uid Mechanics & Hydraulics Fourth Edition DIEGO INOCENCIO T. GILLESANIA Civil Engineer BSCE, (EVSU) - Magna Cum Laude Sth Place, PICE National Students’ Quiz, 1989 Awardee, Most Outstanding Student, 1989 3rd Place, CE Board November 1989 Review Director & Reviewer in all Subjects Gillesania Engineering Review Center Author of Various Engineering BooksChapter 1. Properties of Fluids FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS Fluid Mechanics is a physical science dealing with the action of fluids at rest or in motion, and with applications and devices in engineering using fluids. Fluid mechanics can be subdivided into two major areas, fluid statics, which deals with fluids at rest, and fluid dynamics, concerned with fluids in motion. The term hydrodynamics is applied to the flow of liquids or to low-velocity gas flows where the gas can be considered as being essentially incompressible. Hydraulics deals with the application of fluid mechanics to engineering devices involving liquids, usually water or oil. Hydraulics deals with such problems as the flow of fluids through pipes or in open channels, the design of storage dams, pumps, and water turbines, and with other devices for the control or use of liquids, such as nozzles, valves, jets, and flowmeters. TYPES OF FLUID Fluids are generally divided into two categories: ideal fluids and real fluids. Ideal fluids ‘« Assumed to have no viscosity (and hence, no resistance to shear) « Incompressible « Have uniform velocity when flowing # No friction between moving layers of fluid « No eddy currents or turbulence Real fluids : Exhibit infinite viscosities + Non-uniform velocity distribution when flowing * Compressible « Experience friction and turbulence in flowReal fluids are further divided into Newtonian fluids and non-Newtonian fluids, Most fluid problems assume real fluids with Newtonian characteristics for convenience. This assumption is appropriate for water, air, gases, steam, and other simple fluids like alcohol, gasoline, acid solutions, etc. However, slurries, pastes, gels, suspensions may not behave according to simple fluid relationships. Ideal Fiuids Real Fluids Non-Newtonian Fluids Delatant Fluids Bingham Fluids J Figure 1 - 1: Types of fluid ‘Newtonian Fluids Pseudoplastic Fluids } MASS DENSITY, p (RHO) The density of a fluid is its mass per unit of volume. mass of fluid, M _ p11 °° volume, V ao Units: English : slugs/ft® Note: Pstugs = Ptom/& Metric gram/cm> SI kg/m? For an ideal gas, its density can be found from the specific gas constant and ideal gas law: p= ‘Eq.1-2where: _p = absolute pressure of gas in Pa R= gas constant Joule / kg-°K For air: 287 J/kg -°K R= 1,716 Ib-ft/slug-°R T= absolute temperature in °Kelvin °K =°C +273 °R=°F +460 Table 1 - 1: Approximate Room-Temperature Densities of Common Fluids a ee Glycerin Mercury SPECIFIC VOLUME, V. Specific volume, V,, is the volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid. V. i = Eq.1-3 4 UNIT WEIGHT OR SPECIFIC WEIGHT, y Specific weight or unit weight, y, is the weight of a unit volume of a fluid. weight of fluid, W ~ volume, V y=pg VS Sig i-5 Eq.1-4Units: English: 1b/ft Metric: dyne/cm? SI : N/m? or kN/m? SPECIFIC GRAVITY Specific gravity, s, is a dimensionless ratio of a fluid’s density to some standard reference density. For liquids and solids, the reference density is water at 4° C (39.2° F). = Pliguid Eq.1-6 Pwater In gases, the standard reference to calculate the specific gravity is the density of air. Peas