Lecture Note

Course Code: MAT 102B (for CEP)

Geometry, Matrix and Vector Calculus

by
Md. Rashed Talukder

Department of Mathematics
Shahjalal University of Science and Technology
Sylhet
2

Geometry
 3

1. Two dimensional coordinate system

A two dimensional coordinate system can be introduced by con-

sidering two perpendicular coordinate lines in a plane. One of the
coordinate lines is horizontal, with the positive direction to the right;
the other is vertical, with the positive direction upward. These coor-
dinate lines are called coordinate axis and the point of intersection is
called the origin. The axis divide the plane into four parts, called the
first, second, third and fourth quadrants. These two dimentional co-
ordinate system is also called a Cartesian coordinate system in honor
of René Descartes.

y-axis
6

x-axis
-

Figure 1. Cartesian coordinate system

The plane determine by the x- and y-axes is called coordinate plane,

Cartesian plane, or xy-plane. Points of the plane are denoted by or-
dered pairs. When we refer to a point (a, b), we refer to a point in the
coordinate plane whose abscissa is x and whose ordinate is y. To plot
a point (a, b) means to locate the point with coordinates (a, b) in the
plane and represent its location by a dot.
4

1.1. Distance between two points. Finding the distance between

arbitrary points in two dimensions requires the Pythagorean theorem:

Theorem 1.1 (Pythagorean Theorem). A triangle with sides a, b and

c is a right triangle if and only if

a2 + b 2 = c 2

Let P1 (a, b) and P2 (c, d) be any two points in the xy-plane. Draw
a line through P1 parallel to the x-axis and another line through P2
parallel to y-axis. These lines intersect at a point Q with coordinate
(c, b). The distance P1 Q is |c − a| and the distance QP − 2 is |d − b|.
If d is the distance between P1 and P2 , then by the Theorem 1.1,

d2 = (c − a)2 + (d − b)2 .

Thus, since d is non-negative, we have

p
d= (c − a)2 + (d − b)2

y-axis
6
s P2 (c, d)

s
P1 (a, b)
x-axis
-

Figure 2. distance of two points

 5

2. Straight Lines

2.1. Slope and Equations of Lines. Let P (x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ) be

two points in the Cartesian plane. Let the line perpendicular to x-axis
and passes through Q and the line perpendicular to y-axis intersect
to R. The distance from P to R is called the run and denoted as 4x
which is read as ”delta x” and the distance from Q to R is called the
rise and denoted as 4y which is read as ”delta y. The slope of the line
is given by
4y y2 − y1
m= = .
4x x2 − x1
If x1 = x2 , then the line is a vertical line and has no defined slope.

y-axis
6

x-axis
-

Figure 3. Cartesian coordinate system

Problem 1. Find the slope of the line passing through the points
P (−2, −3) and Q(1, 6).

Theorem 2.1. Two non-vertical lines are parallel if and only if they
have the same slope.
6

2.2. Point-slope form of the Equation of a line. The equation of

the line passing through the point P (x1 , x2 ) and having a slope of m is

y − y1 = m(x − x1 ).

Problem 2. Find the equation of the line passing through the points
−2
P (3, 2) with a slope of 3
.

2.3. Slope-intercept form of the Equation of a line. The equa-

tion of the line with slope of m and y-intercept c is

y = mx + c.

−2
Problem 3. Find the equation of the line with a slope of 3
and
y-intercept is 31 .

2.4. A line passes through two points. The equation of the line
passes through the points P (x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ) is
y − y1 x − x1
= .
y1 − y2 x1 − x 2

Problem 4. Find the equation of the line passes through (2, 3) and
(−1, 5).

2.5. Equations of Horizontal and Vertical lines. The equation of

the horizontal line passes through the point P (a, b) is

y=b

The equation of the vertical line passes through the point P (a, b) is

x=a
 7

2.6. General form of the equation of a line. If a, b and c are the

real numbers and b 6= 0, the graph of the equation

ax + by = c

is a nontrivial line with slope − ab and y-intercept c

b

2.7. Equations of the line passes through the intersection of

two lines. The equation of the line passing through the intersection
of two lines ax + by + c = 0 and a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 is

ax + by + c + λ(a1 x + b1 y + c1 ) = 0

where λ is an arbitrary constant.

2.8. Perpendicular distance. The length of the perpendicular dis-

tance d from a point P (x1 , y1 ) on the line ax + by + c = 0 is

ax1 + by1 + c
(1) d=± √
a2 + b2

Positive (negative) sign is chosen when c is positive(negative).

2.9. Bisector of angles between two lines. The equation of the

bisectors of the angle between two lines ax + by + c = 0 and a1 x + b1 y +
c1 = 0 are

ax + by + c a1 x + b 1 y + c 1
(2) √ =± p 2
a2 + b 2 a1 + b21

2.10. Angles between two lines. Let y = m1 x + c1 and y = m2 x + c

be two lines. The angle φ between them is given by

m1 − m2
(2) tan φ = ± √
1 + m1 m2

where m1 and m2 are are the slopes of the lines.

If m1 = m2 , the two lines are parallel and if m1 m2 = −1, then the
two lines are perpendicular to each other. Hence the equations to the
8

line parallel to ax + by + c = 0 is

ax + by + k = 0

and the equation to the line perpendicular to ax + by + c = 0 is

bx − ay + k = 0

where k is a constant.
 9

3. Circle

A circle is the set of all points in the plane that are distance r from
a fixed point. The fixed point is called the centre and the distance is
called the radius of the circle.
Let C(h, k) be a fixed point and P (x, y) be any point whose distance
from C is r. Then

(x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2

is the equation of the circle.

The equation can be written as

x2 + y 2 + 2f x + 2gy + c = 0

where f = −h, g = −k and c = h2 + k 2 − r2 . This is the General form

p
of the circle whise centre is at C(−f, −g) and radius r = f 2 + g 2 − c.
If the centre of the circle is at the origin, then the equation becomes

x2 + y 2 = r 2 .

This is the standard form of the circle. If the radius r = 0, then the
circle becomes a point and it is called the point circle.

Problem 5. Find the equation of the circle whose centre is at (2, −1)
and radius 3.

Problem 6. Find the equation of the circle whose centre is at −1, 31

and radius 2.

