Technology of Fruits and Vegetable Processing (FST-512)

Compiled By: Dr. Priti Jain and Dr. Pratibha Parihar

M.Sc.(Food Sci. & Tech): First Year, Second Semester

UNIT I: Indian and global scenario on production and processing of fruits and vegetable;
Quality requirements of raw materials for processing; sourcing and receiving at processing
plants; primary processing: grading, sorting, cleaning, washing, peeling, slicing and blanching;
minimal processing.

UNIT II : Processing for pulp, puree and concentrates, especially from mango, tomato, guava,
papaya, apple, pineapple, pomegranate, grapes etc. using aseptic packaging, canning, RTS fruit
beverages, IQF and frozen fruits and vegetables; for peas, mango pulps etc.

UNIT III: Technology for processed products like pickles, chutneys, sauces particularly from
raw mango, lime and other regional fruits and vegetables of importance.

UNIT IV: Processing of fruits for candies, bars, toffees, jams and jellies, squashes and syrups
using locally available fruits like papaya, mango, aonla and other under-utilized fruits.

UNIT V: Dehydration of fruits and vegetables using various drying technologies like sun drying,
solar drying (natural and forced convection), osmotic, tunnel drying, fluidized fed drying, freeze
drying, convectional and adiabatic drying; applications to raisins, dried figs, vegetables,
intermediate moisture fruits and vegetables. Fruit powders using spray drying.
 UNIT I
Indian and global scenario on production and processing of fruits and vegetable

The Green Revolution and subsequent efforts through the application of science and technology
or increasing food production in India have brought self-reliance in food. The impetus given by
the Government, State Agricultural Universities, State Departments of Agriculture and other
organizations through the evolution and introduction of numerous hybrid varieties of fruits and
vegetables and improved management practices have resulted in increased food production.
Fruits and vegetables are among the perishable commodities. They are important ingredients in
the human dietaries. Due to their high nutritive value they make significant nutritional
contribution to human well-being. They are the cheaper and better source, the protective foods.
In developing countries agriculture is the mainstay of the economy. Fruit and vegetable
processing are among the most important. Therefore, fruit and vegetable processing has been
engaging the attention of planners and policy makers as it can contribute to the economic
development of rural population. The utilization of resources both material and human is one of
the ways of improving the economic status of family.

India is endowed with a remarkably heterogeneous area characterized by a great diversity of agro
climatic zones. It allows for production of a variety of horticultural crops such as fruits,
vegetables, flowers, spices, plantation crops, root and tuber crops, and medicinal and aromatic
crops.

Fig. 1: Production share of horticultural crops in India

India's diverse climate ensures availability of all varieties of fresh fruits & vegetables. It ranks
second in fruits and vegetables production in the world, after China. As per National Horticulture
Database published by National Horticulture Board, during 2015-16, India produced 90.2 million
metric tonnes of fruits and 169.1 million metric tonnes of vegetables. The area under cultivation
of fruits stood at 6.3 million hectares while vegetables were cultivated at 10.1 million hectares.
India is the largest producer of ginger and okra amongst vegetables and ranks second in
production of potatoes, onions, cauliflowers, brinjal, Cabbages, etc. Amongst fruits, the country
ranks first in production of Bananas (25.7%), Papayas (43.6%) and Mangoes (including
mangosteens and guavas) (40.4%). The vast production base offers India tremendous
opportunities for export. During 2018-19, India exported fruits and vegetables worth Rs.
10236.93 crores/ 1,469.33 USD Millions which comprised of fruits worth Rs. 4817.35 crores/
692.01 USD Millions and vegetables worth Rs. 5419.48 crores/ 777.25 USD Millions.
Grapes, Pomegranates, Mangoes , Bananas, Oranges account for larger portion of fruits exported
from the country while Onions, Mixed Vegetables, Potatoes, Tomatoes, and Green Chilly
contribute largely to the vegetable export basket. The major destinations for Indian fruits and
vegetables are Bangladesh, UAE, Netherland, Nepal, Malaysia, UK, Sri Lanka, Oman and Qatar.
Though India's share in the global market is still nearly 1% only, there is increasing acceptance
of horticulture produce from the country.

Fig. 2: Major vegetables producing countries

 Fig.3: Major fruits producing countries

Objectives of fruit and vegetable processing:

1) To reduce wastage and losses: Fruit and vegetable industry is the backbone of
horticulture industry as it takes care of all possible waste that occurs in spite of
improvement in the distribution and marketing of fresh produce.
2) To handle glut: Produce during glut season utilized for making different processed
products, thus fruit processing helps in reducing wastage and handling excess produce
during glut season.
3) To stabilize farm prices and income: It stabilizes farm price by utilizing the excess
produce in value addition to provide additional income to the farmers.
4) To utilize marketable surplus: Processing utilizes marketable surplus as well as cull and
deformed produce, to ensure remunerative returns to the growers.
5) To generate employment: Processing of fruits and vegetables being a labour intensive
helps to generate both direct and indirect employment for the masses.
6) To add variety to the diet: Value addition/processing make the food more attractive and
palatable.
7) To ensure nutritional security.
8) To earn foreign exchange through export of processed fruit and vegetable products.

Principles of food preservation

1) Prevention or delay of microbial decomposition of food

 By keeping out micro-organisms (asepsis)
 By removal of micro-organisms (filtration)
 By hindering the growth or activity of micro-organisms (use of low temperature,
drying, creating anaerobic conditions or using chemicals).
  By killing the micro-organisms (using heat or irradiation).
2) Prevention or delay of self decomposition of food
 By destruction or inactivation of food enzymes (blanching or boiling)
 By prevention or delay of purely chemical reactions (use of antioxidants to
prevent oxidation).
3) Prevention of damage by insects, animals, mechanical causes etc (use of fumigants,
cushioning, packaging etc).

Processing of fruit and vegetable

a) Primary processing: Simple primary processing operations like sorting, trimming,

grading, washing, surface drying and packaging can be used to prepare fruit and
vegetables for immediate marketing. The available equipment and technologies for
various unit operations of primary processing include farm level fruit and vegetable
washing machine, basket centrifuge, shrink packaging of fruit and vegetable and hydro
cooler-cum-washer for fruits and vegetables, vegetable dryer, tamarind dehuller and
deseeder, pomegranate aril remover cumin cleaner-cumgrader, turmeric washing and
polishing machine etc.

b) Secondary processing
i) Drying: Drying is the oldest and cheapest method of preservation of horticultural
produce. Significant information is available on the use of solar drier for drying of
fruits, vegetables, plantation crops and spices. However, medicinal and aromatic
plants can be dried in solar drier, poly tunnel solar drier or mechanical drier. Pre-
treatments of fruits like peeling, slicing, blanching, sulphuring, etc, are used for
preparing fruit and vegetables for drying.
ii) Osmotic dehydration: Osmotic dehydration consisting of partial removal of water by
dipping in sugar syrup prior to washing in a mechanical dehydrator is now a standard
accepted practice for preparation of intermediate moisture products with acceptable
sensory qualities. Some fruits not otherwise fit for drying owing to inherent high
acid and astringent taste can also be dried by using this technique. Fruits suitable for
osmotic dehydration include pineapple slices, mango slices, banana slices, sapota,
apricot, apple and grapes etc.
iii) Processing of lesser utilized fruits: Large quantities of lesser utilized horticultural
crops like bael, aonla, jack fruit, aloe vera etc cannot be consumed in fresh form
without processing. They are known for many therapeutic/medicinal and nutritive
properties. Processing of such crops can play an important role in satisfying the
demand for nutritious, delicately flavoured and attractive natural foods of high
therapeutic value.
 Bael fruit having hard shell and mucilaginous texture is popularly consumed as a
dessert fruit in India.
  Kokum and hill lemon are not acceptable in the fresh form owing to their high
acidity, while fresh aonla has a strong astringent taste.
 The products prepared from such fruits include unripe mango drink,(mango pana)
high fiber and anti-oxidant rich.
 Cashew apple powder fortified with 2% cereal flour.
 Bael products like ripe bael drink, squash, RTS, (ready to serve) drink jam and
jelly, bael dry powder.
 Aonla preserve, candy, shreds, chayawanprash, squash, dehydrated powder, aonla
beverages, toffees etc.
 Aloe vera gel and beverages.
iv) Value addition: The fruit and vegetables which can not be sold in the fresh market
can be utilized for preparation of different value added products. The value added
products include juice, concentrate, fruit based carbonated juices, canning, pulp
extraction, pickling, chutney and sauce making, preserves and candies, beverages like
squashes, ready to serve (RTS) drinks and appetizer etc from different fruits and
vegetables.
v) Fermented products: Production of alcoholic drinks like cider, wine, vermouth,
vinegar etc is now an accepted practice for utilization of different fruits.
 Manufacture of champagne (sparkling wine), still wine and brandy from
grapes is commercially practiced in the country.
 Other fermented beverages include cider, wine and vermouth from apple,
plum, apricot, wild apricot, peach, strawberry, banana etc.
vi) By product waste utilization: Fruit processing plants generate large volume of by-
products in the form of pomace, seeds, stones/pits skin, peel which is thrown as a
waste. Though such left over produce still contain good proportion of nutrients which
can be utilized to prepare large number of value added products for industrial uses.
 Pomace can be used for extraction of pectin, dietary fibre and industrial
alcohol.
 Oil extracted from fruit stones/seed left after processing of stone fruits pulp
can be used for cooking of foods, pharmaceutical and cosmetic purposes.
 Vinegar extracted from mango peel.
 High fiber containing biscuits from aonla and apple pomace.
 Peel oil, pectin powder, peel candy and animal feed are some of the citrus peel
products.
 Oil and fiber from oil palm.

Steps involved in primary processing

Cleaning/ Washing: Harvested fruit is washed to remove soil, microorganisms and pesticide
residues. Fruit washing is a mandatory processing step; it would be wise to eliminate spoiled
fruit before washing in order to avoid the pollution of washing tools and/or equipment and the
contamination of fruit during washing. Washing efficiency can be gauged by the total number of
microorganisms present on fruit surface before and after washing - best result are when there is a
six fold reduction. The water from the final wash should be free from moulds and yeast; a small
quantity of bacteria is acceptable. Fruit washing can be carried out by immersion, by spray/
showers or by combination of these two processes which is generally the best solution: pre-
washing and washing. Some usual practices in fruit washing are:

 Addition of detergents or 1.5% HCl solution in washing water to remove traces of insect-
fungicides;
 Use of warm water (about 50°C) in the pre-washing phase;
 Higher water pressure in spray/shower washers. Washing must be done before the fruit is
cut in order to avoid losing high nutritive value soluble substances (vitamins, minerals,
sugars, etc.).

Cleaning can be performed by using:

 Wet procedures: Soaking, spraying, floatation, washing and ultrasonic cleaning.

