8.

3 HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
At the end of this chapter students should be able to:

a Express and use atmospheric pressure, gauge pressure,

Pgauge = Pabs − Patm = gh
and
absolute pressure,
Pabs = Patm + gh

1
 FLUIDS
(substance that can flow. Fluid conforms to the
boundaries of any container in which we put them)

LIQUIDS GASES

3
 FLUID MECHANIC

Fluid mechanic is the study of fluids

at rest, in equilibrium situations (fluid
static) & fluids in motion (fluid
dynamics).

Fluid mechanics is the branch of

physics concerned with the
mechanics of fluids (liquids, gases,
and plasmas) and the forces on
them.

It can be divided into fluid statics,

the study of fluids at rest; and fluid
dynamics, the study of the effect of
forces on fluid motion.

4
 PRESSURE

Definition The pressure, P in a fluid is the

force per unit area exerted by the
fluid on a surface.
Formulae F⊥
P=
A
Physical Quantity Scalar Quantity
Unit 1 N m−2 = 1 Pa
Unit Conversion 1 atm = 1.013  105 Pa
= 1.013 bar
= 14.70 Ib in−2

5
FIGURE 8.1 shows the force exerted by a fluid on a
submerged object at any point is perpendicular to the
surface of the object.

Figure 8.1

6
 VARIATION OF PRESSURE WITH DEPTH,h
The element of the fluid is in
equilibrium because the fluid at rest.
Hence;

F = 0 
F1 d
F2 − F1 − mg = 0 d +h A
where  
mg
F2 = P2 A; F1 = P1 A F2
m = V = Ah
Consider a thin element of
P2 − P1 = gh static fluid with mass, m open
to the atmosphere
P = PA + gh
7
 P = PA + gh
where
P : absolute (total) pressure
PA : atmospheric pressure = 1.013 × 105 N m–2
ρgh : gauge (excess) pressure or hydrostatic pressure = PG
ρ : density of the fluid
h : depth below the surface of a liquid open to the
atmosphere.

8
❑ When depth, h
increases, pressure P
increases too.
❑ The pressure is the
same at all points having
the same depth.
❑ The shape of the
container does not
matter.

9
 EXAMPLE 8.5 SOLUTION
If you dive to 30 m below (a) Pressure due to the water
the surface of a lake. alone is refer to hydrostatic
Determine pressure, ρgh.
(a) the pressure due to the
water alone?
(b) the absolute pressure at
Pwater = gh
that depth?
= (1000)(9.81)30
= 294.3  103 Pa

10
 EXAMPLE 8.5 SOLUTION
If you dive to 30 m below (b) Absolute pressure at that
the surface of a lake. depth must include the
Determine atmospheric pressure.
(a) the pressure due to the
water alone? P = Pat + Pwater
(b) the absolute pressure at
that depth? = 1.013  105 + 294.3  103
= 3.956  105 Pa

11
 EXAMPLE 8.6 SOLUTION
A cubic box 20.0 cm on a Top of the box:
side is completely immersed
in a fluid. At the top of the
105  103 = Pat +  g d (1)
box, the pressure is 105 Bottom of the box:
kPa; at the bottom of the box
106.8  103 = Pat +  g (d + 0.2) (2)
the pressure is 106.8 kPa.
What is the density of the (2) − (1) :
fluid? 106.8  103 − 105  103 =  g (d − d + 0.2)
 g (0.2) = 1.8  103
1.8  103
=
9.81(0.2)

 = 917.43 kg m −3

12
 EXAMPLE 8.7 SOLUTION
A U-shaped tube is filled mostly A & B having the same elevation,
with water, but a small amount thus pressure is the same at point A
of vegetable oil has been & B.
added to one side. If the depth PA = PB
of the oil is 5.0 cm, what is the
difference in level, h between Pat +  water g h1 = Pat +  oil g h2
the top of the oil on one side of  water h1 =  oil h2
the U and the top of water on
the other side?  oil h 2 920(0.05)
Given: ρwater = 1000 kg m–3 ; h1 = =
ρoil = 920 kg m–3
 water 1000
h = 0.046 cm
1

