College of Engineering Education

2nd Floor, B&E Building

Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO
College of Engineering Education
Civil Engineering Program

Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged

Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for

Self-Directed Learning (SDL)

Course/Subject: BCE 311/D: STRUCTURAL THEORY

Name of Authors: Engr. MICHELLE A. DAAROL
Engr. CLIB JAMES I. DELOS REYES

THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY; NOT FOR REPRODUCTION AND
DISTRIBUTION OUTSIDE OF ITS INTENDED USE. THIS IS INTENDED ONLY FOR THE
USE OF THE STUDENTS WHO ARE OFFICIALLY ENROLLED IN THE COURSE/SUBJECT.
EXPECT REVISIONS OF THE MANUAL.

Table of Contents
Course Outline .................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Course Outline Policy ...................................................................................................................................................... 4

Page 1 of 243
 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Course Information .......................................................................................................................................................... 5

Course Outline Policy ...................................................................................................................................................... 5

Big Picture 1......................................................................................................................................................................... 6

Metalanguage .............................................................................................................................................. 6
Essential Knowledge .............................................................................................................................10
Self -Help .....................................................................................................................................................11
Let’s Check! ................................................................................................................................................13
Let’s Analyze..............................................................................................................................................15
In a Nutshell ...............................................................................................................................................15

Big Picture 2.......................................................................................................................................................................18

Metalanguage ............................................................................................................................................20
Essential Knowledge .............................................................................................................................24
Self -Help .....................................................................................................................................................30
Let’s Check! ................................................................................................................................................30
Let’s Analyze..............................................................................................................................................35
In a Nutshell ...............................................................................................................................................35

Big Picture 3.......................................................................................................................................................................35

Metalanguage ............................................................................................................................................40
Essential Knowledge .............................................................................................................................43
Self -Help .....................................................................................................................................................48
Let’s Check! ................................................................................................................................................50
Let’s Analyze..............................................................................................................................................54
In a Nutshell ...............................................................................................................................................54

Big Picture 4.......................................................................................................................................................................60

Metalanguage ............................................................................................................................................61
Essential Knowledge .............................................................................................................................62
Self -Help .....................................................................................................................................................63
Let’s Check! ................................................................................................................................................65
Let’s Analyze..............................................................................................................................................65
In a Nutshell ...............................................................................................................................................65

Big Picture 5.......................................................................................................................................................................70

Metalanguage ............................................................................................................................................72
Essential Knowledge .............................................................................................................................74

Page 2 of 243
 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Self -Help .....................................................................................................................................................75

Let’s Check! ................................................................................................................................................80
Let’s Analyze..............................................................................................................................................82
In a Nutshell ...............................................................................................................................................82

Big Picture 6.......................................................................................................................................................................89

Metalanguage ............................................................................................................................................93
Essential Knowledge .............................................................................................................................97
Self -Help .....................................................................................................................................................99
Let’s Check! ............................................................................................................................................. 100
Let’s Analyze........................................................................................................................................... 100
In a Nutshell ............................................................................................................................................ 103

Big Picture 7.................................................................................................................................................................... 103

Metalanguage ......................................................................................................................................... 105
Essential Knowledge .......................................................................................................................... 108
Self -Help .................................................................................................................................................. 108
Let’s Check! ............................................................................................................................................. 110
Let’s Analyze........................................................................................................................................... 112
In a Nutshell ............................................................................................................................................ 112

Big Picture 8.................................................................................................................................................................... 114

Metalanguage ......................................................................................................................................... 114
Essential Knowledge .......................................................................................................................... 116
Self -Help .................................................................................................................................................. 116
Let’s Check! ............................................................................................................................................. 117
Let’s Analyze........................................................................................................................................... 117
In a Nutshell ............................................................................................................................................ 117

Page 3 of 243
 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Course Outline: BCE 311/D – Structural Theory

Course Coordinator: SHOWNA LEE T. SALES

Email: ssales@umnindanao.edu.ph
Student Consultation: By appointment
Mobile: -
Phone: (082) 296-1084 or 300-5456 loc. 133
Effectivity Date: August 9, 2021
Mode of Delivery: Blended (On-line with face to face or virtual sessions)
Time Frame: 108 hours
Student Workload: Expected Self-Directed Learning
Pre-requisite: BCE 222 (Mechanics of Deformable Bodies)
Co-requisite: None
Credit: 2.0 units lecture, 2.0 unit dry laboratory
Attendance Requirements: A minimum of 95% attendance is required at all
scheduled Virtual or face-to-face sessions

Course Outline Policy

Areas of Concern Details

Contact and Non-contact Hours This 4-unit course self-instructional manual is
designed for blended learning mode of instructional
delivery with scheduled face to face or virtual sessions.
The expected number of hours will be 108 including
the face-to-face or virtual sessions. The face-to-face
sessions shall include the summative assessment tasks
(exams) since this course is crucial in the licensure
examination for civil engineers.
Assessment Task Submission Submission of assessment tasks shall be on 3rd, 5th, 7th
and 9th week of the term. The assessment paper shall
be attached with a cover page indicating the title of the
assessment task (if the task is performance), the
name of the course coordinator, date of submission
and name of the student. The document should be
emailed to the course coordinator. It is also expected
that you already paid your tuition and other fees
before the submission of the assessment task.

If the assessment task is done in real time through the

features in the Blackboard Learning Management
System, the schedule shall be arranged ahead of time
by the course coordinator.

Turnitin Submission To ensure honesty and authenticity, all assessment

(if necessary) tasks are required to be submitted through Turnitin
with a maximum similarity index of 30% allowed. This
means that if your paper goes beyond 30%, the
students will either opt to redo her/his paper or

Page 4 of 243
 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

explain in writing addressed to the course coordinator

the reasons for the similarity. In addition, if the paper
has reached more than 30% similarity index, the
student may be called for a disciplinary action in
accordance with the University’s OPM on Intellectual
and Academic Honesty.

Please note that academic dishonesty such as cheating

and commissioning other students or people to
complete the task for you have severe punishments
(reprimand, warning, expulsion).
Penalties for Late The score for an assessment item submitted after the
Assignments/Assessments designated time on the due date, without an approved
extension of time, will be reduced by 5% of the
possible maximum score for that assessment item for
each day or part day that the assessment item is late.

However, if the late submission of assessment paper

has a valid reason, a letter of explanation should be
submitted and approved by the course coordinator. If
necessary, you will also be required to present/attach
evidences.
Return of Assignments/ Assessment tasks will be returned to you two (2)
Assessments weeks
after the submission. This will be returned by email or
via Blackboard portal.

For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator

will require some or few of the students for online or
virtual sessions to ask clarificatory questions to
validate the originality of the assessment task
submitted and to ensure that all the group members
are involved.
Assignment Resubmission You should request in writing addressed to the course
coordinator his/her intention to resubmit an
assessment task. The resubmission is premised on the
student’s failure to comply with the similarity index
and other reasonable grounds such as academic
literacy standards or other reasonable circumstances
e.g.
illness, accidents financial constraints.
Re-marking of Assessment You should request in writing addressed to the
Papers and Appeal program
coordinator your intention to appeal or contest the
score given to an assessment task. The letter should
explicitly explain the reasons/points to contest the
grade. The program coordinator shall communicate
with the students on the approval and disapproval of
the
request.

If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can

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 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

elevate your case to the program head or the dean

with
the original letter of request. The final decision will
come from the dean of the college.
Grading System All culled from BlackBoard sessions and traditional
contact
Assessment methods Weights
Examinations 60%
A. Exam 1 10%
B. Exam 2 10%
C. Exam 3 10%
D. Exam 4 30%

E. Quizzes 10%
F. Assignments/Plates 30%
100%

Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual

University system and procedures.
Preferred Referencing Style Depends on the discipline; if uncertain or inadequate,
use the general practice of the APA 6th Edition.
Student Communication You are required to create a umindanao email account
which is a requirement to access the BlackBoard
portal.
Then, the course coordinator shall enroll the
students to have access to the materials and resources
of the course. All communication formats: chat,
submission of assessment tasks, requests etc. shall be
through the portal and other university recognized
platforms.

You can also meet the course coordinator in person

through the scheduled face to face sessions to raise
your issues and concerns.

For students who have not created their student email,

please contact the course coordinator or program
head.
Contact Details of the Dean Dr. Charlito L. Cañesares
Email: clcanesares@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: (082) 296-1084 or 300-5456 loc. 133
Contact Details of the Program Engr. Showna Lee T. Sales
Head Email: ssales@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: (082) 296-1084 or 300-5456 loc. 133
Students with Special Needs Students with special needs shall communicate with
the course coordinator about the nature of his or her
special needs. Depending on the nature of the need, the
course coordinator with the approval of the program
coordinator may provide alternative assessment tasks
or extension of the deadline of submission of
assessment tasks. However, the alternative assessment
tasks should still be in the service of achieving the
desired course learning outcomes.

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 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Help Desk Contact CEE BLACKBOARD ADMINISTRATOR

Jetron J. Adtoon
jadtoon@umindanao.edu.ph
09055267834

CEE
Frida Santa O. Dagatan
cee@umindanao.edu.ph
09562082442
082-2272902
Library Contact Brigida E. Bacani
library@umindanao.edu.ph
09513766681
GSTC Contact Ronadora E. Deala, RPsy, RPm, RGC, LPT
ronadora_deala@umindanao.edu.ph
09212122846

Silvino P. Josol
gstcmain@umindanao.edu.ph
0906075772

Course Information- see/download course syllabus in the BlackBoard LMS

CC’s Voice: Hello future engineer! Welcome to this course CE 434a/D: Structural
Theory 1. By now, I am confident that you really wanted to become an
engineer…

CO: Upon completion of the course, you are expected to:

CO 1. Apply correct computation techniques/ strategies, and methods of

structural analysis for statically determinate structures.

CO 2. Apply correct computation techniques/ strategies, and methods of

structural analysis for statically indeterminate structures.

CO 3. Demonstrate by numerical calculations and other methods the concepts,

principles and theories to the solution of a wide range of problems.

Page 7 of 243
 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Let us begin!

Big Picture

Week 1-3: Unit Learning Outcomes-Unit 1 (ULO-1): At the end of the unit, you are expected to

a. Describe the types of loads commonly encountered in the design of

structures and to understand the basic concepts of load estimation which
include dead loads, live loads, environmental loads and earthquake loads.
b. Be able to review the basic concept of equilibrium of structures under the
action of forces and to develop the analysis of reactions exerted by supports
on plane structures subjected to coplanar force systems.
c. Be able to present the analysis of internal forces and moments that may
develop in beams, and the members of plane frames and construct shear and
bending moment diagrams.

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1a. Describe the types of loads commonly

encountered in the design of structures and to understand the basic concepts
of load estimation which include dead loads, live loads, environmental loads
and earthquake loads.

Metalanguage

The most essential terms below are defined for you to have a better understanding of
this section in the course.

Structural Analysis. It is the prediction of the performance of a given structure under

prescribed loads.
Structural engineering. Is the science of planning, designing, and constructing safe,
economical structures.

Essential Knowledge

The objective of a structural engineer is to design a structure that will be able to

withstand all the loads to which it is subjected while serving its intended purpose throughout
its intended life span. In designing a structure, an engineer must, therefore, consider all the
loads that can realistically be expected to act on the structure during its planned life span.

A. Dead Loads

Are gravity loads of constant magnitudes and fixed positions that act permanently on
the structure. Such loads consist of the weights of the structural system itself and of all other
material and equipment permanently attached to the structural system. For example, the
dead loads for a building structure include the weights of frames, framing and bracing
systems, floors, roofs, ceilings, walls, stairways, heating and air-conditioning systems,
plumbing, electrical systems, and so forth.

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 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

B. Live Loads

Live loads are loads of varying magnitudes and/or positions caused by the use of the
structure. Sometimes, the term live loads is used to refer to all loads on the structure that
are not dead loads, including environmental loads, sch as snow loads or wind loads.
However, since the probabilities of occurrence for environmental loads are different from
those due to the use of structures, the current codes use the term live loads to refer only to
those variable loads caused by the use of the structure.

Live Loads for Buildings

Live loads for buildings are usually specified as uniformly distributed surface
loads in kilopascals. Minimum floor live loads for some common types of buildings are
given in Table 1.2. For a comprehensive list of live loads, concentrated loads, and
reduction in live loads, you may refer to the National Structural Code of the Philippines
2015 (NSCP 2015).

C. Impact

When live loads are applied rapidly to a structure, they cause larger stresses than those that
would have been applied gradually. The dynamic effect of the load that causes this increase
in stress in the structure is referred to as impact.

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 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

D. Wind Loads

Wind loads are produced by the flow of wind around the structure. The magnitudes of wind
loads that may act on a structure depend on the geographical location of the structure,
obstructions in its surrounding terrain, such as nearby buildings, and the geometry and the
vibrational characteristics of the structure itself.

E. Snow Loads

In many parts of the United States and the world, snow loads must be considered in
designing structures. The design snow load for a structure is based on the ground snow load
for its geographical location, which can be obtained from building codes or meteorological
data for that region. As for the Philippines, snow loads is neglected in the design process.

F. Earthquake Loads

An earthquake is a sudden undulation of a portion of the earth’s surface. Although the

ground surface moves in both horizontal and vertical directions during an earthquake, the
magnitude of the vertical component of ground motion is usually small and does not have a
significant effect on most structures.

(Earthquake loads will be thoroughly discussed once you enroll in CE 534A- Earthquake
Engineering)

G. Hydrostatic and Soil Pressures

Structures used to retain water, such as dams and tanks, as well as coastal structures
partially or fully submerged in water must be designed to resist hydrostatic pressure.
Hydrostatic pressure acts normal to the submerged surface of the structure, with its
magnitude varying linearly with height.

(Hydrostatic and Soil Pressures will be discussed separately in CE 343a/L – Fluid mechanics,
CE 44a/L- Geotechnical Engineering 1, and CE 519/D- Geotechnical Engineering 2)

H. Thermal and Other Effects

Statically indeterminate structures may be subjected to stresses due to temperature

changes, shrinkage of material, fabrication errors, and differential settlements of supports.
Although these effects are usually not addressed in building codes, they may cause
significant stresses in structures ad should ne considered in their designs.

(The procedures for determining the forces induced in structures due to these effects are
considered in CE 448 a/D- Structural Theory II)

I. Load Combinations

As stated previously, once the magnitudes of the design loads for a structure have been
estimated, an engineer must consider all loads that might act simultaneously on the
structure at a given time. It is important to realize that the structure must be designed to
have adequate strength to resist the most unfavorable of all the load combinations.

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 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

In addition to the aforementioned strength or safety requirements, a structure must also

satisfy any serviceability requirements related to its intended use. For example, a high-rise
building may be perfectly safe, yet unserviceable if it deflects or vibrates excessively due to
wind. The serviceability requirements are specified in building codes for most common
types of structures and are usually concerned with deflections, vibrations, cracking,
corrosion, and fatigue.

Analysis of Statically Determinate Structures

Idealized Structure

An exact analysis of a structure can never be carried out, since estimates always have to
be made of the loadings and the strength of the materials composing the structure.
Furthermore, points of application for the loadings must also be estimated. It is important,
therefore, that the structural engineer develop the ability to model or idealize a structure so
that he or she can perform a practical force analysis of the members. In this section we will
develop the basic techniques necessary to do this.

Support Connections

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 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Page 12 of 243
 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

• Girder is the main load-carrying element of the floor whereas the,

• Beams are smaller elements having a shorter span and connected to the girders.

• A column is a vertical structural member intended to transfer a compressive load. For

example, a column might transfer loads from a ceiling, floor or roof slab or from a
beam, to a floor or foundations.

Tributary Loading

When flat surfaces such as walls, floors, or

roofs are supported by a structural frame, it
is necessary to determine how the load on
these surfaces is transmitted to the various
structural elements used for their support.
There are generally two ways in which this
can be done.