 Dry procedures: Separation by air, magnetic attraction of metal contaminants or by
physical methods depending upon the product and nature of the dirt.
 Fruit and vegetables are generally washed with water to remove dust, dirt and adhering
surface micro-flora.
 Fruits like peach, apricot etc that are lye peeled are not washed before peeling.
 Washing after peeling removes vitamins and minerals and should be discouraged.
 Different methods of washing include soaking or agitating in water, washing with cold or
hot water sprays etc.
 Mechanical washers involve agitating or tumbling the commodity on moving belts or
revolving screens while they are immersed in water or subjected to water sprays.
 Washing by using high pressure sprays is most satisfactory.
 Detergents are frequently used in the wash or rinse water.
 Vegetables may be soaked in dilute solution of potassium permanganate or chlorine (25-
50 ppm) for disinfection.

Sorting/Grading: Fruit sorting covers two main separate processing operations: a. Removal of
damaged fruit and any foreign bodies (which might have been left behind after washing); b.
Qualitative sorting based on organoleptic criteria and maturity stage. Mechanical sorting for size
is usually not done at the preliminary stage. The most important initial sorting is for variety and
maturity. However, for some fruit and in special processing technologies it is advisable to
proceed to a manual dimensional sorting (grading).
Trimming and peeling (skin removal): This processing step aims at removing the parts of the
fruit which are either not edible or difficult to digest especially the skin. Up to now the industrial
peeling of fruit and vegetables was performed by three procedures:

 Mechanically
 By using water steam
 Chemically; this method consists in treating fruit and vegetables by dipping them in a
caustic soda solution at a temperature of 90 to 100° C; the concentration of this solution
as well as the dipping or immersion time varying according to each specific case.

Disintegration: It covers wide range of operations that are used to sub-divide large masses of
foods into smaller. It covers wide range of operations that are used to sub-divide large masses of
foods into smaller units or particles. It may involve cutting, slicing, chopping, grating, pressing
to extract juice, pulping, homogenizing etc.

 Slicing, chopping, cutting and dicing: Fruit and vegetables are sliced to a desirable size
either manually or by using semi or automatic slicing/chopping or dicing machines.
These unit operations are collectively called as size reduction. These unit operations
increase the rate of drying, heating, cooling and improve the efficiency and rate of
extraction of liquid components like fruit juices.
 Juice extraction: For juice extraction, the fruits and vegetables like apple, pear, carrot,
aonla etc are grated in fruit grater to reduce their particle size. The grated mass is then
pressed through basket press/hydraulic press to extract juice.
 Pulping: For extraction of pulp, the fruits like apple, pear, apricot, guava, plums, tomato
etc after preliminary treatment (crushing with or without heating), are passed through the
pulper. With the action of blades/flights in the pulper, the fine pulp is forced through the
openings of the screen/sieve which is collected at one end, while, seeds, skin and core is
forced through other end of the pulper. Depending upon the type of fruit, various types of
pulper like baby pulper, tomato pulper, mango pulper etc can be used.

Blanching: Treatment of fruit and vegetables by dipping in boiling water or steam for short
periods followed by immediate cooling is called blanching. The basic objectives of blanching
are:

 Inactivation of enzymes, to cleanse the product initially to decrease the microbial load.
 To preheat the product before processing.
 To soften the tissue for facilitating compact packing in the cans.
 To expel intercellular gases in the raw fruit.
 To prevent excessive pressure built up in the container.
 To allow improved heat transfer during heat processing.
 To ensure development of vacuum in the can
 To reduce internal can corrosion.
 UNIT II
Processing for pulp, puree and concentrates

Pulp and juice processing are important agro-industrial activities for the food production sector
as they add economic value to fruits, avoid fruit wasting and minimize losses during
commercialization of unprocessed fresh fruits. Pulp and juice processing also constitute an
alternative way by which fruit growers sell their products. One advantage of industrializing fruit
pulp is the consumption of fruits native to particular regions throughout the country, some of
which being highly coveted on the international market. Fruit pulps could also supply the food
industry for producing juices, ice creams, candies and confectionery and dairy products such as
yogurts. The markets of concentrated juice and pulp are notably relevant because they seek to
attract consumers fundamentally by the idea of fruit nutritional value preservation. Preserving
highly perishable fruits constitute a big challenge for agro-industries. Processing methods that
conserve the physical structure, nutritional and sensory attributes and expanding the consumer
market of fruit pulps. Fruit pulp production line normally embraces the following steps:
reception, weighing, pre-selection, washing and sanitization, pulping, packaging and freezing. In
general, fruits are frozen when there is insufficient amount of fruit to be pulp, whereas unripe
fruits are cooled after the washing/sanitization step. The flowchart in Figure 1 illustrates the
overall process that should be adopted in order to manufacture good quality fruit pulps. Pre-
selection/selection of fruits, washing and sanitization, cooling or freezing are the most important
steps and must be efficiently performed.

Figure 1: Fruit pulp processing flowchart

Puree and Concentrate
A purée (or mash) is cooked food, usually vegetables, fruits or legumes that has been ground,
pressed, blended or sieved to the consistency of a creamy paste or liquid whereas,
concentrate is juice only with some water removed.

A. Tomato Puree and Concentrate

The pulp-based concentrate product may be classified in puree (10 Brix°), simple (16 Brix°),
double (29 Brix°) and triple (30-32 Brix°) concentrate. The double and triple concentrates are
prepared by means of vacuum evaporators.

Raw materials
 Fresh ripe tomatoes
 Salt, optional
Materials and equipment
 Pot with lid
 Pulper or disc pulp remover
 Jars with screw-band lids (200 ml approximately) or bottles with crown corks (200 ml
approximately)
 Manual capper
 Crown corks
 Kitchen utensils: wooden spoon, knife, spoons, funnel and wooden board, various plastic
containers, kitchen cloths
 Heat production system.
Processing for puree
To prepare the puree, proceed as follows:
 Proceed as in the recipe for the preparation of tomato juice (without adding lemon juice)
until the juice is extracted.
 Place the pot with the juice back on the fire and let it concentrate until it reaches 10
Brix°, stirring with a wooden spoon every now and then to prevent the mixture from
sticking.
 Once 10 Brix° have been reached, add 1% salt, dissolve and remove the pot from the fire.
 Fill the bottles to the top with hot puree and cover.
 Sterilize the bottles as indicated in the procedure to make tomato sauce.
Processing for simple concentrate
To prepare the simple concentrate (16 Brix°), proceed as follows:
 Concentrate the product until 16 Brix° is reached.
 Add 2% salt, dissolve and remove from the fire.
 Fill the bottles or jars with the hot product and cover them.
 This product must be sterilized. Proceed as indicated in the recipe for the preparation of
tomato sauce.
  Label the containers and seal the jar lids with adhesive tape.
 Once the container is opened, keep in the refrigerator.

Natural apple puree

Raw material
 Fresh apples of the green variety, if possible (Grand Smith): 20 kg.
 Cinnamon or clove: optional
Materials and equipment
 Aluminium pot with lid.
 Boards for cutting the fruit.
 Pulper.
 250 or 500 g jars with screw-band lids.
 Kitchen utensils: wooden spoon, knives, funnel, skimmer, wooden chopping blocks, an
assortment of plastic containers, kitchen cloths.
 Clothbag for the sterilization of jars (optional).
 Source of heat.
Processing
 Wash the fruits in drinking water.
 Blanch the fruits whole (the smallest) or in halves (the larger ones) for 10-15 minutes
until they become softer.
 Cool the fruits partially and cut them in small pieces.
 Put the pieces through the pulper.
 Weigh the pulp.
 Heat the pulp, with or without cinnamon, in a pot until its volume is reduced by half. Use
a wooden spoon to stir the mixture every now and then, to make sure that it does not stick
to the pan.
 Pack the concentrated pulp in the jars, previously cleaned and sterilized with boiling
water, making sure that they are filled to the brim with the pulp still hot. -
 Seal the jars.
 Sterilize the jars in boiling water for 15 minutes.
 Cool the jars with a jet of cold water, making sure that they do not break.
 Dry the jars and screw the lid on more tightly.
 Label and store.

Guava puree
Raw material
 Ripe guavas
Materials and equipment
 Aluminium pot with lid.
  Pulper.
 Sieve (0.05 cm mesh).
 Kitchen utensils: wooden spoon, knives, wooden chopping block, an assortment of plastic
containers, kitchen cloths.
 Glass jars with screw-band lids.
 Source of heat.
Processing
 Wash the guavas and drain.
 Cut in quarters and blanch, if necessary.
 Extract the pulp.
 Sieve the pulp so that it acquires a uniform consistency (optional).
 Pasteurize at 90°C for 60 seconds and pack.
 Label and store.
Canning

The term canning refers to a process which involves heating food stuff in hermetically sealed
containers for a specific time at specific temperature to eliminate microbial pathogens that
endanger public health and micro-organisms as well as enzymes that deteriorate food during
storage. Presently large quantity of fruits and vegetables are preserved by canning. There is a
great scope for the development of canning industry as it is one of the processes which does not
involve the use of any chemical in preservation. Fruit and vegetables are canned in the season
when the raw material is available in plenty. Canned products are sold in off season and fetch
better returns to the grower as well as processor.

