1

Romy Liwagon
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Table of Contents
UNIT 1: The Nature of Statistics ..............................................................2
Steps in Statistical Inquiry ...................................................................5
Two Divisions of Statistics ....................................................................5
Brief Historical Development of Statistics ........................................5
Uses of Statistics ...................................................................................6
Population and Sample .................................................................. 10
Classification of variables ............................................................... 11
Classification of Data ...................................................................... 11
Levels of Measurements .................................................................. 12
UNIT 2: Data Collection and Sampling Techniques ....................... 19
Methods of Data Collection........................................................... 22
Sampling Techniques ....................................................................... 24
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UNIT 1: The Nature of Statistics

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
• Differentiate and identify the following:
- Descriptive from Inferential Statistics
- Samples from Population
- Quantitative from Qualitative Data
• Enumerate and discuss the following:
-Different uses of statistics
- Levels of Measurement
• Summarize the historical development of Statistics.
• Illustrate examples with respect to the uses of statistics.

Pretest
Directions: Encircle the letter of your answer.
1. Define Statistics
a. Analyzing b. Science of Data
c. Collection d. Science of Collecting , organizing,
analyzing , interpreting Data
2. A science of collection, presentation of data.
a. Population b. Statistics
c. Analysis of Data
3. Descriptive Statistics is useful for
a. comparing the statistical events
b. comparing two different samples
c. describing the quantitative characteristics of variables
4. Inferential Statistics is useful for
a. describing the quantitative characteristics of variables
b. comparing the quantitative nature between two
different samples
5. "The researcher is collecting the data based on his
questionnaire". The data refers to
a. Primary Data b. Secondary Data
6. "The researcher is using data from a ready-made questionnaire".
The data refers to
a. Primary Data b. Secondary Data
7. "Assuming that there are 10,000 students at KPTM campuses".
That refers to
a. Sample b. Population
8. A ___ is a small portion of the population used to gather data
from.
a. Systematic Sampling Method b. Sample
c. Population d. Bias
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9. Ahmad surveyed the 9 youngest students in the elementary

school. Is this sample of the students in the school likely to be
representative of the population?
a. yes b. no
10. How old are you?
a. Categorical b. Numerical
11.In which month were you born?
a. Categorical b. Numerical
12. What is your favorite subject in school?
a. Categorical b. Numerical
13. Define NUMERICAL DATA
a. Data that are numbers
b. Numerical data that take any value in a given range
c. Numerical data that take on a limited number of values
d. Categorical data that has no order
14. The number of orange Skittles in a bag.
a. Discrete b. Continuous
15. Which one of the following is discrete data?
a. Sam is 160 cm tall
b. Sam weighs 60 kg
c. Sam ran 100 meters in 10.2 seconds
d. Sam has two brothers and one sister
16. Study the following situations. Identify the phrase which
represents the sample and which phrase shows the population
respectively. Mrs Jara wants to know the nutritional status of first
year students in her school so she got 150 first year students to
represent the year level.
a. (Sample: first year students) (Population: 150 first year
students )
b. (Sample : 150 first year students)
c. (Population : first year students )
17. The school guidance counselor would like to know the course
preference of the graduating students in their school so she
interviewed 100 of the fourth year students.
a. (Sample : graduating students) (Population : 100 fourth
year students)
b. (Sample : 100 fourth year students) (Population:
Graduating students)
18. A method to collect data where EVERY person is counted.
a. Sample Survey b. Census c. Population
19. Which of the following is true regarding secondary source of
data???
a. It provides first hand information
b. it implies collection of data from its original source
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c. collection of data from sources who already collected

the data
d. can rely on this data as compare to primary data

20. The method of generalizing data collected from a few units

out of the entire population is called...
a. answer choices b. sample method
c. census method d. median
e. probability
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Statistics
It is a branch of mathematics that deals with the collection,
organization, analysis and interpretation of quantitative data and
such problems as experiment design and decision-making.

Steps in Statistical Inquiry

Statistics involves the following processes
1. Collection of data. This is the process of gathering information
through direct or interview, indirect or questionnaire,
observation, registration, and experiment method.
2. Tabulation or presentati0n of data. This is a process of
organizing data into texts, tables, charts or graphs.

3. Analysis of data. This involves the process of extracting

relevant information from the organized collected data.
Statistical techniques are needed in this process.
4. Interpretation of data. This is the process of drawing
conclusions from the analyzed data. It involves the
formulation of conclusion about a large group based on the
gathered data from a small group.

