𝑎 𝑠 − 𝑏2
−2 −1 𝑠 −1
𝑠
= 𝐿 2 2
−𝐿
𝑡 𝑠 +𝑎 𝑠 2 − 𝑏2
−2
= cos 𝑎𝑡 − cosh 𝑏𝑡
𝑡
𝒔 𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐 𝟐
𝑳 −𝟏 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝟐 = ,𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉 𝒃𝒕 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒂𝒕-
𝒔 −𝒃 𝟐 𝒕

12
Inverse Laplace Transform by partial fraction:
Types of Partial Fraction:
Type 1: When the denominator is non-repeated linear factor of
the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
𝐴
The decomposition is
𝑎𝑥+𝑏
Type 2: When the denominator is repeated linear factor of the
form (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑟
𝐴 𝐴2 𝐴𝑟
The decomposition is 1 + 2 + ⋯ + 𝑟
𝑎𝑥+𝑏 (𝑎𝑥+𝑏) (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)
Type 3: When the denominator is non-repeated quadratic factor
of the form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
𝐴𝑥+𝐵
The decomposition is 2
𝑎𝑥 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐

13
Problems:
1
1. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿−1
𝑠+2 2𝑠+1
Solution:
1 𝐴 𝐵
𝐿𝑒𝑡 = +
𝑠 + 2 2𝑠 + 1 𝑠 + 2 2𝑠 + 1
1 𝐴 2𝑠 + 1 + 𝐵 𝑠 + 2
=> =
𝑠 + 2 2𝑠 + 1 𝑠 + 2 2𝑠 + 1
=> 1 = 𝐴 2𝑠 + 1 + 𝐵 𝑠 + 2
𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑠 = −2 𝑖𝑛 1 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡
1
1 = 𝐴 −4 + 1 + 0 => 𝐴 = −
3
1
𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑠 = − 𝑖𝑛 1 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡
2
3 2
1=0+𝐵 => 𝐵 =
2 3
14
 1 2
1 −
∴𝐿 −1
=𝐿 −1 3 + 3
𝑠 + 2 2𝑠 + 1 𝑠 + 2 2𝑠 + 1
1 −1 1 2 −1 1
= − 𝐿 + 𝐿
3 𝑠+2 3 2𝑠 + 1
1 −2𝑡 2 1 −1 𝑡
=− 𝑒 + 𝑒 2
3 32
−𝟏
𝟏 𝟏 −𝟐𝒕 𝟏 −𝟏 𝒕
∴ 𝑳 =− 𝒆 + 𝒆 𝟐
𝒔 + 𝟐 𝟐𝒔 + 𝟏 𝟑 𝟑

15
 1
2. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿−1
𝑠 𝑠+1 𝑠+2
Solution:
1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
Let = + +
𝑠 𝑠+1 𝑠+2 𝑠 𝑠+1 𝑠+2
1 𝐴 𝑠 + 1 𝑠 + 2 + 𝐵𝑠 𝑠 + 2 + 𝐶𝑠(𝑠 + 1)
=
𝑠 𝑠+1 𝑠+2 𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2)
1 = 𝐴 𝑠 + 1 𝑠 + 2 + 𝐵𝑠 𝑠 + 2 + 𝐶𝑠 𝑠 + 1
→ 1
sub 𝑠 = 0 in (1)
1 = 𝐴 0 + 1 0 + 2 + 𝐵. 0 0 + 2 + 𝐶. 0(0 + 1)
1 = 2𝐴 + 0 + 0
1
∴ 𝐴=
2
sub 𝑠 = −1 in (1)
1 = 𝐴 −1 + 1 −1 + 2 + 𝐵 −1 −1 + 2 + 𝐶 −1 (−1 + 1)
16
 1 = 𝐴 0 1 − 𝐵 1 − 𝐶(0)
1 = −𝐵
∴ 𝐵 = −1
sub 𝑠 = −2 in (1)
1 = 𝐴 −2 + 1 −2 + 2 + 𝐵 −2 −2 + 2 + 𝐶 −2 (−2 + 1)
1 = 𝐴 −1 0 + 𝐵 −2 0 − 2𝐶(−1)
1 = 2𝐶
1
∴ 𝐶=
2
1 1 1 1
∴ = − +
𝑠 𝑠+1 𝑠+2 2𝑠 𝑠 + 1 2(𝑠 + 2)
−1
1 1 −1 1 −1
1 1 −1 1
𝐿 = 𝐿 −𝐿 + 𝐿
𝑠 𝑠+1 𝑠+2 2 𝑠 𝑠+1 2 𝑠+2
−𝟏
𝟏 𝟏 −𝒕
𝟏 −𝟐𝒕
𝑳 = 𝟏 −𝒆 + 𝒆
𝒔 𝒔+𝟏 𝒔+𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
17
 −1 5𝑠 2 −15𝑠+7
3. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿
𝑠+1 𝑠−2 3
Solution:
5𝑠 2 − 15𝑠 + 7 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷
Let 3
= + + 2
+ 3
𝑠+1 𝑠−2 𝑠+1 𝑠−2 𝑠−2 𝑠−2
5𝑠 2 −15𝑠+7 𝐴 𝑠−2 3 +𝐵 𝑠−2 2 𝑠+1 +𝐶 𝑠−2 𝑠+1 +𝐷(𝑠+1)
=
𝑠+1 𝑠−2 3 (𝑠+1) 𝑠−2 3
5𝑠 2 − 15𝑠
+7=
𝐴 𝑠−2 3+𝐵 𝑠−2 2 𝑠+1 +𝐶 𝑠−2 𝑠+1 +
𝐷 𝑠+1 → (1)
sub 𝑠 = −1 in 1
5 1 + 15 1 + 7 = 𝐴 −1 − 2 3 + 𝐵 −1 − 2 2 −1 + 1 +
𝐶 −1 − 2 −1 + 1 + 𝐷(−1 + 1)
27 = 𝐴 −3 3 + 𝐵 −3 2 0 + 𝐶 −3 0 + 𝐷(0)
27 = −27𝐴
∴ 𝐴 = −1
sub 𝑠 = 2 in (1)
18
 5 4 − 15 2 + 7 = 𝐴 0 3 + 𝐵 0 2 3 + 𝐶 0 3 + 𝐷(3)
−3 = 3𝐷
∴ 𝐷 = −1
Equating coefficient of 𝑠 3 on both sides
0=𝐴+𝐵
0 = −1 + 𝐵
∴ 𝐵=1
sub 𝑠 = 0 in 1
5 0 − 15 0 + 7 = 𝐴 −2 3 + 𝐵 2 2 1 + 𝐶 −2 1 + 𝐷 1
7 = −8𝐴 + 4𝐵 − 2𝐶 + 𝐷
7 = −8 −1 + 4 1 − 2𝑐 + (−1)
7 = 8 + 4 − 2𝐶 − 1
−4 = −2𝐶
∴ 𝐶=2
5𝑠 2 − 15𝑠 + 7 −1 1 2 1
∴ 3
= + + 2
−
𝑠+1 𝑠−2 𝑠+1 𝑠−2 𝑠−2 𝑠−2 3
19
 2
−1
5𝑠 − 15𝑠 + 7
𝐿
𝑠+1 𝑠−2 3
−1
−1 −1
1 −1
2
=𝐿 +𝐿 +𝐿
𝑠+1 𝑠−2 𝑠−2 2
−1
1
−𝐿
𝑠−2 3
−𝑡 2𝑡 2𝑡 −1 1 2𝑡 −1 1
= −𝑒 + 𝑒 + 2𝑒 𝐿 −𝑒 𝐿
𝑠2 𝑠3
(Apply First Shifting Property to 3rd and 4th terms)
𝟓𝒔𝟐 − 𝟏𝟓𝒔 + 𝟕 𝒕 𝟐
𝑳−𝟏 = −𝒆 −𝒕 + 𝒆𝟐𝒕 + 𝟐𝒆𝟐𝒕 𝒕 − 𝒆𝟐𝒕
𝒔+𝟏 𝒔−𝟐 𝟑 𝟐
1
4. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿−1
𝑠+2 𝑠 2 +2𝑠+2
Solution:
1 𝐴 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶
Let 2
= + 2
𝑠 + 2 𝑠 + 2𝑠 + 2 𝑠 + 2 𝑠 + 2𝑠 + 2
20
 𝐴 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 2 + (𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶)(𝑠 + 2)
=
𝑠 + 2 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 2
1 = 𝐴 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 2 + 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶 𝑠 + 2 → (1)
sub 𝑠 = −2 in (1)
1 = 𝐴 4 − 4 + 2 + (𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶)(−2 + 2)
1 = 𝐴 2 + (𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶)(0)
1 = 2𝐴
1
∴ 𝐴=
2
sub 𝑠 = 0 in (1)
1 = 𝐴 0 + 0 + 2 + 𝐵. 0 + 𝐶 0 + 2
1 = 2𝐴 + 2𝐶
1
1 = 2. + 2𝐶
2
1 = 1 + 2𝐶
2𝐶 = 0
∴ 𝐶=0 21
Equating coefficient of 𝑠 2 on both sides
0=𝐴+𝐵
1
0= +𝐵
2
1
∴𝐵 =−
2
1 −1
1 𝑠+0
∴ = 2 + 2
𝑠 + 2 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 2 𝑠 + 2 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 2
1 −1
1 𝑠+0
∴𝐿−1 =𝐿 −1 2 +𝐿 −1 2
2
𝑠 + 2 𝑠 + 2𝑠 + 2 𝑠+2 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 2
1 −1 1 1 −1 𝑠
= 𝐿 − 𝐿
2 𝑠+2 2 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 2
1 −2𝑡 1 −1 𝑠
= 𝑒 − 𝐿
2 2 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 2 + 1 − 1
(Applying Method of completing squares in 2nd term) 22
 1 −2𝑡 1 −1 𝑠
= 𝑒 − 𝐿
2 2 𝑠+1 2 +1
1 −2𝑡 1 −1 (𝑠 + 1) − 1
= 𝑒 − 𝐿
2 2 𝑠+1 2+1
1 −2𝑡 1 −1 𝑠+1 −1 −1
= 𝑒 − 𝐿 +𝐿
2 2 𝑠+1 2 +1 𝑠+1 2 +1
1 −2𝑡 1 𝑠 1
= 𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑡 𝐿−1 2 − 𝑒 −𝑡 𝐿−1 2
2 2 𝑠 +1 𝑠 +1
(Apply First Shifting Property to 2nd and 3rd terms)
1 −2𝑡 1 −𝑡
= 𝑒 − 𝑒 cos 𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑡 sin 𝑡
2 2
−𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒆−𝟐𝒕 − 𝒆−𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒕 +
∴ 𝑳 =
𝒔+𝟐 𝒔𝟐 +𝟐𝒔+𝟐 𝟐 𝒆−𝒕 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒕

23
 −1
𝑠+2
5. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿
𝑠 + 3 𝑠2 + 4
Solution:
𝑠+2 𝐴 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶
2
= + 2
𝑠+3 𝑠 +4 𝑠+3 𝑠 +4
𝑠 + 2 = 𝐴 𝑠 2 + 4 + 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶 𝑠 + 3 → 1
𝑆𝑢𝑏 𝑠 = −3 𝑖𝑛 1
1
−1 = 𝐴 9 + 4 + 0 => 𝐴 = −
13
𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑠 = 0 𝑖𝑛 1
4
2 = 𝐴 4 + 𝐶 3 => 2 = − + 3𝐶
13
30 10
3𝐶 = => 𝐶 =
13 13
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑜𝑓 𝑠 2 𝑜𝑛 𝑏. 𝑠
1
0 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 => 𝐵 = 24
13
 𝑠+2
𝐿−1
𝑠 + 3 𝑠2 + 4
1 −1 1 1 −1 𝑠 10 −1 1
=− 𝐿 + 𝐿 2
+ 𝐿
13 𝑠+3 13 𝑠 +4 13 𝑠2 + 4
1 −3𝑡 1 10 1
= − 𝑒 + cos 2𝑡 + sin 2𝑡
13 13 13 2
−𝟏
𝒔+𝟐 𝟏 −𝟑𝒕 𝟏
𝑳 𝟐
=− 𝒆 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝒕 +
𝒔+𝟑 𝒔 +𝟒 𝟏𝟑 𝟏𝟑
∴
𝟓
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒕
𝟏𝟑

25
Convolution of two functions:
𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑡)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑡)𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
𝑡
𝑎𝑠 0 𝑓 𝑢 . 𝑔(𝑡 − 𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 → (𝟏)
𝐼𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑓 𝑡 ∗ 𝑔 𝑡 .
Convolution Theorem:
𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛
𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 ∗ 𝑔 𝑡 = 𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 .𝐿 𝑔 𝑡
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 ∗ 𝑔 𝑡 = 𝐹 𝑠 . 𝐺(𝑠)
where 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 and 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝐿 𝑔 𝑡
Note:
Consider 𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 ∗ 𝑔 𝑡 = 𝐹 𝑠 . 𝐺(𝑠)
𝑓 𝑡 ∗ 𝑔 𝑡 = 𝐿−1 𝐹 𝑠 . 𝐺 𝑠
𝐿−1 𝐹 𝑠 . 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝐿−1 𝐹 𝑠 ∗ 𝐿−1 𝐺 𝑠 → (𝟐)
To find inverse Laplace Transform by Convolution Theorem
we use equation 𝟏 and (𝟐). 26
Problems:
1
1. 𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚, 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿−1
𝑠 2 𝑠+3
Solution:
By Convolution theorem,
𝑡
𝑓 𝑡 ∗𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑢 . 𝑔(𝑡 − 𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 → (1)
0
𝐿−1 𝐹 𝑠 . 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝐿−1 𝐹 𝑠 ∗ 𝐿−1 𝐺 𝑠 → (2)
1 1 1
Consider 𝐿−1 = 𝐿−1 .
𝑠 2 𝑠+3 𝑠 2 𝑠+3
1 1
= 𝐿−1 2
∗𝐿−1 (By equation (2))
𝑠 𝑠+3
−1
1 −3𝑡
𝐿 = 𝑡 ∗ 𝑒
𝑠2 𝑠 + 3
This is of the form 𝑓 𝑡 ∗ 𝑔 𝑡 .
Here 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑡 & 𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑒 −3𝑡
∴ 𝑓 𝑢 = 𝑢 & 𝑔 𝑡 − 𝑢 = 𝑒 −3(𝑡−𝑢) 27
 𝑡

∴𝑓 𝑡 ∗𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑢𝑒 −3 𝑡−𝑢
𝑑𝑢 (By equation (1))
0
𝑡

= 𝑢𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑒 3𝑢 𝑑𝑢
0
𝑡

= 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑢𝑒 3𝑢 𝑑𝑢
0
Use Bernoulli’s formula, consider 𝑢 = 𝑢 & 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 3𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑒 3𝑢 𝑒 3𝑢 𝑡
= 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑢 − 1
3 9 0
𝑒 3𝑡 𝑒 3𝑡 𝑒3 0
= 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑡 − − 0−
3 9 9
𝑒 3𝑡 𝑒 3𝑡 1
= 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑡 − +
3 9 9
28
 1 𝑡 1 𝑒 −3𝑡
∴ 𝐿−1 = − +
𝑠2 𝑠 + 3 3 9 9
𝑠2
2. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿−1 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚
𝑠 2 +𝑎2 𝑠 2 +𝑏2
Solution:
By Convolution theorem,
𝑡
𝑓 𝑡 ∗𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑢 . 𝑔(𝑡 − 𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 → (1)
0
𝐿−1 𝐹 𝑠 .𝐺 𝑠 = 𝐿−1 𝐹 𝑠 ∗ 𝐿−1 𝐺 𝑠 → (2)
𝑠 2
Consider 𝐿−1
𝑠 2 + 𝑎2 𝑠 2 + 𝑏 2
𝑠 2 𝑠 2
= 𝐿−1 ∗ 𝐿−1
𝑠 2 + 𝑎2 𝑠 2 + 𝑏2
𝑠2
𝐿−1 = cos 𝑎𝑡 ∗ cos 𝑏𝑡 (By equation (2))
𝑠 2 + 𝑎2 𝑠 2 + 𝑏 2
29
This is of the form 𝑓 𝑡 ∗ 𝑔 𝑡 .
Here 𝑓 𝑡 = cos 𝑎𝑡 & 𝑔 𝑡 = cos 𝑏𝑡
∴ 𝑓 𝑢 = cos 𝑎𝑢 & 𝑔 𝑡 − 𝑢 = cos 𝑏 𝑡 − 𝑢
𝑡

∴𝑓 𝑡 ∗𝑔 𝑡 = cos 𝑎𝑢 cos 𝑏 𝑡 − 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
0
(By equation (1))
𝑡
1
= , cos(𝑎𝑢 + 𝑏𝑡 − 𝑏𝑢) + cos(𝑎𝑢 − 𝑏𝑡 + 𝑏𝑢)-𝑑𝑢
2
0
1
*since cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 = cos 𝐴 + 𝐵 + cos 𝐴 − 𝐵 +
2
𝑡
1
= , cos( 𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑢 + 𝑏𝑡) + cos( 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑢 − 𝑏𝑡)-𝑑𝑢
2
0
1 sin( 𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑢 + 𝑏𝑡) sin( 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑢 − 𝑏𝑡) 𝑡
= +
2 𝑎−𝑏 𝑎+𝑏 0 30
 1 sin( 𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑡) sin( 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑡 − 𝑏𝑡)
= +
2 𝑎−𝑏 𝑎+𝑏
sin( 𝑎 − 𝑏 . 0 + 𝑏𝑡) sin( 𝑎 + 𝑏 . 0 − 𝑏𝑡)
− +
𝑎−𝑏 𝑎+𝑏
1 sin( 𝑎𝑡 − 𝑏𝑡 + 𝑏𝑡) sin( 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑏𝑡 − 𝑏𝑡)
= +
2 𝑎−𝑏 𝑎+𝑏
sin 𝑏𝑡 sin −𝑏𝑡
− +
𝑎−𝑏 𝑎+𝑏
1 sin 𝑎𝑡 sin 𝑎𝑡 sin 𝑏𝑡 sin 𝑏𝑡
= + − +
2 𝑎−𝑏 𝑎+𝑏 𝑎−𝑏 𝑎+𝑏
1 2𝑎 2𝑏
= 2 2
sin 𝑎𝑡 − 2 2
sin 𝑏𝑡
2 𝑎 −𝑏 𝑎 −𝑏
𝒔𝟐 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒂𝒕 − 𝒃 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒃𝒕
∴ 𝑳−𝟏 =
𝒔𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒔𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 𝒂𝟐 − 𝒃𝟐
31
 𝑠+2
3. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿−1 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚
𝑠 2 +4𝑠+13 2
Solution:
By Convolution theorem,
𝑡
𝑓 𝑡 ∗𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑢 . 𝑔(𝑡 − 𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 → (1)
0
𝐿−1 𝐹 𝑠 . 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝐿−1 𝐹 𝑠 ∗ 𝐿−1 𝐺 𝑠 → (2)
−1
𝑠+2
Consider𝐿
𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 13 2
−1
𝑠+2 −1
1
=𝐿 2
∗𝐿
𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 13 𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 13
−1
𝑠+2 −1
1
=𝐿 2
∗𝐿
(𝑠 + 2) +9 (𝑠 + 2)2 +9
*since 𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 13 = 𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 13 + 22 − 22
= 𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 4 + 13 − 4 = 𝑠 + 2 2 + 9+
−2𝑡 −1
𝑠 −2𝑡 −1
1
=𝑒 𝐿 2 2
∗𝑒 𝐿
𝑠 +3 𝑠 2 + 32 32
(By First Shifting Property)
−1
𝑠+2 −2𝑡 −2𝑡
1
𝐿 2 2
=𝑒 cos 3𝑡 ∗ 𝑒 sin 3𝑡
𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 13 3
This is of the form 𝑓 𝑡 ∗ 𝑔 𝑡 .
−2𝑡 −2𝑡 1
Here 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑒 cos 3𝑡 & 𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑒 sin 3𝑡
3
1 −2(𝑡−𝑢)
∴ 𝑓 𝑢 = 𝑒 −2𝑢 cos 3𝑢 & 𝑔 𝑡 − 𝑢 = 𝑒 sin 3(𝑡 − 𝑢)
3
𝑡
1 −2(𝑡−𝑢)
∴𝑓 𝑡 ∗𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑒 −2𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑢 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3(𝑡 − 𝑢) 𝑑𝑢
3
0
1 𝑡 −2𝑢
= 0𝑒 cos 3𝑢 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑒 2𝑢 sin 3(𝑡 − 𝑢) 𝑑𝑢
3
𝑡
𝑒 −2𝑡
= cos 3𝑢 sin 3(𝑡 − 𝑢) 𝑑𝑢
3
0
𝑒 −2𝑡 1 𝑡
= . 0 ,sin 3𝑢 + 3𝑡 − 3𝑢 − sin(3𝑢 − 3𝑡 + 3𝑢)- 𝑑𝑢
3 2
1
*since cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵 = ,sin 𝐴 + 𝐵 − sin 𝐴 − 𝐵 + 33
2
 𝑡
𝑒 −2𝑡
= ,sin 3𝑡 − sin 6𝑢 − 3𝑡 -𝑑𝑢
6
0
𝑒 −2𝑡 cos 6𝑢 − 3𝑡 𝑡
= 𝑢 sin 3𝑡 +
6 6 0
𝑒 −2𝑡 cos 6𝑡−3𝑡 cos −3𝑡
= 𝑡 sin 3𝑡 + − 0+
6 6 6
𝑒 −2𝑡 cos 3𝑡 cos 3𝑡
= 𝑡 sin 3𝑡 + −
6 6 6
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 cos −𝜃 = cos 𝜃
𝑒 −2𝑡 cos 3𝑡 cos 3𝑡
= 𝑡 sin 3𝑡 + −
6 6 6
𝒔 + 𝟐 𝒆 −𝟐𝒕
∴ 𝑳−𝟏 𝟐 𝟐
= 𝒕 sin 𝟑𝒕
𝒔 + 𝟒𝒔 + 𝟏𝟑 𝟔

