7TH

INTERNATIONAL
ACADEMIC
CONFERENCE ON
PLACES AND
TECHNOLOGIES

Proceedings

EDITORS
Aleksandra Djukić
Aleksandra Krstić-Furundžić
Eva Vaništa Lazarević
Milena Vukmirović
www.placesandtechnologies.eu
7TH INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC CONFERENCE

KEEPING
UP WITH
TECHNOLOGIES
TO ACT
RESPONSIVELY
IN URBAN
ENVIRONMENT
PLACES AND 7th International Academic
TECHNOLOGIES Conference on Places and Technologies
2020 Proceedings

DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7

EDITORS Aleksandra Djukić

Aleksandra Krstić-Furundžić
Eva Vaništa Lazarević
Milena Vukmirović

PUBLISHER University of Belgrade

Faculty of Architecture

FOR PUBLISHER Vladan Đokić

DESIGN Vladimir Kovač

Danira Sovilj

TECHNICAL SUPPORT Branislav Antonić

Miloš Tomić

PRINTED BY University of Belgrade

Faculty of Architecture

SUPPORTED BY Ministry of Education, Science and Technological

Development of the Republic of Serbia

PLACE AND YEAR Belgrade 2020

ISBN: 978-86-7924-240-2

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 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

PLACES
AND
TECHNO
LOGIES
2020

2
7TH INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC CONFERENCE

WORD OF THE CONERENCE DIRECTOR

_ Aleksandra Djukić
Associate Professor, Ph.D, Faculty of Architecture,
University of Belgrade Director of the Conference

This Proceedings from the 7th International Conference Places and Technologies: Keeping up with
Technology to act Responsively with Urban Environment, which was held in Belgrade in October
2020, contributes to the discussion about the future of society and places and the role of technol-
ogy in it and discussions with respect to strategy for responsive quality environment. More than 70
papers from 18 countries were presented during the conference. The organizers of the conference
were: University of Belgrade (Faculty of Architecture) and Professional Association Urban Labora-
tory (UrbanLab). The aim of the conference was raising the questions about the future of our cities
and environment, understanding from the critical aspect, the importance and role of technology in
designing creative ideas to improve places. The stated general objectives point to the necessity
of a multidisciplinary approach to this matter and comes under the framework of different disci-
plines: engineering and technical sciences, humanities and social sciences that share the same
visions and goals. However, new urban and building concepts have been created mostly relaying
on ICT. Furthermore, the main focuses of the articles are related to what extent the technologies
could provide responsive development of built environment. In contemporary progressive practice,
urban environments have been designed to act responsively to climate change, energy efficiency,
protection of heritage, identity, and the main goal of successful urban development is to provide
responsive urban plans and urban designs supported with new technologies as the most powerful
tools for their implementations.

The Proceedings is organized into the five parts: responsive urban and territorial planning, respon-
sive urban design, responsive architecture, responsive heritage protection and responsive technol-
ogies in architecture.

The part with the papers debating about responsive urban and territorial planning is dealing with:
shrinking cities; the position of towns in digital construction technology environment; public trans-
port; potential of maker movement on sustainable development; the impact of economic factor on
transforming the urban form; segregated neighbourhoods and their integration attempts; physical
planning information system; relationship between changes in technological cultures and spatial
development of cities; improvement of life quality using nature based solutions and design of cul-
tural trails.

The part dedicated to responsive urban design is dealing with: re-invented water-related spaces in
the built environment; urban form evaluation; shared spaces; the sustainable construction of the
old communities; spaces that stimulate innovation and creativity and provide a sense of communi-
ty; pedestrian mobility and visual integration; street co-design; inspiration and cultivation of ideas
in urban design; identity and resilience of open public spaces; security aspects of urban planning
and design; an urban design technique regarding active aging in outdoor spaces; the challenges of
dockless cycling; the use of digital technologies in creating the places of collective memory; tran-
sitioning the public space; the restorative effects of multi-sensory open space design and urban
living labs for sensitive city.

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 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

The part about responsive architecture has the collection of the papers arguing about: regionalism
and low-tech in contemporary vernacular architecture; temporary accommodation facility for asy-
lum seekers; BIM based project and digital building model management; rethinking a public insti-
tutes of assistance and charity; cultural, methodological and economic aspects of the laboratory;
dwelling with the water; architectural analysis of therapeutic canters for drug addicts; human com-
fort in artificial place; collective housing as new identity in rural areas the architecture-machine
origins and frameworks of machinic line of thinking in architecture and challenges of designing
remote communities.

The fourth part, responsive heritage protection is dealing with: digital design techniques to assist
in the composition of traditional urban buildings; visualization of architectural heritage; systemic
approaches in revitalization of old city heritage site; future development of former fortress; a re-
sponsible approach model for regeneration of spatial identity; heritage perceptions; preserving the
material authenticity; sustainability and resilience in rural areas and revitalisation of the industrial
heritage along waterfront.

The fifth part, responsive technologies in architecture is dedicated to: application of veneer based
panels in exoskeleton architecture; raising climate resilience in buildings; digital planning, con-
struction submission and approval processes; integration of architectural and structural aspects
through the design process; indoor environmental quality; models for contemporary exploitation
of balneological potential; nearly zero energy building co2 emissions; open BIM for citizen en-
gagement in sustainable renovation projects; new technologies of construction on Serbian waters;
evolution of technologies for construction of apartment buildings; origin of citizens and impact on
city; conventional vs prefabricated buildings; computational method to assess the impact of urban
climate on the buildings’ energy performance simulations and algorithm-based BIM model analy-
sis methodology at urban level.

The significance of this conference lies in the pressing need for the integration of smart technol-
ogies and contemporary urban concepts which provide sustainable city development. Different
problems in the domains of urban design and planning, architectural design, building technologies,
urban sociology, ICT, transport and traffic studies, resilience of place, climate change, adaptive re-
use, cities and health, landscape architecture, identity, heritage etc. are presented and discussed in
more than 70 conference papers made by professors, researchers and PhD students from all over
Europe and the world.

We are committed to our initial goal to improve the level of scientific status of Serbia and the region.
Places and Technologies conference become traditional international event gathering researchers
all around the world and has provided an opportunity for them to advance their positions in the ac-
ademic hierarchy, to build their research networks and to develop new scientific projects. Presenta-
tion and the quality of the papers that are results of new studies, debates and research strengthen
our ambition to keep the importance of our conference among many European ones.