Two Divisions of Statistics

1. Descriptive Statistics
It is concerned with summarizing and describing important
features or numerical without attempting to infer. This
method can either be graphical or computational. Topics
included in this study are measures of central tendency,
variability of scores, skewness and kurtosis.

2. Inferential Statistics
This demands a higher order of critical judgment and
mathematical methods. It aims to give information about a
large group of data without dealing with each and every
element of these groups. Testing of hypothesis, using t-test,
t-test, simple linear correlation, analysis of variance, the chi-
square test, regression analysis and time series analysis are
included in this study.

Brief Historical Development of Statistics

Statistics as a discipline started with the beginning of man's
existence. In ancient times, it was used to provide information
pertaining to taxes, soldiers, agricultural crops and even to athletic
endeavors. Later, it developed into an inferential science
sometime in the 16th century. As an inferential science, it largely
depended on the theory of probability. Then it continued to
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develop as a result of the diligent research made by people in

various fields during the past 400 years.
Statistics also developed as a science partly due to man's
propensity for gambling. This then led to the early development of
the probability theory. During this time, the gamblers asked
assistance from mathematicians to provide them optimum
techniques for various games of chance for the purpose of having
more wins. These requests were considered by some
mathematicians like Pascal, Leibneitz, Fermat, and James
Bernoulli.
After this event, De Moivre (1733) discovered the equation
for the normal distribution which many of the theories of inferential
statistics have been based. This bell-shaped distribution was
referred to as the Gaussian distribution for a study of errors f
repeated measurements of the same quantity. It was during this
time that the work of Laplace gained popularity for it was about
the application of statistics to astronomy.
Another statistician was Adolph Quetelet (1796-1874), a
Belgian by origin. He made applications of statistics in the field of
psychology and education. For this feat ne was considered the
first statistician to demonstrate that statistical techniques derived
from one area of research could be applied to other areas
Perhaps you will appreciate Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911) for
being the greatest contributor of statistics to the social sciences.
His most notable contribution was the application of statistics to
heredity and eugenics and his discoveries of percentiles. Along
with Galton was Karl Pearson (1857-1936) who worked with him to
develop the theory of regression and correlation. Pearson was
responsible for evolving the present theories of sampling
Finally, it is worthwhile to know that at the beginning of the
20th century, Willham 5. Gosset developed methods for decision-
making derived from smaller sets of data. While he was working in
an Irish brewery, he made a study and then published its results
under the name "student." He did this to disguise his real name
because the brewery company prohibited research since the
results might prove useful to its competitors. This idea was
continued by Sir Ronald Fisher (1890-1962) who developed
statistics for experimental designs.

Uses of Statistics
1. It aids in decision-making
- provides comparison
- explains action that have taken place
- justifies a claim or assertion
- predicts future outcome
- estimates unknown quantities
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2. It summarizes data for public use

3. It can give a precise description of data
This enables us to make accurate statement or judgments
about averages, variability, and relationship.

Example: When we describe the academic performance of a

group of students in Statistics according to the computed mean,
standard deviation, and correlation with another factor.

4. It can predict the behavior of an individual

Through the results of a psychological test, this becomes an
indicator of the behavior of an individual

In Psychology, psychologists are able to understand better

the human person they are able to systematize, analyze,
and interpret data on intelligent scores, aptitudes,
personality trait rating. and attitudes. Experimental
Psychology involves application of laboratory techniques to
investigations of mind and behavior, including such subjects
as perception, memory, thinking, learning, and problem
solving. Experimental Psychology as a detained field of
science began with the German physicist Gustav Theodor
Fechner, whose Elements of Psychophysics (1860)
presented experimental evidence for relating magnitudes
of sensation.

Examples:

• In school, the grades of students can be predicted

through a scholastic aptitude test.
• In industry, the work performance is usually predicted by
an aptitude test related to that particular type of work.
• A teacher's performance may also be predicted by his
performance in an instrument like a teacher aptitude
test.
• To measure the success of a student, teacher, or a
worker, we nay nave to compute measures like mean,
standard scores, percentiles, and other statistical
methods.

5. It can be used to test hypothesis

We can determine whether a variable is related or not to another

variable through a test of inference such as correlation, t-test, chi-
square test, ANOVA, and others. This includes the scale of
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measurement and its distribution whether normally distributed or

not.