Difference in level h = h2 – h1
= 0.05 – 0.046
= 4 × 10–3 m = 0.4 cm
13
 EXAMPLE 8.8 SOLUTION
A beaker contains a 0.120 m layer  O = 750 kg m −3 ;  W = 1000 kg m −3 ;
of oil floating on the water that is hO = 0.120 m; hW = 0.400 m
0.400 m deep. The density of the oil
is 750 kg m−3. Determine
hO
a) the gauge pressure at Oil-water
the oil-water interface. interface
hW
b) the gauge pressure at the
bottom of the beaker.
(Given the density of the water = a. The gauge pressure at the oil-water
1000 kg m−3 and g = 9.81 m s−2) interface is

POW =  O ghO
POW = (750 )(9.81)(0.120 )
POW = 883 Pa

22
 EXAMPLE 8.8 SOLUTION
A beaker contains a 0.120 m layer  O = 750 kg m −3 ;  W = 1000 kg m −3 ;
of oil floating on the water that is hO = 0.120 m; hW = 0.400 m
0.400 m deep. The density of the oil
is 750 kg m−3. Determine
hO
a) the gauge pressure at Oil-water
the oil-water interface. interface
hW
b) the gauge pressure at the
bottom of the beaker.
(Given the density of the water = b. The gauge pressure at the
1000 kg m−3 and g = 9.81 m s−2) bottom of the beaker is given by
Pbottom = POW +  W ghW
Pbottom = 883 + (1000)(9.81)(0.400)
Pbottom = 4807 Pa

23
 8.4 FLUID DYNAMICS
At the end of this chapter students should be able to:

a Illustrate fluid flow(laminar flow only)

b Explain continuity principle and Bernoulli principle

Use continuity, A1v1 = A2 v 2 and Bernoulli’s equations,

c
1 2
P + v + gh = cons tan t
2

15
 IDEAL FLUID
The characteristics of an ideal fluid are:
The fluid is incompressible.
➢ the density is constant.

The flow is steady (laminar).

➢ the velocity, density and pressure at each
point in the fluid do not change in time

The fluid is no viscosity

➢ internal friction between the fluid layers is
neglected.

The flow is irrotational.

➢ the fluid has no angular velocity about any
point (no turbulent occurs)
53
53
53
53
 FLUID FLOW
a. a non-rotating sphere
Streamline
• is defined as the path taken
by a fluid particle under
steady (laminar) flow.
FIGURE 8.2
• FIGURE 8.2, 8.3 and 8.4
b. an airplane wing (aerofoil)
show the streamlines for
different shapes.

FIGURE 8.3

c. a venturi tube (meter)

FIGURE 8.4
54
 CONTINUITY EQUATION
By using the principle of conservation of v2
Y
mass, thus the continuity equation is
A2
given by

A1v1 = A2v2

where: X v1
A : cross - sectional area of the tube
A1
v : speed of the fluid
Av = the volume flow rate
= the rate at which volume crosses a
section of the tube. Consider the steady (laminar)
V flow of an ideal fluid with
= A1v1 = A2 v2 = constant density,  along a tube which
t changing cross-sectional area
from X to Y as shown in Figure
above. 55
 EXAMPLE 8.9 SOLUTION
A pipe of diameter 5.80 cm a. By applying the continuity
contained water flowing with a equation thus,
speed of 15 cm s−1. A larger tube of
diameter 7.60 cm is then joined to d1 = 0.0580 m; d 2 = 0.0760 m; v1 = 0.15 m s −1
the pipe. Calculate
a. the speed of the water
flowing in the larger tube. A1v1 = A2 v2
b. the water flow rate.  d2  d 2