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 7TH INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC CONFERENCE

CONTENT
//// COMMITTEES

11 SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE
12 ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
10 TECHNICAL COMMITTEE

//// KEYNOTES

13 THE NEXT GENERATION OF SMART CITIZENS: EXPERIENCES

AND INSPIRATION FROM THE +CITYXCHANGE PROJECT
_ Alenka Temeljotov-Salaj _ Bradley Loewen

23 DESIGN-DRIVEN RESEARCH ON PHOTOVOLTAIC

TECHNOLOGIES – SYSTEM PERFORMANCE AND SOLAR
INTEGRATION IN BUILDINGS, MOBILITY AND OUR ENVIRONMENT
_ Angèle Reinders

24 MAINTENANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS:

TECHNOLOGY AND ITS IMPACT ON CONDOMINIUM LIVING
_ Dr Nir Mualam

25 SPACE AND TECHNIQUE

_ Dražen Juračić _ Jelena Skorup

//// RESPONSIVE URBAN DESIGN [URB]

28 RE-INVENTED WATER-RELATED SPACES IN THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

_ Gábor Heckenast _ Marcel Ferencz Habil _ András Tibor Kertész

35 MASS HOUSING ESTATES IN CSEPEL, BUDAPEST:

URBAN FORM EVALUATION IN RELATION TO SUSTAINABILITY
_ Hlib Antypenko _ Melinda Benko

43 SHARED SPACE IS HUMAN TECHNOLOGY

_ Pieter de Haan

49 THE SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION OF THE OLD COMMUNITY

IN BEIJING NO.72 OF TIANQIAO AS AN EXAMPLE
_ Xue Kang _ Yufang Zhou _ Gabriella Medvegy

57 SPACES THAT STIMULATE INNOVATION AND

CREATIVITY AND PROVIDE A SENSE OF COMMUNITY AND
PLACE – THREE CASE STUDIES FROM ZAGREB
_ Bojan Baletić _ Kristina Careva _ Morana Pap

64 INFLUENCE OF VISUAL INTEGRATION AND PEDESTRIAN

MOBILITY ON EVERYDAY EXPERIENCE OF PUBLIC SPACE
_ Stefan Škorić _ Aleksandra Milinković _ Dijana Brkljač _ Milena Krklješ

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 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

72 THE IMPORTANCE OF YOUNGSTERS’ RESPONSIBLE ACTION IN

THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT: AN EXPERIENCE OF STREET CO-DESIGN
_ Lucia Martincigh _ Marina Di Guida

80 THE CULTIVATION OF IDEAS

_ Aleksandra Djukić _ Admir Islamčević _ Dubravko Aleksić

87 SECURITY ASPECTS OF URBAN PLANNING AND DESIGN: “THE EUROPEAN MODEL”

_ Milos Tomic _ Jovana Dinic _ Elena Priorova

95 THE ROLE OF IDENTITY IN SHAPING RESILIENT OPEN

PUBLIC SPACES SURROUNDING SMALL URBAN STREAMS
_ Aleksandra Djukić _ Višnja Sretović Brković

104 AN URBAN DESIGN TECHNIQUE REGARDING

ACTIVE AGING IN OUTDOOR SPACES
_ Fernando Brandão Alves _ Lara Mendes _ António Brandão Alves

112 SAFE COMMUNITIES THROUGH ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN

_ Giovanni Sergi

119 THE CHALLENGES OF DOCKLESS CYCLING IN THE

CITIES OF SE EUROPE: THE EXAMPLE OF BANJALUKA
_ Mladen Milaković _ Aleksandra Stupar

131 SKOPJE PUBLIC SPACES EVALUATED: ANALYSIS AND TYPOLOGIES

_ Divna Penchikj _ Jasmina Siljanoska _ Dana Jovanovska

139 THE PLACES OF (NON)REMEMBRANCE - THE USE OF DIGITAL

TECHNOLOGIES IN CREATING THE PLACES OF COLLECTIVE MEMORY
_ Milja Mladenović

145 TRANSITIONING THE PUBLIC SPACE - THE CASE OF BELGRADE SHOPPING MALL
_ Marija Cvetković _ Ivan Simić _ Aleksandar Grujičić

155 THE RESTORATIVE EFFECTS OF MULTI-SENSORY OPEN

SPACE DESIGN – THE EXAMPLE OF JAPANESE GARDENS
_ Eva Vanista Lazarevic _ Tena Lazarevic _ Jelena Maric

165 URBAN LIVING LABS FOR SENSITIVE CITY

CULTURAL HERITAGE REGENERATION
_ Jasmina Siljanoska

173 OBSERVING THECITY’SUSERS BEHAVIOURS:PRODUCTION OF A SOCIAL

CYCLELEADING TO A SPACE OF COMMUNICATION; CASE OF SIDI-BOUSAID
_ Ons Ben Dhaou _ Norbert Vasváry-Nádor

//// RESPONSIVE TECHNOLOGIES IN ARCHITECTURE [TECH]

180 APPLICATION OF VENEER BASED PANELS IN EXOSKELETON ARCHITECTURE

_ Neda Sokolović _ Ana Kontić _ Andrej Josifovski

188 RESEARCH ON ENERGY SAVING PERFORMANCE AND PROMOTION STRATEGY OF

WATER PURIFICATION PLANT IN NORTH CHINA—
— CASE OF WATER SUPPLY SUP PORTING PROJECT IN SHENYANG
_ He Jin _ Bálint Bachmann

196 RAISING CLIMATE RESILIENCE IN BUILDINGS ON THE

WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN COAST—MERGING PASSIVE
AND ACTIVE NATURAL VENTILATIVE COOLING TECHNIQUES
_ Nikola Pesic _ Adrian Muros Alcojor _ Jaime Roset Calzada

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7TH INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC CONFERENCE

208 DIGITAL PLANNING, CONSTRUCTION SUBMISSION

AND APPROVAL PROCESSES IN AUSTRIA
_ Kurt Battisti _ Markus Dörn _ Christoph Eichler _ Jacqueline Scherret _ Torsten Ullrich

215 INTEGRATION OF ARCHITECTURAL AND STRUCTURAL ASPECTS

THROUGH THE DESIGN PROCESS: INDIVIDUAL RESIDENTIAL BUILDING
_ Dimitar Papasterevski _ Toni Arangjelovski

223 SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVELOPMENT BY MEANS OF GREEN WALLS

_ Budimir Sudimac _ Aleksandra Ugrinović _ Radojko Obradović

232 IN-SITU MEASURING INDOOR ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY

IN PUBLIC KINDERGARTEN IN SLOVENIA. A CASE STUDY
_ Vesna Lovec _ Miroslav Premrov _ Vesna Žegarac Leskovar

241 MODELS FOR CONTEMPORARY EXPLOITATION OF

BALNEOLOGICAL POTENTIAL IN VOJVODINA
_ Nataša Ćuković Ignjatović _ Dušan Ignjatović