Problem 7. Find the centre and radius of the circle

x2 + y 2 − 6x + 2y − 1 = 0.

Problem 8. Find the centre and radius of the circle

x2 + y 2 + 3x − 5y + 2 = 0.
10

The set of all points in the plane whose distance from a fixed point
is less than or equal to a fixed number is called a disk. The fixed point
is called the centre and the fixed number is called radius of the disk.
The equation of the disk whose centre is at C(h, k) and radius is r is

(x − h)2 + (y − k)2 ≤ r2
 11

4. Parabola

A parabola is the set of all points in the plane that are equidistance
from a fixed point and a fixed line which does not passes the fixed
point. The fixed point is called the focus and the fixed line is called
the directrix of the parabola. The straight line passes through the focus
and perpendicular to the directrix is called the axis of the parabola.
The intersection point of a parabola to its axis is called the vertex of
the parabola.
Standard equations of parabola.

y 2 = 4ax.

Focus is at (a, 0), directrix is x = −a, axis is x-axis and vertex is at

origin.

x2 = 4ay.

Focus is at (0, a), directrix y = −a, axis is y-axis and vertex is at origin.

Problem 9. Find the equation of the parabola whose focus is at (2, 0)

and directrix x = −2.

Problem 10. Find the equation of the parabola whose focus is at (3, 0)
and directrix x = −1.

Problem 11. Find the equation of the parabola whose focus is at (2, 1)
and directrix x = −1.

Problem 12. Find the equation of the parabola whose focus is at (0, 2)
and directrix y = −2.

Problem 13. Find the equation of the parabola whose focus is at (0, 3)
and directrix xy = −1.

Problem 14. Find the equation of the parabola whose focus is at (1, 3)
and directrix y = −1.
12

Problem 15. Find the focus and directrix of the parabola y 2 = 8x.

Problem 16. Find the focus and directrix of the parabola x2 = 10y.

Problem 17. Sketch the parabolas for Problems 9-16.

 13

5. Ellipse

An ellipse is the set of all points in the plane whose distances from
two fixed points have a constant sum. The fixed points are called the
foci of the ellipse. The straight line passes through the foci is called
the focal axis of the ellipse. The intersecting points of an ellipse to its
focal axis is called the vertices of the ellipse. The middle point, on the
focal axis, of the vertices is called the centre of an ellipse.
Standard equations of Ellipses.
x2 y 2
+ 2 = 1, (a > b).
a2 b
√
Centre is at (0, 0), vertices (±a, 0), foci (±c, 0) where c = a2 − b2 the
distance from centre to a focus. Here 2a, the length of the line segment
joining the vertices (±a, 0) is called the major axis and the length of
the line segment joining the points (0, ±b) is called the minor axis.

x2 y 2
+ 2 = 1, (b > a).
a2 b
√
Centre is at (0, 0), vertices (0, ±b), foci (0, ±c) where c = b2 − a2 the
distance from centre to a focus.

Problem 18. Find the equation of the ellipse whose foci are at (2, 0)
and (−2, 0) and sum of the distance from foci is 6. Find its centre, and
vertices.
14

6. Hyperbola

A hyperbola is the set of all points in the plane whose distances from
two fixed points have a constant difference. The fixed points are called
the foci of the hyperbola. The straight line passes through the foci is
called the focal axis. The intersecting points of a hyperbola to its focal
axis is called the vertices of the hyperbola. The middle point, on the
focal axis, of the vertices is called the centre.
Standard equations of Hyperbolas.
x2 y 2
− 2 = 1, (a > b).
a2 b
√
Centre is at (0, 0), vertices (±a, 0), foci (±c, 0) where c = a2 + b2 the
distance from centre to a focus.
 15

7. Eccentricity of Conics

The eccentricity of parabola is e = 1.

The eccentricity of ellipse
x2 y 2
+ 2 =1
a2 b
is √
c a2 − b 2
e= = .
a a

Problem 19. Find the eccentricity of the ellipse

x2 y 2
+ = 1.
25 16

Problem 20. Find the eccentricity of the ellipse

x2 y 2
+ = 1.
5 4

Problem 21. Find the eccentricity of the ellipse

x2 y 2
+ = 1.
4 9

Problem 22. Find the eccentricity of the ellipse with major axis 18
and minor axis 8.

The eccentricity of hyperbola

x2 y 2
− 2 =1
a2 b
is √
c a2 + b 2
e= = .
a a
Clearly, the eccentricity of ellipse is less than 1 and the eccentricity of
hyperbola is greater than 1.

Problem 23. Find the eccentricity of the hyperbola

x2 y2
− = 1.
25 16
16

Problem 24. Find the eccentricity of the hyperbola

x2 y 2
− = 1.
5 4
 17

8. Change of axes

We can convert an equation to its standard form by rotating the

coordinate axis. The equations for rotation counterclockwise about
the origin through an angle α are

x = x0 cos α − y 0 sin α

y = x0 sin α + y 0 cos α

Problem 25. Find the equation for the hyperbola 2xy = 9 by rotated
the axes through an angle π/4 about the origin.

If we apply the equations for rotation to the quadratic equation

(1) Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0,

we obtain a new quadratic equation

A0 x2 + B 0 xy + C 0 y 2 + D0 x + E 0 y + F 0 = 0.

The relations among the coefficients are

A0 = A cos2 α + B cos α sin α + C sin2 α

B 0 = B cos 2α + (C − A) sin 2α

C 0 = A sin2 α − B sin α cos α + C cos2 α

D0 = D cos α + E sin α

E 0 = −D sin α + E cos α

F 0 = F.

Problem 26. Find the rotation α so that the equation

√
2x2 + 3xy + y 2 − 10 = 0

has no xy term and hence identify the curve.

18

9. Three dimensional space

9.1. Distance between two points. If P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P (x2 , y2 , z2 )

are two points in the space, then the distance between them is

p
d= (x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2 + (z1 − z2 )2 .

Problem 27. Find the distance between the points (1, −1, 2) and
(2, 2, −1).

1
, −1, 32


Problem 28. Find the distance between the points 2
and
(0, 2, −1).