Pair Be Eq. 1-7 For water at 4°C: 7 = 62.4 Ib/f = 9.81 kN/m> = 1.94 slugs/ft° = 1000 kg/m? 0 VISCOSITY, }: (MU) The property of a fluid which determines the amount of its resistance to shearing forces. A perfect fluid would have no viscosity, Consider two large, parallel plates at a small distance y apart, the space between them being filled with a fluid. Consider the upper plate to be subject to a force F so as to move with a constant velocity U. The fluid in contact withthe upper plate will adhere to it and will move with the same velocity U while the fluid in contact with the fixed plate will have a zero velocity. For small values of U and y, the velocity gradient can be assumed to be a straight line and F varies as A, U and y as: FeAl eu y AY u_av but —=— (from the figure) yo dy a F — = Shearing stress, t A rie orek et ai ay where the constant of proportionality k is called the dynamic of absolute viscosity denoted as u. Tee pe av [dy where: hear stress in Ib/ft? or Pa bsolute viscosity in Ib sec/ ft? (poises) or Pa-sec. y = distance between the plates in ft or m U = velocity in ft/s or m/s KINEMATIC VISCOSITY v (NU) Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity of the fluid, 1, to its mass density, p. Eq. 1-9 < W ole where: 11 = absolute viscosity in Pa-sec. p= density in kg/m*Table 1 - 2: Common Units of Viscosity English Metric m/s Note: | poise = 1 dynes/em? = 0.1 Parsee (I dyne = 105 N) 1 stoke = 0,0001 m2/s SURFACE TENSION o (SIGMA) The membrane of “skin” that seems to form on the free surface of a fluid is due to the intermolecular cohesive forces, and is known as surface tension, Surface tension is the reason that insects are able to sit on water ands needle is able to float on it, Surface tension also causes bubbles and droplets to take on a spherical shape, since any other shape would have more surface area per unit volume, Pressure inside a Droplet of Liquid: 40 = £9 Eq. 1-10 E pais q where: 9 = surface tension in N/m d= diameter of the droplet in m P= gage pressure in PaCapillarity (a) Adhesion > cohesion (b) Cohesion > adhesion Capitlarity (Capillary action) is the name given to the behavior of the liquid ina thin-bore tube. The rise or fall or a fluid in a capillary tube is caused by surface tension and depends on the relative magnitudes of the cohesion of the liquid and the adhesion of the liquid to the walls of the containing, vessel. Liquids rise in tubes they wet (adhesion > cohesion) and fall in tubes they do not wet (cohesion > adhesion). Capillary is important when using tubes smaller than about 3/8 inch (9.5 mm) in diameter. _ 4acos0 h vd Eq.1-11 | For complete wetting, as with water on clean glass, the angle 0 is 0°. Hence the formula becomes 4 he 1-12 vd a | where: h = capillary rise or depression in m ; : y= unit weight in N/m* d= diameter of the tube inm o = surface tension in PaCOMPRESSIBILITY, f Compressibility (also known as the coefficient of compressibility) is the fractional change in the volume of a fluid per’ unit change in pressure in a constant- temperature process. Eq.1-13 Eq. 1-14 where: +hange in volume original volume -Ap = change in pressure 4V/V = change in volume (usually in percent) BULK MODULUS OF ELASTICITY, E, fhe bulk modulus of elasticity of the fluid expresses the compressibility of the fluid, It is the ratio of the change in unit pressure to the corresponding ~ volume change per unit of volume.stress Ap : = = Eq. 1-15 strain AV 3 Eq. 1-16 PRESSURE DISTURBANCES . Pressure disturbances