34
 1
4. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿−1
𝑠 𝑠 2 +1
Solution:
By Convolution theorem,
𝑡
𝑓 𝑡 ∗ 𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑢 . 𝑔(𝑡 − 𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 → (1)
0
𝐿−1 𝐹 𝑠 . 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝐿−1 𝐹 𝑠 ∗ 𝐿−1 𝐺 𝑠 → (2)
−1
1 −1
1 −1
1
Consider𝐿 2
=𝐿 ∗𝐿
𝑠 𝑠 +1 𝑠 𝑠2 + 1
−1
1
𝐿 2
= 1 ∗ sin 𝑡
𝑠 𝑠 +1
This is of the form 𝑓 𝑡 ∗ 𝑔 𝑡 .
Here 𝑓 𝑡 = 1 & 𝑔 𝑡 = sin 𝑡
∴ 𝑓 𝑢 = 1 & 𝑔 𝑡 − 𝑢 = sin(𝑡 − 𝑢)
𝑡
∴𝑓 𝑡 ∗𝑔 𝑡 = sin 𝑡 − 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
0
35
 𝑡
− cos 𝑡 − 𝑢
=
−1 0
= cos 0 − cos 𝑡
𝟏
𝑳−𝟏 𝟐
= 𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒕
𝒔 𝒔 +𝟏

1
5. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿−1
𝑠+1 𝑠 2 +4
Solution:
By Convolution theorem,
𝑡
𝑓 𝑡 ∗𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑢 . 𝑔(𝑡 − 𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 → (1)
0
𝐿−1 𝐹 𝑠 .𝐺 𝑠 = 𝐿−1 𝐹 𝑠 ∗ 𝐿−1 𝐺 𝑠 → (2)
1 1 1
Consider𝐿−1 2
=𝐿−1
∗𝐿−1
𝑠+1 𝑠 +1 𝑠+1 𝑠2 + 4
36
 1 1
𝐿−1 = 𝑒 −𝑡 ∗ sin 2𝑡
𝑠 𝑠2 + 1 2
This is of the form 𝑓 𝑡 ∗ 𝑔 𝑡 .
1
Here 𝑓 𝑡 = sin 2𝑡 & 𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑡
2
1
∴𝑓 𝑢 = sin 2𝑢& 𝑔 𝑡 − 𝑢 = 𝑒 −(𝑡−𝑢)
2
𝑡
1 − 𝑡−𝑢
∴𝑓 𝑡 ∗𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑒 sin 2𝑢 𝑑𝑢
0 2
1 𝑡 −𝑡 𝑢
= 𝑒 𝑒 sin 2𝑢 𝑑𝑢
2 0
𝑒 −𝑡 𝑡 𝑢
= 𝑒 sin 2𝑢 𝑑𝑢
2 0
𝑎𝑥
𝑒
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 sin 𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 2
,𝑎 sin 𝑏𝑥 − 𝑏 cos 𝑏𝑥-
𝑎 +𝑏
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 = 1 & 𝑏 = 2
37
 𝑡
𝑒 −𝑡 𝑒𝑢
= sin 2𝑢 − 2 cos 2𝑢
2 1+4
0
𝑒 −𝑡 𝑒 𝑡 𝑒0
= sin 2𝑡 − 2 cos 2𝑡 − sin 0 − 2 cos 0
2 5 5
1 𝑒 −𝑡
= sin 2𝑡 − 2 cos 2𝑡 − −2
10 10
𝟏 𝟏 𝒆 −𝒕
𝑳−𝟏 𝟐
= 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒕 − 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝒕 +
𝒔 𝒔 +𝟏 𝟏𝟎 𝟓

38
Solution of Ordinary Differential
Equation using Laplace Transform
Techniques:
To solve ordinary differential equation using Laplace
transform we use Laplace transform of First and second
derivatives which are given by
𝐿 𝑓 ′ 𝑡 = 𝑠𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑓 0 → (I)
𝐿 𝑓 ′′ 𝑡 = 𝑠 2 𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑠𝑓 0 − 𝑓 ′ 0 → (II)
Problems:
1. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝑦 ′′ + 4𝑦 ′ + 4𝑦 = 𝑡𝑒 −𝑡 , 𝑦 0 = 0, 𝑦 ′ 0 = −1
Solution:
Given 𝑦 ′′ + 4𝑦 ′ + 4𝑦 = 𝑡𝑒 −𝑡 → 1
Taking Laplace Transform on both sides of (1)
𝐿 𝑦 ′′ + 𝐿 4𝑦 ′ + 𝐿 4𝑦 = 𝐿,𝑡𝑒 −𝑡 -
39
 * 𝑠2𝐿 𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑠𝑦 0 − 𝑦 ′ 0 + 4,𝑠𝐿 𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑦 0 + 4𝐿 𝑦 𝑡 +
1
= 2
→ (2)
𝑠+1
(By equation (I) & (II))
Sub 𝑦 0 = 0, 𝑦 ′ 0 = −1 in (2)
2
1
𝑠 𝐿 𝑦 − 𝑠 0 + 1 + 4 𝑠𝐿 𝑦 − 0 + 4𝐿 𝑦 =
𝑠+1 2
2
1
𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 4 𝐿 𝑦 + 1 =
𝑠+1 2
2
1
𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 4 𝐿 𝑦 = 2
−1
𝑠+1
1− 𝑠+1 2
𝐿𝑦 =
𝑠+1 2 𝑠+2 2
1 − 𝑠 2 − 2𝑠 − 1
=
𝑠+1 2 𝑠+2 2
−𝑠(𝑠 + 2)
= 2 2 40
𝑠+1 𝑠+2
 −𝑠
∴𝐿 𝑦 =
𝑠 + 1 2 (𝑠 + 2)
−1
−𝑠
𝑦=𝐿
𝑠 + 1 2 (𝑠 + 2)
Consider
−𝑠
𝑠 + 1 2 (𝑠 + 2)
Applying partial fraction,
−𝑠 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
2
= + 2
+
𝑠+1 𝑠+2 𝑠+1 𝑠+1 𝑠+2
𝐴 𝑠 + 1 𝑠 + 2 + 𝐵 𝑠 + 2 + 𝐶(𝑠 + 1)2
=
𝑠+1 2 𝑠+2
−𝑠 = 𝐴 𝑠 + 1 𝑠 + 2 + 𝐵 𝑠 + 2 + 𝐶(𝑠 + 1)2
→ (3)
sub 𝑠 = −1 in (3)
1 = 𝐴 0 −1 + 2 + 𝐵 −1 + 2 + 𝐶(0)
41
 1 = 𝐴 0 1 + 𝐵 1 + 𝐶(0)
1=𝐵
∴ 𝐵=1
sub 𝑠 = −2 in 3
2 = 𝐴 3 0 + 𝐵 0 + 𝐶(−1)2
2=𝐶
∴ 𝐶=2
∴ 𝐵=1
sub 𝑠 = −2 in 3
2 = 𝐴 3 0 + 𝐵 0 + 𝐶(−1)2
2=𝐶
∴ 𝐶=2
sub 𝑠 = 0 in 3
0=𝐴 1 2 +𝐵 2 +𝐶 1
0 = 2𝐴 + 2 1 + (2)
−4 = 2𝐴
42
 ∴ 𝐴 = −2
−𝑠 −2 1 2
∴ 2
= + 2
+
𝑠+1 𝑠+2 𝑠+1 𝑠+1 𝑠+2
−1
−𝑠 −1
−2 1 2
∴𝐿 2
=𝐿 + 2
+
𝑠+1 𝑠+2 𝑠+1 𝑠+1 𝑠+2
−1
1 −1
1 −1
1
= −2𝐿 +𝐿 2
+ 2𝐿
𝑠+1 𝑠+1 𝑠+2
−𝑡 −𝑡 −1
1 −2𝑡
= −2𝑒 + 𝑒 𝐿 + 2𝑒
𝑠2
(Apply First Shifting Property to 2nd term)
∴ 𝒚 = −𝟐𝒆−𝒕 + 𝒆−𝒕 𝒕 + 𝟐𝒆−𝟐𝒕
′′ 𝜋
2. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑦 + 9𝑦 = cos 2𝑡 , 𝑦 0 = 1, 𝑦 = −1.
2
Solution:
Given 𝑦 ′′ + 9𝑦 = cos 2𝑡 → 1
Taking Laplace Transform on both sides of (1)
𝐿 𝑦 ′′ + 𝐿 9𝑦 = 𝐿 cos 2𝑡 43
 2 ′
𝑠
𝑠 𝐿 𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑠𝑦 0 − 𝑦 0 + 9𝐿 𝑦 = 2
𝑠 + 22
→ (2)
(By equation (I) & (II))
Here 𝑦 0 = 1. But 𝑦 ′ 0 is not given.
∴ Let us consider 𝑦 ′ 0 = 𝑎, a constant
Sub 𝑦 0 = 1 & 𝑦 ′ 0 = 𝑎 in (2)
2
𝑠
𝑠 𝐿 𝑦 − 𝑠 1 − 𝑎 + 9𝐿 𝑦 = 2
𝑠 + 22
2
𝑠
𝑠 +9 𝐿 𝑦 = 2 2
+𝑠+𝑎
𝑠 +2
𝑠 𝑠 𝑎
𝐿𝑦 = 2 2
+ 2 + 2
(𝑠 + 4)(𝑠 + 9) 𝑠 + 9 𝑠 + 9
−1
𝑠 𝑠 𝑎
∴ 𝑦=𝐿 2 2
+ 2 + 2
𝑠 +4 𝑠 +9 𝑠 +9 𝑠 +9
Now consider
𝑠 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐵 𝐶𝑠 + 𝐷
2 2
= 2 + 2
𝑠 +4 𝑠 +9 𝑠 +4 𝑠 +9 44
 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐵 𝑠 2 + 9 + 𝐶𝑠 + 𝐷 𝑠 2 + 4
=
𝑠2 + 4 𝑠2 + 9
𝑠 = 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐵 𝑠 2 + 9 + 𝐶𝑠 + 𝐷 𝑠 2 + 4
𝑠 = 𝐴𝑠 3 + 𝐵𝑠 2 + 9𝐴𝑠 + 9𝐵 + (𝐶𝑠 3 + 𝐷𝑠 2 + 4𝐶𝑠 +
4𝐷)
𝑠 = 𝐴 + 𝐶 𝑠 3 + 𝐵 + 𝐷 𝑠 2 + 9𝐴 + 4𝐶 𝑠 + 9𝐵 + 4𝐷 → (3)
Equating coefficient of 𝑠 3 on both sides of (3)
𝐴 + 𝐶 = 0 → (4)
Equating coefficient of 𝑠 2 on both sides of (3)
𝐵 + 𝐷 = 0 → (5)
Equating coefficient of 𝑠 on both sides of (3)
9𝐴 + 4𝐶 = 1 → (6)
Equating constants on both sides of (3)
9𝐵 + 4𝐷 = 0 → (7)
solving (4) and (6)
4 ×4− 6 ×1
=> 4𝐴 + 4𝐶 − (9𝐴 + 4𝐶) = 0 − 1 45

−5𝐴 = −1
 1
∴ 𝐴=
5
−1
=> 𝐶 =
5
solving (5) and (7)
5 ×4− 7 ×1
=> 4𝐵 + 4𝐷 − 9𝐵 + 4𝐷 = 0 − 0
−5𝐵 = 0
∴ 𝐵=0
=> 𝐷 = 0
1 −1
𝑠 𝑠 + 0 𝑠+0
∴ 2 5
= 2 + 25
𝑠 +4 𝑠 +9 2 𝑠 +4 𝑠 +9
−1
𝑠 𝑠 𝑎
∴𝐿 2 2
+ 2 + 2
𝑠 +4 𝑠 +9 𝑠 +9 𝑠 +9
1 −1
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑎
=𝐿 −1 5 + 25 + 2 + 2 46
2
𝑠 +4 𝑠 +9 𝑠 +9 𝑠 +9
 1 −1 𝑠 1 −1 𝑠 −1
𝑠 −1
1
= 𝐿 2
− 𝐿 2
+𝐿 2
+ 𝑎𝐿
5 𝑠 +4 5 𝑠 +9 𝑠 +9 𝑠2 + 9
1 1 𝑎
= cos 2𝑡 − cos 3𝑡 + cos 3𝑡 + sin 3𝑡
5 5 3
1 4 𝑎
∴ 𝑦 = cos 2𝑡 + cos 3𝑡 + sin 3𝑡 → (8)
5 5 3
To find value of ‘𝑎’:
𝜋
Given 𝑦 = −1
2
1 𝜋 4 𝜋 𝑎 𝜋
8 => −1 = cos 2 + cos 3 + sin 3
5 2 5 2 3 2
1 4 𝜋 𝑎 𝜋
−1 = cos 𝜋 + cos 𝜋 + + sin 𝜋 +
5 5 2 3 2
1 4 𝜋 𝑎 𝜋
−1 = −1 − cos − sin
5 5 2 3 2
*since cos 𝜋 + 𝜃 = − cos 𝜃 & sin 𝜋 + 𝜃 = − sin 𝜃+
1 4 𝑎
−1 + = − 0 − (1)
5 5 3 47
 𝑎 4
∴ =
3 5
𝟏 𝟒 𝟒
∴ 𝒚 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝒕 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟑𝒕 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟑𝒕
𝟓 𝟓 𝟓

3. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝐷2 + 2𝐷 − 3 𝑦 = sin 𝑡 𝑔𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑦 0 = 0 & 𝑦 ′ 0 = 0

Solution:
Given 𝐷2 + 2𝐷 − 3 𝑦 = sin 𝑡
=> 𝑦" + 2𝑦′ − 3𝑦 = sin t → 1
Taking Laplace Transform on both sides of (1)
𝐿 𝑦 ′′ + 𝐿 2𝑦 ′ − 𝐿 3𝑦 = 𝐿 sin 𝑡
2 ′
1
𝑠 𝐿 𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑠𝑦 0 − 𝑦 0 + 2 𝑠𝐿 𝑦 − 𝑦 𝑜 − 3𝐿 𝑦 = 2
𝑠 +1
2
1
𝑠 + 2𝑠 − 3 𝐿 𝑦 = 2
𝑠 +1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑔𝑛 𝑦 0 = 0 &𝑦 ′ 0 = 0
48
 1
𝐿𝑦 = 2
𝑠 +1 𝑠−1 𝑠+3
−1
1
𝑦= 𝐿
𝑠2 + 1 𝑠 − 1 𝑠 + 3
1 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 2 = 2 + +
𝑠 +1 𝑠−1 𝑠+3 𝑠 +1 𝑠−1 𝑠+3
1 = 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐵 𝑠 − 1 𝑠 + 3 + 𝐶 𝑠 2 + 1 𝑠 + 3
+ 𝐷 𝑠2 + 1 𝑠 − 1
1
𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑠 = 1 => 𝐶 =
8
1
𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑠 = −3 => 𝐷 = −
40
1
𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑠 = 0 => 𝐵 = −
5
3
1
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜 𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑜𝑓 𝑠 => 𝐴 = −
10 49
 1 𝑠 1 1 1 1 1 1
∴𝑦= 𝐿−1
− 2
− 2 + −
10 𝑠 + 1 5 𝑠 + 1 8 𝑠 − 1 40 𝑠 + 3
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒕 𝟏 −𝟑𝒕
𝒚= − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒕 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒕 + 𝒆 − 𝒆
𝟏𝟎 𝟓 𝟖 𝟒𝟎

Property 3: (Second Shifting Property)

𝐼𝑓 𝐿−1 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑓 𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝐿−1 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑎 𝑈(𝑡 − 𝑎)
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑈 𝑡 − 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
0, 0<𝑡<𝑎
𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑈 𝑡 − 𝑎 =
1, 𝑎<𝑡<∞
Problems:
𝑒 −𝜋𝑠
1. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑𝐿−1
𝑠 2 +2𝑠+10
Solution:
By the Second Shifting Property, we have
𝐿−1 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑎 𝑈(𝑡 − 𝑎)
= 𝐿−1 𝐹 𝑠 𝑡→𝑡−𝑎 𝑈(𝑡 − 𝑎)
50
 𝑒 −𝜋𝑠 1
∴ 𝐿−1 2
= 𝐿−1 𝑈 𝑡−𝜋
𝑠 + 2𝑠 + 10 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 10 𝑡→𝑡−𝜋
→ (1)
1 1
Consider 𝐿−1 = 𝐿−1
𝑠 2 +2𝑠+10 𝑠+1 2 +9
1
= 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝐿−1
𝑠2 + 9
1
= 𝑒 −3𝑡
sin 3𝑡
3
𝑒 −𝜋𝑠 1
∴𝐿−1 = 𝑒 −3𝑡 sin 3𝑡 𝑈(𝑡 − 𝜋)
2
𝑠 + 2𝑠 + 10 3 𝑡→𝑡−𝜋
𝒆 −𝝅𝒔 𝟏 −𝟑(𝒕−𝝅)
𝑳−𝟏 = 𝒆 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟑(𝒕 − 𝝅) 𝑼(𝒕 − 𝝅)
𝟐
𝒔 + 𝟐𝒔 + 𝟏𝟎 𝟑