Figure2: Process flow for fruit canning

Figure3: Process flow for vegetable canning

The canning of fruit and vegetables broadly involves the following steps:
1) Preparation of fruit and vegetables: Preparation of food commodity for canning consists of
washing, sorting, grading, peeling, halving, blanching etc.
2) Raw material selection/receiving: For canning, fruits should be ripe but firm, evenly
matured, free from blemishes, insect damage and malformation. Thus, harvesting at proper
maturity is an important step in selection of raw material for canning.
 Most fruits are harvested at soft ripe stage. However, apple, pear, peach and banana
harvested at mature stage are preferred for canning.
 Over ripe fruits yield poor quality product, while under ripe/immature fruit generally
shrivel or toughen on canning.
 Vegetables except peas, beans etc are harvested at mature stage to enable them to
withstand cooking during sterilization.
 Vegetables like green beans, green peas, ladies finger should be tender and free from soil,
dirt etc.
 Tomatoes should however, be firm, fully ripe and uniformly deep red in colour.
3) Washing: Fruit and vegetables are generally washed with water to remove dust, dirt and
adhering surface micro-flora. Fruits like peach, apricot etc are lye peeled so not washed
before peeling. On the other hand, washing after peeling removes vitamins and minerals and
should be discouraged. Different methods of washing include soaking or agitating in water,
washing with cold or hot water sprays etc.
 Mechanical washers involve agitating or tumbling the commodity on moving belts or
revolving screens while they are immersed in water or subjected to water sprays.
 Washing by using high pressure sprays is most satisfactory.
 Detergents are frequently used in the wash or rinse water.
 Vegetables may be soaked in dilute solution of potassium permanganate or chlorine (25-
50 ppm) for disinfection.
 The water temperature should be kept low to keep the fruit firm and to reduce leaching
losses.
 High pressure sprays should not injure the fruits.
Bacteria and other contaminants can accumulate in the wash water and hence appropriate
cleaning and chlorination practices be followed.
4) Sorting and grading: Sorting and grading ensures the removal of inferior or damaged
commodity. For sorting, inspection belt can be used, in addition to trained personnel who
detect poor quality produce unsuitable for canning.
Automatic colour sorters can be used for sorting to reduce labour cost.
The fruit and vegetables are graded to obtain uniform quality with respect to size, colour etc.
after preliminary sorting.
Grading can be done either manually or with the help of grading machines.
For mechanical grading, the fruit and vegetables are passed over screens with holes of
different diameter.
 Different types of mechanical graders include screen grader, roller grader, rope or cable
grader etc. Screen graders fitted with vibrating screens of copper with circular openings are
most commonly used. A set of six screens is generally provided to accommodate different
sizes.
Soft and berry fruits are generally graded manually.
Plums, cherries and olives are graded whole while peaches, apricot, pears, mangoes etc are
graded after cutting them into halves or slices for canning.
White button mushrooms are graded on cap size basis. Only healthy and light buttons with
cap diameter up to 2.5cm and compact head are graded as A grade while, cap diameter
beyond 2.5cm as B grade.
5) Peeling, coring and pitting: These are the primary unit operations for preparing fruit and
vegetables for canning. Depending upon the type of commodity, peeling and coring methods
are selected such as (1) by hand or knife (2) by machine (3) by heat treatment (4) by using
lye solution. Cores and pits in fruits like apple, peach, apricot etc are removed by hand or by
machine (de-corer).
a) Peeling by hand: Many fruit and vegetables are peeled and cut by hand with the help of
peeling knives. The peeling knife with a curved blade and a special guard to regulate the
depth of peeling can be used for uniform peeling in case of irregular fruit shapes.
b) Mechanical peeling: Mechanical peeling, coring and cubing machines are used for
peeling pears, apples, carrots, turnip, potatoes etc. Similarly, automatic peelers are used
for peeling of peaches and cherries.
c) Mechanical /Knife peeling: Mechanical knife peelers are used for peeling of fruits like
apples and pears. In mechanical knife peeler either stationary blades are pressed against
surface of rotating food commodity or the rotating blades are pressed against the
stationary food to remove the skin.
d) Abrasive peeling: It is used for peeling potatoes, ginger, carrots etc. The food commodity
is fed on to the carborundum rollers or placed into a rotating bowl which is lined with
carborundum crystal acting as abrasive surface. With the continuous supply of water, the
rotating abrasive surface removes the skin from the surface of the food.
e) Flame peeling: Flame peeling is used in onions, garlic and brinjal. The peeler consists of
a conveyor belt which carries and rotates food through a furnace heated to more than
1000oC. The outer layer and root hairs of onion are burnt off and charred skin is removed
manually.
f) Peeling by heat or hot water: In this method peaches and potatoes are scalded in steam or
boiling water to soften and loosen skin, which is subsequently removed manually. Infra-
red heat peeling can also be used for peeling of apples and tomatoes.
g) Flash steam peeling: In flash-steam peeling, the fruit and vegetables are fed into a slow
rotating (4-6 rpm) pressure vessel. High pressure steam (1500 kPa) is then introduced
into the rotating vessel to expose all food surfaces to the steam for specified period
depending upon the type of fruit. When the pressure is instantly released, the steam
 formed under the skin causes the surface of the food to flashes off. Most of the peeled
material is discharged with the steam and finishing is done with additional water sprays
to remove any skin traces.
h) Lye peeling: Lye is an boiling aqueous solution of caustic soda (Sodium hydroxide) or
Potassium hydroxide (1-2%) used in conjunction with ample water supply and heat
source for peeling. Fruit and vegetables like peaches, nectarines, apricot, sweet orange
segments, carrots and sweet potatoes are peeled by dipping them in boiling caustic soda
(1-2%) for 1-2 minutes (depending upon the strength of lye, temperature/maturity and
nature of fruit or vegetable) followed by dipping in cold water. The hot lye loosens the
skin from the flesh underneath which is removed by gentle rubbing of fruit by hand. The
fruit can also be dipped in a dilute solution of hydrochloric acid or citric acid for few
seconds to neutralize the alkali. The method is very quick and efficient to reduce wastage
and peeling cost. The effectiveness of lye peeling depends upon lye concentration and
temperature, product holding time and agitation.
 Lye peeling equipment varies from simple stainless steel (SS) pan for lye solution
with SS baskets as cages for holding the food commodity to fully automatic system.
 In cottage and small scale canning units, the peeling system consists of three SS tanks
attached in series, the one of which is having provision for steam, the second tank
contain dilute solution of citric acid or hydrochloric acid while the third is filled with
tap water.
 The fruit or vegetables placed in perforated SS crates/ basket or cage are dipped in the
first tank which contains boiling hot lye solution. After 1-2 minute of dipping
treatment, the crates are immediately dipped in second tank to neutralize the lye and
final washing is carried out in third tank.

6) Cutting/halving/ slicing: After peeling, the fruits are halved or cored either manually or
mechanically. However, peeled fruit should always be kept submerged in either water,
containing 1-2 % salt solution or acid to avoid enzymatic browning. Peaches, apricot, pears,
tomatoes etc are peeled before canning. However, the fruits which are canned retain better
nutrients as compared to peeled fruits.
7) Blanching: Treatment of fruit and vegetables with boiling water or steam for short periods
followed by immediate cooling prior to canning is called blanching. The basic objectives of
blanching are as under:
 To inactivate enzymes
 To clean the product initially to decrease the microbial load and to preheat the product
before processing
 To soften the tissue to facilitate compact packing in the can
 To expel intracellular gases in the raw fruit to prevent excessive pressure built up in the
container.
 To allow improved heat transfer during heat processing
  To ensure development of vacuum in the can and to reduce internal can corrosion.

Blanching is carried out either by hot water or using live steam. Water blanching is generally of
the immersion type or spray type as the product moves on a conveyer. Only soft water should be
used for blanching as hard water toughens the tissue and destroys the natural texture.

8) Prevention of browning: Some fruits which cannot be blanched due to their delicate tissue
structure are treated with some chemicals to prevent oxidative browning, occurring due to
exposure to oxygen during peeling and slicing. Oxidative browning is caused by action of
oxidase enzyme with catechol and tannins and is common in peach, apple, potato, mushroom
cherry, apricot, grapes and persimmon. Pineapple, tomato and melons are however not prone
to browning. Common methods used to prevent browning are as under:
 Sulphite treatment: Fruits are dipped in a solution containing 2000-4000 ppm SO2 for 2-
5 minutes. SO2 fumigation can also be used commonly for grapes dehydration.
 Acids: Common acids used to increase acidity include citric, fumaric, tartaric, acetic,
phosphoric etc. Low pH of solution is known to act as inhibitor for enzyme polyphenol
oxidase thus inhibits the browning of fruits. The peeled fruits, slices or cut surfaces are
dipped in a 1-2 % citric acid solution to prevent browning.
 Antioxidants: Ascorbic acid is commonly used as an antioxidant in most canned fruits. It
acts as an inhibitor of peroxidase in some fruits like kiwi fruit. It also reduces quinones,
which are generated by polyphenol oxidase upon oxidation of polyphenols to phenolic
compounds thus preventing their conversion to brown pigments. Ascorbic acid can be
used as such or mixed in dry sugar, citric acid or in syrups.
 Sugars: Sugar syrup is used to prevent browning in peeled and sliced fruits by inhibiting
oxidation by partially excluding air in the tissues. Sugar is mixed with ascorbic acid and
citric acid as an effective agent against loss of texture, colour and flavour. Addition of
chitosan in filtered apple and pear juices also prevents enzymatic browning.
 Salt: Dipping of peeled and sliced fruit and vegetables in 1-2% salt solution also prevent
enzymatic browning, as salt acts as inhibitor for polyphenol oxidase.

9) Filling in cans: Tin cans are washed in hot water or in steam jet to remove any adhering dust
or foreign matter. The cans are then sterilized by dipping in hot water tank or the cans are
passed through a steam sterilizing tunnel before use. Generally plain cans are used however,
for coloured fruits like plums, black grapes; strawberries etc lacquered cans are employed.
The fruit and vegetable either slices, halves or whole are filled into the cans keeping in view
the declared drain weight.
10) Syruping or brining: The cans are filled with hot sugar syrup (35-55%) for fruits and with
hot brine (2-10%) concentration for vegetables. The purpose of syruping or brining is to help
in transfer of heat within the food pieces during processing. It also improves the taste of the
canned product, fill up the inter-space between the fruit or vegetables in the can. The syrup or
brine is added to the can at a temperature of 79-820C, leaving 0.32-0.47cm head space either
 manually or in automatic machines. In automatic machines, the prepared syrup or brine is
drawn into the cans through a horizontal pipe having a row of small holes. The cans travel on
a continuous belt in an inclined position below the syrup or brine pipe and get filled, the
overflowing excess syrup is pumped back into the syrup tank by a centrifugal pump.
11) Exhausting: Exhausting is a unit operation in which practically all air from the contents in
the can is removed before sealing. The purpose of exhausting and creation of vacuum is to
create an anaerobic environment in the can that would inhibit microbial spoilage. The
removal of air from the contents also reduces the risk of corrosion and pin holing of the tin
plate and discoloration of can contents. Exhausting helps in better retention of vitamin C.
Expansion and shriveling of contents during heating help to avoid over filling or under filling
of the can. (Corn and peas expand on boiling in brine while strawberries shrivel upon heating
in sugar syrup). The vacuum in can prevents bulging of the can during storage at higher
attitudes or in hot climate. It also prevents excessive pressure and strain during sterilization.
Methods of exhausting: There are generally three methods of exhausting the cans to remove
headspace gas and creation of vacuum.
a) Heat/thermal exhausting: Heat exhausting is used in cans. The can covered with the lid
or loosely sealed or clinched is passed through a tank of hot water at about 82-87oC or on
a moving belt through a covered steam box. In water exhaust box, the cans are placed in
such a manner that the level of water is 1.3-2.5 cm below their tops. The time of
exhausting varies from 5 to 25 minutes depending upon the nature of the product. At the
end of the exhausting, the temperature at the centre of the can should be about 79oC.
During exhausting, the steam replaces the air inside the can and it is sealed while still hot.
b) Steam flow or steam-vacuum closing: In this system, high steam pressure is injected into
the can headspace (at 100oC for 5-8 minutes) just prior to closing. Thus, all the air inside
the can is quickly replaced with steam, which will condense and form vacuum following
seaming. Steam vacuum closure coupled with hot fill, assures very high vacuum in the
can.
c) Mechanical vacuum sealing: In high speed mechanical vacuum sealing, the cans filled
with the product and covering syrup or brine, are passed through a clincher that clinches
the cans (first operation roll seam) but does not form an airtight seal. The cans are
subjected to a vacuum for a short period of time to remove the free headspace air but not
all dissolved gases within the product. However, during this process some syrup may be
drawn along with the dissolved air. To avoid syrup spillage, a pre-vacuumizing step
before vacuum closing is recommended. High vacuum closing is also used in case of
glass jars where the jar is placed in a closed chamber in which high vacuum is maintained
12) Seaming/closing: Immediately after exhausting, the cans are sealed by using a double
seamer. Double seaming is a two step operation. In the first operation, the can lid is inserted
on the can body hook by holding and rotating the lid-in-position can between two rollers.
This operation is called as clinching; during which first operation roller gently guides the lid
in the body hook. The next step is to press the seam using the second operation roller, which
 results in an appropriate overlap of the body hook and cover hook which results in an
appropriate countersink. Between the cover hook and body hook lies a layer of sealing
compound which ensures the sealing process. The critical parameters for an ideal hermetic
seam are body hook, cover hook, seam thickness, seam width and overlap which need to be
carefully controlled to prevent leakage in the can. Immediate closing of the cans is required
to prevent excessive cooking of the surface of the product. Double seamers are of different
designs and capacities like hand operated, semiautomatic and fully automatic. Modern
double seamers operate at high speeds (300 cans per minute) while liquid products are sealed
in cans at speed of up to 1600 per minute.
13) Coding/Embossing: Coding of lid of the can is essential to identify the can, once it is closed.
The code provides the necessary information about the product like name of canning unit,
product packed in the can, date of packing; lot number etc. Coding is done on the second lid
(end cover) of the can just before sealing.
14) Heat processing: The cans after sealing are immediately transferred to the heating retorts to
achieve sterilization of contents. Heat processing consists of heating cans to a predetermined
time and temperature of heating to eliminate all possibilities of microbial spoilage. Over
cooking should be avoided as it spoils the texture, flavour and appearance of the product.
Generally all fruits and acid vegetables can be processed satisfactorily in boiling water
(100oC) as the presence of acid retards the growth of bacteria and their spores. While non
acidic vegetables (except tomato and rhubarb) are processed at higher temperatures of about
115-121oC under pressure. It needs to be ensured that required temperature reach the centre
of the can. The temperature at the centre of the can should be maintained for sufficiently long
period to destroy spores of more heat resistant bacteria.
Processing methods: Processing methods differ with the kind of fruit and vegetables to be
processed. The cans containing most fruit and acid vegetables (pH < 4.5) are heated in open
cookers, continuous non-agitating cookers and continuous agitating cookers.
 Open cooker consists of stainless steel (SS) or galvanized iron tanks to which perforated
water pipes are placed underneath the false bottom to supply the steam for heating of
water. The sealed cans are placed in SS or GI crates and immersed in the tank containing
boiling water.
 In continuous non-agitating cookers, the cans travel in boiling water in crates carried by
over-head conveyors on a continuous moving belt.
 While in continuous agitating cookers, the sealed cans while moving on the belt are
rotated by a special mechanical device to agitate the contents of the cans. This helps in
reducing the processing time.
 For low acid foods like vegetables (pH > 4.5), with hard texture, the processing is carried
out in a pressurized vessel (retorts) at elevated temperatures (= 110oC) under higher
steam pressure (2-3 atmospheres). The retorts vary in shape and size (horizontal or
vertical), type of operation (batch to continuous, non-agitating to agitating) and with
different types of heating media such as water, steam, steam/air or flame.
  In small scale canning units, vertical stationary retorts are generally used. They are made
of cast iron cylinders and are fitted with a lid which can be bottled steam tight. They are
provided with steam and water feeds, drain cock, safety valve, pressure gauge and
thermometers.

