Net Positive Suction Head

(NPSH) and Cavitation

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 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) and Cavitation

Contents
Net positive suction head (N.P.S.H) and Cavitation ...................................................................................................3
Net positive suction head available (NPSHA).........................................................................................................3
Relative and Absolute Pressure .............................................................................................................................3
Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA)........................................................................................................4
Head .......................................................................................................................................................................4
Why is atmospheric or barometric pressure head included in the NPSH definition? ...........................................6
Why is atmospheric pressure included in the definition of a pump system with a pressurized suction tank? ....6
What happens to the flow and pressure within the pump past the point of measurement? ..............................7
The liquid will boil at low pressure? ......................................................................................................................8
Why is vapor pressure important?.......................................................................................................................10
Importance of NPSH .............................................................................................................................................13

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 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) and Cavitation

Net positive suction head (N.P.S.H) and Cavitation

This article is about Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) and Cavitation. If you would like to learn about
centrifugal pumps, please see our main Centrifugal Pumps article.

Net positive suction head available (NPSHA)

Net positive suction head or NPSH is a means of determining whether a pump can operate normally
with low pressure at the pump’s suction eye. Imagine that a pump is connected to a suction tank with
a dropping liquid level (Figure 1). The level drops until the liquid just covers the suction pipe and the
pump is still operating quite normally (B). Imagine that the level could drop further as if the level were
below the centerline of the pump, as occurs when an above ground pump is connected to a sump (C).
If the level drops further, the pressure at the suction would be less than atmospheric. At some point, if
the level continues to drop, the pump will no longer be able to operate as it should and there will be a
reduction in flow and discharge pressure (D). At some sump level, the pump will start to cavitate.

Figure 1 Pump Suction Conditions

Note: a pump that operates in a sump configuration will require a foot valve (non-return valve) to keep
the liquid in the suction pipe and to avoid having to re-prime the pump when it is stopped.

Relative and Absolute Pressure

The amount of pressure at the pump suction is related to NPSHA. It is common to use the absolute
pressure scale (Figure 2). Head is converted to absolute pressure using the following relationship:

𝐡(𝐟𝐭) 𝐡(𝐦)
𝐩(𝐩𝐬𝐢) = 𝐒𝐆 × 𝐩(𝐤𝐏𝐚) = 𝐒𝐆 × 𝟎.𝟏𝟎𝟐 (1.1)
𝟐.𝟑𝟏

Where h: head in feet or meter

SG: specific gravity, density of the liquid relative to water;

p: pressure in kPa or psi;
h: static head in ft or m.

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 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) and Cavitation

The relative and absolute pressure scales are essentially the same scale but are offset by 14.7 psi (1
bar). On the imperial scale, zero psi on the relative scale corresponds to 14.7 psi on the absolute
pressure scale (Figure 2). Because the problems with NPSH are in the region or pressures below
atmospheric, it is useful to use the absolute pressure scale.

Figure 2 Relative and Absolute Pressure Scales

Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA)

NPSHA is a term that most people find difficult to relate to in part because in certain industries NPSHA
is rarely an issue and therefore people have no idea what value it should have. Before we discuss
values and the exact definition of NPSHA, let’s get an intuitive understanding of NPSHA. NPSHA is a
measure of pressure specific energy present at the pump suction. The higher the pressure, the higher
the NPSHA and the better the pump will operate.

Head
Head is measured in feet in North America and in meters just about everywhere else. A very low value
of NPSHA would be 3-4 feet (1 m). A typical value would be around 36 feet (11 m). We start to get
concerned around 20 feet (6 m). By concerned I mean we need to check the manufacturer’s NPSHR
(NPSH Required) recommendation for that pump at our specific flow rate to make sure that we are
above their recommendation. The formula for NPSHA is a definition that is stipulated by those
organizations that publish pump standards, such as the Hydraulic Institute in the US
(http://www.pumps.org/). Regarding European or other country standards, each country has their own
standards and I refer the reader to:

https://www.pumpsandsystems.com/understand-european-pump-standards-organizations-processes

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 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) and Cavitation

The manufacturers that are members of Hydraulic Institute have agreed to follow this definition:

𝑵𝑷𝑺𝑯𝑨 = 𝒉 − 𝒉𝒇 + 𝒉𝒂 − 𝒉𝒗𝒂 (1.2)

Where:

h : the suction static head in feet or meters;

Ha: the atmospheric pressure head in feet or meters;

Hf: : the friction head loss in feet or meters;

Hva : the vapor pressure head in feet or meters.

It is a very logical definition that includes all the terms that affect the pressure at the pump’s suction
nozzle:

• The static head (h) - positive or negative.