51
 𝜋
−2𝑠
𝑠𝑒
2. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿−1 2
𝑠 +4
Solution:
By the Second Shifting Property, we have
𝐿−1 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑎 𝑈(𝑡 − 𝑎)
= 𝐿−1 𝐹 𝑠 𝑡→𝑡−𝑎 𝑈(𝑡 − 𝑎)
𝜋
− 𝑠
𝑠𝑒 2 𝑠 𝜋
∴ 𝐿−1 2
= 𝐿−1 𝑈(𝑡 − )
𝑠 +4 𝑠2 + 4 𝜋
𝑡→𝑡− 2 2
𝜋
= *cos 2𝑡+𝑡→𝑡−𝜋 𝑈(𝑡 − )
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
= cos 2 𝑡 − 𝑈 𝑡−
2 2
𝜋
= cos(2𝑡 − 𝜋) 𝑈 𝑡 −
2
𝝅
−𝟐𝒔
𝒔𝒆 𝝅
𝑳−𝟏 𝟐
= − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝒕 𝑼 𝒕 − *since cos (π−θ)=cos θ}
𝒔 +𝟒 𝟐 52
Property 4: (Change of scale property)
1 𝑡
𝐼𝑓 𝐿,𝑓 𝑡 - = 𝐹 𝑠 , 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝐿−1 𝐹 𝑎𝑠 = 𝑓 ,
𝑎 𝑎
𝑎 > 0.
Proof:
∞

We know that 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

0
∞

=> 𝐹 𝑎𝑠 = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑥 => 𝑎𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = 0 => 𝑥 = 0 & 𝑡 = ∞ => 𝑥 = ∞
∞
−𝑠𝑥
𝑥 𝑑𝑥
=> 𝐹 𝑎𝑠 = 𝑒 𝑓
𝑎 𝑎
0
53
 ∞
1 −𝑠𝑥
𝑥
= 𝑒 𝑓 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎
0
∞
1 𝑡
= 𝑒 −𝑠𝑥 𝑓 𝑑𝑡
𝑎 𝑎
0
𝑏 𝑏

,𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥-
𝑎 𝑎
1 𝑡
= 𝐿 𝑓
𝑎 𝑎
𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑕 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠,
−𝟏
𝟏 𝒕
𝑳 𝑭 𝒂𝒔 = 𝒇 ,𝒂 > 𝟎
𝒂 𝒂

54
Initial Value and Final Value Theorem:
Initial Value Theorem:
𝐼𝑓 𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐹 𝑠 , 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 lim 𝑓 𝑡 = lim 𝑠𝐹 𝑠
𝑡→0 𝑠→∞
Proof:
we know that 𝐿 𝑓 ′ 𝑡 = 𝑠𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑓(0)
= 𝑠𝐹 𝑠 − 𝑓(0)
∞

=> 𝑠𝐹 𝑠 − 𝑓 0 = 𝐿 𝑓 ′ 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 ′ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
(By definition of Laplace Transform)
Taking lim on both sides
𝑠→∞
∞

lim 𝑠𝐹 𝑠 − 𝑓 0 = lim 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 ′ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑠→∞ 𝑠→∞
0
55
 ∞

= lim 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 ′ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 0(since 𝑒 −∞ = 0)

𝑠→∞
0
∴ lim 𝑠𝐹 𝑠 − 𝑓 0 =0
𝑠→∞
=> lim 𝑠𝐹 𝑠 − 𝑓 0 = 0
𝑠→∞
=> lim 𝑠𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑓 0 = lim 𝑓 𝑡
𝑠→∞ 𝑡→0
𝑯𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒇 𝒕 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒔𝑭 𝒔
𝒕→𝟎 𝒔→∞

Final Value Theorem:

𝐼𝑓 𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐹 𝑠 , 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 lim 𝑓 𝑡 = lim 𝑠𝐹 𝑠
𝑡→∞ 𝑠→0
Proof:
we know that 𝐿 𝑓 ′ 𝑡 = 𝑠𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑓(0)
= 𝑠𝐹 𝑠 − 𝑓(0)
∞

=> 𝑠𝐹 𝑠 − 𝑓 0 = 𝐿 𝑓 ′ 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 ′ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0 56
 (By definition of Laplace Transform)
Taking lim on both sides
𝑠→0
∞

lim 𝑠𝐹 𝑠 − 𝑓 0 = lim 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 ′ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑠→0 𝑠→0
0
∞ ∞

= lim𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 ′ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑓 ′ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑠→0
0 0
∞
∞
= 𝑑𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡
0
0
lim 𝑠𝐹 𝑠 − 𝑓 0 = 𝑓 ∞ − 𝑓(0)
𝑠→0
∴ lim𝑠𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑓 ∞ = lim 𝑓 𝑡
𝑠→0 𝑡→∞
𝑯𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒇 𝒕 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒔𝑭 𝒔
𝒕→∞ 𝒔→𝟎

57
Problems:
1
1. 𝐼𝑓 𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 = , 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑓 𝑡 & lim 𝑓 𝑡
𝑠 𝑠+𝑎 𝑡→∞ 𝑡→0
Solution:
By IVT, lim 𝑓 𝑡 = lim 𝑠𝐹 𝑠
𝑡→0 𝑠→∞
1
= lim 𝑠.
𝑠→∞ 𝑠 𝑠+𝑎
1
= lim
𝑠→∞ 𝑠+𝑎
1
= =0
∞
∴ lim 𝑓 𝑡 = 0
𝑡→0
By FVT, lim 𝑓 𝑡 = lim 𝑠𝐹 𝑠
𝑡→∞ 𝑠→0
1
= lim𝑠.
𝑠→0 𝑠 𝑠 + 𝑎

58
 1
= lim
𝑠→0 𝑠 + 𝑎
1
=
𝑎
𝟏
∴ 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒇 𝒕 =
𝒕→∞ 𝒂
2. 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦 𝐼𝑉𝑇 & 𝐹𝑉𝑇 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓 𝑡 = 3𝑒 −2𝑡
Solution:
Given 𝑓 𝑡 = 3𝑒 −2𝑡
3
∴𝐹 𝑠 =𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 =
𝑠+2
To verify IVT:
i.e., to verify lim 𝑓 𝑡 = lim 𝑠𝐹 𝑠
𝑡→0 𝑠→∞
−2𝑡
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = lim 𝑓 𝑡 = lim3𝑒 = 3𝑒 0 = 3
𝑡→0 𝑡→0
∴ lim 𝑓 𝑡 = 3
𝑡→0
59
 3
𝑅𝐻𝑆 = lim 𝑠𝐹 𝑠 = lim 𝑠.
𝑠→∞ 𝑠→∞ 𝑠 + 2
3𝑠
= lim
𝑠→∞ 2
𝑠 1+
𝑠
3 3
= lim = =3
𝑠→∞ 2 1
1+
𝑠
∴ lim 𝑠𝐹 𝑠 = 3
𝑠→∞
∴ 𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆
IVT is verified
To verify FVT:
i.e., to verify lim 𝑓 𝑡 = lim 𝑠𝐹 𝑠
𝑡→∞ 𝑠→0
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = lim 𝑓 𝑡 = lim 3𝑒 −2𝑡 = 3 0 =0
𝑡→∞ 𝑡→∞
(since 𝑒 −∞ = 0)
lim 𝑓 𝑡 = 0 60
𝑡→∞
 3
𝑅𝐻𝑆 = lim 𝑠𝐹 𝑠 = lim𝑠.
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 𝑠 + 2
0
= =0
2
∴ lim 𝑠𝐹 𝑠 = 0
𝑠→0
∴ 𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆
FVT is verified

61
UNIT IV:
ANALYTIC FUNCTION:
BY
M RAMYA
SVCE
1
Complex Variable:
𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖 = −1.
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑥 & 𝑦 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 &
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑧.
𝐼𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚, 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑧 𝑖𝑠
𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑃 𝑥, 𝑦 .
𝐼𝑓 𝑟, 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜. 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑃, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛
𝑟 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑧 & 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑧 .
−1
𝑦
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝜃 = tan 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑥
𝑜𝑓 𝑧 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 arg 𝑧 .
Function of a complex variable:
𝐴 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑧, 𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑓 𝑧 , 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
𝐼𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑤 = 𝑓 𝑧 . 2
Analytic function:
𝐴 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤 = 𝑓 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐
𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠.
𝐼𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑕𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑕𝑖𝑐
𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
Necessary condition for f(z) to be analytic:
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑤 = 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑣 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑠
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= & =− 𝑜𝑟
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 & 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥

Sufficient condition for f(z) to be analytic:

𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑤 = 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑣 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑠
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 3
𝑖 , , , 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
(𝑖𝑖)𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 & 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥
Cauchy-Riemann equation: (C-R eqn)
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 & 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑
𝐶 − 𝑅 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠.

C-R equation in polar form:

𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝐶 − 𝑅 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦
1 1
𝑢𝑟 = 𝑣𝜃 & 𝑣𝑟 = − 𝑢𝜃
𝑟 𝑟

Note:
𝐼𝑓 𝑤 = 𝑓 𝑧 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 𝑖𝑠
𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜 − 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖
& 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 𝑢𝑟 + 𝑖𝑣𝑟 (𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜 − 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖)

4
Problems:
1. 𝑃𝑇 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐.
Solution:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 & 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
𝐺𝑛 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2
=> 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2
∴ 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 𝑖2𝑥𝑦
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 & 𝑖𝑚𝑔 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠,
𝑢 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 , 𝑣 = 2𝑥𝑦
𝑢𝑥 = 2𝑥 , 𝑣𝑥 = 2𝑦
𝑢𝑦 = −2𝑦 , 𝑣𝑦 = 2𝑥
∴ 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 & 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐶 − 𝑅 𝑒𝑞𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑
∴ 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐.

5
 2. 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧
Solution:
𝐺𝑛 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 => 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
=> 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦
∴ 𝑢 = 𝑥 , 𝑣 = −𝑦
𝑢𝑥 = 1 , 𝑣𝑥 = 0
𝑢𝑦 = 0 , 𝑣𝑦 = −1
∴ 𝑢𝑥 ≠ 𝑣𝑦 & 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐶 − 𝑅 𝑒𝑞𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑
∴ 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐.

3. 𝑆𝑇 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦

𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛.
Solution:
𝐺𝑛 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2 => 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 2
=> 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 6
 ∴ 𝑢 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 , 𝑣 = 0
𝑢𝑥 = 2𝑥 , 𝑣𝑥 = 0
𝑢𝑦 = 2𝑦 , 𝑣𝑦 = 0
𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛
𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 & 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥
=> 2𝑥 = 0 & 2𝑦 = 0
=> 𝑥 = 0 & 𝑦 = 0
∴ 𝐶𝑅 𝑒𝑞𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0 & 𝑦 = 0
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑔𝑛 𝑓𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛.

4. 𝑃𝑇 𝑓 𝑧 = cos 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐. 𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 .

Solution:
𝑔𝑛 𝑓 𝑧 = cos 𝑧 => 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = cos 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
=> 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = cos 𝑥 cos 𝑖𝑦 − sin 𝑥 sin 𝑖𝑦
[𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 cos 𝐴 + 𝐵 = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 − sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵
& cos 𝑖𝑥 = cosh 𝑥 , sin 𝑖𝑥 = 𝑖 sinh 𝑥] 7
=> 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = cos 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 − 𝑖 sin 𝑥 sinh 𝑦
 ∴ 𝑢 = cos 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 , 𝑣 = − sin 𝑥 sinh 𝑦
𝑢𝑥 = − sin 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 , 𝑣𝑥 = − cos 𝑥 sinh 𝑦
𝑢𝑦 = cos 𝑥 sinh 𝑦 , 𝑣𝑦 = − sin 𝑥 cosh 𝑦
∴ 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 & 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐶 − 𝑅 𝑒𝑞𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑
∴ 𝑓 𝑧 = cos 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐.

𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥
= − sin 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 − 𝑖 cos 𝑥 sinh 𝑦
= − sin 𝑥 cos 𝑖𝑦 + cos 𝑥 sin 𝑖𝑦
= − sin 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
𝒇′ 𝒛 = − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒛

8
 5. 𝑆𝑇 𝑓 𝑧 = log 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛 & 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒.
Solution:
𝐺𝑛 𝑓 𝑧 = log 𝑧 = log 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃
=> 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = log 𝑟 + 𝑖𝜃
∴ 𝑢 = log 𝑟 , 𝑣 = 𝜃
1
𝑢𝑟 = , 𝑣𝑟 = 0
𝑟
𝑢𝜃 = 0 , 𝑣𝜃 = 1
1 1
𝑢𝑟 = 𝑣𝜃 & 𝑣𝑟 = − 𝑢𝜃
𝑟 𝑟
𝑇𝑕𝑢𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝐶𝑅 𝑒𝑞𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟 ≠ 0.
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛.
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 𝑢𝑟 + 𝑖𝑣𝑟
−𝑖𝜃
1 1
=𝑒 + 0 = 𝑖𝜃
𝑟 𝑟𝑒 9
′
𝟏
𝒇 𝒛 =
𝒛
 6. 𝑃𝑇 𝑓 𝑧 = sinh 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐.
Solution:
1
𝐺𝑛 𝑓 𝑧 = sinh 𝑧 => 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = sin 𝑖𝑧
𝑖
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 sin 𝑖𝑥 = 𝑖 sinh 𝑥 & cos 𝑖𝑥 = cosh 𝑥
=> 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = −𝑖 sin 𝑖𝑥 − 𝑦
= −𝑖 sin 𝑖𝑥 cos 𝑦 − cos 𝑖𝑥 sin 𝑦
= −𝑖 𝑖 sinh 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − cosh 𝑥 sin 𝑦
=> 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = sinh 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 cosh 𝑥 sin 𝑦
∴ 𝑢 = sinh 𝑥 cos 𝑦 , 𝑣 = cosh 𝑥 sin 𝑦
𝑢𝑥 = cosh 𝑥 cos 𝑦 , 𝑣𝑥 = sinh 𝑥 sin 𝑦
𝑢𝑦 = − sinh 𝑥 sin 𝑦 , 𝑣𝑦 = cosh 𝑥 cos 𝑦
∴ 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 & 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐶 − 𝑅 𝑒𝑞𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑
∴ 𝑓 𝑧 = sinh 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐.
10
7. 𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 , 𝑆𝑇 𝑣 − 𝑖𝑢 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐.
Solution:
𝑔𝑛 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 => 𝐶𝑅 𝑒𝑞𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑
=> 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 & 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑔 𝑧 = 𝑈 + 𝑖𝑉 = 𝑣 − 𝑖𝑢
=> 𝑈 = 𝑣 , 𝑉 = −𝑢
𝑈𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥 , 𝑉𝑥 = −𝑢𝑥 = −𝑣𝑦
𝑈𝑦 = 𝑣𝑦 , 𝑉𝑦 = −𝑢𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥
∴ 𝑈𝑥 = 𝑉𝑦 & 𝑈𝑦 = −𝑉𝑥
=> 𝑣 − 𝑖𝑢 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐.

8. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 𝑖𝑓

𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑖 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐.
Solution:
𝐺𝑛 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑖 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐
𝑇𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝐶𝑅 𝑒𝑞𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑. 11
=> 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 & 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 , 𝑣 = 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑦
 𝑢𝑥 = 1 , 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑏
𝑢𝑦 = 𝑎 , 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑐
=> 𝒄 = 𝟏 & 𝒂 = −𝒃

Properties of analytic function:

Property 1:
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 & 𝑖𝑚𝑔 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑦
𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑛 𝑖. 𝑒, 𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑦𝑦 = 0 & 𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 0.
Proof:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑛
𝑇𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝐶𝑅 𝑒𝑞𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑
𝑖. 𝑒, 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 → 1 & 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥 → (2)

12
𝑻𝑷 𝒖𝒙𝒙 + 𝒖𝒚𝒚 = 𝟎
𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓 1 𝑝. 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 𝑥, 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓 2 𝑝. 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 𝑦
𝜕 𝜕
𝑢𝑥𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 𝑢𝑦𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑢𝑥𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥𝑦 → 3 𝑢𝑦𝑦 = −𝑣𝑦𝑥 → 4
3 + 4 => 𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑦𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥𝑦 − 𝑣𝑦𝑥 = 0
=> 𝒖𝒙𝒙 + 𝒖𝒚𝒚 = 𝟎

𝑻𝑷 𝒗𝒙𝒙 + 𝒗𝒚𝒚 = 𝟎
𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓 1 𝑝. 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 𝑦, 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓 2 𝑝. 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 𝑥
𝑢𝑦𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦𝑦 → 5 𝑢𝑥𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥𝑥 → 6
5 + 6 => 𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦𝑥 − 𝑢𝑥𝑦 = 0
𝒗𝒙𝒙 + 𝒗𝒚𝒚 = 𝟎
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑.
13
Property 2:
𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑧, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛
𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑢 = 𝑐1 & 𝑣 = 𝑐2 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑐1 & 𝑐2 𝑎𝑟𝑒
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑐𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑕𝑜𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦.
Proof:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑛
𝑇𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝐶𝑅 𝑒𝑞𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑
𝑖. 𝑒, 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 → 1 & 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥 → (2)
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑔𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑠
𝑢 = 𝑐1 → 3 & 𝑣 = 𝑐2 → (4)
𝑻𝑷 𝒖 & 𝒗 𝒄𝒖𝒕 𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒈𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚
𝒊𝒆 𝑻𝑷 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒓 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒔 − 𝟏
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑢 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 & 𝑦
𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓 3 𝑝. 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑦
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑥 14
𝑑𝑦 𝑢𝑥
=> =− = 𝑚1 (𝑠𝑎𝑦)
𝑑𝑥 𝑢𝑦
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 & 𝑦
𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓 4 𝑝. 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 𝑥
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝑑𝑦
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑣𝑥
=> = − = 𝑚2 𝑠𝑎𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑣𝑦
∴ 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑠
𝑢𝑥 𝑣𝑥
𝑚1 𝑚2 = − −
𝑢𝑦 𝑣𝑦
𝑣𝑦 𝑣𝑥
= − = −1
𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑦
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑢 = 𝑐1 & 𝑣 = 𝑐2 𝑐𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑕𝑜𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦

15
Property 3:
𝐴𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
Proof:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 => 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2
𝑻𝑷: 𝒇 𝒛 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕:
𝑔𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 => 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 = 𝑐
=> 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 = 𝐶

𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑝. 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 𝑥 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑝. 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 𝑦
2𝑢𝑢𝑥 + 2𝑣𝑣𝑥 = 0 2𝑢𝑢𝑦 + 2𝑣𝑣𝑦 = 0
𝑢𝑢𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑥 = 0 → 1 , 𝑢𝑢𝑦 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦 = 0 → (2)
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑛
𝑇𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝐶𝑅 𝑒𝑞𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑
𝑖. 𝑒, 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 & 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥
∴ −𝑢𝑣𝑥 + 𝑣𝑢𝑥 = 0 => 𝑣𝑢𝑥 − 𝑢𝑣𝑥 = 0 → 3
16
[𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕:
𝐼𝑓 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 = 0 & 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 = 0, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑓
𝑎 𝑏
≠ 0 => 𝑥 = 0 & 𝑦 = 0]
𝑐 𝑑

∴ 𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜 𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑥 & 𝑣𝑥 𝑖𝑛 1 & 3

𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑛 𝑏𝑦
𝑢 𝑣
= −𝑢2 − 𝑣 2 = −𝐶 ≠ 0
𝑣 −𝑢
=> 𝑢𝑥 = 0 & 𝑣𝑥 = 0
=> 𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 & 𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
∴ 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.

17
Property 4:
𝐴𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑕𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
Proof:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 𝑏𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑇𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝐶𝑅 𝑒𝑞𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑
𝑖. 𝑒, 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 → (1) & 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥 → (2)
𝑻𝑷: 𝒇 𝒛 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕:
𝐺𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 => 𝑢 = 𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
=> 𝑢𝑥 = 0 & 𝑢𝑦 = 0 → (3)
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
∴ 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥
= 𝑢𝑥 − 𝑖𝑢𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 2
= 0 − 𝑖0 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 3
=> 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 0
18
=> 𝑓 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
Harmonic function:
𝐴 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑛 𝜑𝑥𝑥 + 𝜑𝑦𝑦 = 0
𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑕𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

Note:
𝐼𝑓 𝑢 𝑖𝑠 𝑕𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑕𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑜𝑓 𝑢 & 𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑎 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎.