Fruit juice and Beverages

Fruit juice and beverages generally comprise of naturally extracted juices, drinks, ready to serve
(RTS) beverages, nectars, squashes, cordials and appetizers etc. These products are highly
refreshing, thirst quenching, appetizing and nutritionally superior to many synthetic and aerated
drinks. Fruit juice is the natural liquid expressed by pressure or other mechanical means from the
edible portion of the fruit. Fruit juices are generally extracted from fruits in a number of ways,
depending on their structure and composition. The composition of juice is unaltered during
preparation and preservation while for fruit beverages like drinks, squashes, cordial etc the fruit
juice or pulp, sugar, acid, colour, flavour etc are mixed in appropriate proportions to a desirable
taste. Apple juice, orange juice, mango squash, guava drink, pineapple juice and squash, mixed
fruit drink, mango nectar etc are the commercial products available in the market.

Types of fruit juice and beverages

a) Unfermented beverages Fruit juices which do not undergo alcoholic fermentation are termed
as unfermented beverages. They include natural fruit juices, sweetened, ready to serve drinks,
nectar, cordial, squash, crush, syrup, fruit juice concentrate and fruit juice powder. They are
discussed as under:
 Fruit juice: It is a natural juice pressed out of the fruit and remains practically unaltered
in its composition during processing and preservation. It is also called as unfermented
fruit juice or pure fruit juice, for example apple juice.
 Fruit juice beverage: It is fruit juice which is considerably altered in composition during
preparation. It may or may not be diluted before consumption. Ready to serve (RTS)
drinks, nectar, squash, cordial, appetizer are all fruit juice beverages.
 Synthetic drinks: Synthetic drinks are prepared by using sugar, water, flavourants,
acidulents, colour etc. These drinks do not contain any fruit juice or pulp.
 Ready to serve (RTS) drink: This is a type of fruit beverage which contains atleast 10%
fruit juice (for lime drink 5% juice) and not less than 10% total soluble solids. The acidity
in these drinks shall not exceed 3.5% as citric acid. RTS beverages are preserved by
using class II preservatives not exceeding 70 ppm SO2 or 120 ppm benzoic acid. It is not
diluted before serving hence it is known as ready to serve drink for example mango drink,
guava drink, pineapple drink etc.
 Fruit nectar: This type of fruit beverage contains atleast 20% fruit juice or pulp and 15%
total soluble solids and is preserved by heat processing. The acidity in fruit nectars shall
not exceed 1.5% as citric acid. No class II preservative like SO2 or benzoic acid is
permitted in fruit nectar as per Indian Food Laws. It is not diluted before serving.
  Squash: Fruit squash consists of fruit juice or pulp to which cane sugar is added for
sweetening. According to Indian Food Laws, the fruit squash shall contain atleast 25%
fruit juice or pulp and not less than 40% TSS. It shall not contain class II preservative in
excess of 350 ppm SO2 or 600 ppm benzoic acid. Acid content in squashes generally
remain between 1-1.5% but shall not exceed 3.5% as citric acid. Squash is generally
diluted with water in 1:3 ratio before serving. Lime, lemon, mango, orange, guava and
pineapple squashes are commercially manufactured.
 Fruit juice cordial: It is a sparkling, clear, sweetened fruit juice from which pulp and
other suspended substances have been completely removed. It contains atleast 25% juice,
30% total soluble solids and not exceeding 350 ppm SO2 or 600 ppm benzoic acid as
preservative. It is also used for mixing with alcoholic drinks for example lime juice
cordial.
 Fruit Appetizer: Fruit appetizer is similar to fruit squash but also contains spices,
condiments and herb extract. Spices like black pepper, cumin, large cardamom, ginger
along with mentha extract and salt are used for manufacture of appetizer. They are also
called as spiced fruit squash. Plum and apricot appetizers are quite common.
 Fruit crush: Fruit crush contains minimum of 25% fruit juice or pulp, 55% total soluble
solids (TSS) and not exceeding 350 ppm of SO2 or 600 ppm of benzoic acid. It is diluted
before serving.
 Fruit syrup: It is prepared by using minimum of 25% fruit juice or pulp and sweetened by
using cane sugar. It shall contain not less than 65% total soluble solids and not exceeding
350 ppm SO2 or 600 ppm benzoic acid as class II preservative.
 Synthetic syrup: Heavy sugar syrup of 70-75 percent strength is used as the base of all
synthetic syrups, which are flavoured and coloured with artificial flavour and colours.
They may or may not contain fruit pulp or juice. Rose, sandal, almond, khuskhus, kewra
sherbets/syrups are quite common.
 Carbonated fruit beverages: It is a ready to serve fruit juice beverage which contains
variable amount of fruit juice, sugar, acid etc and impregnated with carbon dioxide gas.
Apple juice, lime, lemon and grape juice can be used for the preparation of carbonated
fruit juice beverages. They are prepared either by pre mix or post mix method.
 Fruit juice concentrate: It is a fruit juice, which has been concentrated by removal of
water either by evaporation, freezing or reverse osmosis. Several products can be made
from fruit juice concentrate. Apple juice concentrate, orange juice concentrate etc are
commercially prepared in the industry.
 Fruit juice powder: This is a fruit juice which has been converted into a free flowing
powder. They can be prepared either by freeze drying, foam mat drying or spray drying
processes. They are readily reconstituted to yield full strength fruit juice drinks.
b) Fermented beverages: Fermented fruit beverage is a fruit juice which has undergone
alcoholic fermentation by yeast like Saccharomyces cerevisae. The product contains varying
 amount of ethyl alcohol. Apple cider, plum wine, grape wine, vermouth etc are common
fermented beverages.

Method for preparation of fruit juice beverages

1) Selection of Fruits: All fruits are not suitable because of difficulties in extracting the juices
or due to poor quality juice. The variety and maturity of the fruit and locality of cultivation
influence the flavour and keeping quality of its juice. Only fully ripe fruits are selected. Over
ripe and unripe fruits adversely affects the quality of the juice.
2) Sorting and Washing: Diseased, damaged or decayed fruits are rejected or trimmed off. Dirt
and spray residues of arsenic, lead etc are removed by washing with water or by using dilute
hydrochloric (HCl) acid solution (0.5%) followed by washing in water.
3) Juice Extraction: Generally juice is extracted by crushing or grating the fruit and pressing
the crushed mass in a basket or hydraulic press. Juice can also be extracted by using a screw
type juice extractor. Common equipment used for juice extraction are fruit grater or mill,
basket or hydraulic press, screw type juice extractor, rosing or burring machine, fruit pulper
etc. There are two types of extraction methods i.e., single and double operation system.
i. Single operation: In single operation, screw type, plunger type or roller type press is
generally used to crush and press the prepared fruit to extract the juice. Citrus fruit
segments are fed through a hopper, passed through conical screws and the juice flows
out through the perforations while the pomace comes out at the end of the conical
jacket. The screw type extractor is operated either manually or by using electricity
depending upon the requirement. The juice extracted is generally thick and cloudy
and contains a considerable amount of macerated pulp. Care should be taken to
remove the rind of citrus fruits completely otherwise it makes the juice bitter. Citrus
fruits like lemon, kinnow etc can also be extracted by using a rosing or burring
machine. Finally, the juice is strained through a thick cloth or a sieve to remove
seeds.
ii. Double operation: In this system, the fruits are crushed and then pressed separately.
Fruit like apple, aonla, berries, grapes, jamun, phalsa etc are crushed in fruit grater or
crusher and the crushed mass is pressed by means of basket press and hydraulic press.