248 NEARLY ZERO ENERGY BUILDING CO2 EMISSIONS

_ Marin Binički _ Zoran Veršić _ Iva Muraj

255 OPEN BIM FOR CITIZEN ENGAGEMENT IN SUSTAINABLE

RENOVATION PROJECTS
_ Coline Senior

263 NEW TECHNOLOGIES OF CONSTRUCTION ON SERBIAN WATERS

_ Tijana Jacovic Maksimovic _ Aleksandra Krstić-Furundžić

270 EVOLUTION OF TECHNOLOGIES FOR CONSTRUCTION OF

APARTMENT BUILDINGS – A TEMPORAL PERSPECTIVE
_ Ivana Brkanić Mihić _ Matej Mihić _ Zvonko Sigmund

279 ORIGIN OF CITIZENS AND IMPACT ON CITY

_ Nikola Z. Furundžić _ Dijana P. Furundžić _ Aleksandra Krstić-Furundžić

289 CONVENTIONAL VS PREFABRICATED BUILDINGS:

PURSUING THE GOAL OF SUSTAINABILITY
_ Katerina Tsikaloudaki _ Theodore Theodosiou _ Stella Tsoka _ Panagiotis Chastas

297 ON THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A COMPUTATIONAL

METHOD TO ASSESS THE IMPACT OF URBAN CLIMATE
ON THE BUILDINGS’ ENERGY PERFORMANCE SIMULATIONS
_ Stella Tsoka _ Katerina Tsikaloudaki _ Konstantia Tolika

305 ALGORITHM-BASED BIM MODEL ANALYSIS METHODOLOGY AT URBAN LEVEL

_ Olivér Rák _ Ágnes Borsos _ Péter Iványi

//// RESPONSIVE HERITAGE PROTECTION [HER]

314 DIGITAL DESIGN TECHNIQUES TO ASSIST IN THE

COMPOSITION OF TRADITIONAL URBAN BUILDINGS
_ James Dougherty

322 SYSTEMIC APPROACHES IN REVITALIZATION OF SEMARANG

OLD CITY HERITAGE SITE: FROM NEGLECTED AREA TO TOURISM DESTINATION
_ Bintang Noor Prabowo _ Alenka Temeljotov Salaj

330 FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF FORMER PULA NAVAL FORTRESS

_ Lea Petrović Krajnik _ Ivan Mlinar _ Damir Krajnik

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 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

336 THE “ART FORTRESS” AS A RESPONSIBLE APPROACH MODEL

FOR REGENERATION OF SKOPJE’S SPATIAL IDENTITY
_ Meri Batakoja _ Jovan Ivanovski _ Goran Mickovski

345 HERITAGE PERCEPTIONS: AN APPROACH FOR THE REVITALIZATION

OF THE URBAN EXPERIENCES AND THE FRENCH CHECKBOARD IMAGE
_ Barbara Hiba _ Molnár Tamás

353 PRESERVING THE MATERIAL AUTHENTICITY:

A METHOD OF PRESERVING THE TRUTH
_ Jovana Tošić

363 LOST AND FOUND: A QUEST FOR SUSTAINABILITY

AND RESILIENCE IN RURAL AREAS
_ Nataša Ćuković Ignjatović _ Dušan Ignjatović _ Nikola Miletić

370 REVITALISING THE OLD INDUSTRIAL MOVE ALONG DANUBE WATERFRONT

_ Milena Vukmirovic _ Marko Nikolic

//// RESPONSIVE ARCHITECTURE [ARCH]

382 ENHANCING EAGLE PASS–PIEDRAS NEGRAS INTERNATIONAL

BRIDGE DESIGN TO FUNCTION AS A TEMPORARY ACCOMMODATION
FACILITY FOR ASYLUM SEEKERS
_ Chang Lu _ Ons Ben Dhaou _ Shaha Mazen Maiteh _ Tianyu Zhao

390 BIM BASED PROJECT AND DIGITAL BUILDING MODEL

MANAGEMENT: APPLICATIONS AND EMERGING STANDARDS
_ Igor Svetel _ Nenad Ivanišević _ Dušan Isailović

397 A PROJECT OF LABORATORY CIRCO IN ROME: RETHINKING A PUBLIC

INSTITUTES OF ASSISTANCE AND CHARITY (IPAB) IN ROME
_ Francesco Careri _ Fabrizio Finucci _ Chiara Luchetti _ Alberto Marzo
_ Sara Monaco _ Serena Olcuire _ Enrico Perini _ Maria Rocco

405 FROM RECEPTION TO HOSPITALITY: CULTURAL, METHODOLOGICAL

AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE LABORATORY CIRCO IN ROME
_ Francesco Careri _ Fabrizio Finucci _ Chiara Luchetti _ Alberto Marzo
_ Sara Monaco _ Serena Olcuire _ Enrico Perini _ Maria Rocco

413 DWELLING WITH THE WATER

_ Michele Montemurro

421 ARCHITECTURAL ANALYSIS OF THERAPEUTIC CANTERS FOR DRUG ADDICTS

_ Sadoud Nesma _ Erzsébet Szeréna Zoltán

428 HUMAN COMFORT IN ARTIFICIAL PLACE

_ Ramos Gonzalez, Nicolas _ Medvegy Gabriella _ Borsos Ágnes
_ Zoltán Erzsébet Szeréna _ Gazdag Gábor _ Noori Pooya

436 VAPOURABLE SUBLIME: AQUATECTURE

EXPERIMENT AND PROJECT REVIEW
_ Miloš Stojković

444 COLLECTIVE HOUSING AS NEW IDENTITY IN RURAL AREAS

_ Miloš Arandjelović _ Aleksandar Videnović

450 ARCHITECTURE-INSTRUMENT: THE ARCHITECTURE-MACHINE ORIGINS

AND FRAMEWORKS OF MACHINIC LINE OF THINKING IN ARCHITECTURE
_ Dragana Ćirić

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7TH INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC CONFERENCE

467 CHALLENGES OF DESIGNING REMOTE COMMUNITIES

IN EQUATORIAL AFRICA: OKOLASSI EXAMPLE
_ Dejan Vasović _ Ruža Okrajnov Bajić _ Darko Pavićević _ Goran Gogov

//// RESPONSIVE TERRITORIAL PLANNING [PLAN]

476 ARE SHRINKING CITIES A COMPLETELY NEW PHENOMENON

IN POST-SOCIALIST SPACE? URBAN SHRINKAGE IN EASTERN
EUROPE BEFORE AND DURING SOCIALISM
_ Branislav Antonić _ Aleksandra Djukić

485 THE POSITION OF TOWNS IN DIGITAL

CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY ENVIRONMENT
_ Velimir Stojanović

494 TRIP GENERATION AND TOUR DISTRIBUTION OF PUBLIC

TRANSPORT TRIPS IN THE CITY OF SLAVONSKI BROD
_ Ljupko Šimunović _ Julijan Jurak _ Božo Radulović _ Matija Sikirić

501 POTENTIAL OF MAKER MOVEMENT ON SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT OF REMOTE CROATIAN ISLANDS
_ Rene Lisac _ Morana Pap _ Roberto Vdović