Problems:
1
1. 𝑃𝑇 𝑢 = log 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑕𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐.
2
Solution:
𝑻𝑷 𝒖 𝒊𝒔 𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄, 𝒊𝒆 𝑻𝑷 𝒖𝒙𝒙 + 𝒖𝒚𝒚 = 𝟎
1
𝐺𝑛 𝑢 = log 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
2
1 2𝑥 𝑥 19
∴ 𝑢𝑥 = 2 2
= 2
2𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑥 + 𝑦2
 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 1 − 𝑥 2𝑥
𝑢𝑥𝑥 =
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 2
𝑦2 − 𝑥2
𝑢𝑥𝑥 = 2
𝑥 + 𝑦2 2
𝑦
𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑢𝑦 = 2
𝑥 + 𝑦2
𝑥2 − 𝑦2
𝑢𝑦𝑦 = 2
𝑥 + 𝑦2 2
𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑦𝑦 = 0
=> 𝒖 𝒊𝒔 𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

20
 2. 𝑃𝑇 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − sin 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑕𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐.
Solution:

𝑻𝑷 𝒗 𝒊𝒔 𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄, 𝒊𝒆 𝑻𝑷 𝒗𝒙𝒙 + 𝒗𝒚𝒚 = 𝟎

𝐺𝑛 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − sin 𝑦
∴ 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − sin 𝑦
𝑣𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − sin 𝑦
& 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 − sin 𝑦 − cos 𝑦
𝑣𝑦𝑦 = −𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − sin 𝑦
∴ 𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − sin 𝑦 − 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − sin 𝑦
∴ 𝒗𝒙𝒙 + 𝒗𝒚𝒚 = 𝟎
=> 𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑕𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐

21
 𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
3. 𝑆𝑇 2
+ 2≡4
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧
Solution:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 → 1 & 𝑧 = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦 → 2
∴ 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 1 & 2 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡
𝑧+𝑧 𝑧−𝑧 𝑖
𝑥= ,𝑦 = =− 𝑧−𝑧
2 2𝑖 2
𝜕𝑥 1 𝜕𝑦 𝑖
∴ = , =− → 𝐴
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕𝑥 1 𝜕𝑦 𝑖
= , = → 𝐵
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑥 𝜕 𝜕𝑦
𝑁𝑜𝑤 ≡ +
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 1 𝜕 𝑖 𝜕
=> ≡ − → (3)
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑥 𝜕 𝜕𝑦 22
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 ≡ +
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 𝜕 1 𝜕 𝑖 𝜕
=> ≡ + → 4
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦
𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 3 & 4 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡
𝜕2 1 𝜕 𝜕 1 𝜕 𝜕
≡ −𝑖 +𝑖
𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
1 𝜕2 𝜕2
≡ 2
+ 2
4 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝝏𝟐 𝝏𝟐 𝝏𝟐
=> 𝟐
+ 𝟐≡𝟒
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛𝝏𝒛

23
 4. 𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛,
𝑃𝑇 𝛻 2 𝑓 𝑧 2 = 4 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) 2
Solution:
𝑻𝑷 𝜵𝟐 𝒇 𝒛 𝟐 = 𝟒 𝒇′ 𝒛 𝟐
𝝏𝟐 𝝏𝟐 𝟐 = 𝟒 𝒇′ 𝒛 𝟐
𝒊𝒆 𝑻𝑷 + 𝒇 𝒛
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒚𝟐
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
𝑤𝑘𝑡 2
+ 2≡4 → 1
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧
& 𝑧 2 = 𝑧𝑧 → (2)
𝜕2 𝜕2 2
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝐻𝑆 = + 𝑓 𝑧
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕2
=4 𝑓 𝑧 𝑓 𝑧
𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧

24
 𝜕 𝜕
=4 𝑓 𝑧 𝑓 𝑧
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝜕
=4 𝑓 𝑧 𝑓′ 𝑧
𝜕𝑧
= 4𝑓 ′ 𝑧 𝑓 ′ 𝑧
= 4 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 2 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆
∴ 𝜵𝟐 𝒇 𝒛 𝟐 = 𝟒 𝒇′ 𝒛 𝟐

4. 𝑃𝑇 𝛻 2 log 𝑓 𝑧 =0
Solution:
𝑻𝑷 𝜵𝟐 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒇 𝒛 = 𝟎
𝝏𝟐 𝝏𝟐
𝒊𝒆 𝑻𝑷 𝟐
+ 𝟐 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒇 𝒛 = 𝟎
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
𝑤𝑘𝑡 2
+ 2≡4 → 1
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧
& 𝑓 𝑧 2=𝑓 𝑧 𝑓 𝑧 25
 1
2
=> 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑧 𝑓 𝑧
1
∴ log 𝑓 𝑧 = log 𝑓 𝑧 + log 𝑓 𝑧
2
𝜕2 𝜕2
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝐻𝑆 = + log 𝑓 𝑧
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕2 1
=4 log 𝑓 𝑧 + log 𝑓 𝑧
𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕 𝜕
=2 log 𝑓 𝑧 + log 𝑓 𝑧
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝑓′ 𝑧
=2 0+
𝜕𝑧 𝑓 𝑧
= 0 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆
∴ 𝛁 𝟐 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒇 𝒛 = 𝟎

26
 5. 𝑃𝑇 𝛻 2 𝑓 𝑧 𝑝
= 𝑝2 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) 2
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑝−2

Solution:
𝑇𝑃 𝛻 2 𝑓 𝑧 𝑝 = 𝑝2 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) 2 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑝−2
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝑝 = 𝑝 2 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) 2 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑝−2
𝑖𝑒 𝑇𝑃 + 𝑓 𝑧
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
𝑤𝑘𝑡 2
+ 2≡4 → 1
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧
& 𝑓 𝑧 2=𝑓 𝑧 𝑓 𝑧
1
=> 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑧 𝑓 𝑧 2
𝑝 𝑝 𝑝
𝑓 𝑧 𝑝 = 𝑓 𝑧 𝑓 𝑧 2 = 𝑓 𝑧 2 𝑓 𝑧 2
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝑝
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝐻𝑆 = + 𝑓 𝑧
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕2 𝑝
2
𝑝
2
=4 𝑓 𝑧 𝑓 𝑧
𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧 27
 𝜕 𝜕 𝑝 𝑝
=4 𝑓 𝑧 2 𝑓 𝑧 2
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝑝𝑝 𝑝
−1 ′
= 4 𝑓 𝑧 2 𝑓 𝑧 2 𝑓 𝑧
𝜕𝑧 2
𝑝 𝑝 𝑝
2 −1 ′ 2 −1 ′
= 2𝑝 𝑓 𝑧 𝑓 𝑧 𝑓 𝑧 𝑓 𝑧
2
𝑝−2 𝑝−2
= 𝑝2 𝑓 𝑧 2 𝑓 𝑧 2 𝑓′ 𝑧 𝑓′ 𝑧
𝑝−2
= 𝑝2 𝑓 𝑧 𝑓 𝑧 2 𝑓′ 𝑧 𝑓′ 𝑧
𝑝−2
= 𝑝2 𝑓 𝑧 2 2 𝑓′ 𝑧 2

= 𝑝2 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 2 𝑓 𝑧 𝑝−2 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆
𝑯𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅

28
Construction of analytic function:
Milne-Thomson method:
This method is applied to construct an analytic function given its
real part or imaginary part alone.

1. 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
2. 𝑇𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥
𝐵𝑦 𝐶𝑅 𝑒𝑞𝑛 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 → (1) & 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥 → (2)
𝐼𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑢 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑛, 𝑢𝑠𝑒 2
& 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 𝑢𝑥 − 𝑖𝑢𝑦
𝐼𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑛, 𝑢𝑠𝑒 1
& 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 𝑣𝑦 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥
3. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠 & 𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑖𝑛 𝑓′(𝑧)
4. 𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑧 & 𝑦 = 0 𝑖𝑛 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 .
5. 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 𝑧 , 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑓 𝑧 .
29
Problems:
1. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓 𝑧 𝑖𝑓 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦
Solution:
𝐺𝑛 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 => 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥
𝐵𝑦 𝐶𝑅 𝑒𝑞𝑛 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 → (1) & 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥 → (2)
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑛, 𝑢𝑠𝑒 1
∴ 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 𝑣𝑦 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥
= 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦
𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑧 & 𝑦 = 0
=> 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧 cos 0 + 𝑖𝑒 𝑧 sin 0
= 𝑒𝑧
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 𝑧

𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
30
𝒛
∴ 𝒇 𝒛 =𝒆 +𝒄
𝑻𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒋𝒖𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄:
𝒊𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒖:
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧
=> 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑖𝑦
= 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sin 𝑦
=> 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑕 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠, 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡
𝒖 = 𝒆𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒚

31
 2. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 𝑖𝑓 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑥 sin 𝑦 + 𝑦 cos 𝑦
Solution:
𝐺𝑛 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑥 sin 𝑦 + 𝑦 cos 𝑦
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 => 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥
𝐵𝑦 𝐶𝑅 𝑒𝑞𝑛 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 → (1) & 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥 → (2)
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑢 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑛, 𝑢𝑠𝑒 2
∴ 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 𝑢𝑥 − 𝑖𝑢𝑦
𝑢𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑥 sin 𝑦 + 𝑦 cos 𝑦 + 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦
𝑢𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥 cos 𝑦 + cos 𝑦 − 𝑦 sin 𝑦)
𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑧 & 𝑦 = 0 𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑥 & 𝑢𝑦
∴ 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧 𝑧 0 + 0 + 𝑒 𝑧 0 = 0
& 𝑢𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑧 𝑧 1 + 1 − 0 = 𝑒 𝑧 (𝑧 + 1)
=> 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 0 − 𝑖𝑒 𝑧 (𝑧 + 1)
= −𝑖𝑒 𝑧 (𝑧 + 1)
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 𝑧
32
 𝑓 𝑧 = −𝑖 𝑒 𝑧 𝑧 + 𝑒 𝑧 𝑑𝑧

= −𝑖 𝑧𝑒 𝑧 − 𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑒 𝑧
∴ 𝒇 𝒛 = −𝒊𝒆𝒛 𝒛 + 𝒄

3. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓 𝑧

𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑢 − 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − sin 𝑦 & 𝑓 0 = 1
Solution:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 → 1
1 × 𝑖 => 𝑖𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑢 − 𝑣 → 2
1 + 2 => 1 + 𝑖 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 − 𝑣 + 𝑖 𝑢 + 𝑣
=> 𝐹 𝑧 = 𝑈 + 𝑖𝑉
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐹 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖 𝑓 𝑧 , 𝑈 = 𝑢 − 𝑣 & 𝑉 = 𝑢 + 𝑣
𝐺𝑛 𝑢 − 𝑣 = 𝑈 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − sin 𝑦
∴ 𝐹 ′ 𝑧 = 𝑈𝑥 + 𝑖𝑉𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑈 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑉𝑥 = −𝑈𝑦 33
 ∴ 𝐹 ′ 𝑧 = 𝑈𝑥 − 𝑖𝑈𝑦
𝑈𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − sin 𝑦
𝑈𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 (− sin 𝑦 − cos 𝑦)
𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑧 & 𝑦 = 0 𝑖𝑛 𝑈𝑥 & 𝑈𝑦
∴ 𝑈𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧 1 − 0 = 𝑒 𝑧
& 𝑈𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑧 −0 − 1 = −𝑒 𝑧
=> 𝐹 ′ 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑖𝑒 𝑧
= 𝑒𝑧 𝑖 + 1
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡,

𝐹 𝑧 = 𝑖 + 1 𝑒 𝑧 𝑑𝑧

=> 𝐹 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖 𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑐
=> 1 + 𝑖 𝑓 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖 𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑐
=> 𝒇 𝒛 = 𝒆𝒛 + 𝒄
34
 𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑔𝑛 𝑓 0 = 1
=> 𝑓 0 = 𝑒 0 + 𝑐 = 1 => 𝑐 = 0
∴ 𝒇 𝒛 = 𝒆𝒛

sin 2𝑥
4. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑓 𝑧 𝑖𝑓 𝑢 + 𝑣 = .
cosh 2𝑦 − cos 2𝑥
Solution:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 → 1
1 × 𝑖 => 𝑖𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑢 − 𝑣 → 2
1 + 2 => 1 + 𝑖 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 − 𝑣 + 𝑖 𝑢 + 𝑣
=> 𝐹 𝑧 = 𝑈 + 𝑖𝑉
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐹 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖 𝑓 𝑧 , 𝑈 = 𝑢 − 𝑣 & 𝑉 = 𝑢 + 𝑣
sin 2𝑥
𝐺𝑛 𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝑉 =
cosh 2𝑦 − cos 2𝑥
∴ 𝐹 ′ 𝑧 = 𝑈𝑥 + 𝑖𝑉𝑥
35
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑉 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑈𝑥 = 𝑉𝑦
∴ 𝐹 ′ 𝑧 = 𝑉𝑦 + 𝑖𝑉𝑥
 cosh 2𝑦 − cos 2𝑥 2 cos 2𝑥 − sin 2𝑥 2 sin 2𝑥
𝑉𝑥 =
cosh 2𝑦 − cos 2𝑥 2
2 cos 2𝑥 cosh 2𝑦 − 2
=
cosh 2𝑦 − cos 2𝑥 2
cosh 2𝑦 − cos 2𝑥 0 − sin 2𝑥 2 sinh 2𝑦
𝑉𝑦 =
cosh 2𝑦 − cos 2𝑥 2
−2 sinh 2𝑦 sin 2𝑥
=
cosh 2𝑦 − cos 2𝑥 2
𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑧 & 𝑦 = 0 𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑥 & 𝑉𝑦
2 cos 2𝑧 cosh 0 − 2
∴ 𝑉𝑥 =
cosh 0 − cos 2𝑧 2
−2 1 − cos 2𝑧 −2
= 2
=
1 − cos 2𝑧 1 − cos 2𝑧
−2 2
= 2
= − cosec 𝑧
2 sin 𝑧
−2 sinh 0 sin 2𝑧 36
& 𝑉𝑦 = 2
=0
cosh 0 − cos 2𝑧
 => 𝐹 ′ 𝑧 = 0 − 𝑖 cosec 2 𝑧
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡,
𝐹 𝑧 = −𝑖 − cot 𝑧 + 𝑐
=> 1 + 𝑖 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑖 cot 𝑧 + 𝑐
𝑖
=> 𝑓 𝑧 = cot 𝑧 + 𝑐
1+𝑖
𝑖 1−𝑖
=> 𝑓 𝑧 = cot 𝑧 + 𝑐
1+1
𝒊+𝟏
=> 𝒇 𝒛 = 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒛 + 𝒄
𝟐

37
 5. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑓 𝑧 𝑖𝑓 2𝑣 + 3𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 (cos 𝑦 − sin 𝑦)
Solution:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 → 1
1 × 2 => 2𝑓 𝑧 = 2𝑢 + 𝑖2𝑣 → (2)
1 × 3𝑖 => 3𝑖𝑓 𝑧 = 3𝑖𝑢 − 3𝑣 → 3
2 + 3
=> 2 + 3𝑖 𝑓 𝑧 = 2𝑢 − 3𝑣 + 𝑖 2𝑣 + 3𝑢
=> 𝐹 𝑧 = 𝑈 + 𝑖𝑉
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐹 𝑧 = 2 + 3𝑖 𝑓 𝑧 , 𝑈 = 2𝑢 − 3𝑣 & 𝑉 = 2𝑣 + 3𝑢
𝐺𝑛2𝑣 + 3𝑢 = 𝑉 = 𝑒 𝑥 (cos 𝑦 − sin 𝑦)
∴ 𝐹 ′ 𝑧 = 𝑈𝑥 + 𝑖𝑉𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑉 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑈𝑥 = 𝑉𝑦
∴ 𝐹 ′ 𝑧 = 𝑉𝑦 + 𝑖𝑉𝑥
𝑉𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − sin 𝑦
𝑉𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 (− sin 𝑦 − cos 𝑦)
38
𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑧 & 𝑦 = 0 𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑥 & 𝑉𝑦
∴ 𝑉𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧 1 − 0 = 𝑒 𝑧
& 𝑉𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑧 −0 − 1 = −𝑒 𝑧
=> 𝐹 ′ 𝑧 = −𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑖𝑒 𝑧
= 𝑒𝑧 𝑖 − 1
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡,

𝐹 𝑧 = 𝑖 − 1 𝑒 𝑧 𝑑𝑧

=> 𝐹 𝑧 = 𝑖 − 1 𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑐
=> 2 + 3𝑖 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑖 − 1 𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑐
−1 + 𝑖 𝑧
=> 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑒 +𝑐
2 + 3𝑖
−1 + 𝑖 2 − 3𝑖 𝑧
=> 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑒 +𝑐
4+9
𝟏 + 𝟓𝒊 𝒛
=> 𝒇 𝒛 = 𝒆 +𝒄 39
𝟏𝟑
Transformation or mapping:
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤 = 𝑓 𝑧 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎
𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑧 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑤 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒.

Conformal mapping:
𝐼𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑕 𝑧 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛
𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙.

Isogonal mapping:
𝐼𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠
𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔.

40
Transformation 𝒘 = 𝒂 + 𝒛 (Translation):

𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤 = 𝑎 + 𝑧
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑤 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣, 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 & 𝑎 = 𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑
∴ 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑 + 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
=> 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑐 + 𝑥 + 𝑖 𝑑 + 𝑦
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 & 𝑖𝑚𝑔 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠
𝑢 =𝑐+𝑥 &𝑣 =𝑑+𝑦
𝑖𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑃 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑧 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜
𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑄 𝑥 + 𝑐, 𝑦 + 𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑤 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒.
𝑇𝑕𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

41
Problem:
1. 𝑊𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑤 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜
𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑧 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑕𝑒
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 = 2 & 𝑦 = 0, 𝑦 = 1 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑑
𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤 = 𝑧 + 1 + 2𝑖 .
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤 = 𝑧 + 1 + 2𝑖
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑤 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 & 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
∴ 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 + 1 + 2𝑖
= 𝑥+1 +𝑖 𝑦+2
=> 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 1 , 𝑣 =𝑦+2
𝑊𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0 => 𝑢 = 1 , 𝑦 = 0 => 𝑣 = 2
𝑥 = 2 => 𝑢 = 3 , 𝑦 = 1 => 𝑣 = 3

42
 ∴ 𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 = 2 & 𝑦 = 0, 𝑦 = 1 𝑖𝑠
𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑢 = 1,
𝑢 = 3 & 𝑣 = 2, 𝑣 = 3.

43
 2. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑧 = 3 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑕𝑒
𝑚𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤 = 𝑧 + 1 + 𝑖
Solution:
𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤 = 𝑧 + 1 + 𝑖
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑤 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 , 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
∴ 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 + 1 + 𝑖
=> 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑥 + 1 + 𝑖 𝑦 + 1
∴ 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 1 → 1 , 𝑣 = 𝑦 + 1 → (2)
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑧 = 3 => 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 3
=> 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 9
𝑇𝑕𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑧 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕
𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 0,0 & 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 3.
=> 𝒖 − 𝟏 𝟐 + 𝒗 − 𝟏 𝟐 = 𝟗
𝑇𝑕𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑤 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕
𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 1,1 & 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 3. 44
45
Transformation 𝒘 = 𝒂𝒛 (magnification & rotation)
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤 = 𝑎𝑧 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎, 𝑧, 𝑤 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑛𝑜 ′ 𝑠
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑎 = 𝑏𝑒 𝑖𝛼 , 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , 𝑤 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜑
∴ 𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜑 = 𝑏𝑒 𝑖𝛼 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃
= 𝑏𝑟𝑒 𝑖 𝛼+𝜃
=> 𝑅 = 𝑏𝑟 & 𝜑 = 𝛼 + 𝜃
𝑇𝑕𝑢𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑝𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑃 𝑟, 𝜃 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑧 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑄 𝑏𝑟, 𝛼 + 𝜃 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒
𝑤 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒.
𝑇𝑕𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 & 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

46
Problems:
1. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑦 > 1 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒
𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤 = 1 − 𝑖 𝑧.
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤 = 1 − 𝑖 𝑧
=> 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 1 − 𝑖 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
= 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑖 −𝑥 + 𝑦
=> 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 → 1 𝑣 = −𝑥 + 𝑦 → 2
𝑢+𝑣
1 + 2 => 2𝑦 = 𝑢 + 𝑣 => 𝑦 =
2
𝑢+𝑣
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑦 > 1 => >1
2
=> 𝒖 + 𝒗 > 𝟐
∴ 𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑦 > 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒
𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢 + 𝑣 > 2.
47
48
 2. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟
𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤 = 5𝑧.

Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤 = 5𝑧
=> 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 5 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
= 5𝑥 + 𝑖5𝑦
=> 𝑢 = 5𝑥 → 1 , 𝑣 = 5𝑦 → (2)
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑧 = 𝑟 => 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2
𝑢 2 𝑣 2
=> + = 𝑟2
5 5
=> 𝒖𝟐 + 𝒗𝟐 = 𝟓𝒓 𝟐
∴ 𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 0,0 & 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟 𝑖𝑛
𝑧 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑎 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 0,0 &
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 5𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑤 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒.
49
50
 𝟏
Transformation 𝒘 = (Reflection):
𝒛
1 1
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤 = => 𝑧 =
𝑧 𝑤
1
=> 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 =
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
𝑢 − 𝑖𝑣
= 2
𝑢 + 𝑣2
𝑢 𝑣
=> 𝑥 = 2 2
,𝑦 = − 2
𝑢 +𝑣 𝑢 + 𝑣2

51
Problem:
1. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑧 + 1 = 1 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒
1
𝑚𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤 =
𝑧
Solution:
1 1
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤 = => 𝑧 =
𝑧 𝑤
1 𝑢 − 𝑖𝑣
=> 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = = 2
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 𝑢 + 𝑣2
𝑢 𝑣
=> 𝑥 = 2 2
,𝑦 = − 2
𝑢 +𝑣 𝑢 + 𝑣2

𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑧 + 1 = 1
=> 𝑥 + 1 + 𝑖𝑦 = 1
=> 𝑥 + 1 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1
=> 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 + 𝑦 2 = 1
=> 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 = 0 52
𝑆𝑢𝑏 𝑥 & 𝑦 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡
𝑢 2 𝑣 2 𝑢
=> + 2 +2 2 =0
𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 𝑢 +𝑣 2 𝑢 +𝑣 2
𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 2𝑢
=> 2 2 2
+ 2 2
=0
𝑢 +𝑣 𝑢 +𝑣
1 2𝑢
=> 2 2
+ 2 2
=0
𝑢 +𝑣 𝑢 +𝑣
1 + 2𝑢
=> 2 2
=0
𝑢 +𝑣
𝟏
=> 1 + 2𝑢 = 0 => 𝒖 = −
𝟐
∴ 𝑇𝑕𝑢𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑧 + 1 = 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑
1
𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑢 = − .
2

53
54
 2. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑕𝑎𝑙𝑓 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑥 > 𝑐
1
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑐 > 0 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤 = .
𝑧
𝑆𝑕𝑜𝑤 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑕𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦.
Solution:
1 1
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤 = => 𝑧 =
𝑧 𝑤
1 𝑢 − 𝑖𝑣
=> 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = = 2
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 𝑢 + 𝑣2
𝑢 𝑣
=> 𝑥 = 2 2
,𝑦 = − 2
𝑢 +𝑣 𝑢 + 𝑣2
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑥 > 𝑐
𝑢
=> 2 2
>𝑐
𝑢 +𝑣
2 2
𝑢
=> 𝑢 + 𝑣 <
𝑐
2 2
𝑢
=> 𝑢 + 𝑣 − < 0
𝑐 55
 2 2
𝑢 1 1
=> 𝑢2 − + − + 𝑣2 < 0
𝑐 2𝑐 2𝑐
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
=> 𝒖− + 𝒗𝟐 <
𝟐𝒄 𝟐𝒄
𝑇𝑕𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒
2 2
1 2
1
𝑢− +𝑣 =
2𝑐 2𝑐
1 1
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 , 0 & 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 .
2𝑐 2𝑐
∴ 𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥 > 𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒
2 2
1 2
1
𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑢 − +𝑣 =
2𝑐 2𝑐

56
57
 1
3. 𝑈𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤 = ,
𝑧
𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑤 − 𝑝𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝
1 1
𝑅 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ .
4 2
Solution:
1 1
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤 = => 𝑧 =
𝑧 𝑤
1 𝑢 − 𝑖𝑣
=> 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = = 2
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 𝑢 + 𝑣2
𝑢 𝑣
=> 𝑥 = 2 2
,𝑦 = − 2
𝑢 +𝑣 𝑢 + 𝑣2
1 1 1 1
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ => ≤ 𝑦 & 𝑦 ≤
4 2 4 2
1 1 𝑣
𝐼𝑓 ≤ 𝑦 => ≤ − 2
4 4 𝑢 + 𝑣2
=> 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 ≤ −4𝑣 58
=> 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + 4𝑣 ≤ 0
 => 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + 4𝑣 + 4 − 4 ≤ 0
=> 𝒖𝟐 + 𝒗 + 𝟐 𝟐 ≤ 𝟒
𝑇𝑕𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 0, −2 & 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 2.
1 𝑣 1
𝐼𝑓 𝑦 ≤ => − 2 2
≤
2 𝑢 +𝑣 2
=> −2𝑣 ≤ 𝑢 + 𝑣 2
2

=> 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + 2𝑣 ≥ 0
=> 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + 2𝑣 + 1 − 1 ≥ 0
=> 𝒖𝟐 + 𝒗 + 𝟏 𝟐 ≥ 𝟏
𝑇𝑕𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 0, −1 & 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 1.
1 1
∴ 𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒
4 2
𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑢2 + 𝑣 + 1 2 = 1 & 𝑢2 + 𝑣 + 2 2 = 4.

59
60
 𝑧
4. 𝑃𝑇 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤 =
1−𝑧

𝑚𝑎𝑝𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑕𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑧 −

𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑕𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑜𝑓
𝑤 − 𝑝𝑙. 𝑊𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑧 = 1 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟
𝑡𝑕𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛?
Solution:
𝑧
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤 = => 1 − 𝑧 𝑤 = 𝑧
1−𝑧
𝑤
=> 𝑧 =
𝑤+1
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
=> 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 =
𝑢 + 1 + 𝑖𝑣
𝑢 𝑢 + 1 + 𝑣 2 + 𝑖 𝑢𝑣 + 𝑣 − 𝑢𝑣
=> 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 =
𝑢 + 1 2 + 𝑣2
𝑢 𝑢 + 1 + 𝑣2 𝑣 61
=> 𝑥 = 2 2
,𝑦 =
𝑢+1 +𝑣 𝑢 + 1 2 + 𝑣2
 𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑕𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑜𝑓 𝑧 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
=> 𝑦 > 0
𝑣
=> 2 2 >0
𝑢+1 +𝑣
=> 𝒗 > 𝟎
𝑇𝑕𝑢𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑕𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑜𝑓 𝑧 − 𝑝𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑑
𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑕𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑜𝑓 𝑤 − 𝑝𝑙.

62
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑧 = 1
𝑤
=> =1
𝑤+1
=> 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑢 + 1 + 𝑖𝑣
=> 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 = 𝑢 + 1 2 + 𝑣 2
=> 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑢 + 1 + 𝑣 2
𝟏
=> 2𝑢 + 1 = 0 => 𝒖 = −
𝟐
𝑇𝑕𝑢𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑧 = 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜
1
𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑢 = −
2

63
Transformation 𝒘 = 𝒛𝟐 :
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑤 = 𝑧 2
=> 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦
=> 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 & 𝑣 = 2𝑥𝑦

Problems:
1. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 (𝑖)𝑦 = 𝑏 &
(𝑖𝑖)𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤 = 𝑧 2 .
Solution:

𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤 = 𝑧 2
=> 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦
=> 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 → (1) & 𝑣 = 2𝑥𝑦 → (2)
𝑖 𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑏
1 => 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑏 2 → 3
𝑣 64
2 => 𝑣 = 2𝑥𝑏 => 𝑥 = → 4
2𝑏
𝑠𝑢𝑏 4 𝑖𝑛 3 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡
𝑣 2
=> 𝑢 = − 𝑏2
2𝑏
=> 𝟒𝒃𝟐 𝒖 + 𝒃𝟐 = 𝒗𝟐
𝑇𝑕𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑎 𝑤𝑕𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑥 𝑖𝑠
−𝑏 2 , 0 & 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡.

65
 𝑖𝑖 𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑎
1 => 𝑢 = 𝑎2 − 𝑦 2 → 3
𝑣
2 => 𝑣 = 2𝑎𝑦 => 𝑦 = → 4
2𝑎
𝑠𝑢𝑏 4 𝑖𝑛 3 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡
𝑣 2
=> 𝑢 = 𝑎2 −
2𝑎
=> 4𝑎2 𝑢 − 𝑎2 = −𝑣 2
=> 𝒗𝟐 = −𝟒𝒂𝟐 𝒖 − 𝒂𝟐
𝑇𝑕𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑎 𝑤𝑕𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑥 𝑖𝑠
𝑎2 , 0 & 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡.

66
 2. 𝑆𝑕𝑜𝑤 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑧 − 1 = 1 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤 = 𝑧 2
𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑅 = 2 1 + cos 𝜑 .
Solution:
2 𝑖𝜑 𝑖𝜃 2
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤 = 𝑧 => 𝑅𝑒 = 𝑟𝑒
=> 𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜑 = 𝑟 2 𝑒 𝑖2𝜃
=> 𝑅 = 𝑟 2 , 𝜑 = 2𝜃
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑧 − 1 = 1
=> 𝑥 − 1 + 𝑖𝑦 = 1
=> 𝑥 − 1 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1
=> 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 + 𝑦 2 = 1
=> 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 = 0
=> 𝑟 2 − 2𝑟 cos 𝜃 = 0
=> 𝑟 = 2 cos 𝜃
𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 => 𝑟 2 = 4 cos 2 𝜃
67
=> 𝑅 = 2 1 + cos 2𝜃
=> 𝑹 = 𝟐 𝟏 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋
 3. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑤 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒
𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑧 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 1 & 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤 = 𝑧 2 .
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤 = 𝑧 2
=> 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦
=> 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 → (1) & 𝑣 = 2𝑥𝑦 → (2)
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 1 & 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑚 1 𝑤𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡, 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑥 = 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑎 𝑣 2 = −4 𝑢 − 1
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑦 = 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒
𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑎 𝑣 2 = 4 𝑢 + 1

68
𝑇𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1 → 3
3 => 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥
1 => 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 − 1 − 𝑥 2
= 𝑥 2 − 1 − 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥
=> 𝑢 = 2𝑥 − 1 → 4
2 => 𝑣 = 2𝑥 1 − 𝑥 → 5
𝐸𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑥 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 4 & (5)
𝑢+1
𝑣 = 𝑢+1 1−
2
1−𝑢
𝑣 = 𝑢+1
2
2𝑣 = 1 − 𝑢2
𝑢2 = − 2𝑣 − 1
𝟐
𝟏
𝒖 = −𝟐 𝒗 −
𝟐 69
1
𝑇𝑕𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑎 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑥 0, & 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠.
2
70
Transformation 𝒘 = 𝒆𝒛 :
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑤 = 𝑒 𝑧
=> 𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜑 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑖𝑦
= 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑖𝑦
=> 𝑅 = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝜑 = 𝑦

Problem:
1. 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦
0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝜋 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤 = 𝑒 𝑧 .
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤 = 𝑒 𝑧
=> 𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜑 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑖𝑦
= 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑖𝑦
=> 𝑅 = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝜑 = 𝑦

71
 𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝜋
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑒, 𝑥 = 0 𝑖𝑠
𝑅 = 𝑒 0 = 1 => 𝑅 = 1
=> 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 = 1
=> 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝒘 = 𝟏.
𝐴𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑦 = 0 & 𝑦 = 𝜋 𝑖𝑠
𝜑 =𝑦 =0&𝜑 =𝑦 =𝜋
=> 𝜑 = 0 & 𝜑 = 𝜋
∴ 𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝜋 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒
𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑕𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑤 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒.
∴ 𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑦 = 0 & 𝑦 = 𝜋 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝒔𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝒘 = 𝟏 & 𝒗 ≥ 𝟎.

72
73
 2. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝
0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝜋 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤 = 𝑒 𝑧 .
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤 = 𝑒 𝑧
=> 𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜑 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑖𝑦
= 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑖𝑦
=> 𝑅 = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝜑 = 𝑦
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝜋
𝑖𝑒, 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥 ≤ 0 & 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝜋

𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 0 𝑖𝑠
𝑅 ≤ 𝑒 0 = 1 => 𝑅 ≤ 1
=> 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 ≤ 1
=> 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑤 ≤ 1
𝑖𝑒 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝒘 = 𝟏
74
 𝐴𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑦 = 0 & 𝑦 = 𝜋 𝑖𝑠
𝜑 =𝑦 =0 &𝜑 =𝑦 =𝜋
=> 𝜑 = 0 & 𝜑 = 𝜋
∴ 𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝜋 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒
𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑕𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑤 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒.
∴ 𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑕𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝜋
𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒇 𝒐𝒇 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝒘 = 𝟏.

75
Bilinear transformation:
𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤 = 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑
𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎 𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑤1 , 𝑤2 , 𝑤3 𝑏𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑤 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 &

𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 𝑏𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑧 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒.

𝑈𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑖𝑠

𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑡.
𝑤 − 𝑤1 𝑤2 − 𝑤3 𝑧 − 𝑧1 𝑧2 − 𝑧3
∴ =
𝑤 − 𝑤3 𝑤2 − 𝑤1 𝑧 − 𝑧3 𝑧2 − 𝑧1

76
Problem:
1. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝐵. 𝑇 𝑤𝑕𝑖𝑐𝑕 𝑚𝑎𝑝𝑠 𝑧1 = ∞, 𝑧2 = 𝑖 &
𝑧3 = 0 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑤1 = 0, 𝑤2 = 𝑖 & 𝑤3 = ∞.
Solution:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒
𝑤 − 𝑤1 𝑤2 − 𝑤3 𝑧 − 𝑧1 𝑧2 − 𝑧3
=
𝑤 − 𝑤3 𝑤2 − 𝑤1 𝑧 − 𝑧3 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑧1 = ∞, 𝑧2 = 𝑖 & 𝑧3 = 0 &
𝑤1 = 0, 𝑤2 = 𝑖 & 𝑤3 = ∞
𝑤2 𝑧
𝑤 − 𝑤1 𝑤3 −1 𝑧1 𝑧 − 1 𝑧2 − 𝑧3
𝑤3 1
∴ =
𝑤 𝑧2
𝑤3 − 1 𝑤2 − 𝑤1 𝑧 − 𝑧3 𝑧1 −1
𝑤3 𝑧1
𝑖 𝑧
𝑤−0 −1 −1 𝑖−0
=> 𝑤 ∞ = ∞
−1 𝑖−0 𝑖
∞ 𝑧−0 −1 77
∞
 𝑤 0−1 0−1 𝑖
=> =
0−1 𝑖 𝑧 0−1
−𝑤 −𝑖
=> =
−𝑖 −𝑧
𝑖2 𝟏
=> 𝑤 = => 𝒘 = −
𝑧 𝒛

2. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝐵𝑇 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑝𝑠 − 1,0,1 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜 − 1, −𝑖, 1

Solution:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒
𝑤 − 𝑤1 𝑤2 − 𝑤3 𝑧 − 𝑧1 𝑧2 − 𝑧3
=
𝑤 − 𝑤3 𝑤2 − 𝑤1 𝑧 − 𝑧3 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑧1 = −1, 𝑧2 = 0 & 𝑧3 = 1 &
𝑤1 = −1, 𝑤2 = −𝑖 & 𝑤3 = 1
𝑤 + 1 −𝑖 − 1 𝑧+1 0−1
=> =
𝑤 − 1 −𝑖 + 1 𝑧−1 0+1 78
 𝑤 + 1 −1 − 𝑖 1 + 𝑖 𝑧+1
=> =−
𝑤−1 1−𝑖 1+𝑖 𝑧−1
𝑤 + 1 −1 − 𝑖 − 𝑖 + 1 𝑧+1
=> =−
𝑤−1 1+1 𝑧−1
𝑤 + 1 −2𝑖 𝑧+1
=> =−
𝑤−1 2 𝑧−1
=> 𝑖 𝑤 + 1 𝑧 − 1 = 𝑤 − 1 𝑧 + 1
=> 𝑖 𝑤𝑧 + 𝑧 − 𝑤 − 1 = 𝑤𝑧 − 𝑧 + 𝑤 − 1
=> 𝑖𝑤𝑧 − 𝑖𝑤 − 𝑤𝑧 − 𝑤 = −𝑧 − 1 − 𝑖𝑧 + 𝑖
=> 𝑤𝑖 𝑧 − 1 − 𝑤 𝑧 + 1 = − 𝑧 + 1 − 𝑖 𝑧 − 1
=> 𝑤 − 𝑧 + 1 + 𝑖 𝑧 − 1 = − 𝑧 + 1 − 𝑖 𝑧 − 1
− 𝑧+1 −𝑖 𝑧−1
=> 𝑤 =
− 𝑧+1 +𝑖 𝑧−1
𝑧+1 +𝑖 𝑧−1
=> 𝑤 =
𝑧+1 −𝑖 𝑧−1
79
𝒛 𝟏+𝒊 + 𝟏−𝒊
=> 𝒘 =
𝒛 𝟏−𝒊 + 𝟏+𝒊
 3. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝐵𝑇 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑝𝑠 1 + 𝑖, −𝑖, 2 − 𝑖 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒
𝑧 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 0,1, 𝑖 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑤 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒.
Solution:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒
𝑤 − 𝑤1 𝑤2 − 𝑤3 𝑧 − 𝑧1 𝑧2 − 𝑧3
=
𝑤 − 𝑤3 𝑤2 − 𝑤1 𝑧 − 𝑧3 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑧1 = 1 + 𝑖, 𝑧2 = −𝑖 & 𝑧3 = 2 − 𝑖 &
𝑤1 = 0, 𝑤2 = 1 & 𝑤3 = 𝑖
𝑤−0 1−𝑖 𝑧 − 1 − 𝑖 −𝑖 − 2 + 𝑖
=> =
𝑤−𝑖 1−0 𝑧 − 2 + 𝑖 −𝑖 − 1 − 𝑖
𝑤 1−𝑖 𝑧 − 1 − 𝑖 −2
=> =
𝑤−𝑖 𝑧 − 2 + 𝑖 −1 − 2𝑖
𝑤 𝑧 − 1 − 𝑖 −2
=> =
𝑤−𝑖 𝑧 − 2 + 𝑖 −1 − 2𝑖 1 − 𝑖
𝑤−𝑖 𝑧 − 2 + 𝑖 −1 − 2𝑖 1 − 𝑖
=> =
𝑤 𝑧 − 1 − 𝑖 −2 80
 𝑤 𝑖 𝑧 − 2 + 𝑖 −1 − 2𝑖 + 𝑖 − 2
=> − =
𝑤 𝑤 𝑧 − 1 − 𝑖 −2
𝑖 𝑧 − 2 + 𝑖 −3 − 𝑖
=> 1 − =
𝑤 𝑧 − 1 − 𝑖 −2
𝑖 𝑧−2+𝑖 3+𝑖
=> = 1 −
𝑤 𝑧−1−𝑖 2
𝑖 3 + 𝑖 𝑧 + −2 + 𝑖 3 + 𝑖
=> = 1 −
𝑤 2𝑧 − 2 1 + 𝑖
𝑖 3 + 𝑖 𝑧 + −7 + 𝑖
=> = 1 −
𝑤 2𝑧 − 2 1 + 𝑖
𝑖 2𝑧 − 2 1 + 𝑖 − 3 + 𝑖 𝑧 − −7 + 𝑖
=> =
𝑤 2𝑧 − 2 1 + 𝑖
𝑖 − 1 + 𝑖 𝑧 + 5 − 3𝑖
=> =
𝑤 2𝑧 − 2 1 + 𝑖
81
 𝑤 2𝑧 − 2 1 + 𝑖
=> =
𝑖 − 1 + 𝑖 𝑧 + 5 − 3𝑖
2𝑧 − 2 1 + 𝑖
=> 𝑤 =
−𝑖 − 1 + 𝑖 𝑧 + 5 − 3𝑖
𝟐𝒛 − 𝟐 𝟏 + 𝒊
=> 𝒘 =
𝒊 − 𝟏 𝒛 − 𝟑 − 𝟓𝒊

4. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝐵𝑇 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑝𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 1, 𝑖, −1 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜

𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 0,1, ∞. 𝑆𝑇 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑝𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑕𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑤 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒.
Solution:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒
𝑤 − 𝑤1 𝑤2 − 𝑤3 𝑧 − 𝑧1 𝑧2 − 𝑧3
=
𝑤 − 𝑤3 𝑤2 − 𝑤1 𝑧 − 𝑧3 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑧1 = 1, 𝑧2 = 𝑖 & 𝑧3 = −1 &
𝑤1 = 0, 𝑤2 = 1 & 𝑤3 = ∞
82
 𝑤2
𝑤 − 𝑤1 𝑤3 −1 𝑧 − 𝑧1 𝑧2 − 𝑧3
𝑤3
∴ =
𝑤 𝑧 − 𝑧3 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
𝑤3 −1 𝑤2 − 𝑤1
𝑤3
1
𝑤−0 −1 𝑧−1 𝑖+1
=> 𝑤 ∞ =
−1 1−0 𝑧+1 𝑖−1
∞
𝑤 −1 𝑧−1 𝑖+1 𝑖+1
=> =
−1 𝑧+1 𝑖−1 𝑖+1
𝑧 − 1 −1 + 𝑖 + 𝑖 + 1
=> 𝑤 =
𝑧 + 1 −1 − 1
𝑧 − 1 2𝑖
=> 𝑤 =
𝑧 + 1 −2
𝒛−𝟏
=> 𝒘 = −𝒊 → (1)
𝒛+𝟏

83
𝑻𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒛 < 𝟏:
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 1 => 𝑧 + 1 𝑤 = −𝑖𝑧 + 𝑖
=> 𝑧𝑤 + 𝑤 = −𝑖𝑧 + 𝑖
=> 𝑧𝑤 + 𝑖𝑧 = −𝑤 + 𝑖
−𝑤 + 𝑖
=> 𝑧 =
𝑤+𝑖
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑧 < 1
−𝑤 + 𝑖
=> <1
𝑤+𝑖
−𝑢 − 𝑖𝑣 + 𝑖 < 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 + 𝑖
−𝑢 + 𝑖 −𝑣 + 1 < 𝑢 + 𝑖 𝑣 + 1
𝑢2 + −𝑣 + 1 2 < 𝑢2 + 𝑣 + 1 2
𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + 1 − 2𝑣 < 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + 1 + 2𝑣
−2𝑣 < 2𝑣
0 < 4𝑣
𝒗>𝟎 84
𝑖𝑒 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒇 𝒐𝒇 𝒘 − 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆.
Fixed point (or) invariant point:
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏 𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏
𝑤= 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑧 =
𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑

Critical point:
𝐴 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑕𝑖𝑐𝑕 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡.

85
Problem:
2𝑧 − 5
1. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤 =
𝑧+4
Solution:
2𝑧 − 5
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤 = 𝑖𝑠
𝑧+4
2𝑧 − 5
𝑧=
𝑧+4
=> 𝑧 𝑧 + 4 = 2𝑧 − 5
=> 𝑧 2 + 2𝑧 + 5 = 0
−2 ± 4 − 20
=> 𝑧 =
2
−2 ± 4𝑖
=> 𝑧 =
2
=> 𝒛 = −𝟏 ± 𝟐𝒊

86
 2. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
2𝑧+4𝑖
𝑤=− .
𝑖𝑧+1
Solution:
2𝑧 + 4𝑖
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤 = − 𝑖𝑠
𝑖𝑧 + 1
2𝑧 + 4𝑖
𝑧=−
𝑖𝑧 + 1
=> 𝑧 𝑖𝑧 + 1 = −2𝑧 − 4𝑖
=> 𝑖𝑧 2 + 𝑧 + 2𝑧 + 4𝑖 = 0
=> 𝑧 2 − 3𝑖𝑧 + 4 = 0 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑦 𝑖
3𝑖 ± −9 − 16
=> 𝑧 =
2
3𝑖 ± 5𝑖
=> 𝑧 =
2
3𝑖 + 5𝑖 3𝑖 − 5𝑖
=> 𝑧 = , 87
2 2
=> 𝒛 = 𝟒𝒊, −𝒊
 3. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤 = 𝑧 4 .
Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤 = 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 4
=> 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 4𝑧 3
𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 0
=> 4𝑧 3 = 0
=> 𝑧 = 0
=> 𝒛 = 𝟎 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕.

4. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤 = 𝑧 2 .

Solution:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤 = 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2
=> 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 2𝑧
𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 0
=> 2𝑧 = 0
=> 𝑧 = 0 88
=> 𝒛 = 𝟎 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕.
 1

UNIT V: COMPLEX
INTEGRATION

BY
Ms M.RAMYA
Assistant Professor
Department of Applied Mathematics
Sri Venkateswara college of engineering
Chennai
 2

Introduction to complex integration:

Contour Integrals (complex line integral):
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓 𝑏𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑕 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝐶
𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑧 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑖𝑦 𝑡 , 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒐𝒖𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐶 𝑖𝑠
𝑛

𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = lim 𝑓 ∈𝑘 ∆𝑧𝑘 ,
𝑛→∞
𝐶 𝑘=1
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 ∈𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑧𝑘−1 𝑧𝑘 .
Evaluation of complex integrals:
Generally, a complex integral is expressed in terms of two real
integrals and evaluated.
If 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 where 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 => 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦

𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = (𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣)(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)
𝐶 𝐶
 3

𝒇 𝒛 𝒅𝒛 = 𝒖𝒅𝒙 − 𝒗𝒅𝒚 + 𝒊 (𝒖𝒅𝒚 + 𝒗𝒅𝒙)

𝑪 𝑪 𝑪
Simply connected Regions:
A region R is called simply connected, if any simple closed
curve in R can be shrunk to a point.

Multiply connected Regions:

A region R which is not simply connected is called multiply
connected.
 4

Statement and application of Cauchy’s integral

theorem & integral formula:
Cauchy Integral Theorem:
𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 & 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 & 𝑜𝑛
𝑎 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝐶, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝐶 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 0.
Problems:
3𝑧 2 +7𝑧−1
1. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐶
𝑑𝑧 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
𝑧−2
𝑧 =1
Solution:
Given 𝑧 = 1 => 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1
This is a circle with center 0,0 & radius 1
Here 𝑓 𝑧 = 3𝑧 2 + 7𝑧 − 1
Equating denominator to zero,
=> 𝑧 − 2 = 0 => 𝑧 = 2
 5

This point lies outside the circle 𝑧 = 1

∴ The function is analytic inside the circle
∴ By Cauchy Integral Theorem,
3𝑧 2 + 7𝑧 − 1
𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝐶 𝑧−2
2𝑧 + 5 1
2. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑑𝑧 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶 𝑖𝑠 𝑧 =
(𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 2) 2
𝐶
Solution:
1 2 2
1
Given 𝑧 = => 𝑥 + 𝑦 =
2 4
1
This is a circle with center 0,0 & radius
2
Here 𝑓 𝑧 = 2𝑧 + 5
 6
Equating denominator to zero,
=> 𝑧 − 1 = 0, 𝑧 − 2 = 0
=> 𝑧 = 1, 𝑧 = 2
1
Both the points lies outside the circle 𝑧 =
2
∴ The function is analytic inside the circle
∴ By Cauchy Integral Theorem,
2𝑧 + 5
𝑑𝑧 = 0
(𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 2)
𝐶
4𝑧 2 −6𝑧+1
3. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐶
𝑑𝑧 , 𝐶: 𝑧 − 1 = 2
𝑧−4
Solution:
Given 𝑧 − 1 = 2 => (𝑥 − 1)2 +𝑦 2 = 4
This is a circle with center 1,0 & radius 2
Here 𝑓 𝑧 = 4𝑧 2 − 6𝑧 + 1
 7

Equating denominator to zero,

=> 𝑧 − 4 = 0 => 𝑧 = 4
This point lies outside the circle 𝑧 − 1 = 2
∴ The function is analytic inside the circle
∴ By Cauchy Integral Theorem,
4𝑧 2 − 6𝑧 + 1
𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝑧−4
𝐶

Cauchy integral formula:

𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 & 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝐶 &
′𝑎′ 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛
1 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧 − 𝑎
𝐶
 8
Problems:
𝑧 2 +2
1. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐶 𝑧−2
𝑑𝑧, 𝐶:𝑧 = 3 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝐼𝐹
Solution:
Given 𝑧 = 3 => 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 9
This is a circle with center 0,0 & radius 3
Equating denominator to zero,
=> 𝑧 − 2 = 0 => 𝑧 = 2
This point lies inside the circle |𝑧| = 3
∴ By Cauchy Integral Formula,
1 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧 − 𝑎
𝐶
Here 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2 + 2and 𝑎 = 2
∴𝑓 𝑎 =𝑓 2 =4+2=6
 9

𝑧2 + 2
∴ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 2
𝑧−2
𝐶
= 2𝜋𝑖 6 = 12𝜋𝑖
𝒛𝟐 + 𝟐
∴ 𝒅𝒛 = 𝟏𝟐𝝅𝒊
𝒛−𝟐
𝑪
𝑧+1
2. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐶 𝑧 2 +2𝑧+4
𝑑𝑧, 𝐶: 𝑧+1+𝑖 =2
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝐼𝐹
Solution:
Given 𝑧 + 1 + 𝑖 = 2
=> (𝑥 + 1)2 +(𝑦 + 1)2 = 4
This is a circle with center −1, −1 & radius 2
Equating denominator to zero,
=> 𝑧 2 + 2𝑧 + 4 = 0
 10

−2 ± 4 − 16
=> 𝑧 =
2
−2±2 3𝑖
=> 𝑧 = = −1 ± 3𝑖
2
Here 𝑧 = −1 + 3𝑖 lies outside 𝑧 + 1 + 𝑖 = 2
& 𝑧 = −1 − 3𝑖 lies inside 𝑧 + 1 + 𝑖 = 2
∴ By Cauchy Integral Formula,
1 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧 − 𝑎
𝐶
𝑧+1 𝑧+1
∴ 2
𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑧
𝑧 + 2𝑧 + 4 𝑧 − −1 + 𝑖 3 𝑧 − −1 − 𝑖 3
𝐶 𝐶
𝑧+1
Here 𝑓 𝑧 = and 𝑎 = −1 − 3𝑖
𝑧 − −1 + 𝑖 3
 11

∴ 𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑓 −1 − 3𝑖
−1 − 3𝑖 + 1
=
−1 − 3𝑖 − −1 + 𝑖 3
− 3𝑖
=
−1 − 3𝑖 + 1 − 3𝑖
− 3𝑖 1
= =
−2 3𝑖 2
𝑧+1
∴ 2
𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 −1 − 3𝑖
𝑧 + 2𝑧 + 4
𝐶
1
= 2𝜋𝑖 = 𝜋𝑖
2
𝒛+𝟏
∴ 𝟐
𝒅𝒛 = 𝝅𝒊
𝒛 + 𝟐𝒛 + 𝟒
𝑪
 12
cos 𝜋𝑧 2 +sin 𝜋𝑧 2
3. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐶
𝑑𝑧, 𝐶: 𝑧 =3
𝑧−1 𝑧−2
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝐼𝐹
Solution:
Given 𝑧 = 3 => 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 9
This is a circle with center 0,0 & radius 3
Equating denominator to zero,
=> 𝑧 − 1 = 0, 𝑧 − 2 = 0
=> 𝑧 = 1, 𝑧 = 2
Both the points lies outside the circle 𝑧 = 3
∴ By Cauchy Integral Formula,
1 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧 − 𝑎
𝐶
1 𝐴 𝐵
Consider = +
𝑧−1 𝑧−2 𝑧−1 𝑧−2
1 = 𝐴 𝑧 − 2 + 𝐵 𝑧 − 1 → (1)
sub 𝑧 = 1 in 1 => 1 = 𝐴 −1 + 0
 13

=> 𝐴 = −1
sub 𝑧 = 2 in 1 => 1 = 0 + 𝐵(1) => 𝐵 = 1
1 −1 1
∴ = +
𝑧−1 𝑧−2 𝑧−1 𝑧−2
cos 𝜋𝑧 2 + sin 𝜋𝑧 2
Now, 𝑑𝑧
𝑧−1 𝑧−2
𝐶
cos 𝜋𝑧 2 + sin 𝜋𝑧 2 cos 𝜋𝑧 2 + sin 𝜋𝑧 2
=− 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑑𝑧
𝑧−1 𝑧−2
𝐶 𝐶
= −𝐼1 + 𝐼2
cos 𝜋𝑧 2 +sin 𝜋𝑧 2
Consider 𝐼1 = 𝐶
𝑑𝑧
𝑧−1
Here 𝑓 𝑧 = (cos 𝜋𝑧 2 + sin 𝜋𝑧 2 )
and 𝑎 = 1
∴ 𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑓 1 = cos 𝜋 + sin 𝜋 = −1 + 0 = −1
cos 𝜋𝑧 2 + sin 𝜋𝑧 2
∴ 𝐼1 = 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 1
𝑧−1
𝐶
 14

𝐼1 = −2𝜋𝑖
cos 𝜋𝑧 2 +sin 𝜋𝑧 2
Consider 𝐼2 = 𝐶
𝑑𝑧
𝑧−2
Here 𝑓 𝑧 = (cos 𝜋𝑧 + sin 𝜋𝑧 2 ) and 𝑎 = 2
2

∴ 𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑓 2 = cos 4𝜋 + sin 4𝜋 = 1 + 0 = 1
cos 𝜋𝑧 2 + sin 𝜋𝑧 2
∴ 𝐼2 = 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 2 = 2𝜋𝑖
𝑧−2
𝐶
cos 𝜋𝑧 2 + sin 𝜋𝑧 2
𝑑𝑧 = −𝐼1 + 𝐼2
𝑧−1 𝑧−2
𝐶
= − −2𝜋𝑖 + 2𝜋𝑖 = 4𝜋𝑖
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝅𝒛𝟐 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝅𝒛𝟐
∴ 𝒅𝒛 = 𝟒𝝅𝒊
𝒛−𝟏 𝒛−𝟐
𝑪
 15
Taylor Series:
𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐶, 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕 𝑖𝑡 ′ 𝑠 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑎
𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 ′𝑎′ & 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑅, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑕 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐶,
(𝑧−𝑎) ′ (𝑧−𝑎)2 ′′
𝑓 𝑧 =𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑎 +⋯
1! 2!
Note:
Suppose if the region is given as 𝑧 < 𝑎, then change it as
𝑧
< 1, since for less than 1 the series converges fast.
𝑎
We will use the following formula:
1. 1 + 𝑧 −1 = 1 − 𝑧 + 𝑧 2 − 𝑧 3 + ⋯
2. 1 − 𝑧 −1 = 1 + 𝑧 + 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 3 + ⋯
 16

Problems:
𝜋
1. 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 𝑧 = sin 𝑧 , 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑟 ′ 𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 =
4
Solution:
𝜋
Given 𝑓 𝑧 = sin 𝑧 & 𝑧 =
4
𝜋 𝜋 1
consider, 𝑓 𝑧 = sin 𝑧 => 𝑓 = sin =
4 4 2
′ ′
𝜋 𝜋 1
𝑓 𝑧 = cos 𝑧 => 𝑓 = cos =
4 4 2
′′ ′′
𝜋 𝜋 1
𝑓 𝑧 = − sin 𝑧 => 𝑓 = − sin = −
4 4 2
′′′ ′′′
𝜋 𝜋 1
𝑓 𝑧 = − cos 𝑧 => 𝑓 = − cos = −
4 4 2
Taylor Series is given by
(𝑧−𝑎) ′ (𝑧−𝑎)2 ′′
𝑓 𝑧 =𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑎 +⋯
1! 2!
 17

𝜋 2
1 𝜋 1 𝑧− 1
𝑓 𝑧 = sin 𝑧 = + 𝑧− + 4 −
2 4 2 2! 2
𝜋 3
𝑧− 1
+ 4 − +⋯
3! 2
2. 𝑂𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑇𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑟 ′ 𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒
1
𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑧 < 2.
𝑧+2 𝑧+3
Solution:
1
Let 𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑧+2 𝑧+3
1 𝐴 𝐵
consider = +
𝑧+2 𝑧+3 𝑧+2 𝑧+3
=> 1 = 𝐴 𝑧 + 3 + 𝐵 𝑧 + 2 → (1)
sub 𝑧 = −2 in 1 => 1 = 𝐴 1 + 0
𝐴=1
 18
sub 𝑧 = −3 in 1 => 1 = 0 + 𝐵 −1
𝐵 = −1
1 1 1
∴ = −
𝑧+2 𝑧+3 𝑧+2 𝑧+3
|𝑧|
Given 𝑧 < 2 => <1
2
(Always change the condition as <1 )
|𝑧| |𝑧|
If < 1, then <1
2 3
1 1
∴𝑓 𝑧 = −
𝑧+2 𝑧+3
1 1 1 1
= 𝑧 −
2 1+ 3 1+𝑧
2 3
1 𝑧 −1 1 𝑧 −1
= 1+ − 1+
2 2 3 3
1 𝑧 𝑧2 1 𝑧 𝑧2
= 1− + −⋯ − 1− + −⋯
2 2 4 3 3 9
 19
∞ ∞
𝟏 𝒛 𝒏 𝟏 𝒛 𝒏
∴𝒇 𝒛 = (−𝟏)𝒏 − (−𝟏)𝒏
𝟐 𝟐 𝟑 𝟑
𝒏=𝟎 𝒏=𝟎
Laurent’s Series:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐶1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶2 𝑏𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝑅1 &|𝑧 − 𝑎| = 𝑅2 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑅2 < 𝑅1 .
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓 𝑧 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑜𝑛 𝐶1 &𝐶2 & 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟
𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑚. 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑧 𝑖𝑛 𝑅,
∞ ∞

𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)−𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑛=1
1 𝑓 𝑧
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛+1
𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶1 𝑧−𝑎
1 𝑓 𝑧
& 𝑏𝑛 = 1−𝑛
𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶2 𝑧−𝑎
 20

Note:

𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 ∞ 𝑎
𝑛=0 𝑛 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑛 , 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙

𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑎𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠

∞ −𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 , 𝑤𝑕𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 𝑧 − 𝑎
𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓
𝐿𝑎𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠.