10. Straight lines in Space

Equation of a line passes through the point P (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and parallel

to the vector ~v = aî + bĵ + ck̂ is

x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
= = .
a b c

The parametric equation of the line is

x = x0 + at, y = y0 + bt, z = z0 + ct.

Problem 29. Find the equation of the line passes through the point
(−1, 2, −1) and parallel to the vector ~v = 2î − 3ĵ + k̂.
 19

11. Planes in Space

Equation of a plane passes through the point P (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and per-

pendicular to the vector ~v = aî + bĵ + ck̂ is

a(x − x0 ) + b(y − y0 ) + c(z − z0 ) = 0.

The equation can be written as

ax + by + cz + d = 0.

Problem 30. Find the equation of the plane passes through the point
(−1, 2, −1) and perpendicular to the vector ~v = 2î − 3ĵ + k̂.

11.1. Angle between two planes. Any vector perpendicular to the

plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 is

aî + bĵ + ck̂.

Problem 31. Find the angle between the planes 2x − 3y + 5z + 1 = 0

and x − y − 3z + 2 = 0.

12. Sphere

A sphere is a set of all points which is equidistance from a fixed point.

The fixed point is called the centre of the sphere and the equidistance
is called the radius of the sphere.

Problem 32. Find the equation of the sphere whose centre is at

(0, −1, 1) and radius 4.

Problem 33. Find the centre and radius of the sphere

x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2x − 4z + 1 = 0.
20

Matrix
 21

13. Basic Definitions

A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers. These numbers are

called entries or elements. A horizontal line of the numbers is called a
row and a vertical line of the numbers is called a column. We usually
use upper case letters to denote a matrix. A general form of a matrix
of m rows and n columns is
 
a11 a12 a13 ··· a1n
 
a
 21 a22 a23 · · · a2n 

 
a
 31 a32 a33 · · · a3n 

 
(aij ) = 
 · · · ··· · 
 
 · · · ··· · 
 
 
 · · · ··· · 
 
am1 am2 am3 · · · amn

where aij is the entry of ith row and jth column.

Example 13.1.  
1 2 3
A= .
3 0 9
In the above matrix, the entry in row 2 and column 3 is 9.

Counterexamples.
Let    
1 2 1 2 3
B=  and C= .
3 0 9 3 ♥ 9

13.1. Order of a Matrix. A matrix with m rows and n columns is

said to have order m × n, where the number of rows is written first.
Order of the matrix A is 2 × 3.
22

13.2. Zero Matrix. A matrix is said to be zero matrix or null matrix

if its every entry is 0.

Example 13.2. Let

 
0 0 0 0
B= .
0 0 0 0

Then B is a zero matrix of order 2 × 4.

13.3. Square Matrix. A matrix of same number of rows and columns

is said to be an square matrix. If an m×n matrix A is a square matrix,
then m = n and we say that A is a square matrix of order n.

Example 13.3. Let

 
2 0 3 0
 
 1 2 4 10
C= .
 
12 3 3 4 
 
0 0 0 0

Then C is a square matrix of order 4.

13.4. Identity Matrix. A square matrix A = (aij ) is said to be an

Identity matrix if

1 if i = j

aij = .
0 if i 6= j


An identity matrix of order n is denoted by In or Idn .

 23

Example 13.4. Let

 
1 0 0 0
 
0 1 0 0
D4 =  .
 
0 0 1 0
 
0 0 0 1
Then D4 is a identity matrix of order 4.

13.5. Diagonal Matrix. A square matrix A = (aij ) is said to be a

diagonal matrix if it has only non-zero diagonal. i.e., aij = 0 if i 6= j

Example 13.5. Let

 
3 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0
D= .
 
0 0 1 0
 
0 0 0 2
Then D4 is a identity matrix of order 4.

13.6. Equal Matrices. Let A and B be two matrix. The matrix A is

said to be equal to the matrix B if
• they have the same order
• their corresponding elements are equal.
If two matrices A and B are equal, then we write A = B.

Example 13.6. Let

   
3 2 0   2 01
  3 2 0 −1  
1 2 5    1 2 5
A= B= 1 2 5 0  C= .
     

−2 0 3   −2 0 3
−2 0 3 3
   
0 0 2 0 0 2
24

Then A 6= B, because their order are not same and A 6= C because

their entry are not same.

13.7. Transpose of a Matrix. Let A = (aij ) be a matrix. The trans-

pose of A is denoted by AT and is defined by

AT = (aji ).

Example 13.7. Let

 
3
2 0
 
 1 2 5
A= .
 
−2 0 3
 
0 0 2
Then  
3 1 −2 0
AT = 2 2 0 0
 
 
0 5 5 2
If the order of a matrix A is m × n, then the order of its transpose is
n × m.

13.8. Trace of a Matrix. Let A = (aij ) be a square matrix of order

n. Then the trace of A is denoted by tra(A) and is defined by
n
X
tra(A) = aii .
i=1

Example 13.8. Let

 
1 2 2
A =  1 −2 5 .
 
 
−2 0 3
Then
tra(A) = 1 − 2 + 3 = 2.
 25

Symmetric Matrix: A matrix A is said to be symmetric if it is equal

to its transpose matrix.
Example.
Let    
3 2 0 3 2 0
   
A = 2 2 5 and AT = 2 2 5
   
   
0 5 3 0 5 3
Thus A = AT and hence A is a symmetric matrix.

Skew-symmetric Matrix: A matrix A is said to be Skew-symmetric

if A = −AT .

Example.
The matrix  
 0 2 0 
A = −2 0 5
 
 
0 −5 0
is a skew-symmetric matrix. Note that the diagonal of skew-symmetric
matrix is zero.

13.9. Complex Matrix. A matrix A is said to be a Complex matrix

if it elements are complex numbers.

Example 13.9.  
 3 + i 2 i2
A= 2 2 − i3 5 
 
 
0 i5 3

Conjugate Matrix: Let A be a complex matrix. The conjugate of A

denoted by A obtained from A by replacing each complex entries of A
by its conjugate.
26

Example 13.10. The conjugate of A above is

 
3−i 2 −i2
 
A= 2 2 + i3 5  .
 
 
0 −i5 3

Hermitian Matrix: A square complex matrix A is called Hermitian

if it is equal to the transpose of its conjugate complex matrix, that is,
if A = (A)T .