508 THE IMPACT OF ECONOMIC FACTOR ON TRANSFORMING

THE URBAN FORM OF ERBIL IN KURDISTAN REGION-IRAQ
_ Rebaz Khoshnaw

515 SEGREGATED NEIGHBOURHOODS AND THEIR INTEGRATION

ATTEMPTS: PARTICIPATORY SLUM-UPGRADING IN THE MAKING
_ Tímea Csaba

523 PHYSICAL PLANNING INFORMATION SYSTEM OF CROATIA: OVERVIEW

OF THE CONTENTS AND CURRENT STATUS OF DEVELOPMENT
_ Sunčana Habrun

530 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CHANGES IN TECHNOLOGICAL

CULTURES AND SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT OF CITIES
_ Dmitrii Klimov _ Sofi ia Feofanova

536 IMPROVEMENT OF LIFE QUALITY USING NATURE BASED SOLUTIONS -

CASE STUDY SETTLEMENTS IN SOUTH-EASTERN SERBIA
_ Milica Igić _ Petar Mitković _ Milena Dinić Branković _ Jelena Đekić
_ Ivana Bogdanović Protić _ Milica Ljubenović _ Mihailo Mitković

547 DESIGN OF CULTURAL TRAILS - AS A RESULT OF

BELGRADE’S GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE CONCEPT
_ Suzana Gavrilović _ Nevena Vasiljević _ Boris Radić _ Dejan Skočajić _ Nevenka Galečić

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COMMITTEES

SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE Dr Đokić Vladan

University of Belgrade Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia

Dr Djukić Aleksandra Dr Doytchinov Grygor

University of Belgrade Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia Institute for Urban Design, Technical University of Graz, Austria

Dr Milena Vukmirović Dr Alenka Temeljotov Salaj

University of Belgrade - Faculty of Forestry, Serbia
Norwegian University of Science and Technology
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Norway
Dr Krstić-Furundžić Aleksandra
University of Belgrade Faculty of
Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia
Dr Katerina Tsikaloudaki
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Faculty of Engineering
Dr Vaništa Lazarević Eva Dr Mirjana Devetaković
University of Belgrade Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia
University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade
Dr Antunović Biljana
University of Banja Luka, Faculty of Architecture, Civil
Dr Filipović Dejan
University of Belgrade, Faculty of Geography, Belgrade, Serbia
Engineering and Geodesy, Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Dr Bachmann Bálint Dr Gajić Darija

University of Pécs Faculty of Engineering and Information University of Banja Luka, Faculty of Architecture and
Technology, Institute of Architecture, Pécs, Hungary Civil Engineering, Banja Luka, Republic of Srpska,
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Begović Saša
Owner and Partner in Charge of 3LHD studio, Zagreb, Croatia Dr Giddings Bob
Northumbria University Faculty of Engineering and
Dr Benko Melinda Environment, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
Budapest University of Technology and
Economics, Budapest, Hungary Dr Gospodini Aspa
University of Thessaly, Faculty of Engineering, Department
Dr Brandão Alves Fernando of Planning & Regional Development, Volos, Greece
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering of Oporto, Portugal Dr Harmathy Norbert
Budapest University of Technology and Economics,
Dr Choy Lennon Faculty of Architecture, Budapest, Hungary
Associate Head and Associate Professor, Department of
Real Estate and Construction, The University of Hong Kong Dr Ivanović Šekularac Jelena
University of Belgrade Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia
Dr Čokorilo Olja
University of Belgrade Faculty of Transport MSc Ir. Ivković Milena
and Traffic Sciences, Belgrade, Serbia ISOCARP, The Hague, Netherlands

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7TH INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC CONFERENCE

Prof. Lojanica Vladimir Dr Samardžić Nikola

University of Belgrade Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia University of Belgrade, Faculty of Philosophy,
Department of History, Belgrade, Serbia
Dr Tomasz Majda
Vicepresident of Society of Polish Town Planners and Dr Seduikyte Lina
Head of Polish National Delegation in International Kaunas University of Technology, Faculty of
Society Of City And Regional Planners Civil Engineering and Architecture, Kaunas, Lithuania

Dr Martincigh Lucia Dr Šimunović Ljupko

University RomaTre, Faculty of Architecture, Rome, Italy University of Zagreb Faculty of Transport
and Traffic Sciences, Zagreb, Croatia
Dr Martinelli Nicola
DICAR of Polytechnic of Bari, Bari Italy Dr Sitar Metka
University of Maribor, Faculty of Civil Engineering,
Dr Medvegy Gabriella Traffic Engineering and Architecture, Maribor, Slovenia
University of Pécs Faculty of Engineering and Information
Technology, Institute of Architecture, Pécs, Hungary Dr Stanarević Svetlana
University of Belgrade, Faculty of
MSc Miščević Ljubomir Security Studies, Belgrade, Serbia
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Architecture, Zagreb, Croatia
Dr Stavrić Milena
Dr Mitković Petar Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria
University of Niš Faculty of Civil
Engineering and Architecture, Niš, Serbia Dr Stupar Aleksandra
University of Belgrade Faculty of
Dr Mualam Nir Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia
Faculty of Architecture and Town
Planning at the Technion, Haifa, Israel Dr Sudimac Budimir
University of Belgrade, Faculty of
Dr Nepravishta Florian Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia
Polytechnic University of Tirana, Faculty of
Architecture and Urbanism, Tirana, Albania Dr van der Spek Stefan
Delft University of Technology, Faculty of
Architecture and Built Environment, Delft, Netherlands
Dr Ohnmacht Timo
Lucerne University of Applied Sciences and Arts, Switzerland
Dr Yilmaz Salih
Izmir Katib Celebi University, Department of
Dr Petrović Krajnik Lea
Engineering and Architecture, Izmir, Turkey
Assistant Professor at the University of Zagreb,
Faculty of Architecture, Zagreb, Croatia

Dr Popović Svetislav ORGANIZING COMMITTEE

ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
University of Podgorica - Faculty of
Architecture, Podgorica, Montenegro Founding members of the Places and Technologies
Conference and the Organizing Committee committee
Dr Pottgiesser Uta
University of Antwerp, Faculty of Dr Aleksandra Djukić
Design Sciences, Belgium Conference Director, University of Belgrade,
Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia
Dr Radic Boris
Department of Landscape Architecture and Horticulture, Dr Aleksandra Krstić-Furundžić
University of Belgrade, Faculty of Forestry, Belgrade, Serbia Head of Publishing, University of Belgrade,
Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia
Dr Radonjanin Vlastimir
University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia Dr Eva Vaništa Lazarević
Head of Marketing and Communications
Dr Raspopović Miroslava University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia
Faculty of Information Technology, Belgrade
Metropolitan University, Belgrade, Serbia Dr Milena Vukmirović
Conference Program Director, University of
Dr Reba Darko Belgrade, Faculty of Forestry, Belgrade, Serbia
University of Novi Sad Faculty of
Technical Sciences, Novi Sad, Serbia