Process variables for juice extraction for some fruits are:

 Soft fruits such as berries or tomatoes can be pressed through a fruit press or pulped by
using a juicer attachment to a food processor.
 Citrus fruits are usually reamed to extract the clear juice.
 Harder fruits like pineapple are peeled, pulped and pressed to extract the juice.
 Apple and pear fruits are crushed in a fruit grater and pressed in a hydraulic/basket
press to extract a clear juice.
 Passion fruit juice is prepared by using a pulper-finisher that separates skin and seeds
from the pulp.
The fruits like mango, guava, apricot, peach etc from which the clear juice extraction is difficult
are passed through the pulper to make pulp and then the pulp is utilized for preparation of juice,
fruit drinks and ready to serve beverages.

4) Deaeration: Freshly extracted juice contains appreciable quantity of oxygen which may
affect the quality of juice if not removed before packing. Air in juice is due to the presence of
intra-cellular spaces present in the fruits. Most of the air as well as other gases are removed
by subjecting the fresh juice to a high vacuum. This process is called as deaeration and the
equipment used for the purpose is known as the deaerator. Heating of juice during heat
processing also helps in removal of the air.

Clarification of Juice

Fruit and vegetable juices are clarified by using different methods like straining or screening,
settling or sedimentation and filtration.

a) Straining or screening: Un-clarified fruit juices contain varying amounts of suspended

matter consisting of broken fruit tissue, seed, skin, pectic substances and protein in colloidal
suspension. Seeds and skin which adversely affect the quality of juice are removed by
straining through a muslin cloth or sieve. The fruit juices are strained or screened by muslin
cloth or stainless steel mesh sieves manually to remove coarse particles in a small-scale
industry. But in large industries power operated screening system or filter press is used.
b) Finishing: Citrus juices need finishing for separating cloudy but otherwise clean juice from
pulp, rag and seeds. The finisher separates the pulpy matter from the juice by the action of a
rotating auger inside a cylinder screen. Screen hole size range from approximately 0.020 to
0.030 inch in diameter, depending on the condition and softness of the fruit. Finishing is
judged by the pulp content in the orange fruit juice.
c) Decantation: Decantation is the simplest method of clarification, in which the juice
containing solids is allowed to settle down and then clear juice is decanted or siphoned out.
Keep juice at low temperature for long periods also helps in setting of solid to allow
clarification.
d) Centrifugation: The clouding particles can be separated by centrifugal action. The juice
containing solids is fed into a basket or disc type centrifuge, where the centrifugal force
separates the light and dense components in each layer. The clear juice is collected and
unwanted solids are separated.
e) Enzymes: The plant carbohydrates, pectin, starch and proteins make the colloidal suspension
in the freshly extracted fruit juice. The pectinol enzyme is widely used for better juice
recovery as well as clarification of fruit juices as it breaks pectin into soluble form thereby
freeing the suspended particles which settle down and leaves the juice clear. Similarly,
proteolytic and starch liquefying enzymes i.e. amylases are used to remove protein and starch
from fruit juices. Pectinol is more effective in the case of acidic juices. Fruit juices can be
clarified in about 1-2 hours at 40-500C but requires 20 hrs at 200C.
f) Physical finings: Certain fining agents, which have physical or mechanical action are kaolin,
diatomaceous earth, Spanish clay, bentonite or china clay and are known as filter aids.
Generally 0.5 to 0.1 percent earths is mixed with fruit juice and then passed through the filter
press. Ultra filtration is a process that separates particles based on molecular weight and has
better retention of the nutrients in the juice. It is necessary to degrade the pectin
enzymatically before ultrafiltration, to reduce viscosity and allow a satisfactory juice.
g) Chemical finings: Gelatin and casein are used to clarify the fruit juices and act partly to
neutralize the electrical charged particles and partly by forming insoluble precipitate with the
constituents of the juice. The gelatin combines with tannins and casein with acid of the juice.
The gelatin may cause juice cloudy if used in excess. Depending on the tannin content of the
fruit juice, gelatin solution is mixed and allowed to stand for 18 to 24 hrs to ensure that the
precipitated matter clots together and settles down. The clarified juice is then siphoned off.
Albumin (egg white) can also be used in clarification of juices.
h) Clarification by freezing: Grape juice contains cream of tartar or potassium hydrogen
tartarate along with pulp and skin which is removed by freezing and thawing the juice or by
refrigeration for a long storage. Apple juice can also be clarified using this method after
freezing is precipitated on thawing.
i) Clarification by heating: During heating, the colloidal material in fruit juices coagulates and
settles down on cooling which can be separated by using a filter press. For clarification of
apple and pomegranate juice, the juice is heated to 80-850C for few minutes and cooled
immediately followed by filtration by passing the juice through a filter press.
j) Addition of sugars: All juices are sweetened by adding sugar, except those of grapes and
apple. Sugar can be added directly to the juice or as syrup made by dissolving it in water.
Fruit squash, cordial, syrups are made by adding appropriate quantity of sugar into the pulp
or juice using cane sugar. Similarly ready to serve drinks and fruit nectar are sweetened by
using cane sugar.

Preservation of Juices
Fruit juices, RTS and nectars are preserved by pasteurization or by using chemical preservatives.
Squashes, crushes, syrups and cordials are preserved by adding chemical preservative like
potassium metabisulphite or sodium benzoate.
A. Pasteurization: Preservation of fruit juices by application of heat is the most common
method. Pasteurization is a process in which juice is heated to 1000C or slightly below for a
sufficient time to inactivate/kill the micro-organisms, which cause spoilage. Usually the fruit
juices are pasteurized between 75 and 880C with times ranging from 30 sec to 30 min
depending on the type of heating system, the nature of the juice and the size of the container.
Pasteurization can be performed either by heating at low temperature for a long time (LTLT)
or heating at high temperature for short time (HTST). Commonly followed methods are:
 a) Holding pasteurization: In this method, the prepared juice is filled into glass bottles with
a proper head space and the bottles are sealed airtight. After sealing the bottles are
pasteurized. However, this method is not followed for commercial scale products.
b) Pasteurization by overflow method: In this method, the juice is heated to a temperature
about 2.5oC higher than the pasteurization temperature and filled into the hot sterilized
bottles up to the brim. Care should be taken to maintain the temperature during filling and
sealing operation. The sealed bottles are processed in boiling water for specified period.
After processing the bottles are cooled. On cooling, the juice contracts to leave a small
headspace in the bottle which does not contain any air. The method is commercially
followed in preservation of all types of juices in the food industry.
c) Flash Pasteurization: In this process, the juice is heated only for short time at a
temperature about -5.5oC than the pasteurization temperature, filled into the containers
and sealed air tight under cover of a steam to sterilize the seal and then cooled. This
process is also known as HTST (High temperature and short time) method and the juice
is heated vary rapidly. Flash pasteurization helps to minimize the loss of flavour, better
retention of vitamins, keep juice uniformly cloudy and minimize the cooked taste of the
juice.
B. Aseptic processing and packaging of fruit juices: Aseptic processing and packaging is
defined as the process in which a commercially sterile product is packed into pre-sterilized
container in a sterile environment. The system make use of high temperature short time
(HTST) sterilization in the temperature range of 90-110oC for acid products (pH4.6). The
commercial aseptic sterilization process takes place in a continuous, closed system. Aseptic
processing may produce products with better retention of nutrients and excellent sensory
quality. Apple, mango, litchi, pineapple drinks etc. in tetra pack are processed commercially
using aseptic processing and packaging system.
C. Preservation with chemical: Fruit juices, pulps, squash, cordial, syrup, RTS drinks etc, are
preserved with chemical preservatives. Fruit juice and pulps in bulk are preserved with
chemical preservatives. Two chemical preservatives most commonly used in preservation of
fruit and vegetable products are (i) Benzoic acid (benzoates) (ii) Sulphur dioxide (Sulphites).
i. Benzoic acid: Benzoic acid is the effective agent but sparingly soluble in water, thus its
sodium salt, which is water soluble, is generally used. Benzoic acid is more effective
against yeast as compared to moulds. However, it does not stop lactic acid and acetic acid
fermentation. The quantity of sodium benzoate required depends on the nature of the
juice, its acidity and type of microbial infection.
ii. Sulphur dioxide: Potassium meta-bi-sulphite (K2O2SO2 or K2S2O2) is commonly used as
a source of sulphur dioxide. On addition to fruit juice or beverage it reacts with acid of
the juice and form potassium salt and sulphur dioxide, which is liberated and form
sulphurous acid with the water of the juice. Sulphur dioxide is more effective against
mould spores and bacteria than yeast and also inhibits enzymes etc. It acts as antioxidant
and bleaching agent thus help in the retention of ascorbic acid, carotene and other
 oxidisable compounds. It also retards nonenzymatic browning or discoloration of the
product. Its effectiveness depends on the acidity, pH, temperature and other substances
present in the fruit juice.
 The SO2 should not be used in naturally colored juices like phalsa, Jamun,
pomegranate and strawberry juices, on account of its bleaching action.
 It should also not be used in those juices, which are to be packed into tin containers,
because it may act on the tin of the containers causing pinholes, forms hydrogen
sulphide and black compounds.
 The potassium meta-bi-sulphite should be first dissolved in a small quantity of water
and then added to the juice to be preserved.

D. Preservation by sugar: Fruit juice containing 66% sugar generally does not ferment.
Fruit syrup or sharbats with high total solids (65% and above) have a very low water
activity hence micro-organism do not grow. The sugar acts as a preservative by osmosis
and does not support the growth of micro-organism. However, the growth of mould and
yeast can occur on the surface of jams or jellies which need to be protected by using
airtight packing or covering the product with molten paraffin wax.
E. Preservation by freezing: The properly frozen juice retains its freshness, colour, taste and
aroma for a long time. De-aerated juice is transferred into containers, which are
hermetically sealed and frozen. Freezing does not sterilize fruit juices, it merely reduces
the temperature to the point where micro-organisms do not multiply and chemical
changes take place very slowly. The more rapidly a juice is frozen, the smaller the ice
crystal formed and the less the amount of colloidal matter coagulates. When the juice is
frozen to -18oC, practically all of the juice will be solid except for a little thick syrup in
the centre of the containers. This method is particularly useful in the case of juices whose
flavour is adversely affected by heating.
F. Preservation by drying: Micro-organisms need water for their growth and multiplication
and as the water is removed, they are unable to grow. Fruit juices can be preserved in the
form of powder by different methods viz., spray drying, drum drying, freeze-drying,
foam-mat drying etc. Fruit juice powders are highly hygroscopic and require special care
in packing. It should be packed in free flowing powder form in hermetically sealed
containers with in package desiccant to prolong the shelf-life of the product. Lemon juice
powder can also be prepared by using foam mat drying process.
G. Preservation by carbonation: Carbonation is a process of mixing carbon dioxide under
pressure with water, juice or beverages so that the product when served; gives off gas in
fine bubbles and has the characteristics taste. Carbonated beverages are generally bottled
with carbon dioxide content ranging from 1 to 8 g/litre. Though this concentration is
much lower than that required (14.6 g/litre) for complete inhibition of microbial growth,
yet it is significant in supplementing the lethal effect of acidity on pathogenic bacteria.
Carbonation also helps in removal of air which creates anaerobic condition and reduces
 the oxidation of ascorbic acid. Since moulds and yeasts require oxygen for their growth
and as such become inactive in the presence of carbon dioxide. Thus the absence of air
and presence of carbon dioxide in fruit beverages help to prevent the growth of moulds
and yeast. The keeping quality of carbonated beverages is enhanced by adding about
50ppm sodium benzoate. Carbon dioxide in beverages is measured in terms of gas
volume. The gas volume is defined as the amount of gas in millilitres that a given volume
of water will absorb at atmospheric pressure i.e. 760 mm of Hg at 15.50C temperature.
Generally 1.3-4.0 gas volume CO2 is used for carbonation of fruit juice. Lime, lemon,
grape, apple juice can be carbonated by using carbonation process.
H. Preservation by filtration: In this method, the clarified fruit juices (particularly apple and
grapes) are passed through special filters, which are capable of retaining yeasts and
bacteria. Various types of germ proof filters are used for this purpose and the method is
used for soft drinks, fruit juices and wines.
5) Filling and Processing: Bottles are thoroughly washed with hot water and filled leaving 1.5-
2.5 cm headspace. The bottles meant for heat processing are sealed by using crown corks
whole those preserved by using chemical preservative can be sealed by using PP (pilfer
proof) caps.