Example 13.11.
 
2 3−i 1
 
A = 3 + i 5 i2 .
 
 
1 −i2 0

Skew-Hermitian Matrix: A square complex matrix A is called Skew-

Hermitian if A = −(A)T .

Example 13.12.
 
i2 3−i 1
 
A = −3 − i 5i i .
 
 
−1 i 0

14. Matrix Operations

14.1. Matrix Addition. Let A = (aij ) and B = (bij ) be two matrices

of same order m × n. The adition of A and B denoted by C = A + B
is defined by C = (cij ) where cij = aij + bij . Clearly, the matrix C is
of order m × n.
 27

Example 14.1.
   
3 2 0 1 3 2 0 −1
   
A =  1 2 5 3 and B =  1 2 5 0 
   
   
−2 0 3 0 −2 0 3 3

Then  
 6 4 0 0
C = A + B =  2 4 10 3 .
 
 
−4 0 6 3

14.2. Matrix Subtraction. : Let A = (aij ) and B = (bij ) be two

matrices of same order m × n. The subtraction from A to B denoted
by C = A − B is defined by C = (cij ) where cij = aij − bij . Clearly,
the matrix C is of order m × n.

Example 14.2.
   
3 2 0 1 3 2 0 −1
   
A =  1 2 5 3 and B =  1 2 5 0 
   
   
−2 0 3 0 −2 0 3 3

Then  
0 0 0 2
 
C = A − B = 0 0 0 3  .
 
 
0 0 0 −3

14.3. Matrix Multiplication. : Let A = (aij ) and B = (bij ) be two

matrices. The multiplication of A and B are permissible if the number
of columns of A is the same of the number of row of B. Let the order
of A is m × l and the order of B is l × n. The multiplication of A and
B denoted by C = AB is defined by C = (cij ) where

cij = ai1 b1j + ai2 b2j + · · · + ail blj .

The matrix C is of order m × n.

28

Example 14.3.
 
  3 2 0 −1
3 2 0 1 
1

  2 5 0
A =  1 2 5 3 and B = 
   

  −2 0 3 3
−2 0 3 0
 
2 −3 0 1

Here the order of A is 3 × 4 and the order of B is 4 × 4. Hence the

multiplication is permissible and the order of the resulting matrix is
3 × 4. We have
 
 13 10 10 −2
C = AB =  1 −3 25 17  .
 
 
−12 −4 9 11

Idempotent Matrix. A matrix A is said to be idempotent if

A2 = A.

Nilpotent Matrix. A matrix A is said to be nilpotent of index n if

An = 0, the zero matrix.

14.4. Scalar Multiplication. : Let A = (aij ) be a matrix and let λ

be a scalar number. Then the scalar multiplication of A by λ is

λA = λ(aij ) = (λaij ).

Example 14.4. Let

 
−1 2 0
A= 
1 2 5

and λ = 3. Then
   
−1 2 0 −3 6 0
λA = 3  = 
1 2 5 3 6 15
 29

14.5. Determinant of a Matrix. Let

 
a b
A= 
c d

be a square matrix of order 2. Then the determinant of A is denoted

by |A| or det(A) and defined by
 
 
a b 
|A| = 
  = ad − bc.
 c d


Let  
a a a
 11 12 13 
A = a21 a22 a23  .
 
 
a31 a32 a33
Then
     
     
a22 a23  a21 a23  a21 a22 
|A| = a11 

 − a12 
 
 + a13 
  .
a32 a33  a31 a33  a31 a32 


Problem 34. Find |A| where

 
−1 2 0
 
−1 2
(i) A =  and (ii) A =  1 2 5
  
1 2  
2 −3 4

15. Inverse of a Matrix

If two matrices A and B of order n such that

AB = BA = In ,

then A is called the inverse of B and vice-versa.

If B is the inverse of A, then we write B = A−1 . If a matrix A has
the inverse, then we say that A is invertible.
30

Theorem 15.1. If A and B are two invertible matrices of same order,

then
(AB)−1 = B −1 A−1 .

Example 15.1. If
 
3 2
A= ,
1 2
then 

1 2 −2
B=  
4 −1 3

is the inverse of A because

          
3 2 1 2 −2 3 2 2 −2 4 0 1 0
AB =    = 1  = 1 = .
1 2 4 −1 3 4 1 2 −1 3 4 0 4 0 1

Remark 1. Can you think that how we have obtained the inverse B
of A in the above example? It is not always so easy to guess the inverse
of a matrix when it exists. So, we have two questions:

• whether a matrix has an inverse;

• How we can find the inverse of a matrix when it exists.

If the determinant of a square matrix A is 0, that is, if |A| = 0, then

we say that A is singular matrix, otherwise it is called non-singular
matrix. A singular matrix has no inverse. Thus there is an inverse of
a non-singular matrix.

15.1. Inverse of a square matrix of order 2 × 2. Let

 
a b
A= .
c d

Then  
1  d −b
A−1 = .
|A| −c a
 31

Example 15.2. Let  

1 −3
A= .
5 2
Then |A| = 17. Hence
 
1  2 3
A−1 = .
17 −5 1

15.2. Inverse of a square matrix of order n × n. Let A = (aij ) be

a square matrix of order n. The minor Mij of aij is the determinant
of the square matrix of order n − 1 formed by deleting i-th row and
j-column of A. The cofactor αij of aij of a matrix A = (aij ) is defined
by
αij = (−1)i+j Mij .

The matrix B = (αij )T = (αji ) is called the adjoint matrix of A and

we write B = adj(A). The inverse of A is
1
A−1 = adj(A) .
|A|

Example 15.3. Let

 
−1 2 0
A= 1 2 5
 
 
2 −3 4

Then  
 
 2 5
1+1 
α11 = (−1)   = 23.
−3 4


Similarly, all the co-factors of A are:

α11 = 23 α21 = −8 α31 = 10

α12 = 6 α22 = −4 α32 = 5

α13 = −7 α23 = 1 α33 = −4.

32

Thus  
23 −8 10
 
adj(A) =  6 −4 5  .
 
 
−7 1 −4
We have |A| = −1 × 23 − 2 × (−6) = −11
Hence  
23 −8 10
1  
A−1 =  6 −4 5  .
 