• The friction loss (hf) in the suction pipe (negative).
• The atmospheric pressure (ha), which is additive.
• The vapor pressure (hva) (negative), which depends on the nature of the fluid and the
temperature (vapor pressure will be discussed later in the article).

If the suction tank is pressurized, i.e. operates above the atmospheric pressure, then the additional
pressure head will have to be added to the suction static head.

𝑵𝑷𝑺𝑯𝑨 = 𝒉𝒑𝒓 + 𝒉 − 𝒉𝒇 + 𝒉𝒂 − 𝒉𝒗𝒂 (1.3)

(if the suction tank is pressurized)

Where hpr is the additional pressure head on the surface of the liquid in the suction tank.

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Figure 3 NPSHA Components in Pump Systems

Why is atmospheric or barometric pressure head included in the NPSH definition?

Pump systems are running everywhere on the planet. Atmospheric pressure is pressing on the liquid
surface of the suction tank providing energy to the pump suction. However, since the atmospheric
pressure is not the same everywhere, we have to consider it in our NPSHA calculations. Atmospheric
pressure varies with elevation. For example, Johannesburg is at 5,200 feet (1,585 m) elevation with
an atmospheric pressure of 12 psia (83 kPaa), and Mexico City is at 8,500 feet (2,590 m) with 10.8 psig
(74.5 kPaa) atmospheric pressure. These small differences can be significant in some critical
applications (see the appendix for data on barometric pressure vs. elevation).

Why is atmospheric pressure included in the definition of a pump system with a pressurized
suction tank?
When the tank is first pressurized, it will start at zero pressure or the local atmospheric pressure.
Therefore, we still need to include the local atmospheric pressure to take into account the elevation of
the pump.

Figure 4 shows the relative size of the values of the NPSHA components in a typical situation where the
vapor pressure is small.

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Figure 4 NPSHA – The Relative Size of the Various NPSHA Parameters

In many applications the vapor pressure head (hva) is small relative to other NPSHA terms, but that is
not always the case. The friction loss (hf) is usually small because the suction line is normally short and
generously sized. The largest component is typically the atmospheric pressure (ha) (34 feet or 10.4
meters), which is added to the suction static head, the other largest component.

The combination of static head and friction loss is one of the main components of NPSHA. We can
calculate these terms, or we can measure the pressure at the pump suction, which will combine the
effects of both values. But first a digression to explain what the pressure measurement we take will
mean.

What happens to the flow and pressure within the pump past the point of measurement?
Figure 5 shows that the pressure drops considerably as the fluid enters the pump’s impeller eye. This
happens for several reasons:

1. Velocity as the fluid approaches the eye increases, as the flow area increases, which causes a
decrease in pressure (Bernoulli's principle),
2. Friction decreases the pressure.
3. Flow turbulence further decreases pressure.

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Figure 5 Pressure Variation at Several Points Along the Liquid Path

It’s possible that the local pressure can be low enough for the liquid to boil, or flash, at the “Low
Pressure Point” (D).

The liquid will boil at low pressure?

There are two ways to boil a liquid. One way is to increase the temperature while keeping the
pressure constant until the temperature is high enough to produce vapor bubbles. In Figure 6, this is
what happens if you take one point in the liquid phase and you move horizontally (that is at constant
pressure) by increasing the temperature. Eventually you reach the vaporization line of the particular
fluid and the fluid starts to boil, or produce vapor bubbles. We do the same thing every day when we
boil water in a pot. To learn more about the relationship of volume and temperature at constant
pressure, please see Charle's Law.

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Figure 6 Vapor Pressure v Temperature

The other way to boil a liquid is to lower the pressure. If you keep the temperature constant and lower
the pressure, the liquid will boil as shown in the vertical dash line in Figure 6. In Figure 6, this is what
happens if you take one point in the liquid phase and you move vertically (that is at constant
temperature) by decreasing the pressure. Again, as you reach the vaporization line of the particular
fluid, the fluid starts to boil or produce vapor bubbles. And of course, you can cross the vapor pressure
line by decreasing the pressure and increasing the temperature simultaneously. To learn more about
the relationship of volume and pressure at constant temperature, please see Boyle's law.

If the pot were covered and you had a source of vacuum (see Figure 7), then by lowering the pressure
in the pot you would be able to make the water boil at a lower temperature. When the pressure is 7.5
psia (52 kPaa) or (14.7 – 7.5 = 7.2) or 7.2 psi (50 kPa) less than the atmospheric pressure the water will
boil at a temperature of 180 °F (82 °C) and when the pressure is 1.5 psia (10.3 kPaa) the water will boil
at 120 °F (49 °C). This is what happens at the pump suction when the pressure is low enough to make
the fluid liquid or vaporize.