Individual Quick Freezing

Quick freezing is at present the only process whereby virtually all the properties of most
foodstuffs can be preserved. The important feature of this process is ultra-rapid freezing to very
low temperatures (-30°C to - 40°C) designed to halt the activities of the microorganisms that
cause decay and deteriorate foodstuffs.

Individual Quick Freezing (I.Q.F.) is the latest technology available in freezing and with the
advent of the same, it is now possible to preserve and store raw fruit and vegetables in the same
farm-fresh condition for more than a year, with the color, flavor and texture of produce
remaining as good as fresh from the farm. In IQF, each piece is frozen individually using
technique of fluidization resulting in freezing of fruit and vegetables only in 10 to 12 minutes
which otherwise takes at least 3 to 4 hours or even more in the blast freezer. This results into
better texture and there is no lump/ block formation and the product is free flowing. One does not
have to thaw or defrost the whole packet to take out only a portion, and the rest will remain
frozen till required again.
Table 1: Process description for frozen vegetables/fruits

Procedure Description
(in sequential order)
Grower Storage Raw materials –Peas/other produce arrive at the plant for processing.
Acceptance sampling Samples of the unprocessed produce are taken to be graded and for
grower payment.
Grading In some fruits and vegetables size and maturity grading is required
Washing All fruits and vegetables are washed to remove field contamination.
Preparation/Peeling This operation is conducted in some of the vegetables and fruits
Depodding/Cutting Peas are depoded in automatic depoder machine. Other products are cut
according to market specifications or buyer specifications. Special
cutting equipment are proposed for all types of raw materials proposed
in the product mix.
Blanching All vegetables Product require blanching at 90 to 95 Deg C for 2 to 5
minutes to inactivate per oxidase enzyme and tested in Lab. to confirm.
Pre-cooling/Chilling Blanched produce is pre-cooled to room temperature and chilled to 5 to
7°C and moisture is removed by blower before feeding to the IQF.
Freeze Tunnel Produce is quickly frozen in the IQF machine to (-) 18°C.
Packaging The IQF frozen products are packaged into bulk bags or retail packs.
Deep Freeze Cold Packages are stored in a cold storage warehouse until shipment to
store grocery stores, restaurants and other customers.
Process flow diagram for frozen peas, mango cubes, litchi, sweet corn, baby corn and other
vegetables

Fruit and vegetables of desired quality

Receiving roller convey

Bucket Elevator

Washing machine

De-podding/peeling

Cutting machine/cubing machine

Inspection / sorting conveyor

Elevator

Blanching

Pre-cooling

Chilling to 5-7 Deg.C

Feed conveyor

IQF (-18 Deg. C)

Weighing and packing machine (Bulk and Retail)

Storage
 UNIT III
Technology for processed products like pickles, chutneys, sauces
The preservation by using common salt, spices and vinegar is a common method for preparation
of pickles, sauce and chutneys. Salt is mostly used as preservative in pickles in combination with
acid. Minimum concentration of salt to act as preservative is about 12%. It inhibits enzymatic
browning/discoloration by acting as an anti-oxidant. It exerts its preservative action by:

 Causing high osmotic pressure and thus suppress the microbial cells.
 Dehydrating food by tying up the moisture thus making it unavailable for the growth of
microorganisms.
 Salt in the food affects the solubility of oxygen and thus growth of aerobic microorganisms
is inhibited
 Chlorine in sodium chloride being good oxidizing agent is toxic to microorganisms
 Salt increases the permeability of the cell wall and thus cause changes in the permeability.
Only the haloduric microorganisms can tolerate these effects while others are unable to
survive.
 Similarly addition of acid to the food lowers the pH of the food which inhibits the growth
of spoilage causing microorganisms.
 Addition of spices and edible oil in these products besides improving flavour and taste also
help in preservation.
Thus preservation by using salt, spices and acid is one of the most ancient and effective methods
of food preservation. Vegetable sauce, continental sauce, tomato sauce, mixed fruit chutney,
mango pickle, lime/lemon pickle, mixed vegetable pickle etc are common products made in this
category.

PICKLES
The preservation of fruit and vegetables in salt and vinegar is called pickling. Pickles may
prepare without fermentation or with partial or complete fermentation. Spices, edible oil,
sugar/jaggery etc are added to improve taste and palatability of the product. Thus, pickles are
good appetizer and help in digestion by stimulating the flow of gastric juices. The nutritive value
of pickle varies with the kind of raw material used and method of preparation such as with or
without fermentation. Manufacturing of pickle has developed as an industry in the country.
Mango pickle, cauliflower, turnip, carrot (mixed vegetable), anola, lime/lemon pickle etc. are the
commercial products available in the market.
Pickling process: Pickling is the process of fermentation by lactic acid forming bacteria, present
on the surface of commodities. Lactic acid bacteria (active at 30oC) convert fermentable sugar in
the food to lactic acid and volatile acids. The acid and brine acts upon vegetable tissues to
produce characteristic taste and aroma of pickle. The salt and lactic acid formed preserve the
pickle by preventing the growth of putrefactive bacteria provided oxygen is excluded. Fermented
cucumber and olive pickles are quite common. Pickle is prepared by using either of following
processes followed by finishing and packing:

 Curing or fermentation with dry salting

  Fermentation in brine
 Salting without fermentation

Figure 1: Process flow for pickle making

A) Dry salting: The dry salt added to the prepared vegetables, extracts the juice from the
vegetables and forms the brine. The brine is then fermented by lactic acid forming bacteria
which serves the purpose of pickling. The method is known as dry salting.

Procedure for dry salting

1. Vegetables are washed, sliced and placed in barrel in layers to which salt is sprinkled
followed by placing another vegetable layer and sprinkled with salt. Generally, 3 kg dry
salt is used for each 100 kg of prepared vegetable. The salt is added in layers till the
barrel is ¾ full. The vegetables are covered with a cloth and wooden board along with a
weight to press the vegetable. Brine is formed in 24 hours.
2. The barrel is placed in warm and dry place to allow the fermentation to proceed within
short period. Once brine is formed, fermentation and bubbles of CO2 begin to rise from
the liquid. The fermentation temperature is 27-320C and completes in 8-10 days.
3. When the gas bubbles cease to form, the fermentation is considered as complete. This
may be confirmed by taping the barrel gently. The pickle is then pressured and packed by
excluding the air.
4. If air is not removed from the pickle, pickle scum (a type of mould yeast) appears on the
surface, which destroys the lactic acid formed by fermentation and spoils the pickle.

Methods to remove air /expel air from the pickle:

1. By making air seal on the surface of brine by pouring 0.6 cm thick layer of edible oil
(rapeseed oil/mustard oil or cotton seed oil) on the top of it. The oil being lighter than
brine floats on the surface and prevents the access of air in to the pickle.
2. After dry salting and fermentation, the barrel is filled with the prepared vegetables to its
maximum capacity and covered with a lid. A 1.25 cm hole is bored in the lid (cover). The
barrel is filled up to the brim with the brine so that very little air is left inside. It is
allowed to stand for 48 hours till all gas bubbles ceases to rise. When the bubbling stops
the vent hole is closed tightly and barrel kept in a cool dry place.
 3. The barrel is kept undisturbed. The molten paraffin wax is poured over the surface of the
brine. It imparts air tight-seal. The paraffin wax can be easily separated from the brine
and the wax can be remelted and reused.
B) Fermentation in Brine (Brining): Immersing vegetable or unripe fruits like mangoes in
salt-solution of known concentration for a certain length of time is called brining. Brining is
generally used for pickling of cucumber, olives, raw mangoes and similar other vegetables,
which do not contain sufficient juice to form brine with dry salt.
Brine preparation: Brine is prepared by dissolving common salt in water and filtered
through a muslin cloth. The amount of brine required to cover the vegetable is approximately
equal to about half the volume of the material to be fermented (for each barrel of 100 litres,
about 50 litres of brine is required). Brine with 8 -10 % strength is considered optimum for
the growth of salt tolerant lactic acid bacteria. Thus vegetables are placed in 10 % brine to
allow lactic acid fermentation to take place and then the proportion of salt is increased
gradually, so that when pickle is ready, salt concentration would have reached 15 % level.
The brine strength can also be maintained by adding dry salt. Brining takes about 4-5 weeks.
C) Salting without fermentation: In this method, vegetables raw mango slices are packed with
a large quantity of salt to inhibit fermentation. Generally, 25 kg salt is mixed with 100 kg of
prepared vegetable. The cured vegetables are drained and excess salt is removed by soaking
in cold or warm water. After removal of salt, the vegetables are stored in plain vinegar 10%
(100 grain) strength. This treatment reduces the tendency of the vegetable to shrivel when
packed in sweetened and spiced vinegar and also helps in absorption of vinegar by the
vegetable tissues.
Packing: After curing, the vegetables become semi translucent in appearance with their
colour changing from green to dark olive green or yellowish green. During this process the
raw flavour of the vegetables is lost and the texture becomes firm and crisp. For good
keeping quality they are packed by using salt, vinegar and lactic acid in sufficient quantities
which act as preservative either singly or in combination.
I. Salt: The concentration of 15-20% salt is used for pickling. Mould and lactic acid forming
bacteria do not grow at this concentration. The fermentation of vegetables is inhibited
when they are covered with strong brine or packed with fairly large quantity of salt. This
method of preserving is applicable to those fruit and vegetables which contain very little
sugar because sufficient lactic acid cannot be formed by fermentation to act as
preservative.
II. Vinegar: Vinegar acts as preservative in vinegar pickles by lowering down the pH of final
product. The final concentration of acid as acetic acid in the finished pickle shall not be
less than 2%. However, vegetables are placed in strong vinegar of 10 % acidity to avoid
dilution of the vinegar by the water liberated from the tissues. This treatment helps to
expel the gases present in the intracellular spaces of vegetative tissues and prevents
subsequent dilution of the vinegar in the pickle. Spiced vinegar can be prepared by
soaking the ground spices in vinegar, boiling the spices in the vinegar or by adding
essential oil of spices and added to the prepared pickle.
III. Lactic Acid: Though bacteria do not grow in acidic media, yet lactic acid bacteria are
capable of growing in acidic media and can also produce acid through their action on the
substrate. They can also grow in high salt concentration of 8-10%. This principle is used
 in pickling as growth of undesirable organism is inhibited by adding salt and allowing the
lactic fermentation to proceed. The pickled vegetables (onion, garlic, green chilies, olives
etc) are then packed in to the glass jars without damaging the shape and appearance of the
pieces and covered with fresh vinegar to fill up the spaces between the pieces. The closed
jars are then stored in a cool dry place for some time to allow thorough absorption of
vinegar before sending them to the market. Brined vegetables and raw mango slices are
also used for preparing different types of pickles by using combinations of spices, salt and
vinegar.