6. It is an essential tool in education, government, office of justice

programs, business and economics, medicine, experimental
psychology, sociology, sports, actuarial work, criminology,
employment figure, heredity, insurance, poverty, public opinion
polling, and census.

• In education, statistical tools are used to gather information

or data on enrollment, finance, personnel and faculty
status, physical facilities, and so on which are needed for
intelligent administration and management.

• In government, statistics are gathered to guide public

officials in managing the affairs of the state. It will help them
ascertain the manpower and material strength of a nation.
Data on movement of population, cost of living taxes,
wages, and material resources are necessary for intelligent
policy-making and administration.

• Office of Justice Programs offers information about its

organization and services. It provides technical and
financial aid to state and local government to fight crime.

• In business and economics, statistics plays a vital role in the

exploration of new markets for a product, forecasting of
business trends, control on the quality of goods produced,
and improvement of services and personnel relations.
Decisions and policies for efficient business and economic
management must be based on data, which have been
properly analyzed and interpreted.

• Conference Board, non-profit research institution, formerly

the National Industrial Conference Board, founded in 1916.

• The board studies business economics and administration

and management practices, as applicable to corporate
financial administration, personnel, marketing, international
operations, and public affairs. Findings are published in
periodic research reports, the news media, and a monthly
magazine.
• In medicine, methods for the statistical design of
experiments are valuable to researchers in medicine and
the physical sciences. Causes and effects of factors which
affect experiments are best evaluated using statistical
techniques.
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• In sociology, statistics is used in the scientific study of human

social relations or group lite. Observations, when properly
analyzed and interpreted, may affect action toward the
improvement of society. Sociologists examine the ways in
which social structures and institutions such as class, family,
community, power and social problems such as crime and
abuse influence society.
• In sports, one of the most common exposures of the youth
today to Statistics is ln the existing world of sports - in
basketball. After each quarter or the game, a newscaster
would report numerical figures and their averages to
basketball fans watching the game in television or over the
radio. These figures normally consist of points made out of
so many attempts from the field or the foul line. These figures
would help them decide whether a player deserves to be
paid more than what he deserves.
• Baseball Statistics numerical information about the
performance of baseball players and teams. It focused on
the offensive, defensive, and pitching performances of
players, making it possible to compare the contributions of
players on different teams and to assess their part in the
team s success or failure.
• In some countries, Instead of a special survey,
unemployment estimates are developed from data on the
number of people who are looking for work through the
public employment offices or the number receiving
unemployment compensation payments.
• Economists have described the causes of unemployment
as frictional, seasonal structural, and cyclic.
• Political scientists who favor quantitative research most
often use statistical methods such as opinion surveys and
aggregate-level analysis in which administrative entities
such as electoral districts, states, or countries compose the
units of analysis. Such analysis can be used to test very
broad theories. For example, the relationship between a
country's level of prosperity and how democratic its
government is.

• Criticisms of public opinion research come from a variety of

sources. Many people simply are not convinced that the
opinions of a small sample of the population ae a viable
representation of the opinions of the whole. On this matter,
however, the polling agencies can point to the science of
statistics and also to decades of experience from which it
can be shown, for example, that the same question asked
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on two different sample surveys at the same time will almost

always generate similar results.
• Scientists use mathematics to analyze the data and help
them interpret their results. The types of mathematics used
include statistics, which is the analysis of numerical data,
and probability, which calculates the likelihood that any
particular event will occur.

Population and Sample

Population
- It is the complete set of individuals, objects, places, events,
and reactions having some characteristics in common.
- In Statistical investigation it is defined by naming 1ts unique
properties.
- It consists of numerical values associated with objects or
individuals.

Examples: Ages of graduating students, 1Q scores of

employees, Number of houses, Salaries of private
employees in a certain company

A sample
• It is a representative cross-section of elements drawn from a
population.

Parameters vs. Statistics

• Parameter is defined as a numerical characteristic of the
population.
• Statistics is defined as numerical characteristic of the
sample

Example:
ldentify the parameter and the statistic in the given
situation below:
In order to estimate the true proportion of employees
of E & A Marketing who smoke cigarettes, the
research department polled a sample of 300
employees and determined that the proportion of
employees from the sample who smoke cigarettes is
15%.
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Variable is defined as a characteristic or attribute of persons

or objects, which can assume different values tor different
persons or objects.