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 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

LOAD COMPUTATION for beam CD:

𝑙𝑏
Uniformly Distributed = 100 (2.5 + 2.5)𝑓𝑡 = 500 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡
𝑓𝑡 2

∑ 𝑀𝐷 = 0 ; 𝐶𝑦 (10) − 500(10)(5) = 0
𝑪𝒚 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝐥𝐛
𝑫𝒚 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝐥𝐛

LOAD COMPUTATION for beam AB:

lb
Uniformly Distributed = 100 (2.5 ft) = 250 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡
ft2

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 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0 ; 𝐴𝑦 (10) − 250(10)(5) = 0
𝑨𝒚 = 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝐥𝐛
𝑩𝒚 = 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝐥𝐛

LOAD COMPUTATION for beam EF:

lb 𝐥𝐛
Uniformly Distributed = 100 (2.5 ft) = 𝟐𝟓𝟎
ft2 𝐟𝐭

∑ 𝑀𝐹 = 0 ; 𝐸𝑦 (10) − 250(10)(5) = 0

𝑬𝒚 = 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝐥𝐛
𝑭𝒚 = 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝐥𝐛

LOAD COMPUTATION for beam AE:

∑ 𝑀𝐸 = 0 ; 𝐴𝑦 (10) − 1250(10) − 2500(5) = 0

𝑨𝒚 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝐥𝐛
𝑬𝒚 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝐥𝐛

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 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

LOAD COMPUTATION for beam BF:

∑ 𝑀𝐹 = 0 ; 𝐵𝑦 (10) − 1250(10) − 2500(5) = 0

𝑩𝒚 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝐥𝐛
𝑭𝒚 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝐥𝐛

ONE -WAY SYSTEM

𝐿2
>2
𝐿1
𝑳𝟐 → 𝐥𝐨𝐧𝐠𝐞𝐫 𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐞; 𝑳𝟏 → 𝐬𝐡𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐞

Page 16 of 243
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Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Two – Way System

𝐿2
≤2
𝐿1

𝑳𝟐 → 𝐥𝐨𝐧𝐠𝐞𝐫 𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐞 ; 𝑳𝟏 → 𝐬𝐡𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐞

lb
𝐋𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐚𝐫𝐥𝐲 𝐕𝐚𝐫𝐲𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐋𝐨𝐚𝐝 = 100 (5 ft) = 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝐥𝐛/𝐟𝐭
ft 2

𝐿2
≤2
𝐿1

𝑳𝟐 → 𝐥𝐨𝐧𝐠𝐞𝐫 𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐞 ; 𝑳𝟏 → 𝐬𝐡𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐞

𝐿2
𝐈𝐟 <2:
𝐿1 lb
𝐋𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐚𝐫𝐥𝐲 𝐕𝐚𝐫𝐲𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐋𝐨𝐚𝐝 = 100 (5 ft) = 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝐥𝐛/𝐟𝐭
ft 2

SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS:

Example 1.1. The floor of a classroom is to be supported by the bar joists shown in . Each joist
is 15 ft long and they are spaced 2.5 ft on centers. The floor itself is to be made from lightweight
concrete that is 4 in. thick. Neglect the weight of the joists and the corrugated metal deck, and
determine the reaction at both sides of the joist.

• Pressure due to lightweight concrete: 32 lb/ft 2

• Live load for a classroom : 40 lb/ft 2

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Telefax: (082) 296-1084
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Solution:

Determine if one-way slab or two – way slab:

𝐿2 15
= >6 → one − way slab
𝐿1 2.5

Compute the Deadload:

𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
32 (2.5 ft) = 80
𝑓𝑡 2 𝑓𝑡
Compute the Liveload:

𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
40 (2.5 ft) = 100
𝑓𝑡 2 𝑓𝑡

lb
180
ft
Thus:
∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0 𝐶𝑊 +
𝐴𝑦 (15) − 180(15)(7.5) = 0
𝑨𝒚 = 𝟏𝟑𝟓𝟎 𝒍𝒃
∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0 𝐶𝐶𝑊 +
𝐵𝑦 (15) − 180(15)(7.5) = 0
𝐵𝑦 = 𝟏𝟑𝟓𝟎 𝑙𝑏

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Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Example 1.2. The flat roof of the steel-frame building shown in the photo is intended to support
a total load of 2 kN/𝑚2 over its surface. Determine the roof load within region ABCD that is
transmitted to beam BC. The dimensions are shown.

Framing Plan

Solution:

𝐿2 5
= > 1.25 = → two − way slab
𝐿1 4

Total Load to be carried is = 2 kN/𝑚2

Compute the Deadload:

𝑘𝑁 4𝑚 𝑘𝑁
2 ( ) =4
𝑚2 2 𝑚

Thus:

Loading for beam BC. (left of BC only)

Example 1.3. The concrete girders shown in the photo of the passenger car parking garage span
30 ft and are 15 ft on center. If the floor slab is 5 in. thick and made of reinforced stone concrete,
and the specified live load is 50 lb/ft 2 , determine the distributed load the floor system transmits
lb
to each interior girder. γconcrete = 150 3.
ft

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2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
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𝑨 𝑩

Solution:

𝐿2 30
= =2= → two − way slab
𝐿1 15

Total Pressure:

𝑙𝑏 5 𝑙𝑏
150 ( ft) + 50 = 112.5 lb/ft 2
𝑓𝑡 3 12 𝑓𝑡

Compute Uniformly Load:

15 ft
(112.5 lb/ft 2 ) ( ) = 843.75 lb/ft
2

Thus:

Loading for beam AB.

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∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0 𝐶𝑊 +
15 1 7.5 1 2
𝐴𝑦 (30) − 1687.5(15) ( + 7.5) − (1687.5)(7.5) ( + 22.5) − (1687.5)(7.5) ( (7.5)) = 0
2 2 3 2 3
𝑨𝒚 = 𝟏𝟖, 𝟗𝟖𝟒. 𝟑𝟕𝟓 𝒍𝒃

∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0 𝐶𝑊 +
15 1 7.5 1 2
𝐵𝑦 (30) − 1687.5(15) ( + 7.5) − (1687.5)(7.5) ( + 22.5) − (1687.5)(7.5) ( (7.5)) = 0
2 2 3 2 3
𝑩𝒚 = 𝟏𝟖, 𝟗𝟖𝟒. 𝟑𝟕𝟓 𝒍𝒃

Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you further understand
the lesson.

• Kassimali, A., (2015). Structural Analysis. 5th Ed.: Amsterdam : Butterworth-

Heinemann
• Hibbeler, R.C., (2012). Structural Analysis. 8th ed.: Singapore : Pearson Education South
Asia
• Taksiah, A. Majid, Choong, K.K., Mustafasanie, M.Y. (2012). Theory of Structures.
Retrieved from
https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uniofmindanao-
ebooks/detail.action?docID=4306248&query=Kassimali
• Megson, T.H.G. (2016). Structural and Stress Analysis. Butterworth-Heinemann.
Retrieved from
http://libgen.is/book/index.php?md5=76F7CA6B5FE3D552391D6826F5DE4CAB
• Hartmann, F., Katz, Casimir (2016). Structural Analysis with Finite Elements. Springer:
New York. Retrieved from
http://libgen.is/book/index.php?md5=FD93BB88C94E0C4261E086E19167767F
• Khalfallah, S. (2018). Introduction to Structural Analysis. Retrieved from
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119544265.ch1

Let’s Check (ULO-1a)

Problem 1 The floor system of an apartment building consists of a 4-in. thick reinforced
concrete slab resting on three steel floor beams, which in turn are supported by two steel
girders, as shown below. The areas of cross section of the floor beams and the girders are 18.3
in2 and 32.7 in 2, respectively. Determine the dead loads acting on the beam CD and the girder
AE.

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Problem 2 Solve Activity 1.1 if a 6-in thick wall, which is 7 ft high and 25 long, bears directly
on the top of beam CD.

Let’s Analyze (ULO-1a)

Problem 1 The floor system of a gymnasium consists of a 130-mm thick concrete slab resting
on four beams (A= 9,100 mm2) that in turn, are supported by two steel girders (A=25,600 mm 2),
as shown in figure bel w. Determine the dead loads acting on beam BF and girder AD.

Problem 2 For the apartment building whose floor system was described in Activity 1.1,
determine the live loads acting on the beam CD and the girder AE.

Problem 3 For the gymnasium whose floor system was described in Activity 1.3, determine the
live loads acting on the beam BF and girder AD.

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In a Nutshell (ULO-1a)

Problem 1 You learned about the loads that act on common civil engineering structures. These
loads can be grouped into three classes: (1) dead loads, (2) live loads, and (3) environmental
loads. In your own words, explain these loads and site some examples for each type of load
class.

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Q&A List

Do you have any question for clarification?

Questions/Issues Answers

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

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Keywords Index

Equilibrium Coplanar Concurrent Dead Load

Live load Impact Girder

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1b. Be able to review the basic concept of equilibrium
of structures under the action of forces and to develop the analysis of reactions
exerted by supports on plane structures subjected to coplanar force systems.

Metalanguage

The most essential terms below are defined for you to have a better understanding of this
section in the course.

Applied Forces Usually referred to as loads (e.g., live loads and wind loads), have a tendency
to move the structure and are usually known in the analysis.

Internal Forces Are the forces and couples exerted on a member or portion of the structure
by the rest of the structure. These forces develop within the structure and hold the various
portions of it together.

Reaction Forces Also known as Reactions, are the forces exerted by supports on the
structure and have a tendency to prevent its motion and keep it in equilibrium.

External Forces Are the actions of other bodies on the structure under consideration. For the
purposes of analysis, it is usually convenient to further classify these forces as applied forces
and reaction forces.

Essential Knowledge

A. EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURES

A structure is considered to be in equilibrium if, initially at rest, it remains at rest when

subjected to a system of forces and couples. If a structure is in equilibrium, then all its members
and parts are also in equilibrium.
In order for a structure to be in equilibrium, all the forces and couples (including support
reactions) acting on it must balance each other, and there must neither be resultant force nor a
resultant couple acting on the structure. Recall that for a space (three-dimensional) structure
subjected to three-dimensional systems of forces and couples, the conditions of zero resultant
force and zero resultant couple can be expressed in a Cartesian (xyz) coordinate system as

These six equations are called equations of equilibrium of space structures and are the necessary
and sufficient conditions for equilibrium.
For a plane structure lying in the xy plane and subjected to a coplanar system of forces
and couples, the necessary and sufficient conditions for equilibrium can be expressed as

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These three equations are referred to as equations of equilibrium of plane structures. The first
two of the three equilibrium equations express, respectively, that the algebraic sums of the x
components and y components of all the forces are zero, thereby indicating that the resultant
force acting on the structure is zero. The third equation indicates that the algebraic sum of the
moments of all the forces about any point in the plane of the structure and the moments of any
couples acting on the structure is zero.

B. TYPES OF SUPPORTS FOR PLANE STRUCTURES

Supports are used to attach structure to the ground or other bodies, thereby restricting
their movements under the action of applied loads. The loads tend to move the structures; but
supports prevent the movements by exerting opposing forces, or reactions, to neutralize the
effects of loads, thereby keeping the structures in equilibrium. The type of reaction a support
exerts on a structure depends on the type of supporting device used and the type of movement it
prevents. A support that prevents translation of the structure in a particular direction exerts a
reaction force on the structure in that direction. Similarly, a support that prevents rotation of the
structure about a particular axis exerts a reaction couple on the structure about that axis.

The types of supports commonly used for plane structures are depicted in the figure below.

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C. STATIC DETERMINACY, INDETERMINACY, AND INSTABILITY

Internal Stability

A structure is considered to be internally stable, or rigid, if it maintains its shape and

remains a rigid body when detached from the supports. Conversely, a structure is termed
internally unstable (or nonrigid) if it cannot maintain its shape and may undergo large
displacements under small disturbances when not supported externally. Some examples of
internally stable structures are shown in the succeeding figures. Note that each of the
structures shown forms a rigid body, and each can maintain its shape under loads. Another
figure shows some examples of internally unstable structures. A careful look at these
structures indicates that each structure is composed of two rigid parts, AB and BC,
connected by a hinged joint B, which cannot prevent the rotation of one part with respect
to the other.

Static Determinacy of Internally Stable Structures

An internally stable structure is considered to be statically determinate externally if all

its support reactions can be determined by solving the equations of equilibrium. Since a plane

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internally stable structure can be treated as a plane rigid body, in order for it to be in
equilibrium under a general system of coplanar loads, it must be supported by at least three
reactions that satisfy the three equations of equilibrium.

If a structure is supported by more than three reactions, then all the reactions cannot be
determined from the three equations of equilibrium. Such structures are termed statically
indeterminate externally. The reactions in excess of those necessary for equilibrium are
called external redundants, and the number of external redundants is referred to as the
degree of external indeterminacy. Thus, if a structure has r reactions (r > 3), then the degree
of external indeterminacy can be written as

ie = r - 3

The conditions of static instability, determinacy, and indeterminacy of plane

internally stable structures can be summarized as follows:

r<3 the structure is statically unstable externally

r=3 the structure is statically determinate externally
r>3 the structure is statically indeterminate externally

where r = number of reactions.

Static Determinacy of Internally Unstable Structures – Equations of Condition

Consider an internally unstable structure composed of two rigid members AB and BC

connected by an internal hinge at B, as shown in Figure (a) below. The structure is
supported by a roller support at A and a hinged support at C, which provide three
nonparallel nonconcurrent external reactions. As this figure indicates, these reactions,
which would have been sufficient to fully constrain an internally stable or rigid structure,
are not sufficient for this structure. The structure can, however, be made externally stable
by replacing the roller support at A by a hinged support to prevent the horizontal movement
of end A of the structure. Thus, as shown in Figure (b) below, the minimum number of
external reactions required to fully constrain this structure is four.

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Obviously, the three equilibrium equations are not sufficient to determine the four
unknown reactions at the supports for this structure. However, the presence of the internal
hinge at B yields an additional equation that can be used with the three equilibrium
equations to determine the four unknowns. The additional equation is based on the
condition that an internal hinge cannot transmit moment; that is, the moments at the ends
of the parts of the structure connected to a hinged joint are zero.
Occasionally, connections are used in structures that permit not only relative rotations
of the member ends but also relative translations in certain directions of the ends of the
connected members. Since an internal roller can transmit neither moment nor force in the
direction parallel to the supporting surface, it provides two equations of condition.

From the foregoing discussion, we can conclude that if there are equations of conditions ec
(one equation for each internal hinge and two equations for each internal roller) for an
internally unstable structure, which is supported by r external reactions, the if

r < 3 + ec the structure is statically unstable externally

r = 3 + ec the structure is statically determinate externally
r > 3 + ec the structure is statically indeterminate externally

For an externally indeterminate structure, the degree of external indeterminacy is

expressed as

ie = r – (3 + ec )

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SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS:

Example 1.4. Classify of the structures shown below as externally unstable, statically
determinate, or indeterminate. If the structure is statically indeterminate externally, then
determine the degree of external indeterminacy.

Solution:

(a) This beam is internally stable with r = 5>3. Therefore, it is statically indeterminate
externally with the degree of external indeterminacy of

ie = r – 3 = 5-3 = 2 Ans.

(b) This beam is internally unstable. It is composed of two rigid members AB and BC connected
by an internal hinge at B. for this beam, r = 6 and ec = 1. Since r > 3 + ec, the structure is
statically indeterminate externally with the degree of external indeterminacy of

ie = r – (3 + ec ) = 6 – (3 + 1) = 2 Ans.

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(c) This structure is internally unstable with r = 4 and ec = 2. Since r < 3 + ec, the structure is
statically unstable externally. This can be verified from the figure, which shows that the
member BC is not restrained against movement in the horizontal direction.
Ans.
(d) This beam is internally unstable with r = 5 and ec = 2. Because r = 3 + ec, the beam is statically
determinate externally.
Ans.
(e) This is an internally unstable structure with r = 6 and ec = 3. Since r = 3 + ec, the beam is
statically determinate externally.
Ans.
(f) This frame is internally unstable with r = 4 and ec = 1. Since r = 3 + ec, the frame statically
determinate externally.
Ans.
(g) This frame is internally unstable with r = 6 and ec = 3. Since r = 3 + ec, the frame statically
determinate externally.
Ans.

D. COMPUTATION OF REACTIONS

The following step-by-step procedure ca be used to determine the reactions of plane

statically determinate structures subjected to coplanar loads.