Dr Risser Ralf TECHNICAL COMMITTEE

TECHNICAL COMMITTEE
Palacky University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
Dr Branislav Antonić
Dr Rivas Navarro Juan Luis Conference Exacutive Coordinator, University of
University of Granada Department of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia
Urban and Regional Planning, Granada, Spain
Miloš Tomić
Dr Rotondo Francesco Technical Committee Member, University of
Polytechnic University of Bari, Bari, Italy Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia

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 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

[KEYNOTES]
12
7TH INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC CONFERENCE

THE NEXT GENERATION OF SMART CITIZENS: EXPERIENCES

AND INSPIRATION FROM THE +CITYXCHANGE PROJECT
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch1

_ Alenka Temeljotov-Salaj
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Norwegian
University of Science and Technology, Høgskoleringen 7A, 7491
Trondheim, Norway, alenka.temeljotov-salaj@ntnu.no

_ Bradley Loewen
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Norwegian
University of Science and Technology, Høgskoleringen 7A, 7491
Trondheim, Norway, bradley.loewen@ntnu.no

ABSTRACT

Environmental sustainability has become a core objective in policy fields related to the built en-
vironment, from the international to local level. The transition to a sustainable built environment
depends on increasing the energy performance of buildings, but due to the maturity of the building
stock in Europe affecting energy efficiency and the current incentives for investing in sustainable
energy solutions, the performance of buildings cannot be improved without widespread citizen en-
gagement. Technical solutions for upgrading smart buildings and connecting them are being de-
veloped that create new opportunities for achieving a net-zero or even positive energy balance on
the neighbourhood, district and city level. Nevertheless, attention must also be paid to the social
aspect using citizen engagement to ensure that such solutions are taken up and replicated. From
a social perspective, new skills and values are needed amongst citizens to improve individual and
collective behaviours. Co-creation is an approach for shaping the urban environment that includes
a wide range of stakeholders and is believed to lead to improved outcomes, especially with regard
to integrating users’ needs and generating a sense of shared responsibility and ownership over the
built environment.

The Horizon 2020 project +CityxChange uses co-creation for the development of positive energy
districts (PEDs), which have the potential to bring carbon neutral cities to reality. The paper explores
several aspects of citizen engagement developed in the project: an urban innovation lab approach,
a citizen participation playbook, learning framework for the next generation of smart citizens, and
framework for creating positive energy champions.

KEYWORDS _ built environment, energy, co-creation, citizen engagement, smart cities

INTRODUCTION

In recent years, European policies have converged on the global aim of low-carbon energy transition
and approach of citizen participation. Following the United Nations’ Agenda 2030 and Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) (UN, 2015), ambitious actions have been pursued for achieving carbon
neutrality in the building sector including energy and resource efficiency, upgrading and retrofitting
industry and infrastructure and fostering inclusive and participative processes for sustainable cities
and communities. Most recently, the European Green Deal aims to make the EU carbon neutral by

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 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

2050 (EC, 2019a).

Since the United Nations’ Agenda 21 was introduced in 1992, the approach for achieving global
goals such as the SDGs and Europe’s own climate targets has favoured localization (UNCED, 1992)
– that is, by translating international targets to local needs and actions for implementation on the
lowest levels. In Europe, local actions are necessary to develop and implement policies from the
bottom up in order to hold political legitimacy and gain community support. For the European Green
Deal, citizen participation is deemed necessary to make the energy transition just and inclusive (EC,
2019a). This is in accordance with SDG 11 – Sustainable cities and communities, which aims to
“make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable” (UN, 2015). Co-cre-
ation has thereby been pursued as a core element of urban development actions and EU projects,
in particular.
Steps have been taken at European and national levels to translate energy targets to the building
sector. Here, co-creation becomes part of planning and design in cities, while co-management and
co-evaluation becomes part of urban facility management (urban FM) for the long-term sustainable
management and user orientation of the built environment (Temeljotov Salaj et al., 2020, Lindqvist
et al., 2020). Citizen participation has applications in all stages of the building lifecycle, looking
beyond the traditional concerns of design and construction to long-term management, and can be
an important aspect of energy education and investment in the energy transition. This is especially
important for meeting citizens in the environments of their daily lives.
Support for the energy transition in the built environment can be found in the area of research and
innovation for smart cities. An aim of the European Horizon 2020 research and innovation pro-
gramme has been to transform the building stock to carbon neutrality and even create net positive
producers of clean and renewable energy (EC, 2019b). A main challenge for the carbon-neutral built
environment lies in the ability to scale and replicate solutions (Ahlers et al., 2019). Here, the human
element needs serious attention to ensure the uptake of innovations. Urban environments are char-
acterized by complex configurations of stakeholders with different competing and complementary
interests. By involving citizens in the design, delivery and management of projects through inno-
vative public-private-people partnerships (PPPPs), the urban environments developed to meet the
environmental challenges and energy targets of the future can also meet the wider values of society.
Citizen participation in smart cities development therefore has potential to improve the processes
and outcomes of projects for meeting citizens’ needs.
With the above in mind, this paper discusses co-creation in the built environment to create a new
generation of smart citizens that will drive the sustainable transition of urban areas, drawing on
early experiences and inspiration from the case of the Horizon 2020 project, +CityxChange1F with
interventions in Trondheim, Norway, and Limerick, Ireland.

POLICIES AND TARGETS FOR SUSTAINABLE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

The main policies shaping the future sustainable built environment in Europe are being translated
from international to national and eventually local actions. On the European level, the Strategic En-
ergy Technology (SET) Plan (EC, 2018a), the Energy Efficiency Directive (EC, 2018b) and the Energy
Performance in Buildings Directive (EPBD) (EC, 2018c) establish frameworks, guidelines and strat-
egies for national energy performance levels.2F Buildings account for 40% of energy consumption
in Europe (EC, 2018b), and the EU aims to make Europe carbon neutral by 2050 (EC, 2019a). A review
of the building stock showed that 97.5% of buildings in Europe fall below energy class A (BPIE,
2017), which indicates that the biggest potential for improving energy efficiency lies in upgrading
the existing stock of buildings. New buildings, on the other hand, should achieve net zero energy
performance from 2020 onwards (EC, 2016) – a challenge that is yet to be met.
Technological guidelines and strategies for improving building performance address smart build-
ings, deep renovations and requirements for new buildings to be energy neutral, but, while these
frameworks come into place, attention must increasingly be paid to ensuring their uptake amongst