−11  
−7 1 −4
Observe that
    
23 −8 10 −1 2 0 1 0 0
1     
A−1 A =  6 −4 5   1 2 5 = 0 1 0
    
−11 
 
   
−7 1 −4 2 −3 4 0 0 1

Problem 35. Find the inverse of the following matrices:

     
1 2 0 2 2 0  1 −2 3 
A= 1 3 1 , B = 1 1 1 , C =  1 1 −2
     
     
−1 −3 2 0 −3 2 −1 −3 2

15.3. Elementary row operations. The following operations on rows

of a matrix is called elementary row operations:

(i) interchange the ith row with the jth row, by notation rij ;
(ii) multiply the ith row by a non-zero scalar k, by notation kti ;
(iii) replace the ith row by ith row plus k times the jth row, by
notation ri0 ← ri + krj ;

Problem 36. Apply the elementary row operations (i) r23 , (ii) − 23 r2 ,
and (iii) r30 ← r3 + 2r1 consequently on the matrix:
 
1 2 0
A= 1 3 1 .
 
 
−1 −3 2
 33

15.4. Row equivalence matrix. A matrix A is called row equivalent

to a matrix B if B can be obtained from A by a finite sequence of
elementary row operations.

Example 15.4. The matrix

 
1 2 0
 
A= 1 3 1 .
 
 
−1 −3 2

is row equivalent to the matrix

 
1 3 1 
B = 1 2 0  .
 
 
0 −1 2

Because B can be obtained from A by applying the elementary row

operation r30 ← r3 + r1 and then r12 .

15.5. Finding inverse of a invertible matrix using elementary

row operations. Let A be an invertible matrix of order n. Using ele-
mentary row operations convert the augmented matrix (A|I) equivalent
to (I|B). Then B is the inverse of A.

Problem 37. Apply the elementary row operations to find the inverse
of the matrix:  
1 2 0
 
A= 1 3 1 .
 
 
−1 −3 2

Problem 38. Apply the elementary row operations to find the inverse
of the matrix:  
2 1 0 3
 
1 3 1 −2
A= .
 
 0 −2 2 1 
 
−2 1 0 −1
34

15.6. Echelon matrix. A matrix A = (aij ) is an echelon matrix if the

number of zeors preceding the first non-zero entry of a row increases
row by row until only rows of zeros remain.

Example 15.5. The matrix

 
2 2 0 0 −1 3 1
 
0
 0 3 1 0 2 −1

 
A=
0 0 0 −1 0 .
−2 3 
 
0 0 0 0 0 1 3
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0

is an echelon matrix. Leading non-zero elements are called distin-

guished elements.

15.7. Row reduced echelon matrix. An echelon matrix is called

row reduced echelon matrix if

(i) all distinguished elements are 1, and

(ii) the distinguished elements are only non-zero entries in their
respective columns.

Example 15.6. The matrix

 
1 3 0 0 −1 0 1
 
0
 0 1 0 0 0 −1

 
A=
0 0 0 1 0 0 3.
 
0 0 0 0 0 1 3
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0

is a row reduced echelon matrix.

 35

16. System of Linear Equations

A system of linear equations is of the form

(*) a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + · · · + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 + · · · + a2n xn = b2

a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 + · · · + a3n xn = b3

·······································

am1 x1 + am2 x2 + am3 x3 + · · · + amn xn = bm

(*) can be written as

AX = B

where
   
x1 b1
     
a11 a12 a13 ··· a1n x 
 2
b 
 2
     
a
 21 a22 a23 ··· a2n 

x 
 3
b 
 3
     
A=
 a31 a32 a33 ,
· · · a3n  X =  ·  and B = 
 
 · 

     
 · · · ··· ·  ·  · 
     
   
am1 am2 am3 · · · amn ·
 
 · 
 
xn bm

6 0, then A−1 exists and we can write

If |A| =

X = A−1 B

which give us the solution of the system of the linear equations (*).

Example 16.1. Consider the system of equations:

2x − 3y = 1

x−y =5
 
2 −3
Here the coefficient matrix A =  .
1 −1
36
   
x 1
Variable matrix X =  . Constant matrix B =  .
y 5
−1
Observe that AX = B and hence
 X
= A B.
−1 3
Now |A| = 1. Hence A−1 =  .
−1 2
    
−1 3 1 14
Thus X = A−1 B =     =  .
−1 2 5 9
Hence x = 14, y = 5.

Problem 39. Solve the system of linear equations:

2x − 3y + z = 1

x + 2y − 3z = 5

x+y+z =0

Problem 40. Solve the system of linear equations:

x − 3y + z = 3

x + y + 3z = 1

x + 2y + z = −1

Problem 41. Solve the system of linear equations:

2x − y + z = −1

x + y − 3z = 2

x + y + 2z = 1

Problem 42. Solve the system of linear equations:

2x + y − 2z = 10

3x + 2y + 2z = 1

5x + 4y + 3z = 4
 37

16.1. Exercise.
1. Define (i) matrix, (ii) order of a matrix, (iii) square matrix,
(iv) identity matrix, (v) diagonal matrix, (vi) equal matrix,
(vi) transpose of a matrix, (vii) symmetric matrix, (viii) skew-
symmetric matrix.
2. When addition and multiplication of two matrices are permis-
sible.
3. Let
 
  3 2 0 −1
1 −2 0 1  
  1 2 5 0
A= 0 2 5 3 and B =  .
   
  −2 0 3 3
−2 0 3 0
 
2 −3 0 1

Find (i) 23 A, (ii) A + B, (iii) AB, (iv) BA, (v) A2 = AA, (vi)
B2.  
1 −1 0 −1
 
1 2 2 0 
4. Find the determinant of B =  .
 
−2 0 3 1 
 
2 −3 0 1
5. Define (i) singular matrix, (ii) non-singular matrix, (iii) inverse
of a matrix.
6. Determine whether the matrices are singular or not.
 
  2 1 −2 −1
2 −1 3  
  3 2 1 0 
A= 0 1 2 and B = .
   