1. Draw a free-body diagram (FBD) of the structure.

a. Show the structure under consideration detached from its supports and disconnected
from all other bodies to which it may be connected.
b. Show each known force or couple on the FBD by an arrow indicating its direction and
sense. Write the magnitude of each known force or couple by its arrow.
c. Shown the orientation of the mutually perpendicular xy coordinate system to be used
in the analysis. It is usually convenient to orient the x and y axes in the horizontal
(positive to the right) and vertical (positive upward) directions, respectively. However,
if the dimensions of the structure and/or the lines of action of most of the applied loads
are in inclined direction, selection of the x (or y) axis in that direction may considerably
expedite the analysis.
d. At each point where the structure has been detached from a support, show the unknown
external reactions being exerted on the structure. The type of reactions that can be
exerted by the various supports are given in Section B (Types of Supports for Plane
Structures) of this unit. The reaction forces are represented on the FBD by arrows in
the known directions of their lines of action. The reaction couples are represented by
curved arrows. The senses of the reactions are not known and can be arbitrarily
assumed. However, it is usually convenient to assume the senses of the reaction forces
in the positive x and y directions and of reaction couples as counterclockwise. The actual
senses of the reactions will be known after their magnitudes have been determined by
solving the equations of equilibrium and condition (if any). A positive magnitude for a
reaction will imply that the sense initially assumed was correct, whereas a negative
value of the magnitude will indicate that the actual sense is opposite to the one assumed
on the FBD. Since the magnitudes of the reactions are not yet known, they are denoted
by appropriate letter symbols on the FBD.
e. To complete the GBD, draw the dimensions of the structure, showing the locations of all
the known and unknown external forces.
2. Check for static determinacy. Using the procedure described in Section C, determine
whether or not the given structure is statically determinate externally. If the structure is

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either statically or geometrically unstable or indeterminate externally, end the analysis at

this stage.
3. Determine the unknown reactions by applying the equations of equilibrium and condition (if
any) to the entire structure. To avoid solving simultaneous equations, write the equilibrium
and condition equations so that each equation involves only one unknown. For some
internally unstable structures, it may not be possible to write equations containing one
unknown each. For such structures, the reactions are determined by solving the equations
simultaneously. The analysis of such internally unstable structures can sometimes be
expedited and the solution of simultaneous equations avoided by disconnecting the structure
into rigid portions and by applying the equations of equilibrium to the individual portions to
determine the reactions. In such a case, you must construct the free-body diagrams of the
portions of the structure; these diagrams must show, in addition to any applied loads and
support reactions, all the internal forces being exerted upon that portion at connections.
Remember that the internal forces acting on the adjacent portions of a structure must have
the same magnitudes but opposite senses in accordance with Newton’s third law.
4. Apply an alternative equilibrium equation that has not been used before to the entire
structure to check the computations. This alternative equation should preferably involve all
the reactions that were determined in the analysis. You may use a moment equilibrium
equation involving a summation of moments about a point that does not lie on lines of action
of reaction forces for this purpose. If the analysis has been carried out correctly, then this
alternative equilibrium equation must be satisfied .

SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS:

Example 1.5. Determine the reactions at the supports for the beam shown in Figure (a).

Solution

Free-Body Diagram The free-body diagram of the beam is shown in Figure (b). Note that
the roller at A exerts reaction RA in the direction perpendicular to the inclined supporting surface.

Static Determinacy The beam is internally stable and supported by three reactions, R A,
BX, BY, all of which are neither parallel nor concurrent. Therefore, the beam is statically
determinate.

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Support Reactions Since two of the three reactions, namely, BX and BY, are concurrent at
B, their moments about B are zero. Therefore, the equilibrium equation ∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0, which
involves the summation of moments of all the forces about B, contains only one unknown, RA.
Thus,

The positive answer for RA indicates that our initial assumption about the sense of this reaction
was correct. Therefore,

Ans

Next, in order to determine BX, we apply the equilibrium equation,

Ans

The only remaining unknown, BY, can now be determined by applying the remaining equation
of equilibrium:

Ans
In order to avoid having to solve simultaneous equations in the preceding computations, we
applied the equilibrium equations in such a manner that each equation contained only one
unknown.

Checking Computations Finally, to check our computations, we apply an alternative

equation of equilibrium.

Checks

Example 1.6. Determine the reactions at the support for the frame shown in Figure (a) below.

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Solution

Free-Body Diagram The free-body diagram of the beam is shown in Figure (b). Note that
the trapezoidal loading distribution has been divided into two simpler, uniform, and triangular,
distributions whose areas and centroids are easier to compute.

Static Determinacy The frame is internally stable with r=3. Therefore, it is statically
determinate.

Support Reactions By applying the three equations of equilibrium, we obtain

Example 1.7. Determine the reactions at the support for the frame shown in Figure (a) below.

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Solution

Free-Body Diagram See Figure (b)

Static Determinacy The frame is internally stable with r=3. Therefore, it is statically
determinate.

Support Reactions

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Example 1.8. Determine the reactions at the support for the beam shown in Figure (a) below.

Solution

Free-Body Diagram See Figure (b)

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Static Determinacy The beam is internally unstable. It is composed of three rigid members, AB,
BE, and EF, connected by two internal hinges at B and E. The structure has r = 5 and ec = 2; because
r = 3 + ec, the structure is statically determinate.

Support Reactions

Next, we apply the equation of condition, ∑ 𝑀𝐵𝐴𝐵 = 0, which involves the summation of
moments about B of all the forces acting on the portion AB.

Similarly, by applying the equation of condition ∑ 𝑀𝐸𝐸𝐹 = 0, we determine the reaction Fy

as follow:

The remaining two equilibrium equations can now be applied to determine the
remaining two unknowns, Cy and Dy.

It is important to realize that the moment equilibrium equations involve the moments
of all the forces acting on the entire structure, whereas, the moment equations of condition
involve only the moments of those forces that act on the portion of the structure on one side of
the internal hinge.
Finally, we compute Dy by using the equilibrium equation,

Example 1.9. Determine the reactions at the supports for the beam shown in Figure (a) below.

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Solution

Free-Body Diagram The free-body diagram of the entire structure is shown Figure (b)

Static Determinacy The beam is internally unstable, with r = 5 and ec = 2. Since r = 3 + ec, the
structure is statically determinate.

Support Reactions Using the free-body diagram of the entire beam shown in Figure (b), we
determine the reactions as follows:

In order to obtain another equation containing the same two unknowns, Ay and By, we write the
second equation of condition as

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Solving Equations (1) and (2) simultaneously, we obtain

The remaining two unknowns, Ey and Fy, are determined from the remaining two equilibrium
equations as follows:

Example 1.10. Determine the reactions at the supports for the frame shown in Figure (a) below.

Solution

Free-Body Diagram See Figure (b)

Static Determinacy The frame has r = 4 and ec = 1; since r = 3 + ec,, it is statically determinate.

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Support Reactions

Solving Equations (1) and (2) simultaneously, we obtain Ax = 14 k and Ay = 51 k

Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you further understand
the lesson.

• Kassimali, A., (2015). Structural Analysis. 5th Ed.: Amsterdam : Butterworth-

Heinemann
• Hibbeler, R.C., (2012). Structural Analysis. 8th ed.: Singapore : Pearson Education South
Asia

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• Taksiah, A. Majid, Choong, K.K., Mustafasanie, M.Y. (2012). Theory of Structures.

Retrieved from
https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uniofmindanao-
ebooks/detail.action?docID=4306248&query=Kassimali
• Megson, T.H.G. (2016). Structural and Stress Analysis. Butterworth-Heinemann.
Retrieved from
http://libgen.is/book/index.php?md5=76F7CA6B5FE3D552391D6826F5DE4CAB
• Hartmann, F., Katz, Casimir (2016). Structural Analysis with Finite Elements. Springer:
New York. Retrieved from
http://libgen.is/book/index.php?md5=FD93BB88C94E0C4261E086E19167767F
• Khalfallah, S. (2018). Introduction to Structural Analysis. Retrieved from
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119544265.ch1

Let’s Check (ULO-1b)

Activity 1 Classify each of the structures shown as externally unstable, statically determinate,
or statically indeterminate. If the structure is statically indeterminate externally, then
determine the degree of external indeterminacy.

Activity 2 Classify each of the structures shown as externally unstable, statically determinate,
or statically indeterminate. If the structure is statically indeterminate externally, then
determine the degree of external indeterminacy.

Activity 3 Determine the reactions at the supports for the structures shown. Please be guided
that the unit load “P” is equal to the last two digits of your ID number while the intensity
‘w” is equal to the first two digits of your ID number.

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Let’s Analyze (ULO-1b)

Activity 1 Classify each of the structures shown as externally unstable, statically determinate,
or statically indeterminate. If the structure is statically indeterminate externally, then
determine the degree of external indeterminacy.

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Activity 2 Classify each of the structures shown as externally unstable, statically determinate,
or statically indeterminate. If the structure is statically indeterminate externally, then
determine the degree of external indeterminacy.

Activity 3 Determine the reactions at the supports for the structure shown. Please be guided
that the unit load P is equal to the last two digits of your ID number.

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In a Nutshell (ULO-1b)

Problem 1 In this unit, you have learned that a structure is considered to be in equilibrium if,
initially at rest, it remains at rest when subjected to a system of forces and couples. In order for

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a plane to be geometrically stable, it must be supported by reactions, all of which are neither
parallel nor concurrent. Using that knowledge, explain the Principle of Superposition.

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Q&A List

Do you have any question for clarification?

Questions/Issues Answers

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Keywords Index

Reactions Determinacy Supports

Forces Instability

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1c. Be able to present the analysis of internal forces
and moments that may develop in beams, and the members of plane frames
and construct shear and bending moment diagrams.

Metalanguage

The most essential terms below are defined for you to have a better understanding of this
section in the course.

Axial - An axial loading is a force directed over the line of axis. If the object is loaded with force,
the axial loads act along the object's axis.

Shear. A shear force goes parallel to the surface of an object or material.

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Bending Moment. Bending moment is an internally developed moment to counter act the
externally applied loads ( hence to attain equilibrium), developed inside the body which you
cannot see physically.

Essential Knowledge

A. AXIAL FORCE, SHEAR, AND BENDING MOMENT

Internal forces were defined as the forces and couples exerted on a portion of the
structure by the rest of the structure.
The internal axial force Q at any section of a beam is equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction to the algebraic sum (resultant) of the components in the direction
parallel to the axis of the beam of all the external loads and support reactions acting on
either side of the section under consideration.
The shear S at any section of a beam is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction
to the algebraic sum (resultant) of the components in the direction perpendicular to the
axis of the beam of all the external loads and support reactions acting on either side of the
section under consideration.
The bending moment M at any section of a beam is equal in magnitude but opposite
in direction to the algebraic sum of the moments about (the centroid of the cross section of
the beam at) the section under consideration of all the external loads and support
reactions acting on either side of the section.

Sign Convention
The sign convention commonly used for the axial forces, shears, and bending moments
is shown in the figure below.
Positive external axial force causes tension
Positive shear force happens when external forces push the left section up and
the right section down
Positive bending moments bends the beam concave upward

Procedure for Analysis

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The procedure for determining internal forces at a specified location on a beam can be
summarized as follows:
1. Compute reactions by applying equilibrium conditions to the whole beam
2. Cut the beam into sections at the point where the internal forces are desired
3. Select the portion of the beam with fewer loads and reaction to do the analysis
4. Find the internal forces by applying equilibrium to the section of the beam

B. SHEAR AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS

Shear and bending moment diagram are plots of the variation of shear and bending
moment along the length of the beam. Such diagrams can be constructed by using the method
of sections described in the preceding section.
Proceeding from one end of the member to the other (usually from left to right), sections
are passed, after each successive change in loading, along the length of the member to determine
the equations expressing the shear and bending moment in terms of the distance of the section
from a fixed origin. The values of shear and bending moments determined from theses
equations are then plotted as ordinates against the position with respect to a member end as
abscissa to obtain the shear and bending moment diagrams.

SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS:

Example 1.11. Draw the shear and bending moment diagrams for the beam shown in Figure
(a).

Solution

Reactions (See Figure b)

Shear Diagram
▪ For segment AB: To determine the equation for shear in that segment, we pass a section
aa at a distance x from support A, as shown in Figure (b). You can use either of the two
sides of the cutting line aa (for this case we choose left of aa for simplicity) and apply
equation of equilibrium (∑ 𝐹𝑦 ). Thus, we obtain:

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This means that the shear is constant at 46 k from an infinitesimal distance to the right
of point A to an infinitesimal distance to the left of point B.

▪ For segment BC: Next, by using the same concept as above; cutting section bb, we
determine the equation for shear as

The abrupt change in shear from 46 k at an infinitesimal distance to the left of B to -14
k at an infinitesimal distance to the right of B is shown in Figure (c) be a vertical line from +46
to -14.

▪ For segments ED and DC: The equations for shear in the two segments are obtained by
considering the free bodies to the right of section dd and cc, respectively. Thus

and

These equations indicate that the shear increases linearly from zero to E to +20 k at an
infinitesimal distance to the right of D, it then drops abruptly to -34 k at an infinitesimal distance
to the left of D; and from there it increases linearly to -14 k at C.

Bending Moment Diagram

Using the same sections and coordinates employed previously for computing shear, we
determine the following equations for bending moment in the four segments of the beam.

▪ For segment AB:

▪ For segment BC

▪ For segment ED

▪ For segment DC

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The first two equations, for the left half of the beam, indicate that the bending moment
increases linearly from 0 at A to 460 k-ft at B; it then decreases linearly to 320 k-ft at C. The last
two equations for the right half of the beam are quadratic in x1. The values of M computed from
these equations are plotted on the bending moment diagram. It can be seen that M decreases
from 0 to E to -100 k-ft at D, and it then increases to -140 k-ft at an infinitesimal distance to the
right of C. Note that at C, the bending moment drops abruptly by an amount 320 – 140 = 180 k-
ft, which is equal to the magnitude of the moment of the counterclockwise external couple at
this point. Refer to Figure (d) to visualize the diagram.

Example 1.12. Draw the shear and bending moment diagrams for the beam shown below.

Solution:

Vmax = -4.89 kN
Mmax = -20 kN

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Example 1.13. Draw the shear and bending moment diagrams for the beam shown below, and
determine the shear and moment throughout the beam as a function of x.

Solution

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Example 1.14. Draw the shear and bending moment diagrams for the compound beam. The
segments are connected by pins at B and D.

Solution

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Example 1.15. Draw the shear and bending moment diagrams for the beam shown in Figure
(a).

Solution

Reactions. See Figure (b)

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Shear Diagrams To determine the equations for shear in segments AB and BC of the beam, we
pass sections aa and bb through the beam, as shown in Figure (b). Considering the free bodies
to the left of these sections and realizing that the load intensity, w(x), at a point at a distance x
27
from end A is w(x) = ( )x = 3x kN/m, we obtain the following equations for shear in
9
segments AB and BC, respectively:

The values of S computed from these equations are plotted to obtain the shear diagram shown
in Figure (c). The point D at which the shear is zero obtained from the equation

from which x = 6.36 m.

Bending Moment Diagram Using the same sections employed previously for computing shear,
we determine the following equations for bending moment in segments AB and BC respectively:

Note that the maximum bending moment occurs at the same point at which the shear is zero.

Finally, the magnitude of the maximum moment is determined by substituting x = 6.35 m into
the equation for M in segment BC. Thus Mmax = 75.5 kN.m

C. QUALITATIVE DEFLECTED SHAPES

A qualitative deflected shape (elastic curve) of a structure is simply a rough (usually exaggerated)
sketch of the neutral surface of the structure, in the deformed position, under the action of a given loading
condition. Such sketches, which can be constructed without any knowledge of the numerical values of
deflections, provide valuable insights into the behavior of structures and are often useful in computing the
numerical values of deflections.

According to the sign convention adopted, a positive bending moment bends a beam concave upward
(or toward the positive y direction), whereas a negative bending moment bends a beam concave downward
(or toward the negative y direction). Thus, the sign (positive or negative) of the curvature at any point along

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the axis of a beam can be obtained from the bending moment diagram. Using the signs of curvatures, a
qualitative deflected shape (elastic curve) of the beam, which is consistent with its support conditions, can
be easily sketched in the figures below.