[KEYNOTES] 14
7TH INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC CONFERENCE

industry and citizens in general, lest their potentials be underutilized. According to the European
Commission (2018d), “Moving towards a net-zero greenhouse gas economy can only be successful
with citizens that embrace change, get engaged and experience it as beneficial for their lives and
that of their children,” and cities are deemed to become the “laboratories for transformative and
sustainable solutions” (p. 22).
National implementations shall be suited to the contexts of climate conditions, building systems,
governance frameworks, and so on. In Norway, the Norwegian Building Authority is responsible for
implementing the EPBD, which has been a lengthy process due to delays in transposing the directive
to Norway by the Ministry of Petroleum and Energy and in establishing a certification scheme by the
Norwegian Energy Directorate (Haldorsen, 2016). The EPBD has yet to be fully implemented, but in
spite of this, energy efficient solutions have long been envisioned to become the preferred choice
for Norwegian consumers in the future (Ministry of Petroleum and Energy, 2012). As a signatory
of the Paris Agreement, Norway has committed to a 40% reduction of greenhouse gas emissions
compared to the 1990 level by 2030 (Ministry of Climate and Environment, 2017). Whereby housing
represents 67% of the building stock in the country, the importance of addressing sustainability in
this sector is reinforced (Temeljotov Salaj et al., 2020). Furthermore, the range of stakeholders to
involve in the transition of this sector is wide and notably includes individual residents, which can
present a challenge to coordination and management.
Co-creation can be considered in terms of user integration into innovation processes, which draws
a link between citizen engagement and relationship management (Arnold, 2017). This is particularly
relevant in the sustainable built environment, where facility managers maintain the relationships
between building owners, investors and users and are tasked with ensuring the long-term perfor-
mance of buildings in the life-cycle management system. The role of co-creation from the facility
management perspective is therefore not only about general societal wellbeing in terms of broad
sustainability goals, but it is also about corporate sustainability and supporting the local commu-
nity. Moreover, it can be used to engage citizens with complex technical processes. While there is
no generally accepted framework for co-creation, innovation workshops, virtual communities, idea
competitions and stakeholder dialogues are counted amongst the tools available (Arnold, 2017).
Playfulness and novelty are emphasized to gain citizens’ engagement in such events as workshops
and competitions.

POSITIVE ENERGY DISTRICTS

On the ground, the energy directives and strategies for achieving them must be transposed to and
implemented in complex urban environments. Each building has its own possibilities improving per-
formance and its unique set of stakeholders. Pooling buildings’ opportunities and challenges can
create synergies and reduce risks. The ultimate ambition of carbon neutral cities therefore calls
for cooperation amongst buildings and stakeholders. This is demonstrated through the concept
of Positive Energy Blocks and Districts (PEBs/PEDs), defined as “several buildings … that actively
manage their energy consumption and the energy flow between them and the wider energy system”
resulting in a positive energy balance (EC, 2020, p. 171). PEDs shall be “well embedded in the spatial,
economic, technical, environmental and social context of the project site” (p. 171). The configura-
tions of PEDs can differ, from being physically proximate to virtually connected buildings. Common
features include the pooling of energy production and consumption, including aspects of smart cit-
ies and buildings, deepening the so-called ‘prosumer’ role by which energy consumers also become
producers, demand-side energy management, energy trading, etc. PEDs have the advantage of ad-
dressing multiple building performance improvement strategies promoted on the European level,
such as deep refurbishment and smart building upgrades in existing buildings and new building zero
energy requirements.
In addition to the technical benefits of PEDs, co-creation is seen as a promising strategy for stake-
holder and citizen engagement in order to increase the prospects for widespread PED upscaling and

15
 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

replication (Ahlers et al., 2019), towards meeting Europe’s target of 100 PEDs by 2025 (JPI Urban
Europe, 2018).

CASE PROJECT: +CITYXCHANGE

The EU Horizon 2020 ‘Smart Cities and Communities’ project, Positive City ExChange (+Cityx-
Change), adopts a citizen-centred approach for the co-creation of PEDs in order to accelerate the
clean energy transition (+CityxChange, 2019a). The project is led by the Norwegian University of
Science and Technology (NTNU) and draws together 32 partners from 10 countries – including mu-
nicipalities, industry, SMEs, non-profit organisations and universities – for 11 demonstration proj-
ects in 7 cities (Figure 1).
+CityxChange envisions a transformation of the energy market through citizen and stakeholder
participation in the planning, design, implementation and upscaling of PEDs (Figure 2). This in-
volves both technical systems – towards smart grids, demand-side optimization, energy storage
and trading markets, etc. – and community-based social innovations. The project was developed
with stakeholders (including direct beneficiaries) in the early stages, which was widened towards
citizen engagement (associated partners and other non-beneficiaries, citizens, etc.) in implemen-
tation. Through citizen engagement and co-creation, the project observes the interactions between
stakeholders and citizens to improve wider PED deployment and derive suitable governance models
to support the energy transition (Gohari et al., 2020).

Figure 1. +CityxChange project cities and

_partners
Figure 1 (+CityxChange,
(left): +CityxChange project cities and partners (+CityxChange, 2019b)
2019b)
and Figure 2 (right): +CityxChange vision circle (CityxChange, 2019b)

Several frameworks for citizen participation developed within the project are based on partner expe-
riences and best practices in other European projects. +CityxChange follows a developed Bold City
Vision (BCV) framework (Figure 3) for strategic alignment and local anchoring and support, which
further integrates with the goal of 100 PEDs in Europe by 2025 (JPI Urban Europe, 2018). The BCV
elaborates a process beginning with engagement, followed by design, activation, acceleration and
support stages across multiple dimensions of PED development (Tanum et al., 2019). For the citizen
engagement aspect, these stages are acknowledgement, deliberation, localisation, connection and
amplification. As a guiding principle, the city is used as a living lab. The project has collected tools
and best practices to create frameworks for: Citizen Participation (playbook and platform); learning
targeting the next generation of smart citizens; positive energy champions; innovation labs, and;
innovation playgrounds. These frameworks are tackled from the perspective of supporting replica-

[KEYNOTES] 16
7TH INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC CONFERENCE

ble activities, as physical and operational infrastructure towards the energy transition in cities. We
hereby focus on four of these items in the following sections: citizen participation playbook, learning
targeting the next generation of smart citizens, positive energy champions and innovation labs.

_ Figure 3. Bold City Vision framework for 2050 (Tanum et al., 2019)

Citizen Participation Playbook

The citizen participation playbook is a roadmap of participatory processes to co-design PEDs
(Burón and Sánchez, 2020). These processes include the co-design of urban interventions, collabo-
rative legislation, participatory budgeting and facilitating citizens’ proposals. Six best practices for
effective citizen participation are listed in Table 1.
The playbook assembles physical and online tools that serve as a reference guide for local au-
thorities. Firstly, the physical: narrative tools, co-design workshops, focus working groups, public
engagement events, go and find citizens, mapping sessions and gamification. Secondly, the digital:
collaborative text, online debate, online mapping, online voting, accountability, online proposals and
participatory budgeting. In the implementation phase of the project, the playbook will be applied in
the pilot cities. For Trondheim, the challenge is to overcome departmental silos for integrating par-
ticipatory processes. The digital platform Decidim3F is being tested to implement the online tools.

