CHAPTER ONE Properties of Fluids Chapter 1 Properties of Fluids FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS Fluid Mechanics is a physical science dealing with the action of fluids at rest or in motion, and with applications and devices in engineering using fluids. Fluid mechanics can be subdivided into two major areas, fluid statics, which deals with fluids at rest, and fluid dynamics, concerned with fluids in motion. The term hydrodynamics is applied to the flow of liquids or to low-velocity gas flows where the gas can be considered as being essentially incompressible Hydraulics deals with the application of fluid mechanics to engineering devices involving liquids, usually water or oil. Hydraulics deals with such problems as the flow of fluids through pipes or in open channels, the design of storage dams, pumps, and water turbines, and with other devices for the control or use of liquids, such as nozzles, valves, jets, and flowmeters. TYPES OF FLUID Fluids are generally divided into two categories: ideal fluids and real fluids. Ideal fluids « Assumed to have no viscosity (and hence, no resistance to shear) « Incompressible « Have uniform velocity when flowing * No friction between moving layers of fluid * No eddy currents or turbulence Real fluids « Exhibit infinite viscosities » Non-uniform velocity distribution when flowing + Compressible + Experience friction and turbulence in flow2 CAPTER ONE Properties of Fluids Real fluids are further divided into Newtonian fluids and non-Newtonian fluids. Most fluid problems assume real fluids with Newtonian characteristics for convenience. This assumption is appropriate for water, air, gases, steam, and other simple fluids like alcohol, gasoline, acid solutions, etc. However, slurries, pastes, gels, suspensions may not behave according to simple fluid relationships. Newtonian Fluids Non-Newtonian Fluids Pseudoplastic Fluids } ‘Delatant Fluids } ham Fluids } Figure 1 - 1: Types of fluid MASS DENSITY, p (RHO) The density of a fluid is its mass per unit of volume. English : slugs/ft® Note: psugs = Prim/& Metric: gram/cm> si 2 kg/m* For an ideal gas, its density can be found from the specific gas constant and ideal gas law: :CHAPTER ONE Properties of Fluids where: _p = absolute pressure of gas in Pa R= gas constant Joule / kg-°K For air: R= 287 J/kg - °K R=1/716 Ib-ft/slug-°R T = absolute temperature in °Kelvin °K=°C +273 °R=°F +460 Table 1 = 1: Approximate Room-Temperature Densities of Common Fluids SPECIFIC VOLUME, V, Specific volume, V,, is the volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid UNIT WEIGHT OR SPECIFIC WEIGHT, 7 Specific weight or unit weight, y, is the weight ofa unit volume ofa fluid,4 CHAPTER ONE Properties of Fluids Units: English : lb/ft Metric : dyne/cm? SI : N/m$or kN/m? SPECIFIC GRAVITY Specific gravity, s, is a dimensionless ratio of a fluid’s density to some standard reference density. For liquids and solids, the reference density is water at 4°C (89.2°F). [esraisiies For water at 4°C: 1 = 624 lb/ft} = 9.81 kN/m! p= 1.94 slugs/ff® = 1000 kg/m? s=10 VISCOSITY, »: (MU) The property of a fluid which determines the amount of its resistance to shearing forces. A perfect fluid would have no viscosity. Consider two large, parallel plates at a small distance y apart, the space between them being filled with a fluid. Consider the upper plate to be subject toa force F so as to move with a constant velocity U. The fluid in contact with the upper plate will adhere to Area =ACHAPTER ONE 5 Properties of Fluids it and will move with the same velocity U while the fluid in contact with the fixed plate will have a zero velocity. For small values of U and y, the velocity gradient can be assumed to be a straight line and F varies as A, U and y as: AU FLU Fe or — xe — yo Avy f put Y= 8 (om the figure) yo dy Eo F a = Shearing stress, t adv av Te —— ort =k=— ai dy where the constant of proportionality k is called the dynamic of absolute viscosity denoted as y. where: += shear stress in Ib/ft? or Pa 1. = absolute viscosity in Ib sec/ ft? (poises) or Pa-sec. * y= distance between the plates in ft or m U = velocity in ft/s or m/s KINEMATIC VISCOSITY v (NU) Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity of the fluid, yu, to its mass density, p. # = absolute viscosity in Pa-sec. p = density in kg/m’.ga ebeteaeee cy d CHAPTER ONE Has gaia Properties of Fluids : Table 4 - 2: Common Units of Viscosity Tb-sec/ft2 (slug/ft-sec) dyne-s/cm2 cm/s (poise) (stoke) Pas m/s (-s/m) ft/sec Note: 1 poise = 0.1 Pa-sec 1 stoke = 0.0001 m?