For example, consider the beam analyzed. The beam and its bending moment diagram are redrawn in
figures a and b respectively. A qualitative deflected shape of the beam is shown in the figure c. Because the
bending moment is positive in segment AF, the beam is bent concave upward in this region. Conversely, the
bending moment is negative in segment FE; therefore, in this region, the beam is bent concave downward.
Regarding the support conditions, note that at both supports A and D the deflection of the beam is zero, but
its slope (rotation) is not zero at these points. It is important to realize that a qualitative deflected shape is
approximate, because it is based solely on the signs of curvatures; the numerical values of deflections along
the axis of the beam are not known (except at supports). For example, numerical computations could
possibly indicate that the end E of the beam actually deflects upward, instead of downward as assumed in
(c).

D. RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN LOADS, SHEARS, AND BENDING MOMENTS

The construction of shear and bending moment diagrams can be considerably expedited by
using the basic differential relationships that exist between the loads, the shears, and the
bending moments.

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in which 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑑𝑥 represents the slope of the shear diagram. Thus,

To determine the change in shear between points A and B along the axis of the member, we
integrate from A to B to obtain

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Concentrated Loads

which can be stated as

The relationships between the shears and bending moments derived previously remain
valid at the points of application of concentrated loads. Note that because of the abrupt change
in the shear diagram at such a point, there will be an abrupt change in the slope of the bending
moment diagram at that point.

Couples or Concentrated Moments

which can be stated as

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Procedure for Analysis

The following step-by-step procedure can be used for constructing the shear and bending
moment diagrams for beams by applying the foregoing relationships between the loads, the
shears, and the bending moments:

1. Calculate the support reactions.

2. Construct the shear diagram as follows:

a. Determine the shear at the left end of the beam. If no concentrated load is applied at
this point, the shear is zero at this point; go to step 2(b). Otherwise, the ordinate of the
shear diagram at this point changes abruptly from zero to the magnitude of the
concentrated force. Recall that an upward force causes the shear to increase, whereas a
downward force causes the shear to decrease.

b. Proceeding from the point at which the shear was computed in the previous step
toward the right along the length of the beam, identify the next point at which the
numerical value of the ordinate of the shear diagram is to be determined. Usually, it is
necessary to determine such values only at the ends of the beam and at points at which
the concentrated forces are applied and where the load distributions change.

c. Determine the ordinate of the shear diagram at the point selected in step 2(b) (or just
to the left of it, if a concentrated load acts at the point) by adding algebraically the area
under the load diagram between the previous point and the point currently under
consideration to the shear at the previous point (or just to the right of it, if a concentrated
force acts at the point).

d. Determine the shape of the shear diagram between the previous point and the point
currently under consideration by applying

which states that the slope of the shear diagram at a point is equal to the load intensity
at that point.

e. If no concentrated force is acting at the point under consideration, then proceed to step
2(f ). Otherwise, determine the ordinate of the shear diagram just to the right of the point
by adding algebraically the magnitude of the concentrated load to the shear just to the left
of the point. Thus, the shear diagram at this point changes abruptly by an amount equal
to the magnitude of the concentrated force.

f. If the point under consideration is not located at the right end of the beam, then return
to step 2(b). Otherwise, the shear diagram has been completed. If the analysis has been
carried out correctly, then the value of shear just to the right of the right end of the beam
must be zero, except for the round-off errors.

3. Construct the bending moment diagram as follows:

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a. Determine the bending moment at the left end of the beam. If no couple is applied at
this point, the bending moment is zero at this point; go to step 3(b). Otherwise, the
ordinate of the bending moment diagram at this point changes abruptly from zero to
the magnitude of the moment of the couple. Recall that a clockwise couple causes the
bending moment to increase, whereas a counterclockwise couple causes the bending
moment to decrease at its point of application.

b. Proceeding from the point at which the bending moment was computed in the
previous step toward the right along the length of the beam, identify the next point at
which the numerical value of the ordinate of the bending moment diagram is to be
determined. It is usually necessary to determine such values only at the points where
the numerical values of shear were computed in step 2, where the couples are applied,
and where the maximum and minimum values of bending moment occur. In addition
to the points of application of couples, the maximum and minimum values of bending
moment occur at points where the shear is zero. At a point of zero shear, if the shear
changes from positive to the left to negative to the right, the slope of the bending
moment diagram will change from positive to the left of the point to negative to the
right of it; that is, the bending moment will be maximum at this point. Conversely, at
a point of zero shear, where the shear changes from negative to the left to positive to
the right, the bending moment will be minimum. For most common loading
conditions, such as concentrated loads and uniformly and linearly distributed loads,
the points of zero shear can be located by considering the geometry of the shear
diagram. However, for some cases of linearly distributed loads, as well as for
nonlinearly distributed loads, it becomes necessary to locate the points of zero shear
by solving the expressions for shear, as illustrated in:

c. Determine the ordinate of the bending moment diagram at the point selected
in step 3(b) (or just to the left of it, if a couple acts at the point) by adding
algebraically the area under the shear diagram between the previous point and
the point currently under consideration to the bending moment at the
previous point (or just to the right of it, if a couple acts at the point).

d. Determine the shape of the bending moment diagram between the previous
point and the point currently under consideration by applying the equation
which states that the slope of the bending moment diagram at a point is equal
to the shear at that point.

e. If no couple is acting at the point under consideration, then proceed to step

3(f). Otherwise, determine the ordinate of the bending moment diagram just
to the right of the point by adding algebraically the magnitude of the moment
of the couple to the bending moment just to the left of the point. Thus, the
bending moment diagram at this point changes abruptly by an amount equal
to the magnitude of the moment of the couple.

f. If the point under consideration is not located at the right end of the beam, then
return to step 3(b). Otherwise, the bending moment diagram has been

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completed. If the analysis has been carried out correctly, then the value of
bending moment just to the right of the right end of the beam must be zero,
except for the round-off errors.

The foregoing procedure can be used for constructing the shear and bending
moment diagrams by proceeding from the left end of the beam to its right end, as is
currently the common practice.

Example 1.16. Draw the shear and bending moment diagrams and the qualitative deflected
shape for the beam shown:

Solution:

Constructing the Shear Diagram:

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Constructing the Moment Diagram:

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A qualitative deflected shape of the beam is shown. As the bending moment is positive over its
entire length, the beam bends concave upward, as shown:

Example 1.17. Draw the shear and bending moment diagrams and the qualitative deflected
shape for the beam shown:

Solution:

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Constructing the Shear Diagram:

Constructing the Moment Diagram:

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Qualitative Deflected Shape

A qualitative deflected shape of the beam is shown. As the bending moment is negative over its
entire length, the beam bends concave downward, as shown.

Example 1.18. Draw the shear and bending moment diagrams and the qualitative deflected
shape for the beam shown.

Solution:

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Constructing the Shear Diagram:

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Constructing the Moment Diagram:

Example 1.19. Draw the shear and bending moment diagrams and the qualitative deflected
shape for the beam shown.

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Solution:

Constructing the Shear Diagram:

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Constructing the Moment Diagram:

Qualitative Deflected Shape

A qualitative deflected shape of the beam is shown in the figure. The bending moment is
positive in segment FG, so the beam is bent concave upward in this region. Conversely, since the
bending moment is negative in segments AF and GD, the beam is bent concave downward in these
segments.

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Example 1.20. Draw the shear and bending moment diagrams and the qualitative deflected
shape for the beam shown.

Solution:

Constructing the Shear Diagram:

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Constructing the Moment Diagram:

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Qualitative Deflected Shape:

A qualitative deflected shape of the beam is shown. Note that at the fixed support A, both
the deflection and the slope of the beam are zero, whereas at the roller support C, only the
deflection is zero, but the slope is not. The internal hinge B does not provide any rotational
restraint, so the slope at B can be discontinuous.

Example 1.21. Draw the shear and bending moment diagrams and the qualitative deflected
shape for the beam shown:

Solution:

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Constructing the Shear Diagram:

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Constructing the Moment Diagram:

Qualitative Deflected Shape:

Example 1.22. Draw the shear, bending moment, and axial force diagrams and the qualitative
deflected shape for the frame shown:

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Solution:

Determinacy: 𝒅 = 𝒓 − 𝟑𝒏 = 𝟔 − 𝟑(𝟐) = 𝟎 (𝐢𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐞)

Member End Forces:

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Constructing the Shear Diagram:

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Constructing the Axial Diagram:

Constructing the Moment Diagram:

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Qualitative Deflected Shape:

Example 1.23. Draw the shear, bending moment, and axial force diagrams and the qualitative
deflected shape for the frame shown:

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Solution:

Member End Forces:

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Constructing Shear and Moment Diagram:

Constructing Axial Diagram:

Constructing Moment Diagram:

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Qualitative Deflected Shape:

Example 1.24. Draw the shear and bending moment diagrams for the frame shown. (Assume A is
a pin, C is a roller, and B is a fixed joint. Neglect the thickness of the members):

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Solution:

Reactions:

Member End Forces and Constructing the Shear and Moment Diagram:

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Example 1.25. Draw the shear and bending moment diagrams for the frame shown. (Assume A
is a pin, C is a roller, and B is a fixed joint).

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Solution:

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Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you further understand
the lesson.

• Kassimali, A., (2015). Structural Analysis. 5th Ed.: Amsterdam : Butterworth-

Heinemann
• Hibbeler, R.C., (2012). Structural Analysis. 8th ed.: Singapore : Pearson Education South
Asia

Let’s Check (ULO-1c)

1. Draw the Shear and Moment Diagram and Qualitative Deflected Shape of the following
beams:

a.

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b.

c.

d.

e.

f.

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g.

h.

i.

j.

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Let’s Analyze (ULO-1c)

a.

b.

c.

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d.

e.

f.

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In a Nutshell

Q&A List

Do you have any question for clarification?

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Questions/Issues Answers

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Keywords Index

Shear Axial Bending

Big Picture

Week 4-5: Unit Learning Outcomes-Unit 2 (ULO-2): At the end of the unit, you are expected to

a. To develop the analysis of member forces of statically determinate plane

and space trusses and

b. To study geometric methods commonly used for determining the slopes

and deflections of statically determinate beams.

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-2a. a. To develop the analysis of member forces of

statically determinate plane and space trusses.

Metalanguage

The most essential terms below are defined for you to have a better understanding of
this section in the course.

Truss. Is an assembly of beams or other elements that creates a rigid structure. In engineering,
a truss is a structure that "consists of two-force members only, where the members are
organized so that the assemblage as a whole behaves as a single object".

Statically determinate structure. Can be defined as a structure where, if it is possible to find

internal actions in equilibrium with external loads, those internal actions are unique. The
structure has no possible states of self-stress, i.e. internal forces in equilibrium with zero
external loads are not possible.

Essential Knowledge

I. ASSUMPTIONS FOR ANALYSIS OF TRUSSES

The analysis of trusses is usually based on the following simplifying

assumptions:

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1. All members are connected only at their ends by frictionless hinges in plane trusses and by
frictionless ball-and-socket joints in space trusses.
2. All loads and support reactions are applied only at the joints.
3. The centroidal axis of each member coincides with the line connecting the centers of the
adjacent joints.

Common Bridge Trusses

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Common Roof Trusses

The reason for making these assumptions is to obtain an ideal truss, whose members are
subjected only to axial forces. Since each member of an ideal truss is connected at its ends by
frictionless hinges (assumption 1) with no loads applied between its ends (assumption 2), the
member would be subjected to only two forces at its ends, as shown in Fig. below. Since the
member is in equilibrium, the resultant force and the resultant couple of the two forces FA and
FB must be zero; that is, the forces must satisfy the three equations of equilibrium.

II. ARRANGEMENT OF MEMBERS OF PLANE TRUSSES—INTERNAL STABILITY

We can define a plane truss as internally stable if the number and geometric arrangement of its
members is such that the truss does not change its shape and remains a rigid body when
detached from the supports. The term internal is used here to refer to the number and
arrangement of members contained within the truss. The instability due to insufficient external
supports or due to improper arrangement of external supports is referred to as external.

Internal Stability

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The Equation below expresses the requirement of the minimum number of members that a
plane truss of j joints must contain if it is to be internally stable. If a plane truss contains m
members and j joints, then if:

It is very important to realize that although the foregoing criterion for internal stability is
necessary, it is not su‰cient to ensure internal stability. A truss must not only contain enough
members to satisfy the condition, but the members must also be properly arranged
to ensure rigidity of the entire truss. Recall from our discussion of simple and compound trusses
that in a stable truss, each joint is connected to the rest of the structure by at least two
nonparallel members, and each portion of the truss must be connected to the remainder of the
truss by connections capable of transmitting at least three nonparallel and
nonconcurrent force components.

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III. STATIC DETERMINACY, INDETERMINACY, AND INSTABILITY OF PLANE TRUSSES

We consider a truss to be statically determinate if the forces in all its members, as well as all the
external reactions, can be determined by using the equations of equilibrium. Since the two
methods of analysis presented in the following sections can be used to analyze only statically
determinate trusses, it is important for the student to be able to recognize statically determinate
trusses before proceeding with the analysis.

If a truss has more unknowns (𝑚 + 𝑟) than the available equilibrium equations 2𝑗—that is,
m + r > 2j—all the unknowns cannot be determined by solving the available equations of
equilibrium. Such a truss is called statically indeterminate. Statically indeterminate trusses
have more members and/or external reactions than the minimum required for stability. The
excess members and reactions are called redundants, and the number of excess members and
reactions is referred to as the degree of static indeterminacy, i, which can be expressed
as:

If the number of unknowns (𝑚 + 𝑟) for a truss is less than the number of equations of joint
equilibrium 2𝑗 —that is, m+ r < 2j— the truss is called statically unstable. The static instability
may be due to the truss having fewer members than the minimum required for internal stability
or due to an insufficient number of external reactions or both. The conditions of static instability,
determinacy, and indeterminacy of plane trusses can be summarized as follows:

For some trusses, it may not be obvious from the drawings whether or not their members are
arranged properly. However, if the member arrangement is improper, it will become evident
during the analysis of the truss. The analysis of such unstable trusses will always lead to
inconsistent, indeterminate, or infinite results.

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IV. ANALYSIS OF PLANE TRUSSES BY THE METHOD OF JOINTS

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To illustrate the analysis by this method, consider the truss shown in Fig. (a). The truss contains
five members, four joints, and three reactions. Since m +r=2j, the truss is statically determinate.
The free-body diagrams of all the members and the joints are given in Fig. (b). Because the
member forces are not yet known, the sense of axial forces (tension or compression) in the
members has been arbitrarily assumed.

As shown in Fig. (b), members AB;BC, and AD are assumed to be in tension, with axial forces
tending to elongate the members, whereas members BD and CD are assumed to be in
compression, with axial forces tending to shorten them. The free-body diagrams of the joints
show the member forces in directions opposite to their directions on the member ends in
accordance with Newton’s law of action and reaction. Focusing our attention on the free-body
diagram of joint C, we observe that the tensile force FBC is pulling away on the joint, whereas
the compressive force FCD is pushing toward the joint. This effeect of members in tension
pulling on the joints and members in compression pushing into the joints can be seen on the
free-body diagrams of all the joints shown in Fig. (b). The free-body diagrams of members are
usually omitted in the analysis and only those of joints are drawn, so it is important to
understand that a tensile member axial force is always indicated on the joint by an arrow pulling
away on the joint, and a compressive member axial force is always indicated by an arrow
pushing toward the joint.

The analysis of the truss by the method of joints is started by selecting a joint that has two or
fewer unknown forces (which must not be collinear) acting on it. An examination of the free-
body diagrams of the joints in Fig. (b) indicates that none of the joints satisfies this requirement.

Identification of Zero-Force Members

Because trusses are usually designed to support several different loading conditions, it is not
uncommon to find members with zero forces in them when a truss is being analyzed for a
particular loading condition. Zero-force members are also added to trusses to brace
compression members against buckling and slender tension members against vibrating. The
analysis of trusses can be expedited if we can identify the zero-force members by inspection.
Two common types of member arrangements that result in zero-force members are the
following:

1. If only two noncollinear members are connected to a joint that has no external loads or
reactions applied to it, then the force in both
members is zero.

2. If three members, two of which are collinear, are connected to a joint that has no external
loads or reactions applied to it, then the force in the member that is not collinear is zero.

V. ANALYSIS OF PLANE TRUSSES BY THE METHOD OF SECTIONS

Procedure for Analysis

The following step-by-step procedure can be used for determining the member forces of
statically determinate plane trusses by the method of sections.

1. Select a section that passes through as many members as possible whose forces are desired,
but not more than three members with unknown forces. The section should cut the truss into
two parts.