imposed on a fluid move in waves. The velocity or celerity of pressure wave (also known as acoustical or sonic velocity) is expressed as: SEB eae id | Ee PROPERTY CHANGES IN IDEAL GAS. For any ideal gas experiencing any process, the equation of state is given by: PaVi _ P2Ve s | i Eq. 1-18 When temperature is held constant, Eq. 1 - 18 reduces to (Boyle’s Law) ; pep pad eae When temperature is held constant (isothermal condition), Eq. 1 - 18 reduces to (Charle’s Law)For Adiabatic or Isentropic Conditions (no heat exchanged) pi Vik = pr Vak Eq.1-21 ' V; Kk or (4) = P2 = Constant Eq. 1-22 V2 ry a ; nats p-(2]" Eq.1-23 T la initial absolute pressure of gas ‘nal absolute pressure of gas initial volume of gas final volume of gas initial absolute temperature of gas in °K (°K = °C + 273) Tp = final absolute temperature of gas in °K . k = ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure to the specific heat at constant volume. Also known as adiabatic exponent. VAPOR PRESSURE Molecular activity in a liquid will allow some of the molecules to escape the liquid surface. Molecules of the vapor also condense back into the liquid. The vaporization and condensation at constant temperature are equilibrium processes, The equilibrium pressure exerted by these free molecules is known as the vapor pressure or saturation pressure. Some liquids, such as propane, butane, ammonia, and Freon, have significant vapor pressure at normal temperatures. Liquids near their boiling point or that vaporizes easily are said to volatile liquids. Other liquids such as mercury, have insignificant vapor pressures at the same temperature. Liquids with low vapor pressure are used in accurate barometers. The tendency toward vaporization is dependent on the temperature of the liquid. Boiling occurs when the liquid temperature is increased to the point that the vapor pressure is equal to the local ambient (surrounding) pressure. Thus, a liquid’s boiling temperature depends on the local ambient pressure, as well as the liquid’s tendency to vaporize.Table 1 - 4: Typical Vapor Pressures 0.000173 Solved Problems Problem 1-1 A reservoir of glycerin has a mass of 1,200 kg and a volume of 0.952 cu. m. Find its (a) weight, W, (b) unit weight, y, (c) mass density, p, and (d) specific gravity (s). : Solution (a) Weight, W=Mg (1,200)(9.81) Weight, W= 11,772 N or 11.772 KN Ww () Unit weight, y= 7 weal 772. 0.952 Unit weight, 7 = 12.366 KN/m? (co) Density, p = a se 1200 Density, p = 0.952 Density, p = 1,260.5 kg/m?(Specific gravity, s= 8 ‘water 1,260.5 Specific gravity, s = Specific gravity, Problem 1 - 2 The specific gravity of certain oil is 0.82. Calculate its (a) specific weight, in lb/ft and kN/m’, and (b) mass density in slugs/ft® and kg/m?. Solution (@) Specific weight, y= Ywaur * 5 Specific weight, y = 62.4 x 0.82 = 51.168 Ib/f Specific weight, 7 = 9.81 x 0.82 = 8.044 kN/m? (b) Density, p= pwaree 5 Density, p = 1.94 x 0.82 = 1.59 slugs/ft? Density, p = 1000 x 0.82 = 820 kg/m? Problem 1-3 A liter of water weighs about 9.75 N. Compute its mass in kilograms. Solution Mass = 0.994 kg, Problem 1 - 4 If an object has a mass of 22 kg. at sea level, (a) what will be its weight at a point where the acceleration due to gravity g = 9.75 m/s®? (b) What will be its mass at that point?Solution (a) W= mg =22(9.75) - W=2145N (0) Since the mass of an object is absolute, its mass will still be 22 kg. Problem 1-5 What is the weight of a 45-kg boulder if it is brought to a place where the acceleration due