/s SURFACE TENSION o (SIGMA) ‘The membrane of “skin” that seems to form on the free surface of a fluid is due to the intermolecular cohesive forces, and is known as surface tension. Surface tension is the reason that insects are able to sit on water and a needle is able to float on it. Surface tension also causes bubbles and droplets to take on a spherical shape, since’ any other shape would have more surface area per unit volume. Pressure inside a Droplet of Liquid: surface tension in N/m diameter of the droplet in m p= gage pressure in PaCHAPTER ONE 7 Properties of Fluids Capillarity (2) Adhesion > cohesion (b) Cohesion > adhesion Capillarity (Capillary action) is the name given to the behavior of the liquid in a thin-bore tube. The rise or fall or a fluid in a capillary tube is caused by surface tension and depends on the relative magnitudes of the cohesion of the liquid and the adhesion of the liquid to the walls of the containing vessel. Liquids rise in tubes they wet (adhesion > cohesion) and fall in tubes they do not wet (cohesion > adhesion). Capillary is important when using tubes smaller than about 3/8 inch (9.5 mr) in diameter. For complete wetting, as with water on clean glass, the angle 0 is 0°. Hence the formula becomes where: h = capillary rise or depression in m = unit weight in N/m? d = diameter of the tube in m o = surface tension in PaCOMPRESSIBILITY, B Compressibility (also known as the coefficient of compressibility) is the fractional change in the volume of a fluid per unit change in pressure in a constant- temperature process, AV = change in volume V = original volume Ap = change in pressure dV/V = change in volume (usually in percent)CHAPTERONE & HYDRAULICS Properties of Fluids BULK MODULUS OF ELASTICITY, Es The bulk modulus of elasticity of the fluid expresses the compressibility of the fluid. It is the ratio of the change in uriit pressure to the corresponding volume change per unit of volume. PRESSURE DISTURBANCES Pressure disturbances imposed on a fluid move in waves. The velocity or celerity of pressure wave (also known as acoustical or sonic velocity) is expressed as: PROPERTY CHANGES IN IDEAL GAS For any ideal gas experiencing any process, the equation of state is given by: Eeseseseestitisinssttpesse: (Charle‘s Law)10 CHAPTER ONE Properties of Fluids where: p2= final absolute pressure of gas Vj = initial volume of gas Tz = final absolute temperature of gas in °K k = ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure to the specific heat at constant volume. Also known as adiabatic exponent. VAPOR PRESSURE Molecular activity in a liquid will allow some of the molecules to escape the liquid surface. Molecules of the vapor also condense back into the liquid. The vaporization and condensation at constant temperature are equilibrium processes. The equilibrium pressure exerted by these free molecules is known as the vapor pressure or saturation pressure. Some liquids, such as propane, butane, ammonia, and Freon, have significant vapor pressure at normal temperatures. Liquids near their boiling point or that vaporizes easily are said to volatile liquids. Other liquids such as mercury, have insignificant vapor pressures at the same temperature. Liquids with low vapor pressure aré used in accurate barometers. The tendency toward vaporization is dependent on the temperature of the liquid. Boiling occurs when the liquid temperature is increased to the point that the vapor pressure is equal to the local ambient (surrounding) pressure. Thus, a liquid’s boiling temperature depends on the local ambient pressure, as well as the liquid’s tendency to vaporize.CHAPTER ONE 1 1 Properties of Fluids Table 1 - 4: Typical Vapor Pressures Problem 1-1 A reservoir of glycerin has a mass of 1,200 kg and a volume of 0.952 cu. m,. Find its (a) weight, W (b) unit weight, 7, (c) mass density, p, and (d) specific gravity (s). Solution (2) Weight, W=Mg = (1,200)(9.81) Weight, W = 11,772 N or 11.772 kN () Unit weight, y= a _17 0.952 Unit weight, 7 = 12.366 kN/m? © Density, p= , 1200 Density. P= S950 Density, p = 1,260.5 kg/m?