It is not unusual for industrial processes to operate at temperatures that are close to, or higher than,
120 oF. Therefore, if the temperature is high and the pressure reduces as the fluid enters the pump, it
will increase the likelihood of cavitation occurring because of the pressure reduction produced inside
the pump. If cavitation is occurring or suspected, two possible solutions are:

1. Increase the pressure at the pump inlet (suction side).

2. Decrease the fluid temperature.

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Figure 7 Boiling Liquids At Low Temperature

The pressure at which a liquid vaporizes is known as the vapor pressure and is always specified for a
given temperature and for a specific liquid (see a chart of vapor pressures for various liquids in the
appendix). If the temperature changes, the vapor pressure changes.

Why is vapor pressure important?

If the pressure in the pump’s impeller eye drops below the liquid’s vapor pressure, cavitation will
occur. Cavitation begins as vapor bubbles form at the impeller eye due to a drop in pressure. The
bubbles form at the position of lowest pressure at the pump inlet (see Figure 5), which is just prior to
the fluid being acted upon by the impeller vanes. Then, when the impeller vanes begin to act on the
bubbles with pressure, they rapidly implode. The implosion of the countless vapor bubbles produce
small shock waves that impact the impeller surface and pit away at the metal. Over time, the
accumulation of pitting creates eroded areas that can eventually lead to an impeller failure.

Figure 8 Vapor Bubble Implosion

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The sound of cavitation is very characteristic and resembles the sound of gravel in a concrete mixer.
You can hear this sound by clicking on this link.

Figure 9 shows the damage that can occur to a propeller over a period of time during cavitation; the
propeller shown has suffered mild erosion due to cavitation.

Figure 9 Impeller Damaged by Cavitation

Because the suction tank level can be anywhere with respect to the pump suction, it is useful to use a
reference plane that is below the pump suction and even below the level of a sump. This way we can
use the same definition for static head (h1 – hs) and still get the appropriate positive or negative value
for static head at the pump suction.

𝑵𝑷𝑺𝑯𝑨 = 𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝒔 − 𝒉𝒇 + 𝒉𝒂 − 𝒉𝒗𝒂 (1.4)

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Figure 10 The components of NPSHA for Above and Below Ground Suction Tanks

This is the general formula for NPSHA based on a pressure measurement at the pump suction:

𝐩𝐒 (𝐩𝐬𝐢𝐚) 𝐯𝐒 𝟐 𝐩𝐒 (𝐩𝐬𝐢𝐚) 𝐩𝐯𝐚 (𝐩𝐬𝐢𝐚)

𝐍𝐏𝐒𝐇𝐀(𝐟𝐭) = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟏 + 𝐟𝐭 + 𝟐. 𝟑𝟏 − 𝟐. 𝟑𝟏 (1.5)
𝐒𝐆 𝟐𝐠( 𝟐 ) 𝐒𝐆 𝐒𝐆
𝐬

𝐩𝐒 (𝐤𝐏𝐚𝐚) 𝐯𝐒 𝟐 𝐩𝐚 (𝐤𝐏𝐚𝐚) 𝐩𝐯𝐚 (𝐤𝐏𝐚𝐚)

𝐍𝐏𝐒𝐇𝐀(𝐦) = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟐 + 𝐦 + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟐 (1.6)
𝐒𝐆 𝟐𝐠( 𝟐 ) 𝐒𝐆 𝐒𝐆
𝐬

Where:

g : the acceleration due to gravity, 32.17 ft/s2 in Imperial units or 9.81 m/s2 in metric units;

ps : the suction pressure in psia or kPaa;

vs : the velocity at the pump suction in ft/s or m/s;

pa : the atmospheric pressure in psia or kPaa;

pva : the vapor pressure in psia or kPaa.

In part 2, we will consider how pump manufacturers determine the NPSH requirement (NPSHR).

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Importance of NPSH
NPSH is a situation that many designers will never have to consider because many liquids such as
water or similar have a low vapor pressure and the temperature is low, for example below 110 oF.
However, in the case of a below ground suction tank in conjunction with an above ground pump, the
static head is low and NPSHA should be carefully considered. Anyone in the hydrocarbon processing or
chemical industries will need to carefully consider the NPSH available, as the properties of chemicals
and hydrocarbon liquids vary considerably compared to water.

Pump manufacturers will always request the NPSHA of your pump system no matter what the case
(unless you are requesting a submerged pump) as a means of protecting themselves from potential
suction head problems in your plant. The NPSHA is the last thing you will check after designing your
pump system and selecting your pump.

Figure A1 Barometric Pressure v Elevation

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Figure A2 Vapor Pressure for Various Liquids

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