Types of Pickles
Types of Pickles: Pickles are generally categorized into fermented pickle and partial or non-
fermented pickles. Cucumber and olive pickles are examples of fermented pickles. While
nonfermented pickles are of four general types depending upon the covering medium used.
1. Pickles preserved with salt: lime and mango pickle.
2. Pickles in oil: Mango, lime, lemon, cauliflower, aonla, karonda.
3. Pickle in vinegar (acetic acid): Garlic, green chilli etc.
4. Pickle in mixture of salt, oil, spices and vinegar: Cauliflower, carrot, jackfruit, mixed
vegetable pickle etc.

A. Fermented pickles: Cucumber pickle, dill pickle and olive pickle.

 Fermented cucumber pickle: For preparation of fermented cucumber pickle, the
immature cucumber are washed, placed in barrels or tanks and filled with brine (salt
solution). Salt is added either by using low salt method or high salt method. In low salt
method 8% brine (30 osalometer) is added to the cucumber along with 9 kg salt per 100kg
cucumber. In high salt method, the brine of 10.5% salt (40 osalometer) and 9 kg salt per
100 kg cucumber is used. The cucumbers are kept submerged in brine and brine strength
is increased weekly by about 3 osalometer up to 60 osalometer (15.9% salt). In low salt
method, increase in brine strength is about2o per week up to 50o salometer and 1o per
week up to 60 osalometer. It lakes about 6-9 weeks for completion depending upon the
method of salting and temperature of fermentation. During fermentation, most of the
lactic acid is produced by the action of Lactobacillus planetarium. However,
Lactobacillus brevis, Streptococcus faecalis, Pediococcus cereviseae, Leuronostoc
mesenteroides and Coliform bacteria. Total titratable acid on completion of fermentation
range between 0.6-0.8 percent. Initial colour of the cucumber from chalky white and
opaque in cross section changes to olive or yellow green with translucent flesh after
completion of fermentation. The prepared pickle is too salty to taste which is freshened
by soaking and made into sour, sweet sour or mixed pickles.
 Dill pickle: Dill pickle is also a cucumber pickle prepared by using dill herbs as
flavourant along with spices, garlic and onion. Overnight dill pickle and genuine dill
pickle are the common types of dill pickle.
 Olive pickle: In preparation of olive pickle, fully developed but still green or straw
yellow olives are treated by dipping in 1-2% lye solution to remove the bitterness of
olives due to glucoside oleuropein. During this treatment, the lye penetrate up to ½ to ¾
towards the pit; which is detected by placing a drop of phenolphthalein to give faint pink
colour. This treatment removes most of the bitterness of olives. The fruit after washing
 are placed in barrels containing 10-15% brines which results in a salt concentration in
olives of about 6-9% after stabilization. During fermentation the salt concentration is
mainted 7-8% throughout by adding more salt. Lactic acid fermentation takes about 6-9
months depending upon the atmospheric temperature. Generally 29oC is the optimum
temperature for rapid fermentation. During the initial stage of fermentation lasting for 7-
14 days the brine stabilizes, food for micro- organissum leach out from the olives and
potential spoilage organism like Pseudomonas, Enterobacter, Clostridium, Bacillus and
yeasts may grow in Leuconostoc mesenteroides starts. In the next intermediate state
lasting for 2-3 weeks Lectronostoc become permanent in growth and acid production and
Lactobacillus brevis began to grow and produce acid. In the final stage, Lactobacillus
plantarum become predominant and produce acid. The final acidity is about 0.7-1.0
percent with a pH of 4.0 -3.8 or lower. After fermentation, the olives are sorted and
graded, washed and packed into glass jar or other containers and covered with fresh brine
(7% salt) containing edible lactic acid. They may be pasteurized in container at 60oC or
brined at 79-82oC for good keeping quality.
 Spiced olive pickle: The fermented olives can also be used for preparation of spiced
pickles. For preparation of spiced pickles, the olives after draining from brine are kept in
shade for removal of surface moisture. Chopped onion, garlic and ginger are fried in oil
to which olives are mixed. Ground spices like cumin, cardamon, black pepper along with
salt and turmeric are mixed thoroughly. Acetic acid and sodium benzoate are mixed
during the packing of pickle in glass jars. Jars after filling with mustard oil are sealed and
stored in cool and dry place.

B. Pickles preserved with salt: Lime and mango pickle.

 Mango pickle
Recipe: Mango slices 1.0 kg, Salt 200g, red chilli powder 10g, turmeric powder 10g,
asfoetida (heeng) 5g, black pepper, cardamom (large), fenugreek, cinnamon (ground) and
cumin 10g each. Procedure: Wash the mature green mango fruits, cut into 4 equal pieces
(depending upon fruit size) and remove the kernel. Mix the fruit slices with salt and
turmeric powder. Fill mango slices in glass jars and keep the covered jars in sunlight for
7-10 days. Shake the jar at least 2-3 times during drying (Fig 11.1). Mix the ground
spices in well dried mango slices. Store the pickle in cool and dry place.
 Lime pickle
Recipe: Lime 1.0 kg, Salt 200g, red chilli powder 15g, black pepper, cardamom (large),
cumin 10g each. Procedure: Wash the lime fruits, cut into 4 equal pieces. Squeeze the
juice from ¼ of fruits and mix the salt and ground spices with juice. Mix the lime pieces
with the mixture and fill into glass jars. Cover the jars with lid and keep in sunlight for 4-
6 days. Shake the jars atleast 2-3 times during drying. Store the pickle in cool and dry
place at ambient temperature. Similarly the sweet pickles from mango and lime is made
by adding 500-700g jaggery or sugar to the above recipe.

C. Pickles in oil: Mango, lime, lemon, cauliflower, aonla, karonda etc.

 Mango pickle
Recipe: Mango slices 1.0 kg, salt 150g, powdered fenugreek 25g, red chilli powder 10g,
turmeric powder 15g, black pepper, cardamom (large), cinnamon (powdered), cumin,
 powdered aniseed 15g each, asafoetida 2g and mustard oil 350ml. Procedure: Wash the
mature green mango fruits, cut into 4 equal pieces length wise (depending upon fruit size)
and remove the kernel. Dip the mango slices in 2% salt solution to prevent browning.
Drain off the water and dry the slices in shade for 4-5 hours (Mango slices preserved in
salt can also be used for pickle preparation). Heat the oil, cool and mix spices in a little
oil and mix the fruit slices thoroughly. Fill mango slices in glass jars and keep the
covered jars in sunlight for a week. Shake the jars atleast 2-3 times during drying. Press
the mango slices to remove the air, add remaining oil to cover the mango slices. Store the
pickle in cool and dry place at ambient temperature (Fig. 11.1).
 Aonla pickle Recipe: Aonla 1.0 kg, salt 150g, powdered fenugreek 30g, red chilli powder
10g, turmeric powder 10g, cumin 10g and mustard oil 350 ml.
Procedure: Wash the mature healthy aonla fruits. Boil for 15 minutes to soften segments,
cut and remove the seed. Heat the oil and fry all spices. Mix the segments with spices.
Mix salt with aonla segments and fill in the jar. Keep the jar in sunlight for a week. Press
the aonla pieces to remove the air, add remaining oil. Store the pickle in cool and dry
place.
 Karonda pickle Recipe: Karonda 1.0 kg, salt 200g, red chilli powder 15g, turmeric
powder 10g, cumin 10g, powdered fenugreek 10g, aniseed 10g and mustard oil 300 ml.
Procedure: Select mature, pink colour karondas and wash in clean water. Cut into two
pieces and remove the seed. Mix salt with karonda and fill in the jar. Keep the jar in
sunlight for 4 days. Heat the oil, fry all spices and mix the segments with spices
thoroughly. Add remaining oil and store the pickle in cool and dry place.
 Green chili pickle Recipe: Green chilies 1.0 kg, salt 150g, mustard 100g, lime juice
200ml, powdered fenugreek, aniseed, turmeric, cardamom large, cumin, 15g each and
mustard oil 400 ml.
Procedure: Select healthy green chilies and wash in clean water. Make incision and mix
all spices in a little lime juice. Mix all spices in chilies and fill in clean jars. Add lime
juice and keep the glass jars in sunlight for a week. Store the pickle in cool and dry place.

D. Pickle in vinegar (acetic acid): Garlic, green chili, papaya etc.

 Papaya pickle
Recipe: Green papaya slices 1kg, salt 150g, red chilli powder 10g, black pepper,
cardamom (large), cinnamon (powdered), cumin 10g each and vinegar 750ml.
Procedure: Select green but mature papayas. Wash the fruits, peel, cut into equal sized
slices and remove the seeds. Dip the cut pieces in boiling water to soften, remove papaya
slices from boiling water. Mix with salt and dry in shade for few minutes. Mix the slices
with spices thoroughly. Fill in glass jars and add vinegar to cover all the slices. Keep the
covered jars in sun for a week and store the pickle in cool and dry place.
 Cucumber pickle
Recipe: Cucumber 1.0 kg, salt 200g, red chilli powder 15g, black pepper, cardamom
(large), black pepper powder, cinnamon (ground) and cumin 10g each, clove 6 numbers
and vinegar 750ml.
Procedure: Select green immature cucumbers. Wash, peel, cut into equal 5 cm thick
slices. Mix slices with salt and fill in glass jars. Keep for about for about 6 hours and
drain off water. Add all the spices and vinegar to the drained slices. Keep the covered jars
 in sun for a week and store the pickle in cool and dry place. Similarly pickle from other
fruits can be made by following the same method.