Classification of variables

1. According to Functional Relationship

a. Independent Variable. This is called as the predictor
variable.
b. Dependent Variable. This is called as the criterion
variable.

Example: The Academic performance of students is

dependent on the IQ and attitude of students
towards Statistics.

2. According to Continuity of Values

a. Continuous Variables. These are variables that can take
the form of decimals.

Examples:
Prices of commodities, weight, average grades in
school, height, and so on

b. Discrete or Discontinuous Variables. These are variables

that cannot take the form of decimals.

Examples:
Number of students, number of houses, size of a family

Classification of Data

1. Qualitative Data are categorical data taking the form of

attributes or Categories. They have labels or names assigned
to their respective categories.

Examples:
Judicial Cases Handled − criminal civil, appealed
Sex − male, female
Type of Lawyer − prosecutor, private
practice, pao
Year Level −1st year, 2nd year, 3rd
year, 4th year, 5th year
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Religion −Roman Catholic, Iglesia

Ni Cristo, Born Again, 7th
Day Adventist
Employment Status −Regular, Probationary,
Part-time
Course −BSCrim, BSEd, BSN, BSME,
BSBA, BSIT, and so on

2. Quantitative Data/Numerical Data are data that consist of

numbers obtained from counts or measurements like weights,
heights, ages, temperatures, scores, IQ, prices of
commodities, tuition fees of students, and other measurable
quantities.

Examples:
weight −100 lbs, 215 kg, 770 mg
height −34 in., 5 cm, 5 ft. 6 in.,
ages −y/o, 21 y/o, 40 y/o,
Temperature −100℃, 32℃, 0 ℃
Scores −45, 35, 98, 50, 68, out of 100 items
IQ −75, 90, 110,
Levels of Measurements
Qualitative data may be converted to quantitative data by
a process called measurements. By measurements, numbers are
used to code objects or items so that they can be treated
statistically
Measurement refers to the process of determining the value
or label, either qualitative or quantitative, of a particular variable
for a particular unit of analysis.

1. Nominal Scale
- When numerical values or symbols are used to classify an
object, person, or characteristics to identity groups to which
various objects, persons, or characteristics belong They are
used merely for classification or identification purposes.
- This is characterized by data that consists of names, labels,
or categories only The data cannot be arranged in an
ordering scheme.

Examples:
Nominal variables:
a. Civil status, gender, nationality, color of the skin
religion
b. Assigning numbers of vehicles, houses, rooms,
players
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c. 5 books, 10 dropouts, 15 males, and so on

d. Type of Court
- Supreme Court
- Court of Appeals
- Sandigan bayan
- Court of Tax Appeals
- Regional Trial Courts
- Metropolitan Trial Courts
- Municipal Trial Courts
- Municipal Circuit Trial Court
e. Quasi-Judicial Cases Handled
- Administrative
- Prosecution
- Labor
- Appealed

2. Ordinal Scale
This is a level of measurement which contains the properties
or the nominal level, but also gives arrangement of members of
particular grouped m order, rank ordered in some low-to-high
manner. Inequalities of properties between data values cannot
be determined.

Examples: Higher than, more difficult than, ranks given to the

winners in a quiz bee contest, beauty contest, essay
writing contest, and others.

Good, better or best teacher, rank of teachers based

on performance rating
Socioeconomic Classification Educational Attainment
- AB - Illiterate
-C - Elementary Level
-D - Elementary Graduate
-E - High School Level
- High School Graduate
- College Level
- College Graduate

Types of questions given in a quiz bee contest

- Easy
- Average
- Difficult
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Beauty Contest
- Winner (Ex. Miss CCT 2007)
- 1st runner up
- 2nd runner up
- 3rd runner up

3. Interval Scale
- Contains the properties of the ordinal level but the distances
between any two numbers on the scale are of known sizes.
- Characterized by a common and constant unit of
measurement.
- Units of measurement are arbitrary.
- The number zero does not imply the absence of the
characteristic under consideration (thus, the zero point is
arbitrary

Examples
Temperature in degrees (Celsius/Fahrenheit)
Intelligence Quotient (75, 100, 120, 150, and so on)

4. Ratio Scale
- Contains the properties of the interval level but it has a true
zero point, that is, the number zero indicates the absence
of the characteristic under consideration.
- This refers to a property defined by an operation which
permits making of statements of equality of ratios in addition
to statements of sameness of differences, greater than or
less than, and equality or inequality of differences.
- Strongest level of measurement

Examples:
height n meters, feet
weight in kilograms, pounds
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Reflection Corner

3. Things I learned
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________.

2. Things I will do to apply the lesson

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________.