 v1 =
1 2  
 4   4 v2
   
d1 v1 = d 2 v2
2 2

(0.0580) (0.15) = (0.0760) v2

2 2

−1
v2 = 0.087 m s
56
 EXAMPLE 8.9 SOLUTION
A pipe of diameter 5.80 cm b. The water flow rate is given by
contained water flowing with a
speed of 15 cm s−1. A larger tube of V
diameter 7.60 cm is then joined to = A1v1
the pipe. Calculate t
a. the speed of the water
 V  d
2

flowing in the larger tube. =  1 v1
b. the water flow rate. t  4 

V   (0.0580 ) 
2
=  0.15

t  4 
V
= 3.96  10 − 4 m 3s −1
t

57
 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
Bernoulli’s the pressure in a stream
principle of fluid is reduced as the
speed of the flow is
increased
P V

58
 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

1 2 1 2
P1 + v1 + gh1 = P2 + v2 + gh2
2 2

 : density of the fluid

v1 : speed of the fluid at point 1
v2 : speed of the fluid at point 2
h1 : height of the fluid at point 1
h2 : height of the fluid at point 2
g : gravitational acceleration
P1 : pressure of the fluid at point 1
P2 : pressure of the fluid at point 2
59
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

The Bernoulli’s equation only

valid for an ideal fluid because
the real fluids are viscous and
gases are easily compressed.

60
 APPLICATION OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
1 2 1 2
P1 + v1 + gh1 = P2 + v2 + gh2
2 2

1 2 A1  2

P1 − P2 = v1  2 − 1 v1 = 2 gh
2 
Venturi tube
A2  Torricelli’s law

2 P2 = PA A2

h A1
A1 v1 v2 A2
1
h2 v1
P2
P1 h1 P1 = PA
61
 APPLICATION OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
From the continuity equation,
A1v1 = A2 v2
 A1 
v2 =  v1 (1)
 A2 
By applying the Bernoulli’s equation,
1 1
P1 + v1 + gh1 = P2 + v2 + gh2 A1 v1
2 2
v2 A2
2 2
and h1 = h2
P2
1
2
2
(
P1 − P2 =  v2 − v1
2
) (2) P1 Venturi tube
By substituting the eq. (1) into eq. (2),
therefore
1  A
2

P1 − P2 = v1  2 − 1
2 1

2  A2 
where:
62
P1 − P2 : pressure difference
 APPLICATION OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
By using the Bernoulli’s equation,
1 2 1 2
P1 + v1 + gh1 = P2 + v2 + gh2 2 P2 = PA A2
2 2
and A2  A1 A1
h
thus v2  0
h2 1 v1
P1 + v1 = P2 + g (h2 − h1 )
1 2
so
2
h1 P1 = PA
where P1 = P2 = PA
and h2 − h1 = h

v1 = g (h2 − h1 )
1 2
Torricelli’s law
2 Consider a tank containing a
liquid of density,  has a hole in
v1 = 2 gh its side at a distance, h1 from the
tank’s bottom as shown.
63
 EXAMPLE 8.10 SOLUTION
A large tank contains water to a a. By applying the Torricelli’s law, thus
depth of 1.0 m. Water emerges
from a small hole in the side of the u = 2 gh
tank 20 cm below the water level.
If the diameter of the hole is 0.50 u = 2(9.81)(0.20 )
cm, determine
u = 1.98 m s −1
a. the speed at which the
water emerges from the
hole.
b. the water flow rate from
the hole
h = 0.20 m;
c. the distance from the h
d = 0.005 m
base of the tank at
which the water strikes 1.0 m u
the floor.
(Given g = 9.81 m s−2) y
x
64
 EXAMPLE 8.10 SOLUTION
A large tank contains water to a b. The water flow rate is given by
depth of 1.0 m. Water emerges
V d 2
from a small hole in the side of the
= Au and A =
tank 20 cm below the water level.
t 4
V  d 2 
If the diameter of the hole is 0.50
cm, determine =  u
a. the speed at which the t  4 
V   (0.005) 
water emerges from the 2
hole.
=  1.98

b. the water flow rate from t  4 
the hole
V
c. the distance from the = 3.89 10 −5 m 3s −1
base of the tank at t
which the water strikes
the floor.
(Given g = 9.81 m s−2)