to gravity is 395 m/s per minute? Solution W=Mg 9 = 395 m/s | Imin min 60sec $= 6.583 m/s? W=45(6.583) W= 296.25 N Problem 1-6 If the specific volume of a certain gas is 0.7848 m*/kg, what is its specific weight? Solution vet : p eel. PYy, 07848 p= 1.2742 kg/m? Specific weight, =p xg =1.2742 x 9.81 Specific weight, y = 12.5 N/m?Problem 1 - 7 ei What is the specific weight of air at 480 kPa absolute and 21°C? Solution YRPXs. = 9} a here R = 287 J/kg-°K Opes where 87 J/kg: 480 10° 287(21 + 273) p = 5.689 kg = 5.689 x 9.81 y= 55.81 N/m? Problem 1-8 Find the mass density of helium at a temperature of 4 °C and a pressure of 184 kPa gage, if atmospheric pressure is 101.92 kPa. (R = 2079 J/kg * °K) Solution ity paul. D ipa lensity, p P= Psage + Pater = 184 + 101.92 p = 285.92 kPa : T=4+ 273 =277°K 285.92 x 10° 2,079(277) ‘Density, p = 0. 4965 kg/m? Density, p = Problem 1-9 At 32°C and 205 kPa gage, the specific weight of a certain gas was 13.7 N/m’. Determine the gas constant of this gas.Solution Density, p = Density, p= F- (205 + 101.325) x 10° (32+ 273) Gas constant, R = 718.87 J/kg - °K 1.397 = Note: Porm = 101.325 kPa Problem 1 - 10 Air is kept at a pressure of 200 kPa absolute and a temperature of 30°C ina 500-liter container. What is the mass of air? Solution = eet ORT. = 200x107 _ 287(30 + 273) p=23 kg/m Problem 1 - 11 A cylindrical tank 80 cm in diameter and 90 cm high is filled with a liquid. ‘The tank and the liquid weighed 420 kg, The weight of the empty tank is 40 kg. What is the unit weight of the liquid in KN/m’.= = 840 kg/m? 4 (0.8)(0.90) ie Y= Pg = 840(9.81) = 8240.4 N/m? y= 8.24 KN/m? Problem 1 - 12 A lead cube has a total mass of 80 kg. What is the length of its side? Sp. gr. of lead = 11.3. Solution Let L be the length of side of the cube: M=pV 80 = (1000 x 11.3) L3 1 = 0.192 m=19.2cm Problem 1 - 13 A liquid compressed in a container has a volume of 1 liter at a pressure of 1 MPa and a volume of 0.995 liter at a pressure of 2 MPa. The bulk modulus of elasticity (Es) of the liquid is: Solution dP 2-1 By 2s ge eee ed dV/V (0.9951) /1. Ex = 200 MPa Problem 1 - 14 What pressure is required to reduce the volume of water by 0.6 percent? Bulk modulus of elasticity of water, Ez = 2.2 GPa.Solution dP Rese. aV/V dp = pa- pr r=0 ap =p dV=V>-V, dV = -0.6%V = -0.006V cas sa 0.006v /V p2= 0.0132 GPa p2=13.2MPa 22 Problem 1-15, Water in a hydraulic press, initially at 137 kPa absolute, is subjected to a Pressure of 116,280 kPa absolute. Using E, = 25 GPa, determine the Percentage decrease in the volume of water. Solution oi aD av/V , 9.5 « 109 = _ {116.280 -137) x10 avjV WY ~ 0.0465 Vv 1.65% decrease Problem 1 - 16 If 9 m® of an ideal gas at 24 °C and 150 kPaa is compressed to 2 m%, (a) what is the resulting pressure assuming isothermal conditions. (6) What would have been the pressure and temperature if the process is isentropic. Use k = 1,3.Solution (a) (b) For isothermal condition: Pi Vi = pr V2 150(9) = p2 (2) p2= 675 kPa abs For isentropic process: Pi Vik = po Vok 150(9)!3 = p2 (2)! p2= 1,060 kPa abs (k-1) /k he (2 Tr (nr 7 1,060 (1.3-1)/1.3 244273 ( 150 ) Tr = 466.4°K or 193.4°C Probl If the lem 1-17 viscosity of water at 70 °C is 0.00402 poise and its specific gravity is 0.978 determine its absolute viscosity in Pa - s and its kinematic viscosity in m?/s and in stokes. Solution Absolute viscosity: 0.1Pa-s = 0.00402 poi E Pole x poise = 0.000402 Pa - s Kinematic viscosity: y= Ha 0.000402 p (1000x0.978) v= 4.11 x 107 mYs 1stoke v= 4.11 x 107 m?