1. Question I have about the lesson

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________.
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Learning Activity 1

A. Differentiate each of the following:

1. Descriptive from Inferential Statistics

2. Samples from Population

3. Quantitative from Qualitative

B. Identify whether the following is

a. Descriptive or Inferential Statistics

___________1. The ranks of contestants in the search for Ms.

Philippines.
___________2. The honor students were ranked according to
their average grade in school.
___________3. Finding the average grade of 50 students in
Statistics.
___________4. The ratio of male to female who passed the
Licensure Examination for Teachers.
___________5. A professor in Mathematics employs three
different strategies or methods of teaching in
Statistics to his three groups of students. Using
the result of the study, he determines which
technique is more effective.
___________6. The property custodian makes an inventory of
the cabinet each chairs, tables, blackboards,
and electric fans of classroom.
___________7. The sales supervisor makes a comparison
between morning and afternoon sales,
factory sales, and outlet sales.
___________8. The chairman of the board of judges
summarizes the points of all judges to
determine the top three winners.
___________9. The sports newscaster getting the percentage
of ball conversions in 3-point shooting and
1nside perimeter shooting.
___________10. A planning officer forecasting the future sales
of the product.
___________11. A teacher arranges the scores obtained by his
students in a test to determine the median.
___________12. A researcher analyzes from the survey results
the best that correlates to job satisfaction, high
salary, work environment, or future
advancement.
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___________13. A guidance counselor getting a survey of the

parents perceptions on the sexual harassment
laws.
___________14. A store owner finds out from his daily sales that
80% of sales are from soft drinks.
___________15. A medical researcher studies the effectiveness
of a new medicine in patients with heart
disease.

b. Quantitative or Qualitative Data

___________1. Equivalent value of 10°C to °F

___________2. Nationality
___________3. Size of shoes
___________4. Average grade in Statistics
___________5. Rank of honor students
___________6. Weight in Pounds
___________7. Scores in periodic examination
___________8. Daily expenses in school
___________9. Salaries of employees
___________10. Employment status
___________11. IQ of an individual
___________12. Net weight content of a commodity
___________13. Type of Case (Civil, Criminal, Cadastral
Proceeding, Special Proceeding, others)
___________14. Size of a family
___________15. Court employee number

Learning Activity 2
A. Enumerate and discuss the following:
a. Different uses of statistics

b. Levels of Measurement

B. Identify the levels of measurement of each of the following:

___________1. Type of Case (Civil, Criminal, Cadastral

Proceeding, Special Proceeding, others)
___________2. Years in Service as a lawyer in the Philippine
Judicial System
___________3. Number of Cases handled in the Supreme Court
___________4. Court Personnel are Competent (strongly agree,
agree, neither agree or disagree, disagree,
strongly disagree)
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___________5. Status of Case (Resolved, Dismissed, Affirmed,

Modified, Reversed, on-going, on appeal,
pending decision)
___________6. Design and layout of courtroom (poor, fair, good,
very good, excellent)
___________7. Court Hearings Start on Time (all the time, most of
the time, sometimes, seldom, never)
___________8. Number of minutes to wait for a hearing to start
___________9. Number of Dismissed Cases
___________10. Court employee number
___________11. Game scores
___________12. Area of a stadium
___________13. Number of musical instruments
___________14. Employment status
___________15. Nationality

Learning Activity 3
Direction: Make a vlog for each of the following.

A. Summary discussion about the historical developments of

statistics.