 
  −1 0 −2 3 
−2 3 1
 
2 1 0 0
Find the co-factors of the matrix A.
7. Find the adjoin matrix of
 
3 1 2
A =  1 −1 3
 
 
−2 3 1
38

8. Using co-factors find the inverse (if exists) of the matrix

 
2 1 −1
 
A = 1 −1 0 
 
 
2 3 1

9. Write down the elementary row operations.

10. Using elementary row operations find the inverse (if exists) of
the matrices
 
  1 1 −2 0
2 1 −2  
  1 0 1−1
A =  1 0 3  and B = 
   

  0 3 −1 3 
−2 3 −1
 
−1 0 1 −2

11. What are echelon matrix and reduced echelon matrix? Give
example of each. Find an equivalent echelon matrix and reduced
echelon matrix of the matrix
 
1 1 −2 0 1
 
 1 0 1 −1 3
A=
 

 0 2 −1 3 4
 
−1 0 1 −2 7

12. What is rank of a matrix? Find the rank of the matrix

 
2 −1 3 2 1
 
 1 −2 1 0 3 
 
 
A = −2 2 0 3 −1


 
−1 0 1 −2 5 
 
3 0 2 −1 4

13. Write down the form of system of linear equations of n variables

and m equations and hence convert it to matrix form.
14. Write down the (i) coefficients matrix, (ii) variables matrix, (iii)
constants matrix, and (iv) augmented matrix of the system of
 39

linear equations:

2x − 3y + z = 1

x + 2y − 3z = 5

x+y+z =0

15. Define consistent and inconsistent system of linear equations.

Write down a condition of a system of linear equations to be
consistent. Determine whether the system of equations is con-
sistent or not.

x − 3y + z = 3

x + y + 3z = 1

x + 2y + z = −1

16. Solve the system of linear equations:

2x − y + z = −1

x + y − 3z = 2

x + y + 2z = 1
40

Vector
 41

17. Vectors in Rn

A vector in Rn is a n-tiple u = (u1 , u2 , · · · , un ) where ui ∈ R for

1 ≤ i ≤ n. The number uk is called the k-th componenet of u. If all of
the components of a vector is zero, then the vector is called the zero
vector and it is denoted by 0.

Example 17.1. u = (1, 0) is a vector in R2

Example 17.2. u = (1, 0, −1) is a vector in R3

17.1. Equal vectors. Two vectors u = (u1 , u2 , · · · , un ) and v = (v1 , v2 , · · · , vn )

are equal if the corresponding components are equal, that is, ui = vi
for all 1 ≤ i ≤ n.

17.2. Norm or length of a vector. The norm or length of a vector

u = (u1 , u2 , · · · , un ) is denoted by kuk and defined by
q
kuk = u21 + u22 + · · · + u2n .

Example 17.3. The norm of the vector u = (1, 0) is

kuk = 1

Example 17.4. The norm of the vector u = (1, 0, −1) is

√
kuk = 2

Problem 43. Find the norm of the vector u = (1, 2, −1).

17.3. Unit vector. If kuk = 1, then u is a unit vector. A unit vector

u is denoted by û.

Some special unit vectors.

• î = (1) is a unit vectors in R.
• î = (1, 0) and ĵ = (0, 1) are unit vectors in R2 .
• î = (1, 0, 0), ĵ = (0, 1, 0) and k̂ = (0, 0, 1) are unit vectors in
R3 .
42

• ê1 = (1, 0, · · · , 0), ê2 = (0, 1, · · · , 0), · · · , ên = (0, 0, · · · , 1) are

unit vectors in Rn .

18. Vector algebra

18.1. Addition and subtraction. Let u = (u1 , u2 , · · · , un ) and v =

(v1 , v2 , · · · , vn ) be two vectors in Rn . Then their addition

u + v = (u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 , · · · , un + vn )

and subtraction

u − v = (u1 − v1 , u2 − v2 , · · · , un − vn )

Example 18.1. Let u = (1, 0, −1) and v = (−1, 2, −1). Then

u + v = (0, 2, −2)

and
u − v = (2, −2, 0).

18.2. Scalar multiplication. Let u = (u1 , u2 , · · · , un ) ∈ Rn and λ ∈

R. Then
λu = (λu1 , λu2 , · · · , λun )

Example 18.2. Let u = (1, 0, −1, 3). Then

2u = (2, 0, −2, 6)

18.3. Dot and cross product. Let u = (u1 , u2 , · · · , un ) and v =

(v1 , v2 , · · · , vn ) be two vectors in Rn . Then their dot product

u · v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + · · · + un vn

and cross product

u × v = (u1 v2 − u2 v1 , u2 v3 − u3 v1 , · · · , un v1 − u1 vn ) for n ≥ 3
 43

Example 18.3. Let u = (1, 0, −1) and v = (−1, 2, −1). Then

u · v = −1 + 0 + 1 = 0

and
u × v = (2, 2, 2).

Properties of dot product. If u, v and w are vectors in Rn and

λ ∈ R, then
(i) u · v = v · u
(ii) u · (v · w) = (u · v) · w
(iii) k(u · v) = (ku) · v = u · (kv)
(iv) u · u ≥ 0 and u · u = 0 if and only if u = 0.

Properties of cross product. If u, v and w are vectors in Rn and

λ ∈ R, then
(i) u × v = −v × u
(ii) u × (v × w) = u × v + u × w
(iii) (u + v) × w = u × w + v × w
(iv) k(u × v) = (ku) × v = u × (kv)
(v) u × 0 = 0 × u = u
(vi) u × u = 0.

19. Applications of vectors

19.1. Angle between two vectors. Let u and v be two non-zero

vectors in R2 or R3 . If the initial points of u and v coincide and θ be
the angle between them, where 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, then

u · v = kukkvk cos θ.

Thus the angle  

−1 u·v
θ = cos .
kukkvk
44

Problem 44. Find the angle between the vectors u = (1, 2, −1) and
v = (−1, 0, 2).

Problem 45. Find the angle between a diagonal of a cube and one of
its edges.

19.2. Orthogonal vectors. Two vectors are called orthogonal if they

are perpendicular to each other. Two vectors u and v are orthogonal
if and only if u · v= 0.

19.3. Area of a parallelogram. Let u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) and v = (v1 , v2 , v3 )

are two vectors, then ku × vk is equal to the area of the parallelogram
determine by u and v.