Problems:
1. 𝑂𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 ′ 𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓
1
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 𝑧 < 1, 𝑖𝑖 1 < 𝑧 < 3, 𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑧 > 3
𝑧+1 𝑧+3
Solution:
1 𝐴 𝐵
Let 𝑓 𝑧 = = +
𝑧+1 𝑧+3 𝑧+1 𝑧+3
=> 1 = 𝐴 𝑧 + 3 + 𝐵 𝑧 + 1 → (1)
sub 𝑧 = −1 in 1 => 1 = 𝐴 2 + 0
 21

1
𝐴=
2
sub 𝑧 = −3 in 1 => 1 = 0 + 𝐵 −2
1
𝐵=−
2
1 1
∴𝑓 𝑧 = 2 − 2 → (2)
𝑧+1 𝑧+3
𝑧 𝑧
𝑖 𝑧 < 1 => < 1 𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 <1
1 3
1 1 1 1 1
∴ 2 => 𝑓 𝑧 = − .
2 1+𝑧 2 3 1+𝑧
3
1 1 𝑧 −1
= 1 + 𝑧 −1 − 1 +
2 3 3
1 1 𝑧 𝑧 2
= 1 − 𝑧 + 𝑧2 − ⋯ − 1− + −⋯
2 3 3 9
 22
∞ ∞
1 𝑛𝑧𝑛
1 𝑛
𝑧 𝑛
= −1 − −1
2 3 3
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
∞ ∞
𝟏 𝒛𝒏
∴ 𝒇(𝒛) = −𝟏 𝒏 𝒛𝒏 − −𝟏 𝒏 𝒏+𝟏
𝟐 𝟑
𝒏=𝟎 𝒏=𝟎
𝑖𝑖 1 < 𝑧 < 3
This condition can be spited as
1< 𝑧& 𝑧 <3
1 𝑧
=> <1& <1
|𝑧| 3
1 1 1 1 1
∴ 2 => 𝑓 𝑧 = −
2 𝑧 1+ 1 3 1+𝑧
𝑧 3
−1
1 1 1 1 𝑧 −1
= 1+ − 1+
2 𝑧 𝑧 3 3
 23

1 1 1 1 1 𝑧 𝑧2
= 1 − + −⋯ − 1− + −⋯
2 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧2 3 3 9
1 1 1 1 1 𝑧 𝑧2
= − 2+ 3−⋯ − 1− + −⋯
2 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 3 3 9
∞ 𝒏+𝟏 ∞
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒛 𝒏
∴ 𝒇(𝒛) = −𝟏 𝒏 − −𝟏 𝒏
𝟐 𝒛 𝟑 𝟑
𝒏=𝟎 𝒏=𝟎
3 1
𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑧 > 3 => < 1. 𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 <1
|𝑧| |𝑧|
1 1 1 1 1
∴ 2 => 𝑓 𝑧 = −
2 𝑧 1+ 1 𝑧 1+3
𝑧 𝑧
−1 −1
1 1 1 1 3
= 1+ − 1+
2 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
1 1 1 1 1 3 9
= 1− + 2−⋯ − 1− + 2−⋯
2 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
 24

1 1 1 1 1 3 9
= − 2+ 3−⋯ − − 2+ 3−⋯
2 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
∞ 𝑛+1 ∞ 𝑛+1
1 𝑛
1 𝑛 3𝑛
1
= −1 − −1
2 𝑧 𝑧
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
∞ 𝒏+𝟏
𝟏 𝒏
𝟏 𝒏
∴ 𝒇(𝒛) = −𝟏 (𝟏 − 𝟑 )
𝟐 𝒛
𝒏=𝟎
𝑧2
2. 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝐿𝑎𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 ′ 𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑓
𝑧+2 𝑧−3
𝑖 𝑧 < 3 & 𝑖𝑖 2 < 𝑧 < 3
Solution:
𝑧2
Let 𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑧+2 𝑧−3
Here the degree of the numerator is equal to the degree of the
denominator.
∴ divide numerator by denominator
 25

𝑧2 𝑧+6
∴ =1+
𝑧+2 𝑧−3 𝑧+2 𝑧−3
𝑧+6 𝐴 𝐵
consider = +
𝑧+2 𝑧−3 𝑧+2 𝑧−3
=> 𝑧 + 6 = 𝐴 𝑧 − 3 + 𝐵(𝑧 + 2) → (1)
sub 𝑧 = −2 in 1 => 4 = 𝐴 −5 + 0
4
𝐴=−
5
sub 𝑧 = 3 in 1 => 9 = 0 + 𝐵 5
9
𝐵=
5
2
4 9
𝑧
∴ =1− 5 + 5 → (2)
𝑧+2 𝑧−3 𝑧+2 𝑧−3
|𝑧| |𝑧|
𝑖 𝑧 < 2 => < 1. 𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 <1
2 3
 26

4 1 1 9 1 1
∴𝑓 𝑧 =1− 𝑧 + −
5 2 1+ 5 3 1−𝑧
2 3
2 𝑧 −1 3 𝑧 −1
=1− 1+ − 1−
5 2 5 3
2
2 𝑧 𝑧 3 𝑧 𝑧2
=1− 1− + −⋯ − 1+ + −⋯
5 2 4 5 3 9
∞ ∞
1 𝑛
𝑧𝑛 𝑧𝑛
=1− 2 −1 −3
5 2𝑛 3𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
∞
1 𝑛
2 3 𝑛
=1− −1 − 𝑧
5 2𝑛 3𝑛
𝑛=0
∞
𝟏 𝒏
𝟏 𝟏
∴𝒇 𝒛 =𝟏− −𝟏 𝒏−𝟏
− 𝒛𝒏
𝟓 𝟐 𝟑𝒏−𝟏
𝒏=𝟎
𝑖𝑖 2 < 𝑧 < 3 => 2 < 𝑧 & 𝑧 < 3
 27

2 𝑧
<1 & <1
|𝑧| 3
4 1 1 9 1 1
∴ 𝑓 𝑧 =1− + −
5 𝑧 1+ 2 5 3 1−𝑧
𝑧 3
−1
4 2 3 𝑧 −1
=1− 1+ − 1−
5𝑧 𝑧 5 3
4 2 4 3 𝑧 𝑧2
=1− 1 − + 2 −⋯ − 1 + + −⋯
5𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 5 3 9
1 4 2 4 𝑧 𝑧2
=1− 1− + 2−⋯ −3 1+ + −⋯
5 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 3 9
∞ ∞
𝟏 𝟒 𝒏
𝟐𝒏 𝒛𝒏
∴𝒇 𝒛 =𝟏− −𝟏 −𝟑
𝟓 𝒛 𝒛𝒏 𝟑𝒏
𝒏=𝟎 𝒏=𝟎
 28
3. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 ′ 𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟
7𝑧−2
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 < 𝑧 + 1 < 3.
𝑧+1 𝑧 𝑧−2
Solution:
consider
7𝑧 − 2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝑓 𝑧 = = + +
𝑧+1 𝑧 𝑧−2 𝑧+1 𝑧 𝑧−2
𝐴𝑧 𝑧 − 2 + 𝐵 𝑧 + 1 𝑧 − 2 + 𝐶𝑧(𝑧 + 1)
=
𝑧+1 𝑧 𝑧−2
7𝑧 − 2 = 𝐴𝑧 𝑧 − 2 + 𝐵 𝑧 + 1 𝑧 − 2 +
𝐶𝑧 𝑧 + 1 → (1)
sub 𝑧 = −1 in 1
=> −9 = 𝐴 −1 −3 + 0 + 0
𝐴 = −3
sub 𝑧 = 2 in 1
=> 12 = 0 + 0 + 𝐶 2 3
 29

𝐶=2
sub 𝑧 = 0 in 1
=> −2 = 0 + 𝐵 1 −2 + 0
𝐵=1
3 1 2
∴𝑓 𝑧 =− + +
𝑧+1 𝑧 𝑧−2
Given 1 < 𝑧 + 1 < 3
Let 𝑧 + 1 = 𝑢, then 1 < 𝑢 < 3
=> 1 < 𝑢 & 𝑢 < 3
1 𝑢
=> <1& <1
|𝑢| 3
3 1 2
∴𝑓 𝑢−1 =− + +
𝑢 𝑢−1 𝑢−3
3 1 1 2 1
=− + −
𝑢 𝑢 1−1 3 1−𝑢
𝑢 3
 30

−1
3 1 1 2 𝑢 −1
=− + 1− − 1−
𝑢 𝑢 𝑢 3 3
3 1 1 1 2 𝑢 𝑢2
=− + 1+ + 2+⋯ − 1+ + +⋯
𝑢 𝑢 𝑢 𝑢 3 3 9
∞ ∞
2 1 2 𝑢 𝑛
=− + 𝑛
−
𝑢 𝑢 3 3
𝑛=2 𝑛=0
∞ ∞ 𝒏
𝟐 𝟏 𝟐 𝒛+𝟏
∴𝒇 𝒛 =− + 𝒏
−
𝒛+𝟏 (𝒛 + 𝟏) 𝟑 𝟑
𝒏=𝟐 𝒏=𝟎
Singular points:
𝐴 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑎 𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑕𝑖𝑐𝑕 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓 𝑧 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒
𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 .
1
𝐸𝑔: 𝑓 𝑧 = => 𝑧 = 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡.
𝑧−2
 31

Classification of singularity:
Isolated singularities:
𝐴 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 𝑖𝑓
𝑖 𝑧 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑕𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑕𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑕𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑡
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑜𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡.
1
𝐸𝑔: 𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑧 𝑧+2
=> 𝑧 = 0, 𝑧 = −2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠.
Poles:
𝐴𝑛 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑧 = 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒.
𝐴 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒.
1
𝐸𝑔: 𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑧 − 4 2 𝑧 − 3 3 (𝑧 − 1)
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑧 = 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒.
𝑧 = 3 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 3
𝑧 = 4 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 2.
 32

Removable singularities:
𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 𝑖𝑓 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒇 𝒛 𝒆𝒙𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒔 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒍𝒚.
𝒛→𝒂
sin 𝑧 1 𝑧3 𝑧5
𝐸𝑔: 𝑓 𝑧 = = 𝑧− + −⋯
𝑧 𝑧 3! 5!
𝑧2 𝑧4
=1− + −⋯
3! 5!
𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑧 = 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡.
∴ lim 𝑓 𝑧 = 1 − 0 − 0 − ⋯ = 1(𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒)
𝑧→0
∴ 𝑧 = 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦.
Essential singularities:
𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑧 = 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦.

1 1 𝑧 1 𝑧2
𝐸𝑔: 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧 =1+ + +⋯
1! 2!
 33

𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑧 = 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡.

𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑓 𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠.
∴ 𝑧 = 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦.
Problems:
1. 𝑤𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 0 𝑜𝑓
sin 𝑧−𝑧
𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑧3
Solution:
sin 𝑧 − 𝑧
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑧3
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑧 = 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡.
1 𝑧3 𝑧5
∴𝑓 𝑧 = 3 𝑧− + −⋯ −𝑧
𝑧 3! 5!
1 𝑧3 𝑧5 1 𝑧2
= 3 − + −⋯ =− + −⋯
𝑧 3! 5! 3! 5!
1 1
lim 𝑓(𝑧) = − + 0 + 0 + ⋯ = − (𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒)
𝑧→0 3! 3!
∴ 𝑧 = 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦.
 34

1
2. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 = sin
𝑧−𝑎
Solution:
1
𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑓 𝑧 = sin
𝑧−𝑎
1 1 1 3 1 1 5
= − + −⋯
𝑧−𝑎 3! 𝑧−𝑎 5! 𝑧−𝑎
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡.
𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑓 𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠.
∴ 𝒛 = 𝒂 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚.
1
3. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 = 2 2 2
(𝑧 +𝑎 )
Solution:
1
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑓 𝑧 =
(𝑧 2 +𝑎2 )2
=> 𝑧 2 + 𝑎2 = 0 => 𝑧 = ±𝑖𝑎
∴ 𝒛 = ±𝒊𝒂 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝟐.
 35

Residue:
1
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑧
𝑧−𝑎
𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒
𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑎.
Evaluation of Residue:
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦
1 𝑑𝑚−1
𝑅 𝑧=𝑎 = lim 𝑚−1 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑚 𝑓 𝑧
𝑚 − 1 ! 𝑧→𝑎 𝑑𝑧
→ (I)
Note:
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 1(𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒) 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦
1 𝑑1−1
𝑅 𝑧=𝑎 = lim 1−1 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑓 𝑧
1 − 1 ! 𝑧→𝑎 𝑑𝑧

𝑅 𝑧 = 𝑎 = lim 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑓(𝑧) → (II)

𝑧→𝑎
 36

Problems:
1−𝑒 2𝑧
1. 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑧3
Solution:
Here 𝑧 = 0 is a pole of order 3
1 𝑑 3−1 3
1 − 𝑒 2𝑧
∴ I => 𝑅 𝑧 = 0 = lim 3−1 𝑧 − 0
3 − 1 ! 𝑧→0 𝑑𝑧 𝑧3
1 𝑑 2 3 1 − 𝑒 2𝑧
= lim 2 𝑧
2! 𝑧→0 𝑑𝑧 𝑧3
1 𝑑2
= lim 2 1 − 𝑒 2𝑧
2! 𝑧→0 𝑑𝑧
1 𝑑
= lim 0 − 2𝑒 2𝑧
2! 𝑧→0 𝑑𝑧
1
= lim[−4 𝑒 2𝑧 ]
2! 𝑧→0
1
= −4𝑒 0 = −2
2!
 37

∴ 𝑹[𝒛 = 𝟎] = −𝟐
1
2. 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 & 𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠.
𝑧 2 +1
Solution:
1 1
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓 𝑧 = 2 =
𝑧 +1 𝑧+𝑖 𝑧−𝑖
∴ 𝑧 = 𝑖 & 𝑧 = −𝑖 are simple pole
1
(II) => 𝑅 𝑧 = 𝑖 = lim(𝑧 − 𝑖)
𝑧→𝑖 𝑧+𝑖 𝑧−𝑖
1 1
= lim =
𝑧→𝑖 𝑧 + 𝑖 2𝑖
𝟏
∴𝑹𝒛=𝒊 =
𝟐𝒊
1
(II) => 𝑅 𝑧 = −𝑖 = lim (𝑧 + 𝑖)
𝑧→−𝑖 𝑧+𝑖 𝑧−𝑖
 38

1 1
= lim =−
𝑧→−𝑖 𝑧 − 𝑖 2𝑖
𝟏
∴ 𝑹 𝒛 = −𝒊 = −
𝟐𝒊
Cauchy Residue theorem:
𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 & 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝐶, 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , … , 𝑧𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕𝑖𝑛 𝐶, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛
𝐶
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 =
2𝜋𝑖[𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 𝑎𝑡 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , … , 𝑧𝑛 ]
Problems:
4−3𝑧 3
1. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐶 𝑑𝑧 , 𝐶: 𝑧 = .
𝑧(𝑧−1)(𝑧−2) 2
Solution:
4 − 3𝑧
Given 𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑧 𝑧−1 𝑧−2
 39

3 2 2
9
& 𝑧 = => 𝑥 + 𝑦 =
2 4
3
This is a circle with center 0,0 & radius
2
Equating denominator to zero , we get
𝑧 = 0, 𝑧 − 1 = 0 & 𝑧 − 2 = 0
=> 𝑧 = 0, 𝑧 = 1 & 𝑧 = 2
Here 𝑧 = 0 is a pole of order 1
𝑧 = 1 is a pole of order 1
𝑧 = 2 is a pole of order 1
Also 𝑧 = 0 & 𝑧 = 1are poles which lies inside 𝐶
& 𝑧 = 2 is a pole which lie outside 𝐶
To find residue at 𝒛 = 𝟎:
4 − 3𝑧
𝑅 𝑧 = 0 = lim 𝑧 − 0
𝑧→0 𝑧 𝑧−1 𝑧−2
4 − 3𝑧
= lim
𝑧→0 𝑧 − 1 𝑧 − 2
 40

4−0
= =2
(0 − 1)(0 − 2)
∴𝑹𝒛=𝟎 =𝟐
To find residue at 𝒛 = 𝟏:
4 − 3𝑧
𝑅 𝑧 = 1 = lim 𝑧 − 1
𝑧→1 𝑧 𝑧−1 𝑧−2
4 − 3𝑧
= lim
𝑧→1 𝑧 𝑧 − 2
4−3
= = −1
1(−1)
∴ 𝑹 𝒛 = 𝟏 = −𝟏
∴ By Cauchy Residue Theorem,
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠
𝐶
= 2𝜋𝑖 2 − 1 = 2𝜋𝑖
 41

𝟒 − 𝟑𝒛
∴ 𝒅𝒛 = 𝟐𝝅𝒊
𝒛(𝒛 − 𝟏)(𝒛 − 𝟐)
𝑪
𝑑𝑧
2. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐶 (𝑧 2 +4)2
, 𝐶: 𝑧 − 𝑖 = 2 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑅𝑇.
Solution:
1
Given 𝑓 𝑧 = 2
𝑧 +4 2
& 𝑧 − 𝑖 = 2 => 𝑥 2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 = 4
This is a circle with center 0,1 & radius 2
Equating denominator to zero , we get
𝑧 2 + 4 = 0 => 𝑧 = ±2𝑖
Here 𝑧 = ±2𝑖 is a pole of order 2
Also 𝑧 = 2𝑖 is a pole which lie inside 𝐶
& 𝑧 = −2𝑖 is a pole which lie outside 𝐶
 42

To find residue at 𝒛 = 𝟐𝒊:

1 𝑑 2
1
𝑅 𝑧 = 2𝑖 = lim 𝑧 − 2𝑖
1! 𝑧→2𝑖 𝑑𝑧 𝑧 − 2𝑖 2 𝑧 + 2𝑖 2
𝑑 1
= lim
𝑧→2𝑖 𝑑𝑧 𝑧 + 2𝑖 2
−2 2
= lim 3
=−
𝑧→2𝑖 𝑧 + 2𝑖 4𝑖 3
2 1 2 = −1)
=− = (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖
64𝑖 3 32𝑖
1
∴ 𝑅 𝑧 = 2𝑖 =
32𝑖
∴ By Cauchy Residue Theorem,
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠
𝐶
1 𝜋
= 2𝜋𝑖 =
32𝑖 16
 43

𝒅𝒛 𝝅
∴ 𝟐 𝟐
=
(𝒛 + 𝟒) 𝟏𝟔
𝑪
Evaluation of real definite integrals by contour
integration:
Type I:
2𝜋
Integrals of the type 0 𝑓 cos 𝜃 , sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 cos 𝜃 & sin 𝜃 .
In this type of integral, put 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃
𝑖𝜃
𝑑𝑧
then 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖𝑒 𝑑𝜃 => 𝑑𝜃 =
𝑖𝑧
we know that,
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 +𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 −𝑒 −𝑖𝜃
cos 𝜃 = & sin 𝜃 =
2 2𝑖
1 1 1 1
=> cos 𝜃 = 𝑧 + & sin 𝜃 = 𝑧−
2 𝑧 2𝑖 𝑧
 44
2𝜋
1 1 1 1 𝑑𝑧
∴ 𝑓 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑓 𝑧+ , 𝑧−
2 𝑧 2𝑖 𝑧 𝑖𝑧
0 𝐶
where 𝐶 is unit circle 𝑧 = 1
1
= 𝜑 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 where 𝜑 𝑧 is a rational function of 𝑧.
𝑖
𝐶
Hence by Residue theorem,

𝜑 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖[𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝜑 𝑧 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑡 ′ 𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐶]

𝐶
Problems:
2𝜋 𝑑𝜃
1. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 0
5+4 cos 𝜃
Solution:
Transforming the variable 𝜃 in terms of 𝑧
𝑖𝜃
𝑑𝑧
Put 𝑧 = 𝑒 => 𝑑𝜃 =
𝑖𝑧
 45

1 1 1 𝑧2 + 1
Also cos 𝜃 = 𝑧 + =
2 𝑧 2 𝑧

2𝜋
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑧 𝑖𝑧
∴ =
5 + 4 cos 𝜃 1 𝑧2 + 1
0 𝐶 5+4
2 𝑧
where 𝐶: 𝑧 = 1
𝑑𝑧 𝑖𝑧
=
5𝑧 + 2𝑧 2 + 2
𝐶 𝑧
1 𝑑𝑧
=
𝑖 2𝑧 2 + 5𝑧 + 2
𝐶
1 𝑑𝑧
=
2𝑖 2 5
𝐶 𝑧 + 𝑧+1
2
 46