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2. Although either of the two portions of the truss can be used for computing the member forces,
we should select the portion that will require the least amount of computational e¤ort in
determining the unknown forces. To avoid the necessity for the calculation of reactions, if one
of the two portions of the truss does not have any reactions actingon it, then select this portion
for the analysis of member forces and go to the next step. If both portions of the truss are
attached to external supports, then calculate reactions by applying the equations of equilibrium
and condition (if any) to the free body of the entire truss. Next, select the portion of the truss for
analysis of member forces that has the least number of external loads and reactions applied to
it.

3. Draw the free-body diagram of the portion of the truss selected, showing all external loads
and reactions applied to it and the forces in the members that have been cut by the section. The
unknown member forces are usually assumed to be tensile and are, therefore, shown on the
free-body diagram by arrows pulling away from the joints.

5. Apply an alternative equilibrium equation, which was not used to compute member forces, to
check the calculations. This alternative equation should preferably involve all three member
forces determined by the analysis. If the analysis has been performed correctly, then this
alternative equilibrium equation must be satisfied

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VI. ANALYSIS OF COMPOUND TRUSSES

Although the method of joints and the method of sections described in the preceding sections
can be used individually for the analysis of compound trusses, the analysis of such trusses can
sometimes be expedited by using a combination of the two methods. For some types of
compound trusses, the sequential analysis of joints breaks down when a joint with two or
fewer unknown forces cannot be found. In such a case, the method of sections is then
employed to calculate some of the member forces, thereby yielding a joint with two or fewer
unknowns, from which the method of joints may be continued. This approach is illustrated by
the following examples.

SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS:

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Self-Help: You can also refer to the source/s below to help you further understand
the lesson.

• Kassimali, A., (2015). Structural Analysis (5th ed.): Australia : Cengage Learning
• Hibbeler, R.C., (2012). Structural Analysis (8th ed.): Singapore : Pearson Education South
Asia
• Megson, T. H. G. (Thomas Henry Gordon), (2014). Structural and Stress Analysis (3rd ed.):
Amsterdam : Butterworth-Heinemann

Let’s Check (2a)

Activity: Let us try to check if you have fully understood the topics by answering the questions
below.
Instructions: Copy the question and write your answer in an A4-size bond paper. Answer
must be HAND-WRITTEN!!! Scan or take a picture of your paper, save it in PDF format and
upload it in the BB-LMS. Additional instructions will be posted in the BB-LMS as well as the
format on the presentation of answers.

Classify each of the plane trusses shown as unstable, statically determinate, or statically
indeterminate. If the truss is statically indeterminate, then determine the degree of static
indeterminacy.

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Let’s Analyze (2a)

Activity: Let us try to check if you have fully understood the topics by answering the questions
below.
Instructions: Copy the question and write your answer in an A4-size bond paper. Answer
must be HAND-WRITTEN!!! Scan or take a picture of your paper, save it in PDF format and
upload it in the BB-LMS. Additional instructions will be posted in the BB-LMS as well as the
format on the presentation of answers.

I. Determine the force in each member of the truss shown by the method of joints.

II. Determine the forces in the members identified by ‘‘x’’ of the truss shown by the
method of sections.

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In a Nutshell

Activity: Let us try to check if you have fully understood the topics by answering the questions
below.
Instructions: Copy the question and write your answer in an A4-size bond paper. Answer
must be HAND-WRITTEN!!! Scan or take a picture of your paper, save it in PDF format and
upload it in the BB-LMS. Additional instructions will be posted in the BB-LMS as well as the
format on the presentation of answers.

Determine the force in each member of the truss shown.(use joint method or section)

Q&A List

Do you have any question for clarification?

Questions/Issues Answers

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

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Big Picture in Focus: ULO-2b.To study geometric methods commonly used for
determining the slopes and deflections of statically determinate beams.

Metalanguage

The most essential terms below are defined for you to have a better understanding of
this section in the course.

Deflection. In engineering, deflection is the degree to which a structural element is displaced

under a load. It may refer to an angle or a distance

Essential Knowledge

I. Deflection of Beams, Frames and Trusses

The conjugate-beam method, developed by Otto Mohr in 1868, generally provides a more
convenient means of computing slopes and deflections of beams than the moment-area method.
Although the amount of computational effort required by the two methods is essentially the
same, the conjugate-beam method is preferred by many engineers because of its systematic sign
convention and straightforward application, which does not require sketching the elastic curve
of the structure. The conjugate-beam method is based on the analogy between the relationships
among load, shear, and bending moment and the relationships among M=EI, slope, and
deflection. These two types of relationships were derived in the past sections, respectively, and
are repeated in Table below for comparison purposes. As this table indicates, the relationships
between M=EI, slope, and deflection have the same form as that of the relationships between
load, shear, and bending moment. Therefore, the slope and deflection can be determined from
M=EI by the same operations as those performed to compute shear and bending moment,
respectively, from the load. Furthermore, if the M=EI diagram for a beam is applied as the load
on a fictitious analogous beam, then the shear and bending moment at any point on the fictitious
beam will be equal to the slope and deflection, respectively, at the corresponding point on the
original real beam. The fictitious beam is referred to as the conjugate beam, and it is defined as
follows: A conjugate beam corresponding to a real beam is a fictitious beam of the same length
as the real beam, but it is externally supported and internally connected such that if the
conjugate beam is loaded with the M=EI diagram of the real beam, the shear and bending
moment at any point on the conjugate beam are equal, respectively, to the slope and deflection
at the corresponding point on the real beam. As the foregoing discussion indicates, the
conjugate-beam method essentially involves computing the slopes and deflections of beams by
computing the shears and bending moments in the corresponding conjugate beams.

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Supports for Conjugate Beams

External supports and internal connections for conjugate beams are determined from the
analogous relationships between conjugate beams and the corresponding real beams; that is,
the shear and bending moment at any point on the conjugate beam must be consistent with the
slope and deflection at that point on the real beam. The conjugate counterparts of the various
types of real supports thus determined are shown in Fig. above. As this figure indicates, a hinged
or a roller support at an end of the real beam remains the same in the conjugate beam. This is
because at such a support there may be slope, but no deflection, of the real beam. Therefore, at
the corresponding end of the conjugate beam there must be shear but no bending moment; and
a hinged or a roller support at that end would satisfy these conditions. Since at a fixed support
of the real beam there is neither slope nor deflection, both shear and bending moment at that
end of the conjugate beam must be zero; therefore, the conjugate of a fixed real support is a free
end, as shown in Fig. above. Conversely, a free end of a real beam becomes a fixed support

Sign Convention

If the positive ordinates of the M=EI diagram are applied to the conjugate beam as upward loads
(in the positive y direction) and vice versa, then a positive shear in the conjugate beam denotes
a positive (counterclockwise) slope of the real beam with respect to the undeformed axis of the
real beam; also, a positive bending moment in the conjugate beam denotes a positive (upward
or in the positive y direction) deflection of the real beam with respect to the undeformed axis of
the real beam and vice versa.

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Procedure for Analysis

The following step-by-step procedure can be used for determining the slopes and deflections of
beams by the conjugate-beam method.

1. Construct the M=EI diagram for the given (real) beam subjected to the specified (real) loading.
If the beam is subjected to a combination of different types of loads (e.g., concentrated loads and
distributed loads), the analysis can be considerably expedited by constructing the M=EI diagram
by parts, as discussed in the preceding section.

2. Determine the conjugate beam corresponding to the given real beam. The external supports
and internal connections for the conjugate beam must be selected so that the shear and bending
moment at any point on the conjugate beam are consistent with the slope and deflection,
respectively, at that point on the real beam. The conjugates of various types of real supports are
given in Fig. above.

3. Apply the M=EI diagram (from step 1) as the load on the conjugate beam. The positive
ordinates of the M=EI diagram are applied as upward loads on the conjugate beam and vice
versa.

4. Calculate the reactions at the supports of the conjugate beam by applying the equations of
equilibrium and condition (if any).

5. Determine the shears at those points on the conjugate beam where slopes are desired on the
real beam. Determine the bending moments at those points on the conjugate beam where
deflections are desired on the real beam. The shears and bending moments in conjugate beams
are considered to be positive or negative in accordance with the beam sign convention.

6. The slope at a point on the real beam with respect to the undeformed axis of the real beam is
equal to the shear at that point on the conjugate beam. A positive shear in the conjugate beam
denotes a positive or counterclockwise slope of the real beam and vice versa.

6. The deflection at a point on the real beam with respect to the undeformed axis of the real
beam is equal to the bending moment at that point on the conjugate beam. A positive
bending moment in the conjugate beam denotes a positive or upward deflection of the real
beam and vice versa.

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SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS:

Determine the maximum deflection for the beam shown in Fig below by the conjugate-beam
method.

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Location of the Maximum Bending Moment in Conjugate Beam If the maximum bending moment
in the conjugate beam (or the maximum deflection on the real beam) occurs at point D, located
at a distance xm from the left support A

Self-Help: You can also refer to the source/s below to help you further understand
the lesson.

• Kassimali, A., (2015). Structural Analysis (5th ed.): Australia : Cengage Learning
• Hibbeler, R.C., (2012). Structural Analysis (8th ed.): Singapore : Pearson Education South
Asia
• Megson, T. H. G. (Thomas Henry Gordon), (2014). Structural and Stress Analysis (3rd ed.):
Amsterdam : Butterworth-Heinemann

Let’s Check (2b)

Activity: Let us try to check if you have fully understood the topics by answering the questions
below.
Instructions: Copy the question and write your answer in an A4-size bond paper. Answer
must be HAND-WRITTEN!!! Scan or take a picture of your paper, save it in PDF format and
upload it in the BB-LMS. Additional instructions will be posted in the BB-LMS as well as the
format on the presentation of answers.

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Use the conjugate-beam method to determine the slope and deflection at point B of the beams
shown in Figs. below:

Let’s Analyze (2b)

Activity: Let us try to check if you have fully understood the topics by answering the questions
below.
Instructions: Copy the question and write your answer in an A4-size bond paper. Answer
must be HAND-WRITTEN!!! Scan or take a picture of your paper, save it in PDF format and
upload it in the BB-LMS. Additional instructions will be posted in the BB-LMS as well as the
format on the presentation of answers.

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Determine the slope and deflection at point A of the beam shown in Figs. below by conjugate
beam method.

In a Nutshell

Activity: Let us try to check if you have fully understood the topics by answering the questions
below.
Instructions: Copy the question and write your answer in an A4-size bond paper. Answer
must be HAND-WRITTEN!!! Scan or take a picture of your paper, save it in PDF format and
upload it in the BB-LMS. Additional instructions will be posted in the BB-LMS as well as the
format on the presentation of answers.

Determine the maximum deflection for the beams shown in Fig. below:

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Q&A List

Do you have any question for clarification?

Questions/Issues Answers

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Big Picture

Week 6-7: Unit Learning Outcomes-Unit 3(ULO-3): At the end of the unit, you are expected to

a. Describe the principle of virtual work, deflection of beams by the virtual

work method as well as the deflection of trusses by the virtual work method;
basic concept of Castigliano’s Second Theorem; analysis of Influence Line
and its application in beams.

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-3a.Describe the principle of virtual work, deflection

of beams by the virtual work method as well as the deflection of trusses by the
virtual work method; basic concept of Castigliano’s Second Theorem; analysis
of Influence Line and its application in beams.

Metalanguage

The most essential terms below are defined for you to have a better understanding of
this section in the course.

Work in virtual work clearly implies energy, since work is a form of energy.
Virtual work is the work done by a real force acting through a virtual displacement or a virtual
force acting through a real displacement.
A virtual displacement is any displacement consistent with the constraints of the structure,
i.e., that satisfy the boundary conditions at the supports.
A virtual force is any system of forces in equilibrium.
A real force is a force which acts on an object due to another object.

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Essential Knowledge

The work done by a force acting on a structure is simply defined as the force times the
displacement of its point of application in the direction of the force:

“Work is considered to be positive when the force and the displacement in the
direction of the force have the same sense and negative when the force and the
displacement have opposite sense”.

The work done by a couple acting on a structure is defined as the moment of the
couple times the angle through which the couple rotates:

Therefore, the total work W of a couple with variable moment M over the entire
rotation 𝜃can be expressed as:

When the moment of the couple varies linearly with rotation from zero to its final value,
the work can be expressed as

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and, if M remains constant during a rotation y, then the work is given by

The Principle of Virtual Work

Virtual work is the work done by a real force acting through a virtual displacement or a
virtual force acting through a real displacement.

Principle of Virtual Displacements for Rigid Bodies

The principle of virtual displacements for rigid bodies can be stated as follows:

“If a rigid body is in equilibrium under a system of forces and if it is subjected to any
small virtual rigid-body displacement, the virtual work done by the external forces is zero.”

The total virtual work, 𝑊𝑣𝑒 performed by the external forces acting on the beam can be
expressed as:

𝑾𝒗𝒆 = 𝟎
which is the mathematical statement of the principle of virtual displacements for rigid bodies.

Principle of Virtual Forces for Deformable Bodies

The principle of virtual forces for deformable bodies can be stated as follows:

“If a deformable structure is in equilibrium under a virtual system of force (and couples) and if it is
subjected to any small real deformation consistent with the support and continuity conditions of the
structure, then the virtual external work done by the virtual external forces (and couples) acting
through the real external displacements (and rotations) is equal to the virtual internal work done
by the virtual internal forces (and couples) acting through the real internal displacements (and
rotations).”

In this statement, the term virtual is associated with the forces to indicate that the force
system is arbitrary and does not depend on the action causing the real deformation.

𝑾𝒗𝒆 = 𝑾𝒗𝒊
virtual external work = virtual internal work

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**Note: Forces and displacements are used in a general sense and include moments and rotations

Deflections of Beams by The Virtual Work Method

By equating the virtual external work, 𝑊𝑣𝑒 = 1∆, to the virtual internal work, we obtain
the following expression for the method of virtual work for beam deflections:

We obtain the following expression for the method of virtual work for beam slopes:

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where 𝑀 = moment from real system and 𝑀𝑣 = moment from virtual moment

Procedure for Analysis

The following step-by-step procedure can be used to determine the slopes and deflections of
beams by the virtual work method:

1. Real System Draw a diagram of the beam showing all the real (given) loads acting on it.

2. Virtual System Draw a diagram of the beam without the real loads. If deflection is to be
determined, then apply a unit load at the point and in the direction of the desired deflection. If the
slope is to be calculated, then apply a unit couple at the point on the beam where the slope is
desired.

3. By examining the real and virtual systems and the variation of the flexural rigidity EI specified
along the length of the beam, divide the beam into segments so that the real and virtual loadings
as well as EI are continuous in each segment.

4. For each segment of the beam, determine an equation expressing the variation of the bending
moment due to real loading (𝑀) along the length of the segment in terms of a position coordinate
𝑥. The origin for x may be located anywhere on the beam and should be chosen so that the number
of terms in the equation for 𝑀 is minimum. It is usually convenient to consider the bending
moments as positive or negative in accordance with the beam sign convention.

5. For each segment of the beam, determine the equation for the bending moment due to virtual
load or couple 𝑀𝑉 using the same 𝑥 coordinate that was used for this segment in step 4 to establish
the expression for the real bending moment, 𝑀. The sign convention for the virtual bending
moment 𝑀𝑉 must be the same as that adopted for the real bending moment in step 4.

6. Determine the desired deflection or slope of the beam by applying the appropriate virtual
work expression. If the beam has been divided into segments, then the integral on the right-
hand side can be evaluated by algebraically adding the integrals for all the segments of the
beam.

Example 3.1. Determine the slope and deflection at point A of the beam shown by the virtual work
method.

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Solution:

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Example 3.2. Determine the slope at point B of the cantilever beam shown by the virtual work
method.

Solution:

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Example 3.3. Determine the deflection at point D of the beam shown by the virtual work method.

Solution:

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Table of Systems:

Example 3.4. Determine the deflection at point C of the beam shown by the virtual work method.