Problem 46. Find the area of the parallelogram determine by the

vectors u = (1, 2, −1) and v = (−1, 0, 2).

19.4. Volume of a parallelepiped. Let u, v and w are three vectors,

then |u · (v × w)| is equal to the volume of the parallelepiped determine
by u,v and w.

Problem 47. Find the volume of the parallelepiped determine by the

vectors u = (1, 2, −1), v = (−1, 0, 2) and w = (−2, 0, 1).
 45

19.5. Exercise.
1. Find the norm of the vector u = (3, 1, −1).
2. Find the unit vector in the direction of the vector u = (1, 2, −1).
46

20. Vector Space and Subspaces

20.1. Vector Space. A nonempty set V of vectors which is closed

under two operations, addition and scalar multiplication , is called a
vector space if for all u, v, w ∈ V and k, l scalars the following axioms
are satisfied:

(i) u + v ∈ V
(ii) u + v = v + u
(iii) u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w
(iv) there is 0 ∈ V such that u + 0 = 0 + u = u
(v) for each u ∈ V there is −u ∈ V such that u + (−u) = 0
(vi) ku ∈ V
(vii) k(u + v) = ku + kv
(viii) (k + l)u = ku + lu
(ix) (kl)u = k(lu)
(vii) 1u = u

Example 20.1. .

• R is a vector space
• R2 is a vector space
• R3 is a vector space

20.2. Subspaces. A subset W of a vector space V is called a sub-

space of V if W is itself a vector space under the addition and scalar
multiplication defined on V .

Theorem 20.1. A nonempty subset W of a vector space V is a sub-

space of V if and only if for all u, v ∈ V and scalar k, we have
ku + kv ∈ W .
 47

20.3. Linear Combination of a vector. A vector w is called a linear

combination of the vectors u1 , u2 , · · · , un if it can be expressed as

w = k1 u1 + k2 u2 + · · · + kn un

where k1 , k2 , · · · , kn are scalars.

Example 20.2. Every vector in R3 is a linear combination of the

vectors (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1) because any (a, b, c) ∈ R3 , we have

(a, b, c) = a(1, 0, 0) + b(0, 1, 0) + c(0, 0, 1).

20.4. Linear dependence and independence. Let S = {u1 , u2 , · · · , un }

be a nonempty set of vectors. If the vector equation

k1 u1 + k2 u2 + · · · + kn un = 0

has the only solution, namely

k1 = k2 = · · · = kn = 0,

then S is called a linearly independent set. If there are other solutions,

then S is called a linearly dependent set.

Example 20.3. The set S = {(1, −1, 2), (2, −2, 4)} is a linearly de-
pendent set.

Example 20.4. The set S = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)} is a linearly
independent set.

Problem 48. Test whether the set S = {(1, 3, −1), (0, 2, 3), (3, −2, 2)}
of vectors in R3 is linearly dependent or independent set.
48

20.5. Spanning. Let V be a vector space. A set S = {v1 , v2 , · · · , vn }

of vectors in V is called span a subspace W of V if W is the set of all
linear combinations of the vectors in S and we write W = span(S).

Example 20.5. The set S = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)} span the vec-
tor space W = R3 .

20.6. Basis and Dimension. A set S = {v1 , v2 , · · · , vn } of vectors of

a vector space V is called a basis for V if
(i) S is linearly independent, and
(ii) S span V .
The number of vectors of a basis is called the dimension of the vector
space.

Example 20.6. The vectors i = (1, 0) and j = (0, 1) are linearly

independent and span R2 , because, any (a, b) ∈ R2 we have

(a, b) = a(1, 0) + b(0, 1).

Hence S = {i, j} is a basis of R2 . The basis is called the standard basis

of R2 .

Example 20.7. The vectors i = (1, 0, 0), j = (0, 1, 0) and k = (0, 0, 1)

are linearly independent and span R3 , because, any (a, b, c) ∈ R3 we
have
(a, b, c) = a(1, 0, 0) + b(0, 1, 0) + c(0, 0, 1).

Hence S = {i, j, k} is a basis of R3 . The basis is called the standard

basis of R3 .

20.7. Determining a basis. A set S = {v1 , v2 , · · · , vn } of n vectors

of a n dimensional vector space V is a basis for V if the determinant
of the matrix form by the vectors is nonzero.

Example 20.8. Determine whether the vectors u = (1, 2, 1), v =

(2, 9, 0), w = (3, 3, 4) form a basis for R3 or not.
 49

Problem 49. Find a basis and dimension of the subspace of R3 gen-

erated by the vectors u = (−1, 2, 3), v = (2, 9, 0), w = (2, −3, 1)
50

21. Vector Functions

When a particle moves through space during a tim interval I, we

think of the particle’s coordinates as functions defined on I:

u = f (t), v = g(t), w = h(t), t ∈ I.

The points (u, v, w) = (f (t), g(t), h(t)), t ∈ I, make up the curve in

space that we call the particle’s path. The vector

r(t) = (u, v, w) = (f (t), g(t), h(t)) = f (t)î + g(t)ĵ + h(t)k̂

from the origin to the particle’s position P (u, v, w) at time t is called

the position vector. The real function f (t), g(t), h(t) are called the
components of the position vector. A vector function on a domain set
D is a rule that assigns a vector in space to each element in D.

Example 21.1 (Helix). The vector function

r(t) = cos tî + sin tĵ + tk̂

defined for all real values of t is called helix.

21.1. Limit, continuity and derivative of a vector function. Let

r(t) is a vector function defined on a set D. A vector L is called a limit
of r(t) at t = t0 if r(t) → L whenever t → t0 and we write

lim r(t) = L.
t→t0

If

lim r(t) = r(t0 ),

t→t0

then we say that r(t) is continuous at t = t0 . If r(t) is continuous at

each point in D, then we say that r(t) is continuous on D.
 51

If f (t), g(t) and h(t) are differentiable at t = t0 , then we say that

r(t) is differentiable at t = t0 . We say that r(t) is differentiable on D,
if it is differentiable at each point in D. We write the derivative vector
dr r(t + ∆t) − r(t) df dg dh
= lim = î + ĵ + k̂.
dt ∆t→0 ∆t dt dt dt
dr
If the limit exists, then dt
represent the tangent vector of the path of
dr
r(t) at (f (t), g(t), h(t). The path of r(t) is said to be smooth if dt
is
continuous and not equal to zero vector.