_ Table 1. Best Practices in Citizen Engagement suggested for use by +CityxChange (Burón and Sánchez,
2020)

Best Practices in Citizen Engagement Benefits

1. Define the community Effective and inclusive community engagement

2. Clear purpose and front loading Gain of credibility in the participatory process; Higher participation
rates

3. Continuous engagement: capacity Continuous communication; community ownership

building and feedback

4. Open process, open source, open data

17 Gain credibility, greater engagement, well-informed participation

5. Co-design, co-create and co-produce Continuous citizen involvement; Ensures project implementation
 Best Practices in Citizen Engagement Benefits

1. Define the community Effective and inclusive community engagement

PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

2. Clear purpose and front loading Gain of credibility in the participatory process; Higher participation
rates

3. Continuous engagement: capacity Continuous communication; community ownership

building and feedback

4. Open process, open source, open data Gain credibility, greater engagement, well-informed participation

5. Co-design, co-create and co-produce Continuous citizen involvement; Ensures project implementation

6. Privacy by design Increase citizen privacy and trust in the process

Learning Framework targeting the Next Generation of Smart Citizens

The framework is presented as a learning and education portfolio of information on learning ac-
tivities and templates for the replication of learning activities (Avram, in draft), based on the expe-
riences of project partners engaged in education. These include multi-generational activities and
activities for specific age groups. In Trondheim, these activities have been focused on new courses
and summer schools at NTNU for bachelor and master students, experts in teams courses, and the
UngEnergi project4F that introduces various topics under theme of renewable energy to secondary
students. The municipality has led events at citizen observatories including scavenger hunts, work-
shops and demonstrations of energy generation and storage solutions.

Framework supporting Positive Energy Champions

The framework’s aim is to raise awareness of positive energy concepts and build citizen capacity
to take action on the implementation and replication of PEDs (Fitzgerald and Mee, in draft). It will
develop campaign formats and guidelines and toolkits for implementing the campaigns. A Positive
Energy Champion is defined as an individual who fosters positive energy communities by incorpo-
rating related concepts into daily routines and encouraging fellow citizens.

Innovation Labs
The framework outlines the creation of innovation labs as centres for digital innovation in cities
(Fitzgerald et al., in draft). The labs are set up as collaborative structures under the guiding princi-
ples of Open Innovation 2.0 ecosystem for entrepreneurs and start-ups (Curley and Salmelin, 2018).
Relevant stakeholders for involvement are targeted according to the science, policy, industry and so-
ciety facets of the Quadruple Helix Model. Innovation labs provide a forum for the earlier frameworks
to be put into action and integrated with city governance systems and participatory processes to
enable a co-creation culture in the community.

CO-CREATION ACTIVITIES OF NTNU IN +CITYXCHANGE LIGHTHOUSE CITY OF TRONDHEIM,

NORWAY

_ Figure 4. EuroFM Summer School participants, September 2019 (Author’s own)

[KEYNOTES] 18
7TH INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC CONFERENCE

NTNU is an anchor of academic, work and community life in Trondheim, Norway, and enjoys close
collaboration with the municipality as an innovation lab for co-creation (Trondheim Kommune,
2019). The university and surrounding innovation ecosystem make Trondheim Norway’s Innovation
Capital. In alignment with the university’s strategic research areas – energy, health, oceans and
sustainability – and enabling technologies, the relationship between technology and society comes
to the fore in its activities. Co-creation has interdisciplinary applications and is put to use in civil
and environmental engineering, architecture and planning, geography, health, psychology, sociology,
and so on, and therefore has a strategic use for achieving the university’s motto, Science for a better
world.
In the area of PEDs, NTNU hosts several projects funded by the EU Horizon 2020 programme and
Research Council of Norway, including: FME ZEN-Research Centre on Zero Emission Neighbour-
hoods in Smart Cities, +CityxChange and Syn.ikia-Sustainable Plus Energy Neighbourhoods.5F
CityxChange is unique amongst these in its citizen engagement approach.
Within +CityxChange, Trondheim Lighthouse City targets two demonstration sites: Brattøra, on the
city’s formerly industrial harbour, and Sluppen, an industrial area that is currently being transformed
to mixed use. A third site, NTNU’s main university campus, Gløshaugen, serves as a further testing
ground and is a PED demo site within FME ZEN. These areas are highlighted in Figure 5. Innovation
labs are planned or in operation in these three sites, plus at the Trondheim the city hall, Bytorget.
The frameworks described above are to be implemented in the +CityxChange demo sites and can be
tested in other NTNU projects.

Figure 1: Trondheim Lighthouse City

_ Figure 5: Trondheim
(+CityxChange, Lighthouse City (+CityxChange, 2019b)
2019b)

In the early stage of +CityxChange, which is finishing its second year, learning activities are under-
way to support the creation of the learning framework for the next generation of smart citizens.
Professors and lecturers involved in the project presented the concept of co-creation to students
of civil engineering, particularly in facility management, to stimulate and inspire diverse projects
about sustainable refurbishment. For many of them, it is their first introduction to co-creation and
the idea that citizens should be actively involved in shaping their environment. Engineering students
are challenged to adopt a socially-oriented perspective alongside their use of technical solutions for
building performance. Bachelor and master students in two summer schools held at NTNU in 2019
studied the sites being transformed in the +CityxChange project. They were given an introduction to

19
 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

the project before conducting field research and developing tools for co-creation in these and other
sites throughout Trondheim.
The students underwent brainstorming as an educational tool. This was particularly effective for
engaging technologically oriented students from engineering programmes in social and communi-
ty-based approaches to investigate user-based solutions. Furthermore, in the field, they interviewed
users (residents) in various neighbourhoods and met with community association and business
representatives (Figure 6).

_ Figure 6: Civil engineering students in fieldwork (Author’s own)

As a contribution to the learning framework for the next generation of smart citizens in particular,
information from the summer schools was structured into a framework template. The activities are
then filed in the +CityxChange Learning and Education Portfolio website as an example for potential
users to replicate.