E. Pickle in mixture of salt, oil, spices and vinegar: Cauliflower, carrot, jackfruit, mixed
vegetable pickle, etc.
 Cauliflower pickle
Recipe: Cauliflower florets/slices 1.0 kg, salt 150g, ginger (chopped) 25g, garlic 10g, red
chilli powder, turmeric, black pepper, cardamom (large), cinnamon (powdered), cumin,
aniseed powder 15g each, tamarind pulp 50g, mustard seeds 50g, vinegar 150ml and
mustard oil 400ml.
Procedure: Select healthy and fresh cauliflowers. Wash and cut into equal pieces 2-2.5
cm. Blanch in boiling water for 2-4 minutes, drain and keep in sunlight for 2 hours. Fry
all the spices in a little oil and mix them with cauliflower slices. Heat for 5 minutes and
cool. Make paste of tamarind pulp in vinegar and add with cauliflower slices. Fill in the
jar, keep in sunlight for a week. Add oil after heating and cooling to keep the pickle for
long time. Store the pickle in cool and dry place. Sodium benzoate @ 250 ppm can be
added as a preservative.
 Turnip pickle (sweet)
Recipe: Turnip 1.0 kg, salt 100g, ginger (chopped) 20g, garlic 10g, red chilli powder,
turmeric, black pepper, cardamom (large), cinnamon (powdered), cumin, aniseed powder
10g each, tamarind pulp 100g, mustard 20g, vinegar 100ml, jaggery 200g and mustard oil
200ml.
Procedure: Select healthy, sound and tender turnip. Washing, trimming and peeling is
done to remove rough and thick skin. Cut into equal pieces of 1-1.5cm thickness. Blanch
for 5 minutes, drain the water and dry in shade to remove moisture. Fry the spices in a
little oil except tamarind. Mix the turnip slices with spices thoroughly. Make paste of
tamarind pulp in vinegar along with jaggery and mix paste with turnip slices. Fill in the
jar and keep in sun for a week. Add oil after heating and cooling to keep the pickle for
longer time. Store the pickle in cool and dry place. Sodium benzoate @ 250 ppm can be
added as a preservative.
 Mixed vegetable pickle
Recipe: Cauliflower + carrot + turnip 1.0 kg, salt 100g, red chilli powder 15g, ginger
(chopped) 20g, onion chopped 50g, red chilli, turmeric, black pepper, cardamom (large),
cinnamon (powdered), cumin, aniseed powder 10g each, mustard 50g, vinegar 200ml and
mustard oil 350ml.
Procedure: Mixed vegetable pickle is prepared similarly to that of sweet turnip pickle. If
sweetness is required then jaggery may be added by making a paste with vinegar. Sodium
benzoate @ 250 ppm can be added as a preservative.
 Jackfruit pickle (sweet) (Fig. 11.2)
Recipe: Jackfruit slices 1.0 kg, salt 100g, red chilli powder 15g, ginger (chopped) 20g,
turmeric, black pepper, cardamom (large), cinnamon (ground), cumin, aniseed powder
10g each, mustard 20g, vinegar 150ml, jaggery 250g and mustard oil 350ml.
Procedure: Select small mature jackfruits, wash, peel and cut into equal suitable sized
slices. Steeping in 10% salt solution is done for a week. Drain off the brine and wash the
slices with plain water. Fry all the spices in oil except vinegar, jaggery or sugar. Mix
spices with jackfruit slices and fry for 5 minutes, allow to cool and fill in the glass jars.
 Keep the jar in sunlight for a week. Make paste of sugar/jaggery with vinegar and mix the
paste to the prepared slices. Store the pickle in cool and dry place.

Table 1: Common defects noticed in different pickles during storage.

S.No. Common Cause

Defects
1 Blackening It is mainly due to the presence of iron which enters through
the brine or from the equipments. Blackening may also be
caused by the action of microorganisms.
2 Dull and It is due to either insufficient curing or use of water of inferior
faded pickle quality.
3 Shriveling It occurs when vegetables like cucumber are placed directly in
a very strong solution of salt or vinegar. To avoid this, use
weak solution at the start and increase gradually.
4 Softness and It is the most common type of spoilage caused by the action
slipperiness of bacteria. Use of weak brine or improper covering with
brine results in these defects. Thus this defect can be checked
by using brine of proper strength and keeping the pickle well
below the surface of the brine.
5 Bitter Taste It is due to the use of very strong vinegar or cooking the
spices for a long time or by using spices in excess.
6 Scum It is due to growth of film yeast on the brine kept for curing of
formation vegetables. The scum may be thin or thick varying from
imperceptible film to a thick wrinkled layer. It retards the
formation of a lactic acid and helps in the growth of
putrefactive bacteria which makes the vegetable soft or
slippery. The scum may be removed as soon as it is formed.
Use of 1% acetic acid to the brine prevents the growth of wild
yeast on the brine, without hindering the formation of lactic
acid.
7 Cloudiness In many fermented solid vegetables like onion, cucumber,
olives etc the vinegar becomes cloudy and turbid, thus
spoiling the appearance of the product. It is due to non-
penetration of acetic acid from vinegar deep in to the tissues
to check the activity of bacteria or other micro organisms.
This results in fermentation which make the vinegar cloudy.
Use of brine and vinegar of proper strength prevents
cloudiness.
8 Blemishes in In onion pickle in brine, white blotch is seen under the first
pickles layer of the skin which is termed as blemish. Blemishes are
generally caused by improper fermentation or non removal of
all brine prior to the final pickling of cured onion in vinegar.

FPO specifications for pickles: According to FPO specifications the minimum percentage of
salt (w/v) in pickle in brine shall be 12% while for pickle in citrus juice the acidity as citric acid
shall not be less than 1.2% and only citrus fruit juices should be used . For oil pickles any edible
vegetable oil like rapeseed, mustard, olive etc can be used. Other general characteristics for these
pickles include use of wholesome fruit and vegetables which are free of fungal or insect attack or
any rotting. All ingredients shall be thoroughly clean and free from of extraneous matter. Only
substances that may be added are spices, salt, sugar, jaggery, onions, garlic, benzoic acid, soluble
calcium salts. Pickles shall be free from added copper, alum, mineral acids or other
preservatives.

Chutney and Sauces

Chutney and sauces are the important products prepared from fruits and vegetables. Salt, spices,
sugar, acid in these products is added to improve taste and to act as a preservative. These
products are well known for their palatability and appetizing nature. Mango, apple, plum,
apricot, tomato, carrot etc are the raw materials for these products. Mango chutney, plum
chutney and mixed fruit chutney are quite popular. Fruit chutney is a product-made in the same
way as that of jam except that spices, salt and vinegar are also added. Vinegar extract of the
spices is added most preferably in place of whole spices. The chutney shall contain minimum of
(40% fruit)(w/w) in the final product with total soluble solids not less than 50% and acidity not
exceeding 2.1%. Sauces are also prepared from more or less similar ingredients and in same
manner as chutney. Except the fruit pulp is sieved after cooking to remove the skin, seeds and
stalks of vegetables; to give a smooth consistency to the final product. The consistency of sauce
is comparatively thin than of fruit chutney. According to FPO specifications, the quantity of total
soluble solids and acidity as acetic acid in the sauce shall not be less than 15% and 1.2%
respectably. Sauces may be of two kinds. Thin sauces of low viscosity mainly consist of vinegar
extracts of flavouring spices, herbs etc and thick sauces which are highly viscous.

Fruit Sauce: A fruit sauce of better quality should be cooked to such a consistency that it can be
poured freely without fruit tissues separating out in the bottle. The colour should be bright. The
neck of jar/bottle should be covered with paraffin wax layer for airtight sealing.

CHUTNEY

Fruit chutney: The recipe for preparation of fruit chutney from different fruits is given in
following table as a general guideline and method is discussed as under:

Recipe Mango Apple Plum Apricot Papaya

Fruit slices/pulp,kg 1 1 1 1 1
Sugar, g 750 750 750 1000 750
Cumin, Black pepper, cinnamon, aniseed, g 10 10 10 10 10
(each)
Cardamom(large), red chillies powder g (each) 10 10 10 10 10
Salt, g 45 45 45 45 45
Onion chopped, g 50 250 50 50 100
Garlic chopped, g 15 15 15 10 15
Vinegar, ml 170 200 175 150 200
Clove (headless), no. 5 5 5 5 5
Sodium benzoate (ppm) 250 250 250 250 250
Procedure for preparing chutney
The fruit/vegetable is cut into slices of suitable size and softened by dipping in boiling water.
Slow cooking is preferred to yield better product than that of bristle heating at high temperature.
Onion and garlic are added at the start to mellow their strong flavour. Spices are coarsely
powdered and added. Spices can also be added by placing all ingredients in a cloth bags, loosely
tied and placed in the mixture during cooking. Vinegar extract of spices can also be added. The
vinegar is added just little before final stage of boiling. In place of vinegar, acetic acid can also
be used as source of acidity. The product is cooked to a consistency of jam and filled hot into
sterilized jars. The product can be pasteurized and processed at 820C for 30 minute. The storage
of chutney is done at ambient temperature in cool and dry place.

SAUCE
Recipe used for preparation of fruit sauce as a general guideline is given in following table and
explained as under:

Recipe Tomato Apple Plum Mashroom Papaya

Fruit pulp,kg 1 1 1 1 1
Sugar, g 75 250 100 75 50
Salt, g 10 10 20 25 14
Cardamom, red chillies powder g (each) 5 10 10 5 5
Ginger chopped, g 10 100 25 10 10
Onion chopped, g 50 200 50 100 50
Garlic chopped, g 5 50 10 10 5
Acetic acid, ml 5 50 40 40 40
Aniseed powder, cumin g (each) 10 15 10 10 10
Sodium benzoate (g/kg sauce) 0.25 0.7 0.7 0.25 0.7

Procedure for preparing sauces

Sauces are of thinner consistency as compared to ketchups and contain not less than 150B total
soluble solid. Plum apple, papaya and mushroom etc are used successfully for preparation of
sauces. High quality sauces are prepared by maceration of spices, herbs, fruits and vegetables in
cold vinegar or by boiling. Thickening agents can also be added to sauces to prevent
sedimentation of solid particles.

The fruits are washed and cut in to pieces (plum and apricot are used as whole). Cook for 10
minutes by adding little quantity of water in stainless steel (SS) pan or in pressure cooker. Pass
heated fruits through pulper to separate skin and seeds. Fruit pulp can also used in preparation of
sauce. Add half the quantity of sugar and place the spices in a muslin cloth bag and immerse in
the pulp during cooking. Cook till the pulp is reduced to half the original volume. Remove the
muslin bag and squeeze into pulp. Add acetic acid salt and remaining sugar. Heat the mass for
few minutes. To judge the end point, place a spoon of sauce in plate, if no water oozes out, it
indicates the end point or else more cooking is needed. Fill the finished product in sterilized
glass bottle, crown corked and process in boiling water for 25-30 minutes. Keep the bottles in
cool and dry place.

Problem during preparation of sauce or chutney

Black neck: It is a formation of black ring in the neck of the bottles. It is caused by the iron
which gets into the product from equipment metal or cap/crown cork. This iron when come in
contact with tannins in spice forms ferrous tannate which on oxidation change to black colour.

Prevention of black neck

 Fill hot sauce at temperature not less than 850C.
 Leave less head space in bottles (more air in bottles will result in more blackening).
 Reduce the chances of iron contamination.
 Partial replacement of sugar by corn syrup or glucose may prevent blackening.
 Store bottles in horizontal or inverted position to diffuse the entrapped air/oxygen.