B. Example/s that illustrates each of the uses of statistics.

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UNIT 2: Data Collection and Sampling Techniques

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
• Identify the type of data collection method to be used in
different studies/researches.
• Apply the appropriate sampling technique during data
collection

Pretest
Directions: Encircle the letter of your answer.
1. Determining Sampling Methods
To study the migratory behavior of turtles, biologists randomly tag
120 turtles in Redang Island.
a. Systematic b. Simple Random
c. Convenience d. Cluster
2. Mariyam wanted to know students' opinion on the new
schedule at school. She places students' names in a container
and randomly picks out 20 names.
a. Convenience Sampling
b. Systematic Random Sampling
c. Simple Random Sampling (SRS)
3. A teacher wants to know the average time spent doing
homework by the students in her class of 20 girls and 5 boys. She
selects the five closest to her desk.
a. simple random b. Self Selected
c. Convenience d. Systematic Random
4. Q. Interview the first 30 students who enter the school in the
morning.
a. simple random b. voluntary response
c. systematic d. convenience
5. Why do we randomly select our samples?
a. for control
b. reduce bias
c. so we don't get the same answers from everyone
d. to eliminate confounding results
6. Each student at a school has a student identification number.
Counselors have a computer generate 50 random identification
numbers and those students are asked to take a survey
a. Simple Random Sampling
b. Stratified Random Sampling
c. Cluster Random Sampling
d. Systematic Random Sampling
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7. The principal of a high school wants to know if male students or

female students are late to school more often. He separates the
students by gender, then randomly chooses a group of 30 male
students, then a group of 30 female students. This is an example of
a. random sampling
b. Stratified sampling
c. Cluster random sampling
d. systematic sampling
8. Mr. Aziz samples his class by selecting 5 girls and 7 boys. This type
of sampling is called?
a. Stratified b. Systematic
c. Simple d. Cluster
9. Mr. Ahmad samples his class by selecting every third person on
her class list. Which type of sampling method is this?
a. Simple b. Systematic
c. Stratified d. Cluster
10. Farmer Joe separates his apple tree farm into 10 regions. He
counts the number of apples produced in just one of the regions
and uses that estimate to predict the number of apples produced
on the whole farm. This is _______ sampling.
a. Simple b. Cluster
c. Stratified d. Systematic
11. In order to use samples to estimate something from the
population, the sample should be _________________ the
population.
a. exactly the same as b. nothing like
c. representative of d. larger than
12. To find out what the preferred ice cream flavor is, wait outside
an ice cream parlor and ask every 4th person leaving the store to
name his or her favorite flavor until you get 25 responses is an
example of...
a. Convenience Sample b. Simple Random Sample
c. Stratified Random Sample d. Systematic Sample
13. The school librarian wants to determine how many students use
the library on a regular basis. What type of sampling method
would she use if she chose to select every 3rd student who enters
the library on Tuesday.
a. Convenience Sample only b. Simple Random Sample
c. Stratified Random Sample d. Systematic Sample
14. Units of the population are ordered in some fashion. Usually,
every k-th unit is chosen.
a. proportional b. probable
c. stratified d. systematic
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15. If every individual in a population has the same chance of

being included in a sample, the sample is a(n) _________ sample.
a. Biased Sample b. Systematic Sample
c. Random Sample d. Stratified Sample
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Data Collection
- It refers to the process of obtaining numerical
measurements.

Methods of Data Collection:

1. The Direct Method
- This method is often referred to as interview method.
- This is a face-to-face encounter between the interviewer
and the interviewee.

Advantages:
- It provides consistent and precise information.
- Questions may be repeated or modified to suit to each
interviewee S level of understanding.

Disadvantages:
- The-consuming, expensive, and has a limited field
coverage.

2. The Indirect Method

- This is popularly known as the questionnaire method.

- This method is done by giving prepared relevant
questionnaires to the respondents of the study from which
one would like to get the needed information.

Questionnaire
- It is a list of questions, which are intended to elicit answers
to the problems under investigation.

Advantages
- Questionnaires may be mailed or hand-held.
- It is inexpensive and can cover a wide area in a shorter
period of time.

Disadvantages:
- There is a strong probability of no response, especially it
questionnaires are mailed.
- Questions not easily understood will also probably not be
answered.

3. The Registration Method

- It is a method of utilizing the existing data or fact or

information, which is kept systematized by the office
concerned such as registration of births, death, motor
 23

vehicles, and marriages and licenses because these are

being enforced by certain laws.

4. The Observation Method

- This method is used to collect data pertaining attitudes,
behavior, values, and cultural patterns of the samples under
investigation. Subjects may be taken individually or
collectively. It is usually used when the subjects cannot talk.
This can be done directly or indirectly.

5. The Experiment Method

- This method is used it the researcher would like to determine
the cause and effect relationship of certain phenomena
under investigation.

- This is used in making scientific inquiry.