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Solution:

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Deflections of Frames By The Virtual Work Method

The virtual internal work due to bending for the entire frame can then be obtained by
summing the work for the individual segments that is:

The virtual internal work due to axial deformations for the entire frame can be
expressed as:

We obtain the total internal virtual work for the frame due to both bending and axial
deformations as:

By equating the virtual external work to the virtual internal work, we obtain the
expressions for the method of virtual work for deflections and rotations of frames, respectively,
as:

and

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Procedure for Analysis

The following step-by-step procedure can be used to determine the slopes and deflections of
frames by the virtual work method.

1. Real System Determine the internal forces at the ends of the members of the frame
due to the real loading by using the procedure described.

2. Virtual System If the deflection of the frame is to be determined, then apply a unit load
at the point and in the direction of the desired deflection. If the rotation is to be
calculated, then apply a unit couple at the point on the frame where the rotation is
desired. Determine the member end forces due to the virtual loading.

3. If necessary, divide the members of the frame into segments so that the real and
virtual loads and 𝐸𝐼 are continuous in each segment.

4. For each segment of the frame, determine an equation expressing the variation of the
bending moment due to real loading (𝑀) along the length of the segment in terms of
a position coordinate x.

5. For each segment of the frame, determine the equation for the bending moment due
to virtual load or couple (𝑀𝑣) using the same 𝑥 coordinate that was used for this
segment in step 4 to establish the expression for the real bending moment, 𝑀. Any
convenient sign convention can be used for 𝑀 and 𝑀𝑣. However, it is important that
the sign convention be the same for both M and 𝑀𝑣 in a particular segment.

6. If the effect of axial deformations is to be included in the analysis, then go to step 7.

Otherwise, determine the desired deflection or rotation of the frame by applying the
appropriate virtual work expression, End the analysis at this stage.

7. If necessary, divide the members of the frame into segments so that the real and
virtual axial forces and 𝐴𝐸 are constant in each segment. It is not necessary that these
segments be the same as those used in step 3 for evaluating the virtual internal work
due to bending. It is important, however, that the same sign convention be used for
both the real axial force, 𝐹, and the virtual axial force, 𝐹𝑣, in a particular segment.

8. Determine the desired deflection or rotation of the frame by applying the appropriate
virtual work expression.

Example 3.4. Determine the rotation of joint C of the frame shown in the figure by the virtual
work method.

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Solution:

Determine the reactions of the frame:

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Example 3.5. Use the virtual work method to determine the vertical deflection at joint C of the
frame shown.

Solution:

Determine the reactions of the frame:

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Example 3.6. Determine the horizontal deflection at joint C of the frame shown including the
effect of axial deformations, by the virtual work method.

Solution:

Determine the Reactions of the Frame:

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Deflections of Trusses by The Virtual Work Method

The axial deformation, 𝛿, of this member is given by

The virtual external work performed by the virtual unit load as it goes through the real deflection
∆ is equal to

By equating the virtual external work to the virtual internal work in accordance with the principle
of virtual forces for deformable bodies, we obtain the following expression for the method of
virtual work for truss deflections:

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When the deformations are caused by external loads, can be substituted to obtain:

Temperature Changes and Fabrication Errors

The expression of the virtual work method as given is quite general in the sense that it
can be used to determine truss deflections due to temperature changes, fabrication errors, and
any other effect for which the member axial deformations, 𝛿, are either known or can be evaluated
beforehand. The axial deformation of a truss member 𝑗 of length 𝐿 due to a change in temperature
∆𝑇 is given by:

Thus,

which can be used to compute truss deflections due to the changes in temperature. Truss
deflections due to fabrication errors can be determined by simply substituting changes in
member lengths due to fabrication errors.

Procedure for Analysis

The following step-by-step procedure can be used to determine the deflections of trusses by the
virtual work method.

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1. Real System. If the deflection of the truss to be determined is caused by external

loads, then apply the method of joints and/or the method of sections to compute the
(real) axial forces 𝐹 in all the members of the truss. In the examples given at the end
of this section, tensile member forces are considered to be positive and vice versa.
Similarly, increases in temperature and increases in member lengths due to
fabrication errors are considered to be positive and vice versa.

2. Virtual System. Remove all the given (real) loads from the truss; then apply a unit
load at the joint where the deflection is desired and in the direction of the desired
deflection to form the virtual force system. By using the method of joints and/or the
method of sections, compute the virtual axial forces 𝐹𝑣 in all the members of the truss.
The sign convention used for the virtual forces must be the same as that adopted for
the real forces in step 1; that is, if real tensile forces, temperature increases, or
member elongations due to fabrication errors were considered as positive in step 1,
then the virtual tensile forces must also be considered to be positive and vice versa.

3. The desired deflection of the truss can now be determined by applying the equation
if the deflection is due to external loads if the deflection is caused by temperature
changes, in the case of the deflection due to fabrication errors. The application of these
virtual work expressions can be facilitated by arranging the real and virtual
quantities, computed in steps 1 and 2, in a tabular form, as illustrated in the following
examples.

4. A positive answer for the desired deflection means that the deflection occurs in the
same direction as the unit load, whereas a negative answer indicates that the
deflection occurs in the direction opposite to that of the unit load.

Example 3.7. Determine the horizontal deflection at joint C of the truss shown by the virtual
work method.

Solution:

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Example 3.8. Determine the horizontal deflection at joint G of the truss shown by the virtual work
method.

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Solution:

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Example 3.9. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of the deflection at joint B of the
truss show by the virtual work method.

Solution:

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Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you further understand
the lesson.

• Kassimali, A., (2015). Structural Analysis. 5th Ed.: Amsterdam : Butterworth-

Heinemann
• Hibbeler, R.C., (2012). Structural Analysis. 8th ed.: Singapore : Pearson Education South
Asia
• Taksiah, A. Majid, Choong, K.K., Mustafasanie, M.Y. (2012). Theory of Structures.
Retrieved from
https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uniofmindanao-
ebooks/detail.action?docID=4306248&query=Kassimali
• Megson, T.H.G. (2016). Structural and Stress Analysis. Butterworth-Heinemann.
Retrieved from
http://libgen.is/book/index.php?md5=76F7CA6B5FE3D552391D6826F5DE4CAB

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• Hartmann, F., Katz, Casimir (2016). Structural Analysis with Finite Elements. Springer:
New York. Retrieved from
http://libgen.is/book/index.php?md5=FD93BB88C94E0C4261E086E19167767F
• Khalfallah, S. (2018). Introduction to Structural Analysis. Retrieved from
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119544265.ch1

Let’s Check (ULO-3a)

Use the virtual work method to determine the horizontal and vertical components of the
deflection at joint B of the truss shown in the figure:

a.

b.

Use the virtual work method to determine the slope and deflection at point B of the
beam shown.

c.

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d.

Use the virtual work method to determine the vertical deflection at joint C of the frame
shown.
e.

f.

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Use the virtual work method to determine the horizontal deflection at joint 𝐸 of the
frame shown:

g.

Let’s Analyze (ULO-3a)

Use the virtual work method to determine the vertical deflection at joint C of the truss shown:

a.

b. Use the virtual work method to determine the horizontal deflection at joint E of the truss
shown

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Determine the smallest cross-sectional area 𝐴 required for the members of the truss shown,
so that the horizontal deflection at joint D does not exceed 10 mm. Use the virtual work method.

Use the virtual work method to determine the vertical deflection at joint B of the frame shown:

Use the virtual work method to determine the rotation of joint D of the frame shown.

Using the method of virtual work, determine the vertical deflection at joint E of the
frame shown:

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In a Nutshell

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Q&A List

Do you have any question for clarification?

Questions/Issues Answers

6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Keywords Index

Work virtual displacement real displacement

virtual work real force virtual force

Big Picture

Week 8-9: Unit Learning Outcomes-Unit (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are expected to

a. To understand the analysis of statically indeterminate structures and do

approximate analysis of rectangular building frames.

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-4a To understand the analysis of statically

indeterminate structures and do approximate analysis of rectangular building
frames.

Metalanguage

The most essential terms below are defined for you to have a better understanding of
this section in the course.

Statically Indeterminate. In statics and structural mechanics, a structure is statically

indeterminate when the static equilibrium equations are insufficient for determining the
internal forces and reactions on that structure.

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Essential Knowledge

Introduction to Statically Indeterminate Structures

In Part Two of this text, we considered the analysis of statically determinate structures. In this
part , we focus our attention on the analysis of statically indeterminate structures. As discussed
previously, the support reactions and internal forces of statically determinate structures can be
determined from the equations of equilibrium (including equations of condition, if any).
However, since indeterminate structures have more support reactions and/or members than
required for static stability, the equilibrium equations alone are not sufficient for determining
the reactions and internal forces of such structures, and must be supplemented by additional
relationships based on the geometry of deformation of structures. These additional
relationships, which are termed the compatibility conditions, ensure that the continuity of the
displacements is maintained throughout the structure and that the structure’s various parts fit
together. For example, at a rigid joint the deflections and rotations of all the members meeting
at the joint must be the same. Thus the analysis of an indeterminate structure involves, in
addition to the dimensions and arrangement of members of the structure, its cross-sectional
and material properties (such as cross-sectional areas, moments of inertia, moduli of elasticity,
etc.), which in turn, depend on the internal forces of the structure. The design of an
indeterminate structure is, therefore, carried out in an iterative manner, whereby the (relative)
sizes of the structural members are initially assumed and used to analyze the structure, and the
internal forces thus obtained are used to revise the member sizes; if the revised member sizes
are not close to those initially assumed, then the structure is reanalyzed using the latest member
sizes. The iteration continues until the member sizes based on the results of an analysis are close
to those assumed for that analysis.

I. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES

The advantages of statically indeterminate structures over determinate structures include the
following.

1. Smaller Stresses The maximum stresses in statically indeterminate structures are generally
lower than those in comparable determinate structures. Consider, for example, the statically
determinate and indeterminate beams shown in Fig. (a) and (b), respectively. The bending
moment diagrams for the beams due to a uniformly distributed load, w, are also shown in the
figure. (The procedures for analyzing indeterminate beams are considered in subsequent
chapters.) It can be seen from the figure that the maximum bending moment—and consequently
the maximum bending stress—in the indeterminate beam is significantly lower than in the
determinate beam.

2. Greater Stiffnesses Statically indeterminate structures generally have higher stiffnesses (i.e.,
smaller deformations), than those of comparable determinate structures. From Fig.below, we
observe that the maximum deflection of the indeterminate beam is only one-fifth that of the
determinate beam.

3. Redundancies Statically indeterminate structures, if properly designed, have the capacity for
redistributing loads when certain structural portions become overstressed or collapse in cases
of overloads due to earthquakes, tornadoes, impact (e.g., gas explosions or vehicle impacts), and
other such events. Indeterminate structures have more members and/or support reactions than
required for static stability, so if a part (or member or support) of such a structure fails, the
entire structure will not necessarily collapse, and the loads will be redistributed to the adjacent

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portions of the structure. Consider, for example, the statically determinate and indeterminate
beams shown in Fig. (a) and (b), respectively. Suppose that the beams are supporting bridges
over a waterway and that the middle pier, B, is destroyed when a barge accidentally rams into
it. Because the statically determinate beam is supported by just the su‰cient number of
reactions required for static stability, the removal of support B will cause the entire structure to
collapse, as shown in Fig. (a). However, the indeterminate beam (Fig. (b)) has one extra reaction
in the vertical direction; therefore, the structure will not necessarily collapse and may remain
stable, even after the support B has failed. Assuming that the beam has been designed to support
dead loads only in case of such an accident, the bridge will be closed to traffic until pier B is
repaired and then will be reopened.

The main disadvantages of statically indeterminate structures, over determinate structures,

are the following.

1. Stresses Due to Support Settlements Support settlements do not cause any stresses in
determinate structures; they may, however, induce significant stresses in indeterminate
structures, which should be taken into account when designing indeterminate structures.
Consider the determinate and indeterminate beams shown in Fig. below. It can be seen from
Fig. (a) that when the support B of the determinate beam undergoes a small settlement DB, the
portions AB and BC of the beam, which are connected together by an internal hinge at B, move
as rigid bodies without bending—that is, they remain straight. Thus, no stresses develop in the
determinate beam. However, when the continuous indeterminate beam of Fig. (b) is subjected
to a similar support settlement, it bends, as shown in the figure; therefore, bending moments
develop in the beam.

2. Stresses Due to Temperature Changes and Fabrication Errors Like support settlements,
these effects do not cause stresses in determinate structures but may induce significant stresses
in indeterminate ones.

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ANALYSIS OF INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES

Fundamental Relationships Regardless of whether a structure is statically determinate or

indeterminate, its complete analysis requires the use of three types of relationships:
• Equilibrium equations
• Compatibility conditions
• Member force-deformation relations

The equilibrium equations relate the forces acting on the structure (or its parts), ensuring that
the entire structure as well as its parts remain in equilibrium; the compatibility conditions relate
the displacements of the structure so that its various parts fit together; and the member force
deformation relations, which involve the material and cross-sectional properties (E, I , and A) of
the members, provide the necessary link between the forces and displacements of the structure.
In the analysis of statically determinate structures, the equations of equilibrium are first used
to obtain the reactions and the internal forces of the structure; then the member force-
deformation relations and the compatibility conditions are employed to determine the
structure’s displacements.

For example, consider the statically determinate truss shown below:

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II. APPROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF RECTANGULAR BUILDING FRAMES

The analysis of statically indeterminate structures using the force and displacement methods
introduced in the preceding chapter can be considered as exact in the sense that the
compatibility and equilibrium conditions of the structure are exactly satisfied in such an
analysis. However, the results of such an exact analysis represent the actual structural response
only to the extent that the analytical model of the structure represents the actual structure.
Experimental results have demonstrated that the response of most common types of structures
under service loads can be reliably predicted by the force and displacement methods, provided
an accurate analytical model of the structure is used in the analysis.

Exact analysis of indeterminate structures involves computation of deflections and solution of

simultaneous equations, so it can be quite time consuming. Moreover, such an analysis depends
on the relative sizes (cross-sectional areas and/or moments of inertia) of the members of the
structure. Because of these difficulties associated with the exact analysis, the preliminary
designs of indeterminate structures are often based on the results of approximate analysis, in
which the internal forces are estimated by making certain assumptions about the deformations
and/or the distribution of forces between the members of structures, thereby avoiding the
necessity of computing deflections.

Approximate analysis proves to be quite convenient to use in the planning phase of projects,
when several alternative designs of the structure are usually evaluated for relative economy.
The results of approximate analysis can also be used to estimate the sizes of various structural
members needed to initiate the exact analysis. The preliminary designs of members are then
revised iteratively, using the results of successive exact analyses, to arrive at their final designs.
Furthermore, approximate analysis is sometimes used to roughly check the results of exact
analysis, which due to its complexity can be prone to errors.

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Finally, in recent years, there has been an increased tendency toward renovating and
retrofitting older structures. Many such structures constructed prior to 1960, including many
high-rise buildings, were designed solely on the basis of approximate analysis, so a knowledge
and understanding of approximate methods used by the original designers is usually helpful in
a renovation undertaking. Unlike the exact methods, which are general in the sense that they
can be applied to various types of structures subjected to various loading conditions, a specific
method is usually required for the approximate analysis of a particular type of structure for a
particular loading. For example, a different approximate method must be employed for the
analysis of a rectangular frame under vertical (gravity) loads than for the analysis of the same
frame subjected to lateral loads. Numerous methods have been developed for approximate
analysis of indeterminate structures. Some of the more common approximate methods
pertaining to rectangular frames are presented in this chapter. These methods can be expected
to yield results within 20% of the exact solutions. The objectives of this chapter are to consider
the approximate analysis of rectangular building frames as well as to gain an understanding of
the techniques used in the approximate analysis of structures in general. We present a general
discussion of the simplifying assumptions necessary for approximate analysis and then consider
the approximate analysis of rectangular frames under vertical (gravity) loads. Finally, we
present the two common methods used for the approximate analysis of rectangular frames
subjected to lateral loads.