65
 EXAMPLE 8.10 SOLUTION
A large tank contains water to a c. From the diagram,
depth of 1.0 m. Water emerges y = 1.0 − 0.20 = 0.80 m
from a small hole in the side of the By applying the equation of linear
tank 20 cm below the water level. motion for vertical component of the
If the diameter of the hole is 0.50 projectile, thus
cm, determine
1 2
a. the speed at which the
water emerges from the
s y = u y t − gt
2
hole.
1 2
b. the water flow rate from − y = 0 − gt
the hole 2
− (0.80 ) = − (9.81)t 2
c. the distance from the
1
base of the tank at 2
which the water strikes t = 0.404 s
the floor. Therefore the distance, x is
(Given g = 9.81 m s−2) x = u x t and u x = u
x = (1.98)0.404
66
x = 0.788 m
 8.5 VISCOSITY
At the end of this chapter students should be able to:

a Explain viscosity.

b State and use Stokes’ Law, FD = 6rv

Explain the terminal velocity in fluid using graph of graph of

c velocity-time, v–t

33
 VISCOSITY

❑ Describes the liquid’s resistance to flow

(that is some force opposing speed of flow)
❑ It is defined as the internal friction of fluid

68
 VISCOSITY

✓ The viscosity of a fluid decreases

with increasing temperature
because the molecules become
less tightly bound.

72
 DRAG FORCE

• object moves through a fluid, the

fluid exerts a viscous drag force,
FD on it.

• The viscous drag force depends

on the velocity, shape and size
of the object.

73
 STOKES’ LAW
is the force required to move a
sphere through a given viscous
fluid at a low uniform velocity is
directly proportional to the velocity
and radius of the sphere.

Stokes’s law:

FD = 6rv
where
FD : viscous drag force
 : coefficient of viscosity
r : radius of the sphere
v : velocity of the sphere

74
TERMINAL VELOCITY

75
 TERMINAL VELOCITY

❑ is defined as the constant a. In vacuum

velocity finally attained by a velocity
body moving through a fluid
under gravity when there is a
zero nett force acting on it.

❑ The FIGURE 8.5 and 8.6 0 time

shows the velocity against FIGURE 8.5
time graphs in vacuum and
fluid. b. In fluid
velocity
vt

0
time
75
FIGURE 8.6
 TERMINAL VELOCITY

❑ FIGURE 8.7 shows a small

sphere of mass m , radius r and
density s is released from rest
into a viscous fluid of density f  
and the coefficient of viscosity . FD FB
❑ The ball accelerates from rest and
its velocity increases and reaches
a terminal velocity.
v
mg
FIGURE 8.7

76
 FOLLOW UP EXERCISE

area 1.2 cm2

5.0 cm s−1
A B

area 0.5 cm2

FIGURE 8.7
FIGURE 8.7 shows an ideal fluid of density 790 kg m−3 flows under
1 streamlines conditions along a horizontal tube, leaving the tube at
a speed of 5.0 cm s−1. At the input end, the cross sectional area of
the tube is 1.2 cm2 but this narrows down to 0.5 cm2.Determine
a) the speed of the fluid as it enters the tube,
b) the pressure difference in the fluid between the points A and B.

ANS: 2.1 cm s−1; 0.82 Pa

 FOLLOW UP EXERCISE

buoy
rope

FIGURE 8.8

2 FIGURE 8.8 shows a submerged marker-buoy is anchored to the

sea-bed by a rope. The buoy is spherical and has a radius of 0.12 m and
mass of 0.41 kg. The seawater may be assumed to be still and to have
density 1030 kg m−3. Determine
a) the upthrust on the buoy,
b) the tension in the rope.

ANS: 73 N; 69 N