Sampling
It is the process, technique, or act of selecting a representative
part or suitable sample of a population for the intention of
determining parameters or characteristics of the whole
population.
There are six main reasons for sampling instead of doing a census:

1. Economy - A sample requires fewer resources than a census.

Seldom does a circumstance require a census of the
population, and even more rarely is the expense justified

2. Timeliness - A sample may provide needed information

quickly to remedy a situation. The results may be too late to
save a situation if a census is conducted.

3. Size of many populations The size of the population could

make it physically impossible to conduct a census. In such a
case, selecting a representative sample may be the only way
to get the information required.

4. Inaccessibility of some of the population-A particular study

population may be so costly to reach or a population of
some events may be taking too long to occur and may not
occur again. In such a case, only sample information can be
relied on.
5. Destructiveness of the observation The very act of observing
the desired characteristic of a unit of the population might
destroys it for the intended use. . In this case, only a sample
should be used.
 24

6. Accuracy- A sample may be more accurate than a census.

A sloppily conducted census can provide less reliable
information than a carefully obtained sample.

Sampling Techniques
There are basically two sampling procedures: non-
probability sampling and probability sampling

• Non Probability Sampling is a procedure of sampling

wherein some elements of the population have no
possibility of being drawn into the sample.

Some Non-Probability Sampling Technique

Non-Probability Sampling Procedures
Technique
Purposive Select a sample that agrees with the
profile of the population characteristic.
Judgement/ Authoritative Select a sample on the basis on the
knowledge professional opinion, view,
feeling, thoughts, belief or assessment of
the person or people taking the sample.
Essentially, this sampling technique is
Purposive sampling.
Quota Select a specified number of units from
the population that is first classified into
homogeneous strata and then
judgment is used to select the subjects
or units from each stratum based on a
specified proportion. This sampling
technique is essentially judgment
sampling, the second step makes the
technique one of non-probability
sampling.
Convenience Sometimes called accidental, grab or
opportunity sampling. Use results that
are readily available. Results in some
cases may be quite good but may be
seriously biased in other cases. The result
will be clearly biased and not
representative of the population.
Snowball or chain Select a sample where existing study
subjects are used to recruit more
subjects into the sample. That is, get
hold of one study subject and he/she
will tell you where the "others" are or can
be found. When those "others" are
found, they will tell where more "others
are and the chain continues.
 25

In non -probability Sampling, most samples gathered may

be seriously Dias, thus the sample acquired is not representative of
the population. The main objective of most statistical studies,
analyses, investigations researches, explorations, researches, or
surveys, is to make reliable and sensible generalizations on the
bases of samples about the population.

The classical procedures of statistical inference rest upon

the sampling scheme in which each and every population
element sampled is independent of every other, and is equally
likely to be included in any sample. Samples may be drawn
according to any other probability structure as long as the
probability of occurrence of any particular sample is known or can
be calculated. The process of drawing samples according to
some known probability structure is called probability sampling.

• Probability sampling is a process of sampling wherein each

element from the population has a known, but not
necessarily equal, chance of being selected.

• Random sampling is a process of sampling wherein

elements from the population are selected in such a way
that each individual element has an equal chance of being
chosen.

There are several types of random samples and specific

statistical techniques applied to sample results depend on the
type of random samples taken.

1. Simple Random sampling of size n elements is a process of

sampling wherein elements from the population are
selected in such a way that every possible sample of the
same size n has an equal chance of being chosen

Ways to Obtain a Simple Random Sample

1. Lottery Method
2. Random Number Table
3. Mathematical algorithms for pseudo random
4. Number generators
5. Physical randomization devises such as coins, playing
Cards, or devises such as ERNIE (Electronic Random
Number Indicating Equipment)
 26

2. Systematic Random sampling is a process of sampling

wherein elements from the population are selected by
selecting some starting point and then selecting every kth
element of the population

Steps in Generating a Systematic Random Sample

1. Number the elements of the population from 1 to N.
2. Determine the sampling interval k, by 𝑘 =𝑁𝑛.

3. Stratified Random sampling is a process of sampling wherein

the population is subdivided into at least two homogeneous
Subgroups (strata) and then draw a sample from each
stratum.

Steps in Generating a Stratified Random Sample of Size n

from a Population of N Elements (Proportional and Optimum
Allocation)
1. Classify the population into homogeneous strata.
2. Draw a sample from each homogeneous stratum.