ASSUMPTIONS FOR APPROXIMATE ANALYSIS

Assumptions about the Location of Points of Inflection

In the first approach, a qualitative deflected shape of the indeterminate structure is sketched
and used to assume the location of the points of inflection—that is, the points where the
curvature of the elastic curve changes signs, or becomes zero. Since the bending moments must
be zero at the points of inflection, internal hinges are inserted in the indeterminate structure at
the assumed locations of inflection points to obtain a simplified determinate structure. Each of
the internal hinges provides one equation of condition, so the number of inflection points
assumed should be equal to the degree of indeterminacy of the structure. Moreover, the
inflection points should be selected such that the resulting determinate structure must be
statically and geometrically stable. The simplified determinate structure thus obtained is then
analyzed to determine the approximate values of the reactions and internal forces of the original
indeterminate structure. Consider, for example, a portal frame subjected to a lateral load P, as
shown in Fig. (a). As the frame is supported by four reaction components and since there are
only three equilibrium equations, it is statically indeterminate to the first degree. Therefore, we
need to make one simplifying assumption about the response of the frame. By examining the
deflected shape of the frame sketched in Fig. (a), we observe that an inflection point exists near
the middle of the girder CD. Although the exact location of the inflection point depends on the
(yet unknown) properties of the two columns of the frame and can be determined only from an
exact analysis, for the purpose of approximate analysis we can assume that the inflection point
is located at the midpoint of the girder CD. Since the bending moment at an inflection point must
be zero, we insert an internal hinge at the midpoint E of girder CD to obtain the determinate
frame shown in Fig. (b). The four reactions of the frame can now be determined by applying the
three equilibrium equations and one equation of condition to the determinate beam.

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Assumptions about Distribution of Forces among Members and/or Reactions

Approximate analysis of indeterminate structures is sometimes performed by making

assumptions about the distribution of forces among the members and/or reactions of the
structures. The number of such assumptions required for the analysis of a structure is equal to
the degree of indeterminacy of the structure, with each assumption providing an independent
equation relating the unknown member forces and/or reactions. The equations based on these
assumptions are then solved simultaneously with the equilibrium equations of the structure to
determine its approximate reactions and internal forces. For example, the portal frame of Fig.
(a) can alternatively be analyzed by assuming that the horizontal reactions 𝐴𝑋 and𝐵𝑋 are equal;
that is, 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵𝑋 . By solving this equation simultaneously with the three equilibrium equations
of the frame, we obtain the same reactions as previously determined by assuming an inflection
point at the midpoint of the girder CD of the frame. The two types of assumptions described in
this section can either be used individually or they can be combined with each other and/or
with other types of assumptions based on the engineering judgment of the structural response
to develop methods for approximate analysis of various types of structures. In the rest of this
chapter, we focus our attention on the approximate analysis of rectangular building frames.

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ANALYSIS FOR VERTICAL LOADS

To summarize the foregoing discussion, in the approximate analysis of a rectangular frame

subjected to vertical loads the following assumptions are made for each girder of the frame:

1. The inflection points are located at one-tenth of the span from each end of the girder.

2. The girder axial force is zero.

The effect of these simplifying assumptions is that the middle eight tenths of the span (0.8L) of
each girder can be considered to be simply supported on the two end portions of the girder,
each of which is of the length equal to one-tenth of the girder span (0.1L), as shown in Fig. (e).
Note that the girders are now statically determinate, and their end forces and moments can be
determined from statics, as shown in the figure. It should be realized that by making three
assumptions about the behavior of each girder of the frame, we have made a total number of
assumptions equal to the degree of indeterminacy of the frame, thereby rendering the entire
frame statically determinate, as shown in Fig. (f). Once the girder end forces have been
computed, the end forces of the columns and the support reactions can be determined from
equilibrium considerations.

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SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS:

Draw the approximate shear and bending moment diagrams for the girders of the frame
shown in Fig. below.

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ANALYSIS FOR LATERAL LOADS—PORTAL METHOD

Procedure for Analysis

The following step-by-step procedure can be used for the approximate analysis of building
frames by the portal method.

1. Draw a sketch of the simplified frame obtained by inserting an internal hinge at the midpoint
of each member of the given frame.

2. Determine column shears. For each story of the frame: a. Pass a horizontal section through all
the columns of the story, cutting the frame into two portions. b. Assuming that the shears in
interior columns are twice as much as in exterior columns, determine the column shears by
applying the equation of horizontal equilibrium ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 to the free body of the upper portion
of the frame.

3. Draw free-body diagrams of all the members and joints of the frame, showing the external
loads and the column end shears computed in the previous step.

4. Determine column moments. Determine moments at the ends of each column by applying the
equations of condition that the bending moment is zero at the column midheight, where an
Inflection point (internal hinge) has been assumed.

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5. Determine girder axial forces, moments, and shears. Proceeding from the top story of the
frame to the bottom, compute axial forces, moments, and shears at the ends of the girders of
each successive story by starting at the far left joint of the story and working across to the right,
as follows:

6. Determine column axial forces. Starting at the top story, apply the equilibrium
equation∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 successively to the free body of each joint to determine the axial forces in the
columns of the story. Repeat the procedure for each successive story, working from top to
bottom, until the axial forces in all the columns of the frame have been determined.

7. Realizing that the forces and moments at the lower ends of the bottom-story columns
represent the support reactions, use the three equilibrium equations of the entire frame to
check the calculations. If the analysis has been performed correctly, then these equilibrium
equations must be satisfied.

In steps 5 and 6 of the foregoing procedure, if we wish to compute member forces and moments
by proceeding from the right end of the story toward the left, then the term left should be
replaced by right and vice versa.

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SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS:

Determine the approximate axial forces, shears, and moments for all the members of the frame
shown in Fig. below by using the portal method.

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ANALYSIS FOR LATERAL LOADS—CANTILEVER METHOD

Procedure for Analysis

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SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS:

Determine the approximate axial forces, shears, and moments for all the members of the frame
shown in Fig. below by using the cantilever method.

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Self-Help: You can also refer to the source/s below to help you further understand
the lesson.

• Kassimali, A., (2015). Structural Analysis (5th ed.): Australia : Cengage Learning
• Hibbeler, R.C., (2012). Structural Analysis (8th ed.): Singapore : Pearson Education South
Asia
• Megson, T. H. G. (Thomas Henry Gordon), (2014). Structural and Stress Analysis (3rd ed.):
Amsterdam : Butterworth-Heinemann

Let’s Check (4a)

Activity: Let us try to check if you have fully understood the topics by answering the questions
below.
Instructions: Copy the question and write your answer in an A4-size bond paper. Answer
must be HAND-WRITTEN!!! Scan or take a picture of your paper, save it in PDF format and
upload it in the BB-LMS. Additional instructions will be posted in the BB-LMS as well as the
format on the presentation of answers.

Draw the approximate shear and bending moment diagrams for the girders of the frames
shown below

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Let’s Analyze (4a)

Activity: Let us try to check if you have fully understood the topics by answering the questions
below.
Instructions: Copy the question and write your answer in an A4-size bond paper. Answer
must be HAND-WRITTEN!!! Scan or take a picture of your paper, save it in PDF format and
upload it in the BB-LMS. Additional instructions will be posted in the BB-LMS as well as the
format on the presentation of answers.

Determine the approximate axial forces, shears, and moments for all the members of the frames
shown in Fig below using the portal method.

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In a Nutshell

Activity: Let us try to check if you have fully understood the topics by answering the questions
below.
Instructions: Copy the question and write your answer in an A4-size bond paper. Answer
must be HAND-WRITTEN!!! Scan or take a picture of your paper, save it in PDF format and
upload it in the BB-LMS. Additional instructions will be posted in the BB-LMS as well as the
format on the presentation of answers.

Determine the approximate axial forces, shears, and moments for all the members of the
frames shown in Figs below by using the cantilever method.

Q&A List

Do you have any question for clarification?

Questions/Issues Answers

1.
2.

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3.
4.
5.

Big Picture

Week 10-11: Unit Learning Outcomes-Unit 1 (ULO-5): At the end of the unit, you are expected
to

d. Be able to understand the general formation of the force (flexibility) method

called the method of consistent deformations for the analysis of statically
indeterminate structures with multiple degrees of indeterminacy. Further,
be able to consider the analysis for the effects of support settlement,
temperature changes, and fabrication errors.

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-5a. Be able to understand the general formation of

the force (flexibility) method called the method of consistent deformations for
the analysis of statically indeterminate structures with multiple degrees of
indeterminacy. Further, be able to consider the analysis for the effects of
support settlement, temperature changes, and fabrication errors.

Metalanguage

The most essential terms below are defined for you to have a better understanding of
this section in the course.

Degree of static indeterminacy (DSI) is the number of redundant forces in the structure.
Structural redundancy is defined as redundancy that exists as a result of the continuity within
the load path.
Support settlements are downward displacement of supports.

Essential Knowledge

In this chapter we will apply the force or flexibility method to analyze statically
indeterminate trusses, beams, and frames.

• Recall that a structure of any type is classified as statically indeterminate when the
number of unknown reactions or internal forces exceeds the number of equilibrium
equations available for its analysis. In this section we will discuss the merits of using
indeterminate structures and two fundamental ways in which they may be analyzed

• Realize that most of the structures designed today are statically indeterminate. This
indeterminacy may arise as a result of added supports or members, or by the general form
of the structure. For example, reinforced concrete buildings are almost always statically
indeterminate since the columns and beams are poured as continuous members through
the joints and over supports.

Compatibility Method or Method of Consistent Displacements

This method consists of writing equations that satisfy the compatibility and force-
displacement requirements for the structure in order to determine the redundant forces. Once

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these forces have been determined, the remaining reactive forces on the structure are determined
by satisfying the equilibrium requirements:

For single redundancy:

• To obtain this equation, we will use the principle of superposition and consider the
compatibility of displacement at one of the supports. This is done by choosing one of the
support reactions as “redundant” and temporarily removing its effect on the beam so that
the beam then becomes statically determinate and stable. This beam is referred to as the
primary structure.

• Here we will remove the restraining action of the rocker at B. As a result, the load P will
cause B to be displaced downward by an amount as shown in b. By superposition,
however, the unknown reaction at B, i.e., causes the beam at B to be displaced upward, in
the figure. Here the first letter in this double-subscript notation refers to the point (B)
where the deflection is specified, and the second letter refers to the point (B) where the
unknown reaction acts. Assuming positive displacements act upward, then from the
figures, we can write the necessary compatibility equation at the rocker as 𝐵. As a result,
the load P will cause B to be displaced downward by an amount ∆𝐵 as shown in the figure.

• By superposition, however, the unknown reaction at B, i.e., 𝐵𝑦 causes the beam at B to be

displaced ∆′𝐵𝐵 upward. Here the first letter in this in this double-subscript notation
refers to the point (B) where the deflection is specified, and the second letter refers to
the point (B) where the unknown reaction acts. Assuming positive displacements act

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upward, then from the figures we can write the necessary compatibility equation at the
rocker as:

• Using the methods of Chapter 8 or 9, or the deflection table on the inside front cover of
the book, the appropriate load-displacement relations for the deflection ∆𝐵 and the
∆
flexibility 𝑓𝐵𝐵 can be obtained and the solution for 𝐵𝑦 determined as 𝐵𝑦 = 𝐵 . Once this
𝑓𝐵𝐵
is accomplished, the three reactions at the wall A can then be found from the equations of
equilibrium.

• The choice of the redundant is arbitrary.

Here we will remove the restraining action of the fixed support at A:

• By replacing the fixed support by a pin, the rotation at A caused by the load P is 𝜃𝐴 and
the rotation at A caused by the redundant 𝑀𝐴 at A is 𝜃 ′𝐴𝐴 . If we denote an angular flexibility
coefficient 𝛼𝐴𝐴 is the angular displacement at A caused by a unit couple moment applied
to 𝐴:

𝜃 ′𝐴𝐴 = 𝑴𝑨 𝜶𝑨𝑨

• Thus, the angular flexibility coefficient measures the angular displacement per unit
couple moment, and therefore it has units of rad/N or rad/lb - ft

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For two redundancy:

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Procedure of Analysis

The following procedure provides a general method for determining the reactions or
internal loadings of statically indeterminate structures using the force or flexibility method of
analysis.

Principle of Superposition

• Determine the number of degrees n to which the structure is indeterminate. Then specify
the n unknown redundant forces or moments that must be removed from the structure in
order to make it statically determinate and stable. Using the principle of superposition,
draw the statically indeterminate structure and show it to be equal to a series of
corresponding statically determinate structures. The primary structure supports the
same external loads as the statically indeterminate structure, and each of the other
structures added to the primary structure shows the structure loaded with a separate
redundant force or moment. Also, sketch the elastic curve on each structure and indicate
symbolically the displacement or rotation at the point of each redundant force or moment.

Compatibility Equations

• Write a compatibility equation for the displacement or rotation at each point where there
is a redundant force or moment. These equations should be expressed in terms of the
unknown redundant and their corresponding flexibility coefficients obtained from unit
loads or unit couple moments that are collinear with the redundant forces or moments.

Determine all the deflections and flexibility coefficients.

• Substitute these load-displacement relations into the compatibility equations and solve
for the unknown redundant. In particular, if a numerical value for a redundant is negative,
it indicates the redundant acts opposite to its corresponding unit force or unit couple
moment.

Equilibrium Equations

• Draw a free-body diagram of the structure. Since the redundant forces and/or moments
have been calculated, the remaining unknown reactions can be determined from the
equations of equilibrium. It should be realized that once all the support reactions have
been obtained, the shear and moment diagrams can then be drawn, and the deflection at
any point on the structure can be determined using the same methods outlined previously
for statically determinate structures.

Maxwell’s Theorem of Reciprocal Displacements; Betti’s Law

This theorem is referred to as the theorem of reciprocal displacements and may be stated
as follows: The displacement of a point B on a structure due to a unit load acting at point A is equal
to the displacement of point A when the unit load is acting at point B, that is

𝑓𝐵𝐴 = 𝑓𝐴𝐵

𝑚𝐵 𝑚𝐴
𝑓𝐵𝐴 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼

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𝑚𝐴 𝑚𝐵
𝑓𝐴𝐵 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼

• Both integrals obviously give the same result, which proves the theorem.

• The theorem also applies for reciprocal rotations, and may be stated as follows: The
rotation at point B on a structure due to a unit couple moment acting at point A is equal to
the rotation at point A when the unit couple moment is acting at point B. Furthermore, using
a unit force and unit couple moment, applied at separate points on the structure, we may
also state: The rotation in radians at point B on a structure due to a unit load acting at point
A is equal to the displacement at point A when a unit couple moment is acting at point B.

As a consequence of this theorem, some work can be saved when applying the force method
to problems that are statically indeterminate to the second degree or higher.

Force Method of Analysis: Beams

Example 5.1. Determine the reaction at the roller support B of the beam shown:

Solution:

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Example 5.2.

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Example 5.3. Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the beam shown. EI is constant. Neglect
the effects of axial load.

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Solution:

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Force Method of Analysis: Frames

Example 5.4. The frame, or bent, shown in the photo is used to support the bridge deck. Assuming
EI is constant, Determine the support reactions.

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• By inspection the frame is statically indeterminate to the first degree. We will choose the
horizontal reaction at A to be the redundant. Consequently, the pin at A is replaced by a
rocker, since a rocker will not constrain A in the horizontal direction. The principle of
superposition applied to the idealized model of the frame is shown. Notice how the frame
deflects in each case:

Solution:

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Example 5.4. Determine the moment at the fixed support A for the frame shown in EI is constant.

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Solution:

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Force Method of Analysis: Trusses

The force method is quite suitable for analyzing trusses that are statically indeterminate
to the first or second degree. The following examples illustrate application of this method using
the procedure for analysis outlined in the previous:

Example 5.5. Determine the force in member AC of the truss shown in the figure. AE is the same
for all the members:

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Solution:

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Example 5.6. Determine the reactions and the force in each member of the truss shown using the
method of consistent deformations:

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Solution:

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Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you further understand
the lesson.

• Kassimali, A., (2015). Structural Analysis. 5th Ed.: Amsterdam : Butterworth-

Heinemann
• Hibbeler, R.C., (2012). Structural Analysis. 8th ed.: Singapore : Pearson Education South
Asia
• Taksiah, A. Majid, Choong, K.K., Mustafasanie, M.Y. (2012). Theory of Structures.
Retrieved from
https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uniofmindanao-
ebooks/detail.action?docID=4306248&query=Kassimali

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• Megson, T.H.G. (2016). Structural and Stress Analysis. Butterworth-Heinemann.