/s x —SO 0.0001m?/s v=4.11 x 10° stokeProblem 1 - 18 Two large plane surfaces are 25 mm apart and the space between them is filled with a liquid of viscosity 1 = 0.958 Pa-s. Assuming the velocity gradient to be a straight line, what force is required to pull a very thin plate of 0.37 m? area at aconstant speed of 0.3 m/s if the plate is 8.4 mm from one of the surfaces? Solution FEF +P, p= Usy F/A pete Usy pe HUA ¥ _ 0.958(0.3)(0.37) _ aie? 0.0166 =64N .. _ 0.958(0.3)(0.37 a” 0.0084 =12.66N F=64+12.66 ; F=19.06N Problem 1 - 19 A cylinder. of 125 mm radius rotates concentrically inside a fixed cylinder of 130 mm radius. Both cylinders are 300 mm long. Determine the viscosity of the liquid which fills the space between the cylinders if a torque of 0.88 N-m is required to maintain. an angular velocity of 2x radians/sec. Assume the velocity gradient to be a straight line.Solution pe usy U=re U=0.125(2n) retating U=0.785 m/s ovlinder y= 0.005 m Torque = F(0.125) Torque = +A (0.125) 0,88 = x [2n(0.125)(0.3)] (0.125) = 29.88 Pa L=0.3m liquid ___ 29.88 #*0.785/0.005 n= 0.19 Pas Problem 1 - 20 An 18-kg slab slides down a 15° inclined plane on a 3-mm-thick film of oil with viscosity 1 = 0.0814 Pa-sec. If the contact area is 0.3 m’, find the terminal velocity of the slab. Neglect air resistance. Solution W = 18(9.81) = 176.58 N ay o= 159 NY Terminal velocity is attained when the sum of all forces in the direction of motion is zero. Mi(eatA=peay y Problem 1 - 21 Estimate the height to which water will rise in a capillary tube of diameter 3 mm, Use o = 0.0728 N/m and 7 = 9810 N/m? for water. Solution Note: @ = 90° for water in clean tube Capillary rise, h = 4% yd 4(0.0728) 9810(0.003) Capillary rise, = 0.0099 m = 9.9 mm. Capillary rise, h = Problem 1 - 22 Estimate the capillary depression for mercury in a glass capillary tube 2 mm in diameter. Use o = 0.514 N/m and 0 = 140° Solution 4ocos® _ _4(0.514)(cos140°) yd (9810x13.6)(0.002) Capillary rise, h = -0.0059 m —_(the negative sign indicates capillary depression) Capillary rise, h = Capillary depression, f= 5.9 mmProblem 1 - 23 ‘, , What is the value of the surface tension of a small drop of water 0.3 mm in diameter which is in contact with air if the pressure within the droplet is 561 Pa? Solution Lig 40 0.0003 6 = 0.042 N/m 561 = Problem 1 - 24 An atomizer forms water droplets 45 xm in diameter. Determine the excess Pressure within these droplets using ¢ = 0.0712 N/m. Solution _ 46 ane _ 4(0.0712) Faig? 70329 Pa x Problem 1 - 25 Distilled water stands in a glass tube of 9 mm diameter at a height of 24 mm. What is the true static height? Use o = 0.0742 N/m. Solution p= 45¢080 vd where 0 = 0° for Water in glass tube (0.0742) 9810(0.009) h= = 0.00336 m = 3.36 mm True static height = 24 - 3.36 ‘True static height = 20.64 mmProblem 1 - 26 A sonar transmitter operates at 2 impulses per second. If the device is held to the surface of fresh water (Ex = 2.04 x 10° Pa) and the echo is received midway between impulses, how deep is the water? Solution The velocity of the pressure wave (sound wave) is: 9 = 1,428 m/s Since the echo is received midway between impulses, then the total time of travel of sound, = ¥4(0.5) = ¥s sec and the total distance covered is 2h, then; dhe=ct 2h = 1,428(¥4) h=1785m Problem 1 - 27 At what pressure will 80 °C water boil? (Vapor pressure of water at 80°C = 47.4 kPa). Solution Water will boil if the atmospheric pressure equals the vapor pressure. Therefore water at 80 °C will boil at 47.4 kPa.