Problem 50. Find the unit tangent vector at time t = 3 on the curve
r(t) = (t3 + 2)î + (4t − 3)ĵ − 3t2 k̂.

21.2. Vector Differentiation Formulae. If u, vand w are vector dif-

ferentiable functions of t, then
d du dv
1. dt
(u ± v) = dt
± dt
,
d dφ
2. dt
(φu) = φ du
dt
+ dt
u, where φ is a scalar function of t,
d dv du
3. dt
(u · v) = u · dt
+ dt
· v,
d dv du
4. dt
(u × v) = u × dt
+ dt
× v,

Problem 51. If u = t3 î + tĵ − 3t2 k̂ and u = sin tî + 2 cos tĵ − tk̂, then
find
d d
(a) dt
(u · v), (b) dt
(u × v).

21.3. Some physical meaning. If r(t) is the position vector of a

particle moving along a smooth curve in space, then
dr
1. v(t) = dt
is the velocity of the particle.
2. |v(t)| = | dr
dt
| the magnitude of velocity is called the speed of the
particle.
dv d2 r
3. a(t) = dt
= dt2
is called the acceleration of the particle.
52

v
4. The vector |v|
is called the direction of motion of the particle
at time t.

Problem 52. A particle moves along the curve

r(t) = e−t î + 2 cos tĵ + 2 sin tk̂

where t is the time. Find

(a) velocity, (b) speed, (c) acceleration, (d) direction of motion,
of the particle at (i) the starting point, and (ii) t = π/2.

Problem 53. Find the helix

(a) velocity, (b) speed, (c) acceleration, (d) direction of motion,
at (i) the starting point, and (ii) t = π/2.
 53

22. Gradient, Divergence and Curl

22.1. Vector operator nabla. Vector operator nabla is

∂ ∂ ∂
∇= î + ĵ + k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z

22.2. Gradient. Let φ(x, y, z) be a scalar function.

Then
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
∇φ = î + ĵ + k̂
∂x ∂x ∂x
is called the gradient of φ. It is also denoted by grad φ

22.3. Divergence. Let V~ (x, y, z) = V1 (x, y, z)î+V2 (x, y, z)ĵ+V3 (x, y, z)k̂
be a vector function. Then
∂V1 ∂V2 ∂V3
∇ · V~ = + +
∂x ∂x ∂x
is called the divergence of V~ . It is also denoted by div V~ .

22.4. Curl. Let V~ (x, y, z) = V1 (x, y, z)î + V2 (x, y, z)ĵ + V3 (x, y, z)k̂ be
a vector function. Then
 
 
 î ĵ k̂ 
 
∇ × V~ =  ∂x
∂ ∂ ∂
∂x ∂x 


V1 V2 V3 
 

is called the curl of V~ . It is also denoted by curl V~ .

Problem 54. Let φ(x, y, z) = 4xy 2 + 3yz 2 − 5xyz 3 . Find the gradient
of φ.

Problem 55. Let V~ = 3x2 y î + (y 3 z 2 − xyz 3 )ĵ − 3z 3 k̂. Find (i) div V~ ,
and (ii) curl V~ .
54

22.5. Properties of Gradient of a scalar function. If φ(x, y, z) is

a constant function, then ∇φ is a vector perpendicular to the surface
of φ

Problem 56. Find the vector perpendicular to the surface

φ(x, y, z) = 4xy 2 + 3yz 2 − 5xyz 3 = 2

at 0, 32 , 1 .

Problem 57. Find the unit normal vector to the surface

φ(x, y, z) = y 2 − 3yz 2 − 3xz 3 = −2

at (0, 1, −1).

22.6. Directional derivative. If φ(x, y, z) is a scalar function. Then

the component of ∇φ in the direction of a vector ~u is ∇φ · û. It is called
the directional derivative of φ in the direction ~u.

Problem 58. Find the directional derivative of

φ(x, y, z) = y 2 − 3yz 2 − 3xz 3

at (2, 1, −1) in the direction of ~u = 2î − 4ĵ + 3k̂.

22.7. Solenoidal vector. A vector function V~ is called solenoidal if

its divergence is zero, that is, if ∇ · V~ = 0.

Problem 59. Determine whether the vector

V~ = (y 2 + 1)î − 3(z 2 − 3x)ĵ − (x2 + y)k̂

is solenoidal or not.
 55

22.8. Irrotational vector. A vector function V~ is called irrotational

if its curl is zero, that is, if ∇ × V~ is a zero vector.

Problem 60. Determine whether the vector

V~ = (y 2 + 1)î − 3(z 2 − 3x)ĵ − (x2 + y)k̂

is irrotational or not.

Remark If V~ is irrotational, then there is scalar function φ so that

V~ = ∇φ. A vector V~ which can be derived from a scalar field φ so that
V~ = ∇φ is called a conservative vector and φ is called scalar potential.

22.9. Laplace’s Equation. The equation ∇2 φ = 0 is called Laplace’s

equation.

Problem 61. Show that if φ(x, y, z) is a solution of Laplace’s equation,

then ∇φ is both solenoidal and irrotational.

23. Quadric Surfaces

The general form of quadric surface is

ax2 + by 2 + cz 2 + dxy + eyz + f xz + gx + hy + pz + q = 0

23.1. Sphere.
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = r 2

23.2. Ellipsoid.
x2 y 2 z 2
+ 2 + 2 =1
a2 b c
23.3. Elliptic paraboloid.
x2 y 2 z
2
+ 2 =
a b c
56

23.4. Elliptic Cone.

x2 y 2 z2
+ =
a2 b2 c2
23.5. Hyperboloid of one sheet.
x2 y 2 z 2
+ 2 − 2 =1
a2 b c
23.6. Hyperboloid of two sheets.
x2 y 2 z 2
− 2 − 2 =1
a2 b c
23.7. Hyperbolic paraboloid.
x2 y 2 z
2
− 2 = , c>0
a b c

Problem 62. Find the angle between the the surfaces x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 9

and x2 + y 2 − z = 3 at (2, −1, 2).