Retrieved from
http://libgen.is/book/index.php?md5=76F7CA6B5FE3D552391D6826F5DE4CAB
• Hartmann, F., Katz, Casimir (2016). Structural Analysis with Finite Elements. Springer:
New York. Retrieved from
http://libgen.is/book/index.php?md5=FD93BB88C94E0C4261E086E19167767F
• Khalfallah, S. (2018). Introduction to Structural Analysis. Retrieved from
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119544265.ch1

Let’s Check (ULO-5a)

Draw the shear and moment diagrams of the beams shown:

a.

b.

c.

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Determine the reactions of the frame shown:

d.

e. Determine the force in each member of the truss. AE is constant.

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f. Determine the force in member CD of the truss. AE is constant.

Let’s Analyze (ULO-5a)

Draw the shear and moment diagrams of the beams shown:

a.

b.

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Determine the reactions of the frame shown:

c.

d.

e. Determine the force in each member of the truss. Assume the members are pin connected at
their ends. AE is constant.

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f. Determine the force in member AD of the truss. The cross-sectional area of each member is
shown in the figure. Assume the members are pin connected at their ends. Take 𝐸 =
29(10^3) 𝑘𝑠𝑖.

In a Nutshell

• In this chapter we have discussed a general formulation of the force (flexibility) method
of analysis of statically indeterminate structures, called the method of consistent
deformations. The method involves removing enough restraints from the indeterminate
structure to render it statically determinate.
• The determinate structure is called the primary structure, and the reactions or internal
forces associated with the excess restraints removed from the indeterminate structure
are termed redundants. The redundants are now treated as unknown loads applied to the
primary structure, and their magnitudes are determined by solving the compatibility
equations based on the condition that the deflections of the primary structure at the
locations (and in the directions) of the redundants, due to the combined effect of the
prescribed external loading and the unknown redundants, must be equal to the known
deflections at the corresponding

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Q&A List

Do you have any question for clarification?

Questions/Issues Answers

11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

Keywords Index

indeterminacy support settlements Method of least work

redundants fabrication errors

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Big Picture

Week 12-13: Unit Learning Outcomes-Unit (ULO6): At the end of the unit, you are expected
to

a. To understand the application of Influence Lines for Statically

Indeterminate Structures

b. To understand Slope Deflection Method for Analysis of Indeterminate

Structures

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-6a. To understand the application of Influence Lines

for Statically Indeterminate Structures

Metalanguage

The most essential terms below are defined for you to have a better understanding of
this section in the course.

Influence Lines. Influence line graphs the variation of a function at a specific point on a beam
or truss caused by a unit load placed at any point along the structure. Common functions studied
with influence lines include reactions, shear, moment, and deflection

Essential Knowledge

I. INFLUENCE LINES FOR BEAMS AND FRAMES BY EQUILIBRIUM METHOD

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MU¨ LLER-BRESLAU’S PRINCIPLE AND QUALITATIVE INFLUENCE LINES

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Draw the influence lines for the vertical reactions at supports B and D and the shear and
bending moment at point C of the beam shown in Fig. below.

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INFLUENCE LINES FOR TRUSSES

Procedure for Analysis

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Self-Help: You can also refer to the source/s below to help you further understand
the lesson.

• Kassimali, A., (2015). Structural Analysis (5th ed.): Australia : Cengage Learning
• Hibbeler, R.C., (2012). Structural Analysis (8th ed.): Singapore : Pearson Education South
Asia
• Megson, T. H. G. (Thomas Henry Gordon), (2014). Structural and Stress Analysis (3rd ed.):
Amsterdam : Butterworth-Heinemann

Let’s Check (6a)

Activity: Let us try to check if you have fully understood the topics by answering the questions
below.
Instructions: Copy the question and write your answer in an A4-size bond paper. Answer
must be HAND-WRITTEN!!! Scan or take a picture of your paper, save it in PDF format and
upload it in the BB-LMS. Additional instructions will be posted in the BB-LMS as well as the
format on the presentation of answers.

Draw the influence lines for vertical reactions at supports A and C and the shear and bending
moment at point B of the beams shown in Figs. below:

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Let’s Analyze (6b)

Activity: Let us try to check if you have fully understood the topics by answering the questions
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Draw the influence lines for the shear and bending moment at point C and the shears just to
the left and just to the right of support D of the beam shown in Fig. below

In a Nutshell

Activity: Let us try to check if you have fully understood the topics by answering the questions
below.
Instructions: Copy the question and write your answer in an A4-size bond paper. Answer
must be HAND-WRITTEN!!! Scan or take a picture of your paper, save it in PDF format and
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format on the presentation of answers.

Draw the influence lines for the forces in the members identified by an ‘‘x’’ of the trusses
shown in the figure below.

Q&A List

Do you have any question for clarification?

Questions/Issues Answers

1.
2.

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3.
4.
5.

Big Picture

Week 14-15: Unit Learning Outcomes-Unit 1 (ULO-7): At the end of the unit, you are expected
to:

a. Be able to derive the fundamental relations necessary for the application of

the moment - distribution method as well as the three-moment equation
method and the application of these methods to the analysis of continuous
beams and frames with and without sidesway.

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-7a. Be able to derive the fundamental relations

necessary for the application of the moment - distribution method as well as
the three-moment equation method and the application of these methods to
the analysis of continuous beams and frames with and without sidesway.

Metalanguage

The most essential terms below are defined for you to have a better understanding of
this section in the course.

1. Moment Distribution Method. The moment-distribution method is also known as the

Hardy Cross Method. It is classified as a displacement method, and from a theoretical
viewpoint, it is very similar to the slope-deflection method which also utilizes fixed-end
moments. However, unlike the slope-deflection method in which all the structure’s
equilibrium equations are satisfied simultaneously, in this method the moment equilibrium
equations of the joints are solved iteratively by successively considering the moment
equilibrium at one joint at a time, while the remaining joints of the structure are assumed to
be temporarily restrained against displacement (rotation).
2. Sign Convention. Counterclockwise member end moments are considered positive.
3. Member Stiffness. The bending stiffness, K, of a member is defined as the moment that must
be applied at an end of the member to cause a unit rotation of that end.
4. Relative Bending Stiffness. The relative bending stiffness, KR of a member is obtained by
dividing its bending stiffness, K, by 4E.
5. Carry-over Moment. The moment induced at the fixed end of the beam by the action of a
moment applied (distributed) at the other end, which is hinged.

Essential Knowledge

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• The method of analyzing beams and frames using moment distribution was developed
by Hardy Cross, in 1930. At the time this method was first published it attracted
immediate attention, and it has been recognized as one of the most notable advances in
structural analysis during the twentieth century.
• As will be explained in detail later, moment distribution is a method of successive
approximations that may be carried out to any desired degree of accuracy. Essentially,
the method begins by assuming each joint of a structure is fixed.Then, by unlocking and
locking each joint in succession, the internal moments at the joints are “distributed” and
balanced until the joints have rotated to their final or nearly final positions. It will be
found that this process of calculation is both repetitive and easy to apply.

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Moment Distribution for Beams

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Exercise 7.1. Determine the internal moments at each support of the beam shown:

Solution:

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Example 7.2. Determine the internal moment at each support of the beam shown in the figure.
The moment of inertia of each span is indicated.

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Solution:

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Stiffness-Factor Modifications

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Example 7.3. Determine the internal moments at the supports for the beam shown EI is
constant.

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Solution:

Example 7.4. Determine the internal moments at the supports of the beam shown in the figure.
The moment of inertia of the two spans is shown in the figure.

Solution:

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Let’s Check(7a)

Determine the moments at B and C. EI is constant. Assume B and C are rollers and A and
D are pinned.

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Determine the reactions at the supports. Assume A is fixed and B and C are rollers that
can either push or pull on the beam. EI is constant.

Let’s Analyze (7a)

Determine the moments at B, C, and D, then draw the moment diagram for the beam. EI is
constant.

Determine the moments at B and C, then draw the moment diagram for the beam.
Assume the supports at B and C are rollers and A is a pin. EI is constant.

In a Nutshell

The procedure for the analysis of continuous beams and frames without sidesway
essentially involves computing fixed-end moments due to the external loads by assuming that all
the free joints of the structure are temporarily restrained against rotation and balancing the
moments at free joints by the moment-distribution process. In the moment-distribution process,
at each free joint of the structure, the unbalanced moment is evaluated and distributed to the
member ends connected to it. Carryover moments induced at the far ends of the members are
then computed, and the process of balancing the joints and carrying over moments is repeated
until the unbalanced moments are negligibly small. The final member end moments are obtained
by algebraically summing the fixed-end moment and all the distributed and carryover moments
at each member end.

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Q&A List

Do you have any question for clarification?

Questions/Issues Answers

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Keywords Index

indeterminacy support settlements Method of least work

redundants fabrication errors

Big Picture

Week 16-17: Unit Learning Outcomes-Unit (ULO8): At the end of the unit, you are expected
to

a. To develop deep understanding of the principles of matrix structural

analysis. Emphasizing the intuitive classical approach and to analyze
statically determinate and indeterminate beams, trusses, and rigid frames.

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-8aTo develop deep understanding of the principles

of matrix structural analysis. Emphasizing the intuitive classical approach and
to analyze statically determinate and indeterminate beams, trusses, and rigid
frames.

Metalanguage

The most essential terms below are defined for you to have a better understanding of
this section in the course.

Matrix Method. is a structural analysis method used as a fundamental principle in many

applications in civil engineering. The method is carried out, using either a stiffness matrix or a
flexibility matrix.

Essential Knowledge

Introduction to Matrix Structural Analysis

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In this text we have focused our attention on the classical methods of structural analysis.
Although a study of classical methods is essential for developing an understanding of structural
behavior and the principles of structural analysis, the analysis of large structures by using these
handcalculation methods can be quite time consuming. With the availability of inexpensive, yet
powerful, microcomputers, the analysis of structures in most design o‰ces is routinely
performed today on computers using software based on matrix methods of structural analysis.

The objective of this chapter is to introduce the reader to the exciting and still-growing field of
matrix structural analysis. However, only the basic concepts of matrix analysis are presented
herein. For a more detailed study, the reader should refer to one of the many textbooks devoted
entirely to the subject of matrix structural analysis.

Matrix methods do not involve any new fundamental principles; but the fundamental
relationships of equilibrium, compatibility, and member force-displacement relations are now
expressed in the form of matrix equations, so that the numerical computations can be
e‰ciently performed on a computer. Therefore, familiarity with the basic operations of matrix
algebra is a prerequisite to understanding matrix structural analysis. A review of the concepts
of matrix algebra necessary for formulating the matrix methods of structural analysis is
presented in Appendix B for the convenience of the reader.

ANALYTICAL MODEL

Global and Local Coordinate Systems

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In the stiffness method, the overall geometry and behavior of the structure are described with
reference to a Cartesian or rectangular global (or structural) coordinate system. The global
coordinate system used in this chapter is a right-handed XYZ coordinate system, with the plane
structure lying in the XY plane, as shown in Fig. (b). Since it is usually convenient to derive the
basic force-displacement relations in terms of the forces and displacements in the directions
along and perpendicular to members, a local (or member) coordinate system is defined for each
member of the structure. The origin of the local xyz coordinate system for a member may be
arbitrarily located at one of the ends of the member, with the x-axis directed along the centroidal
axis of the member.

The positive direction of the y axis is chosen so that the coordinate system is right-handed, with
the local z axis pointing in the positive direction of the global Z axis. In Fig. (b), the positive
direction of the x axis for each member is indicated by drawing an arrow along each member on
the line diagram of the structure.

For example, this figure indicates that the origin of the local coordinate system for member 1 is
located at its end connected to joint 1, with the x1 axis directed from joint 1 to joint 2. The joint
to which the member end with the origin of the local coordinate system is connected is referred
to as the beginning joint for the member, whereas the joint adjacent to the opposite end of the
member is termed the end joint.

For example, in Fig. (b), member 1 begins at joint 1 and ends at joint 2, whereas member 2 begins
at joint 2 and ends at joint 3, and so on. Once the local x axis is defined for a member, the
corresponding y axis can be established by applying the right-hand rule. The local y axes thus
obtained for the members of the frame under consideration are shown in Fig. (c). Note that, for
each member, if we curl the fingers of our right hand from the direction of the x axis toward the
direction of the corresponding y axis, then our extended thumb points out of the plane of the
page, which is the positive direction of the global Z axis.

Degrees of Freedom

The degrees of freedom of a structure are the independent joint displacements (translations and
rotations) that are necessary to specify the deformed shape of the structure when subjected to
an arbitrary loading. Consider again the plane frame of Fig. (a). The deformed shape of the
frame, for an arbitrary loading, is depicted in Fig. (d) using an exaggerated scale. Unlike in the
case of the classical methods of analysis considered previously, it is usually not necessary to
neglect member axial deformations when analyzing frames by the matrix stiffness method.
From Fig. (d), we can see that joint 1, which is located at the hinged support, can rotate, but it
cannot translate. Thus joint 1 has only one degree of freedom, which is designated as d1 in the
figure. Since joint 2 of the frame is not attached to a support, three displacements—the
translations d2 and d3 in the X and Y directions, respectively, and the rotation d4 about the Z
axis—are needed to completely specify its deformed position 20. Thus joint 2 has three degrees
of freedom. Similarly, joints 3 and 4, which are also free joints, have three degrees of freedom
each. Finally, joint 5, which is attached to the fixed support, can neither translate nor rotate;
therefore, it does not have any degrees of freedom. Thus, the entire frame has a total of ten
degrees of freedom. As shown in Fig. (d), the joint displacements are defined relative to the
global coordinate system, with joint translations considered as positive when in the positive
directions of the X and Y axes and joint rotations considered as positive when counterclockwise.
Note that all the joint displacements are shown in the positive sense in Fig. (d). The joint
displacements of the frame can be collectively written in matrix form as:

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in which d is termed the joint displacement vector of the structure.

When applying the sti¤ness method, it is not necessary to draw the deformed shape of the
structure, as shown in Fig. 18.1(d), to identify its degrees of freedom. Instead, the degrees of
freedom can be directly specified on the line diagram of the structure by drawing arrows at the
joints, as shown in Fig. 18.1(b). As indicated in this figure, the degrees of freedom are numbered
by starting at the lowest joint number and proceeding sequentially to the highest joint number.
In the case of more than one degree of freedom at a joint, the translation in the X direction is
numbered first, followed by the translation in the Y direction, and then the rotation.

In continuous beams subjected to lateral loads, the axial deformations of members are zero.
Therefore, it is not necessary to consider the joint displacements in the direction of the beam’s
centroidal axis in the analysis. Thus a joint of a plane continuous beam can have up to two
degrees of freedom, namely, a translation perpendicular to the beam’s centroidal axis and a
rotation. For example, the continuous beam of Fig. (a) has four degrees of freedom, as shown in
Fig. (b).

Since the joints of trusses are assumed to be frictionless hinges, they are not subjected to
moments; therefore, their rotations are zero. Thus, when analyzing plane trusses, only two
degrees of freedom, namely, translations in the global X and Y directions, need to be considered
for each joint. For example, the truss of Fig. (a) has three degrees of freedom, as shown in Fig.
18.3(b).

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MEMBER STIFFNESS RELATIONS IN LOCAL COORDINATES

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Procedure for Analysis

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Self-Help: You can also refer to the source/s below to help you further understand
the lesson.

• Kassimali, A., (2015). Structural Analysis (5th ed.): Australia : Cengage Learning
• Hibbeler, R.C., (2012). Structural Analysis (8th ed.): Singapore : Pearson Education South
Asia
• Megson, T. H. G. (Thomas Henry Gordon), (2014). Structural and Stress Analysis (3rd ed.):
Amsterdam : Butterworth-Heinemann

Let’s Check (8a)

Activity: Let us try to check if you have fully understood the topics by answering the questions
below.
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Determine the reactions and the force in each member of the trusses shown in Figs. below by
using the matrix stiffness method.

Let’s Analyze (8a)

Activity: Let us try to check if you have fully understood the topics by answering the questions
below.
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format on the presentation of answers.

Determine the reactions and the member end forces for the beams shown in Figs. below by
using the matrix stiffness method.

In a Nutshell (8a)

Activity: Let us try to check if you have fully understood the topics by answering the questions
below.
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Determine the reactions and the member end forces in local coordinates for the frames shown
in figure below:

Q&A List

Do you have any question for clarification?

Questions/Issues Answers

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

------Complete------

------Nothing Follows------

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