Proportional Allocation
The sample size 𝑛𝑖 of the 𝑖𝑡ℎ stratum of size 𝑁, from a
𝑁
population of size 𝑁, is 𝑛𝑖 =( 𝑁𝑖)×𝑛
The object of stratification is to eliminate the possibility
of extremely unrepresentative samples-that is, to assign zero
probability to some of the (𝑁𝑛) samples possible in simple
random sampling.

4. Cluster Random sampling is a process of sampling wherein

the population area is subdivided into sections (clusters)
and then choose all the elements from the selected clusters.

The clusters should be defined in such a manner that

each cluster is as nearly as possible an exact likeness of the
population. that Is, the clusters should be nearly alike as
possible, and the elements within clusters should be as
nearly as possible as heterogeneous as in the population.
Cluster random sampling Is used whenever the population
is widely dispersed geographically. This method results in the
concentration of the sampling process in relatively few
geographic areas. This sampling process Is used very
extensively in sample Surveys Dy government agencies and
private research organizations when the clusters are
provinces, municipalities, barangay s, etc.
 27

Steps in Generating a Cluster Random Sample

1. Partition the population into clusters
2. Select at random one or several clusters.

Comparison of Probability and Non-Probability Sampling

Technique

Probability Sampling Non Probability Sampling

1. Provides ability to 1. Less expensive than
calculate uncertainty probability sampling
associated with estimates. techniques.
Advantages

2. Provides reproducible 2. Can be very efficient with

results within uncertainty knowledge of the
limits. population.
3. Provides ability to make 3. Easy to implement.
statistical inferences.
4. Can handle decision error
criteria.
1. Random locations may be 1. Depends upon expert
Disadvantages

difficult to locate. knowledge.

2. Optimal design depends 2. Cannot reliably evaluate
on an accurate conceptual precision of estimates.
model. 3. Depends on personal
judgment to interpret data
relative to study objectives.
 28

Reflection Corner
3. Things I learned
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________.

2. Things I will do to apply the lesson

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________.

1. Question I have about the lesson

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________.
 29

Learning Activity 1
Direction: Identify what method(s) of data collection is/are
appropriate to be used for the following data.

_____________1. Grades of college students

_____________2. Average number of cars that would pass by a
certain point in every hour
_____________3. Personal profile of faculty members in Cagayan
Colleges Tuguegarao
_____________4. Behavior of high school students
_____________5. Performance of public school teachers
_____________6. Average number of marriages every month
_____________7. The cause and effect of medicine A and B on
the life of patients who took the medicines
_____________8. To know the economic conditions of the
country
_____________9. The National Passing Percentage of the latest
Licensure Exam for Nurses
_____________10. The number of registered educational
organizations in the region

Learning Activity 2
A. Given the following processes, identify the method of
sampling used:
_____________1. Every 3 student is called for recitation.
_____________2. A professor shuffles the students' class cards
then draws 5 of them.
_____________3. All students from each of 12 randomly drawn
classes were selected.
_____________4. 5 men and 5 women were selected from each
of different offices.
_____________5. All residents from Bario Sikap were questioned
to find out their opinion on Charter change.

B. Answer the following:

1. At a private High School, students are classified according to
year level. How large a Year level Number of
sample must be taken Students
from each year level First Year 3400
using proportional Second Year 2100
allocation to select a Third Year 1500
sample size of 200. Fourth Year 720
 30

2. A car rental company wants to estimate the average fuel

used by its fleet of rental cars. There are over 12,000 cars in its
fleet, hence, a sampling plan is needed. After analyzing the
errors Involved in Car Category Number of
sampling, the company Cars
decides on a sample size Large Sized 2,400
of 1,200 cars. Stratification Medium Sized 4,200
on car size is given the Small Sized 2,400
table. How large a Compact 3,000
sample must be taken Sized
from each? TOTAL 12,000

4. List the 4 possible systematic samples of size n = 5 that can be

selected by starting with one of the first four numbers and
taking each 4number from the following list of numbers:
6,7,10,5,5,8,8,3,6,9,5,7,3,12,4,2,5,3,5, and 8.

5. Suppose we wish to sample the opinions of all heads of

families in a city or municipality on some issue and further
suppose that the city or municipality has 10 barangays. It is
difficult to obtain a frame listing of all families within the city
or municipality, but suppose each barangays possesses a list
of families, how could we proceed?

6. How should one proceed in sampling the opinions of heads

of families in a city where for one reason or another, are not
listed on zone rolls?