2𝜋
𝑑𝜃 1
∴ = 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
5 + 4 cos 𝜃 2𝑖
0 𝐶
1
where 𝑓 𝑧 =
5
𝑧2 + 𝑧 + 1
2
To find poles of 𝒇 𝒛 :
Equating denominator to zero , we get
2
5
𝑧 + 𝑧+1=0
2
5 25 5 25 − 16
− ± −4 − ±
2 4 2 4
=> 𝑧 = =
2 2
5 9
−2 ± 4 −5 ± 3
= = 2 2
2 2
 47

5 3 5 3
− + − −
= 2 2, 2 2
2 2
1
𝑧 = − , −2
2
1
∴𝑓 𝑧 =
(𝑧 + 1 2)(𝑧 + 2)
1
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑧 = − 𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐶 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 1
2
& 𝑧 = −2 𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐶.
𝟏
To find residue at 𝒛 = − :
𝟐
1
𝑅 𝑧 = − 1 2 = lim (𝑧 + 1 2)
𝑧→−1 2 (𝑧 + 1 2)(𝑧 + 2)
1 1 2
= lim = =
𝑧→−1 2 (𝑧 + 2) 1 3
− +2
2
 48

2
∴ 𝑅 𝑧 = −1 2 =
3
Hence by Residue theorem,

𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑧

𝐶
2
= 2𝜋𝑖
3
4𝜋𝑖
∴ 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 =
3
𝐶
2𝜋
𝑑𝜃 1 1 4𝜋𝑖 2𝜋
∴ = 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = =
5 + 4 cos 𝜃 2𝑖 2𝑖 3 3
0 𝐶
𝟐𝝅
𝒅𝜽 𝟐𝝅
∴ =
𝟓 + 𝟒 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝟑
𝟎
 49

𝑑𝜃
2. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐶 1−2𝑎 sin 𝜃+𝑎2
,0 < 𝑎 < 1
Solution:
Transforming the variable 𝜃 in terms of 𝑧
𝑖𝜃
𝑑𝑧
Put 𝑧 = 𝑒 => 𝑑𝜃 =
𝑖𝑧
1 1 1 𝑧2 − 1
Also sin 𝜃 = 𝑧− =
2𝑖 𝑧 2𝑖 𝑧
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑧 𝑖𝑧
∴ 2
=
1 − 2𝑎 sin 𝜃 + 𝑎 1 𝑧2 − 1
𝐶 𝐶 1 − 2𝑎 + 𝑎2
2𝑖 𝑧
where 𝐶: 𝑧 = 1
𝑑𝑧 𝑖𝑧
= 𝑎 2
1 − 𝑧 − 1 + 𝑎 2
𝐶 𝑖𝑧
 50

𝑑𝑧 𝑖𝑧
=
𝑖𝑧 − 𝑎𝑧 2 + 𝑎 + 𝑎2 𝑖𝑧 𝑖𝑧
𝐶
𝑑𝑧
=
−𝑎𝑧 2 + 𝑖 1 + 𝑎2 𝑧 + 𝑎
𝐶
1 𝑑𝑧
=−
𝑎 2 1 + 𝑎2
𝐶 𝑧 −𝑖 𝑎
𝑧−1
𝑑𝜃 1
∴ 2
=− 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
1 − 2𝑎 sin 𝜃 + 𝑎 𝑎
𝐶 𝐶
1
where 𝑓 𝑧 =
2 1 + 𝑎2
𝑧 −𝑖 𝑧−1
𝑎
 51

To find poles of 𝒇 𝒛 :
Equating denominator to zero , we get
1 + 𝑎 2
𝑧2 − 𝑖 𝑧−1=0
𝑎
2
2
1+𝑎 1 + 𝑎2
𝑖 ± 𝑖 − 4(1)(−1)
𝑎 𝑎
𝑧=
2
2
1 + 𝑎2 1 + 𝑎2
𝑖 ± − +4
𝑎 𝑎
=
2
1 + 𝑎2 −1 − 𝑎4 − 2𝑎2 + 4𝑎2
𝑖 ±
𝑎 𝑎2
=
2
 52

1 + 𝑎2 −1 − 𝑎4 + 2𝑎2
𝑖 ±
𝑎 𝑎2
=
2
1 + 𝑎2 𝑖 2 )2
𝑖 ± (1 − 𝑎
𝑎 𝑎
=
2
2
1+𝑎 1 − 𝑎2
𝑖 ±𝑖
𝑎 𝑎
=
2
𝑖
=> 𝑧 = [ 1 + 𝑎2 ± 1 − 𝑎2 ]
2𝑎
𝑖
=> 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑎2 + 1 − 𝑎2 ,
2𝑎
𝑖
𝑧= [ 1 + 𝑎2 − 1 − 𝑎2 ]
2𝑎
𝑖 𝑖
=> 𝑧 = 2 ,𝑧 = [2𝑎2 ]
2𝑎 2𝑎
 53

𝑖
=> 𝑧 = , 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑎
𝑎
1
∴𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑖
𝑧 − 𝑖𝑎 𝑧 −
𝑎
𝑖 1
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐶 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎 < 1 => > 1)
𝑎 𝑎
& 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐶 (𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 1)(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎 < 1)
To find residue at 𝒛 = 𝒊𝒂 ∶
1
𝑅 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑎 = lim (𝑧 − 𝑖𝑎)
𝑧→𝑖𝑎 𝑖
𝑧 − 𝑖𝑎 𝑧 −
𝑎
1 1
= lim =
𝑧→𝑖𝑎 𝑖 𝑖
𝑧− 𝑖𝑎 −
𝑎 𝑎
𝑎
∴ 𝑅 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑎 =
𝑖(𝑎2 − 1)
 54
Hence by Residue theorem,

𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑧

𝐶
𝑎
= 2𝜋𝑖
𝑖 𝑎2 − 1
2𝜋𝑎
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 2
𝑎 −1
𝐶
𝑑𝜃 1
∴ 2
=− 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
1 − 2𝑎 sin 𝜃 + 𝑎 𝑎
𝐶 𝐶
1 2𝜋𝑎 2𝜋
=− 2
=
𝑎 𝑎 −1 1 − 𝑎2
𝒅𝜽 𝟐𝝅
∴ 𝟐
=
𝟏 − 𝟐𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 + 𝒂 𝟏 − 𝒂𝟐
𝑪
 55

Type II :
∞ 𝑷 𝒙
Integrals of the form −∞ 𝑸 𝒙
𝒅𝒙
where 𝑃 𝑥 & 𝑄 𝑥 are polynomials in 𝑥
This integral converges(exists) if, Degree of 𝑄 𝑥 is at least
two greater than the degree of 𝑃(𝑥) & 𝑄(𝑥) has no real roots.
To evaluate this integral, we consider the integral
𝑃 𝑧
𝑑𝑧 , where 𝐶 is the closed contour consisting
𝑄 𝑧
𝐶
of the real axis from − 𝑅 to 𝑅 & the semicircle
Г: 𝑧 = 𝑅 in the upper half of the complex plane.
𝑅

∴ 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 → (1)
𝐶 −𝑅 Г
𝑃 𝑧
where 𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑄 𝑧
 56

All the positive poles will lie inside & negative poles lie outside.
Hence by Residue theorem,

𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑧

𝐶

letting 𝑅 → ∞, 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 0(by Cauchy′ s Lemma)

Г
∞

∴ 1 => 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝐶 −∞
Note: Cauchy’s Lemma:
𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑕 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑧𝑓 𝑧 → 0
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑠 𝑧 → ∞ 𝑜𝑛 Г, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 Г 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑅 →
∞, 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 Г 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑅 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
 57

Problems:
∞ 𝑑𝑥
1. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 −∞ (𝑥 2 +𝑎2 )(𝑥 2 +𝑏2 )
Solution:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟
𝑑𝑧
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 =
(𝑧 2 + 𝑎2 )(𝑧 2 + 𝑏 2 )
𝐶 𝐶
where 𝐶 is the closed contour consisting of the real axis
from − 𝑅 to 𝑅 & the semicircle Г: 𝑧 = 𝑅 in the upper half of
the complex plane
𝑅

∴ 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 → (1)
𝐶 −𝑅 Г
To find 𝑪
𝒇 𝒛 𝒅𝒛 :
1
Consider,𝑓 𝑧 = 2
(𝑧 + 𝑎2 )(𝑧 2 + 𝑏 2 )
 58

To find poles of 𝒇 𝒛 :
Equating denominator to zero , we get
𝑧 2 + 𝑎2 = 0 & 𝑧 2 + 𝑏 2 = 0
=> 𝑧 2 = −𝑎2 , 𝑧 2 = −𝑏 2
=> 𝑧 = ±𝑎𝑖 , 𝑧 = ±𝑏𝑖
The poles 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑖 &𝑧 = 𝑏𝑖 lies inside 𝐶
& the poles 𝑧 = −𝑎𝑖 & 𝑧 = −𝑏𝑖 lies outside 𝐶
1
∴𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑧 + 𝑖𝑎 𝑧 − 𝑖𝑎 𝑧 + 𝑖𝑏 𝑧 − 𝑖𝑏
To find residue at 𝒛 = 𝒊𝒂 ∶
1
𝑅 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑎 = lim (𝑧 − 𝑖𝑎)
𝑧→𝑖𝑎 𝑧 + 𝑖𝑎 𝑧 − 𝑖𝑎 𝑧 + 𝑖𝑏 𝑧 − 𝑖𝑏
1
= lim
𝑧→𝑖𝑎 𝑧 + 𝑖𝑎 𝑧 + 𝑖𝑏 𝑧 − 𝑖𝑏
1 1
= =
𝑖𝑎 + 𝑖𝑎 𝑖𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 𝑖𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏 2𝑎𝑖(−𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 )
 59

1
𝑅 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑎 =
2𝑎𝑖(−𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 )
To find residue at 𝒛 = 𝒊𝒃 ∶
1
𝑅 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑏 = lim (𝑧 − 𝑖𝑏)
𝑧→𝑖𝑏 𝑧 + 𝑖𝑎 𝑧 − 𝑖𝑎 𝑧 + 𝑖𝑏 𝑧 − 𝑖𝑏
1
= lim
𝑧→𝑖𝑏 𝑧 + 𝑖𝑎 (𝑧 − 𝑖𝑎) 𝑧 + 𝑖𝑏
1 1
= =
𝑖𝑏 + 𝑖𝑎 (𝑖𝑏 − 𝑖𝑎) 𝑖𝑏 + 𝑖𝑏 2𝑏𝑖(−𝑏 2 + 𝑎2 )
1
𝑅 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑏 =
2𝑏𝑖(−𝑏 2 + 𝑎2 )
Hence by Residue theorem,

𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑧

𝐶
 60

1 1
= 2𝜋𝑖 2 2
+
2𝑎𝑖 −𝑎 + 𝑏 2𝑏𝑖 −𝑏 2 + 𝑎2
−1 1
=𝜋 2 2
+
𝑎 𝑎 −𝑏 𝑏 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2
−𝑏 + 𝑎 −𝑏 + 𝑎
=𝜋 2 2
=𝜋
𝑎𝑏 𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑎𝑏(𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 − 𝑏)
1
∴ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 𝜋
𝑎𝑏(𝑎 + 𝑏)
𝐶
consider
𝑅

1 => 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝐶 −𝑅 Г
𝑅
1
=> 𝜋 = 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝑎𝑏(𝑎 + 𝑏)
−𝑅 Г
 61

letting 𝑅 → ∞, 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 0(by Cauchy′ s Lemma)

Г
∞
1
∴ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋
𝑎𝑏 𝑎 + 𝑏
−∞
(since on real axis 𝑧 = 𝑥 => 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥)
∞
𝒅𝒙 𝟏
∴ 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
=𝝅
(𝒙 + 𝒂 )(𝒙 + 𝒃 ) 𝒂𝒃 𝒂 + 𝒃
−∞
 62

∞ 𝑥 2 −𝑥+2
2. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 −∞ 𝑥 4 +10𝑥 2 +9
𝑑𝑥
Solution:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟
𝑧2 − 𝑧 + 2
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 4 2
𝑑𝑧
𝑧 + 10𝑧 + 9
𝐶 𝐶
where 𝐶 is the closed contour consisting of the real axis from
− 𝑅 to 𝑅 & the semicircle Г: 𝑧
= 𝑅 in the upper half of the complex plane
𝑅

∴ 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 → (1)
𝐶 −𝑅 Г
To find 𝑪
𝒇 𝒛 𝒅𝒛 :
𝑧2 − 𝑧 + 2
Consider,𝑓 𝑧 = 4
𝑧 + 10𝑧 2 + 9
 63

To find poles of 𝒇 𝒛 :
Equating denominator to zero , we get
=> 𝑧 4 +10𝑧 2 + 9 = 0
𝑧 4 + 𝑧 2 + 9𝑧 2 + 9 = 0
𝑧2 𝑧2 + 1 + 9 𝑧2 + 1 = 0
𝑧2 + 1 𝑧2 + 9 = 0
=> 𝑧 2 + 1 = 0 & 𝑧 2 + 9 = 0
=> 𝑧 = ±𝑖 , 𝑧 = ±3𝑖
The poles 𝑧 = 𝑖 &𝑧 = 3𝑖 lies inside 𝐶
& the poles 𝑧 = −𝑖 & 𝑧 = −3𝑖 lies outside 𝐶
𝑧2 − 𝑧 + 2
∴𝑓 𝑧 =
(𝑧 + 𝑖)(𝑧 − 𝑖)(𝑧 + 3𝑖)(𝑧 − 3𝑖)
To find residue at 𝒛 = 𝒊:
𝑧2 − 𝑧 + 2
𝑅 𝑧 = 𝑖 = lim(𝑧 − 𝑖)
𝑧→𝑖 (𝑧 + 𝑖)(𝑧 − 𝑖)(𝑧 + 3𝑖)(𝑧 − 3𝑖)
 64

𝑧2 − 𝑧 + 2
= lim
𝑧→𝑖 (𝑧 + 𝑖)(𝑧 + 3𝑖)(𝑧 − 3𝑖)
−1 − 𝑖 + 2
=
(2𝑖)(4𝑖)(−2𝑖)
1−𝑖 1−𝑖 3 = −𝑖)
= = (since 𝑖
−16𝑖 3 16𝑖
1−𝑖
∴𝑅 𝑧=𝑖 =
16𝑖
To find residue at 𝒛 = 𝟑𝒊:
𝑧2 − 𝑧 + 2
𝑅 𝑧 = 3𝑖 = lim (𝑧 − 3𝑖)
𝑧→3𝑖 (𝑧 + 𝑖)(𝑧 − 𝑖)(𝑧 + 3𝑖)(𝑧 − 3𝑖)
𝑧2 − 𝑧 + 2
= lim
𝑧→3𝑖 (𝑧 + 𝑖)(𝑧 − 𝑖)(𝑧 + 3𝑖)
−9 − 3𝑖 + 2
=
(4𝑖)(2𝑖)(6𝑖)
 65

−7 − 3𝑖 −7 − 3𝑖 3
= 3
= (since 𝑖 = −𝑖)
48𝑖 −48𝑖
7 + 3𝑖
∴ 𝑅 𝑧 = 3𝑖 =
48𝑖
Hence by Residue theorem,

𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑧

𝐶
1 − 𝑖 7 + 3𝑖
= 2𝜋𝑖 +
16𝑖 48𝑖
1 7 + 3𝑖
= 2𝜋𝑖 1−𝑖+
16𝑖 3
𝜋 7 𝜋 10 5
= 1−𝑖+ +𝑖 = = 𝜋
8 3 8 3 12
5
∴ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 𝜋
12
𝐶
 66
𝑅
consider 1 => 𝐶
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = −𝑅
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + Г
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝑅
5
=> 𝜋= 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
12
−𝑅 Г

letting 𝑅 → ∞, 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 0
Г
(by Cauchy′ s Lemma)
∞
5
∴ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋
12
−∞
(since on real axis 𝑧 = 𝑥 => 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥)
∞
𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 + 𝟐 𝟓
∴ 𝟒 𝟐
𝒅𝒙 = 𝝅
𝒙 + 𝟏𝟎𝒙 + 𝟗 𝟏𝟐
−∞
 67
Type III :
∞
𝑷 𝒙
Integrals of the form 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒎𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒐𝒓
𝑸 𝒙
−∞
∞ 𝑷 𝒙
−∞ 𝑸 𝒙
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒎𝒙 𝒅𝒙 where 𝑃 𝑥 & 𝑄 𝑥 are polynomials in 𝑥
This integral converges(exists) if, 𝑖 𝑚 > 0
𝑖𝑖 Degree of 𝑄 𝑥 is at least two greater than the degree
of 𝑃(𝑥) & 𝑄(𝑥) has no real roots.
To evaluate this integral, we consider the integral
𝑃 𝑧 𝑖𝑚𝑧
𝑃 𝑧
𝑅𝑃𝑒 𝑑𝑧 𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝑃𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑧 𝑑𝑧 where 𝐶 is the closed
𝑄 𝑧 𝑄 𝑧
𝐶 𝐶
contour consisting of the real axis from − 𝑅 to 𝑅 & the
semicircle Г: 𝑧
= 𝑅 in the upper half of the complex plane.
Then proceed as in Type II
 68

Problem:
∞ cos 𝑚𝑥
𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 −∞ 2 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 +𝑎
Solution:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟
∞ ∞ ∞
cos 𝑚𝑥 𝑅𝑃 𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑥 𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑧
2 2
𝑑𝑥 = 2 2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑅𝑃 2 2
𝑑𝑧
𝑥 +𝑎 𝑥 +𝑎 𝑧 +𝑎
−∞ −∞ −∞
𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑧
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑧
𝑧2 + 𝑎2
𝐶 𝐶
where 𝐶 is the closed contour consisting of the real axis from
− 𝑅 to 𝑅 & the semicircle Г: 𝑧
= 𝑅 in the upper half of the complex plane
𝑅

∴ 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 → (1)
𝐶 −𝑅 Г
 69

To find 𝑪
𝒇 𝒛 𝒅𝒛 :
𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑧
Consider,𝑓 𝑧 = 2
𝑧 + 𝑎2
To find poles of 𝒇 𝒛 :
Equating denominator to zero , we get
𝑧 2 + 𝑎2 = 0 => 𝑧 = ±𝑖𝑎
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐶
& 𝑧 = −𝑖𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐶
𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑧
∴𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑧 + 𝑖𝑎 𝑧 − 𝑖𝑎
To find residue at 𝒛 = 𝒂𝒊:
𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑧
𝑅 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑖 = lim (𝑧 − 𝑎𝑖)
𝑧→𝑎𝑖 𝑧 + 𝑖𝑎 𝑧 − 𝑖𝑎
𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑧 𝑒 𝑖𝑚(𝑖𝑎)
= lim =
𝑧→𝑎𝑖 𝑧 + 𝑖𝑎 𝑖𝑎 + 𝑖𝑎
 70

𝑒 −𝑚𝑎
∴ 𝑅 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑖 =
2𝑖𝑎
Hence by Residue theorem,
𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑧
𝐶
𝑒 −𝑚𝑎 𝜋𝑒 −𝑚𝑎
= 2𝜋𝑖 =
2𝑖𝑎 𝑎
𝜋𝑒 −𝑚𝑎
∴ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 =
𝑎
𝐶
consider
𝑅

1 => 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝐶 −𝑅 Г
 71

𝑅
−𝑚𝑎
𝜋𝑒
=> = 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝑎
−𝑅 Г

letting 𝑅 → ∞, 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 0 (by Cauchy′ s Lemma)

Г
∞
𝜋𝑒 −𝑚𝑎 𝜋𝑒 −𝑚𝑎
∴ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑅𝑃 =
𝑎 𝑎
−∞
(since on real axis 𝑧 = 𝑥 => 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥)
∞
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒎𝒙 𝝅𝒆−𝒎𝒂
∴ 𝟐 𝟐
𝒅𝒙 =
𝒙 +𝒂 𝒂
−∞