CONCLUSION: CO-CREATION FOR SMARTER CITIES: SMART CITIZENS

Citizen engagement through co-creation activities in +CityxChange is oriented towards multi-gen-

erational learning in cities, empowerment of citizens to become energy champions and activating
innovation labs as places for stakeholder interaction with citizens. Experiences of NTNU within the
project have contributed to the creation of frameworks for citizen participation, notably related to
education. Activities undertaken at NTNU for civil engineering students are an example of such
activities targeting future professionals who will potentially become champions for the energy tran-
sition. This segment of next generation smart citizens will be shaped by building new values of
citizen engagement in a traditionally technocratic top-down profession. Other activities undertaken
in the project will target elementary school-aged children and the elderly in order to drive the energy
transition and progress in sophistication.
The next generation of smart citizens will seek engagement in professional and personal aspects of
their environment. In the building sectors, more widespread engagement will contribute to educat-

[KEYNOTES] 20
7TH INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC CONFERENCE

ing citizens on their energy use, affecting their personal behaviour and decision-making, and also
increase their technical knowledge and understandings of complex systems such as PEDs, which is
needed to convince citizens to make the necessary investments to upgrade their own buildings, for
example, and recognize the long term benefits of making such investments today.
Co-creation is a necessary element for driving a cultural shift towards more sustainable lifestyles.
Managing the transition and integrating across the public, private and people sectors is crucial for
the successful widespread adoption of complex initiatives like PEDs. The learning framework de-
veloped and tested at NTNU already indicates some recommendations for future users (Avram, in
draft). It highlights the need to create a learning strategy for cities to ensure consistency, design
events and learning resources together with target groups (co-creation) to discover the needs of
the groups, and to establish bi-directional communication channels for knowledge transfer and new
competencies. As the citizen participation and learning frameworks are put into wider use within the
innovation labs, all stakeholders will be poised to learn and improve upon the processes for interac-
tion with citizens and governance of smart cities.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We gratefully acknowledge that part of this work has been performed within the +CityxChange6F
(Positive City ExChange) project under the Smart Cities and Communities topic that has received
funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under Grant
Agreement No. 824260.

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__ EC – European Commission. 2018c. “Directive (EU) 2018/844 of the European Parliament and of the
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un.org/post2015/transformingourworld

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7TH INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC CONFERENCE

DESIGN-DRIVEN RESEARCH ON PHOTOVOLTAIC

TECHNOLOGIES – SYSTEM PERFORMANCE AND SOLAR
INTEGRATION IN BUILDINGS, MOBILITY AND OUR ENVIRONMENT

_ Angèle Reinders
Dept. of Design, Production and Management, University
of Twente, the Netherlands; Energy Technology Group,
Eindhoven University of Technology, the Netherlands

ABSTRACT

Most of mankind’s energy demand occurs in densely-populated locations such as the built environ-
ment. The logical consequence of an increased use of solar energy is that the design of buildings,
cities and landscapes has to be adapted to this sustainable form of on-site energy production, dis-
tribution and consumption, leading to integrated solutions, see Figure 1, instead of solely techno-
logical approaches. The main challenge is hence to efficiently and effectively use available surface
areas while achieving full societal support.

Due to their technical, financial and design features, photovoltaic (PV) technologies can significantly
contribute to these developments. The objective of this presentation is thus as follows: to show how
design-driven research on photovoltaics can lead to well-integrated PV systems in buildings, mobil-
ity and our environment with an excellent performance. Attention will be paid to research on several
relatively new topics, namely: (i) performance of building-integrated photovoltaics, (ii) environmen-
tal, financial and energy impacts of solar-powered electric mobility and (iii) innovative geometrical
designs of luminescent solar concentrator PV devices. Results which will be presented, originate
from COST Action ‘PEARL PV’, the ‘PV in Mobility’ project and other.

23
 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

MAINTENANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS:

TECHNOLOGY AND ITS IMPACT ON CONDOMINIUM LIVING

_ Nir Mualam
PhD, Technion

ABSTRACT

All condominium buildings require maintenance as they age. Good maintenance is a rational choice
as it helps to retain the value of a building and makes it more enjoyable to live in. Poor maintenance
of housing estates in the city can lead to serious damage and safety hazards. It may also affect the
city-scape and the appearance of a neighborhood. Unkempt buildings which are poorly maintained
might cause other unwanted socio-economic challenges in the city such as urban decay. They can
also stir debates and cause tensions among tenants who either own or rent flats in multi-story
multi-title housing. This paper explores the challenges of maintaining high-rise apartment build-
ings, and examines how technology can assist in maintaining and managing residential condo-
miniums. Given the challenges that these buildings present, including those associated with shared
ownership, technology may become another tool to aid homeowners in upkeep, management, and
prevention of wear and tear.

KEYWORDS _ condominiums, asset management, maintenance & repair, technology

[KEYNOTES] 24
7TH INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC CONFERENCE

SPACE AND TECHNIQUE

_ Dražen Juračić
Professor, Ph.D, dipl.ing.arch, partner in juračić skorup
architects; professor Zagreb University Faculty of architecture;
Zagreb Torbarova 4; drazen@juracicskorup.com

_ Jelena Skorup
Ph.D, dipl.ing.arch, partner in juračić skorup architects;
Zagreb Torbarova 4; jelena@juracicskorup.com

ABSTRACT

Space is less complex than Place. It has physical aspects, in architecture, they are defined by techni-
cal means. Place has to have more – a meaning – the matter for memory and emotions. Technique
is less complex than Technology. It represents the set of skills and procedures to achieve a prede-
termined goal. Technology is purposeful assemblage of different techniques. We will speak about
practice of articulating Space using Techniques in designing the building that does not belong to
a recognized type. This building is representing articulation problems occurring in absence of the
established pattern, known model and examples. It is pars pro toto for big class of emerging new
sorts of edifices. In our case: a very big restaurant, seating thirteen hundred guests, three times a
day, in an all-inclusive seaside summer resort.

Thousand questions open: How to fit a megastructure in pristine pine forest? How to design efficient
kitchen and swift food distribution? How to formulate covered terrace for thousand guests? Could
it be oversized mediterannean porch, or isn’t it silly to go vernacular? How protect terrace from sun
and rain? Can open space be mechanically cooled? What atmosphere, what ambiance to envision?
Is it possible to find an image, an idea of such space: in paintings, in memory, in literature? How to
achieve financial and temporal constraints? Less than four million euros for five thousand square
meters - to be build, furnished, equipped and fully functional in seven months, from October till May.
How to balance design methods discipline with ad hoc ideas? How to enable client to participate but
not to overstep and trespass? How to run and not loose breath? Will frustration overcome efficien-
cy? What is realistic ambition: to do functional space and appropriate construction? Or to achieve
meaningful Place through new complex Technology?

KEYWORDS _ space and place, techniques and technology, ambition and frustration

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[KEYNOTES] 26
7TH INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC CONFERENCE

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RESPONSIVE URBAN DESIGN

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 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

RE-INVENTED WATER-RELATED
SPACES IN THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch2

_ Gábor Heckenast
Doctoral student, Breuer Marcell Doctoral School of Architecture,
Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of Pécs,
Boszorkány u. 2, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary, gabor.heckenast@gmail.com

_ Marcel Ferencz Habil, DLA

Full professor, Ph.D, Ybl Miklós Faculty of Architecture and Civil
Engineering, Szent István University, Thököly út 74., H-1146 Budapest,
Hungary, ferencz.marcel.istvan@ybl.szie.hu

_ András Tibor Kertész

Full professor, Ph.D, Breuer Marcell Doctoral School of Architecture,
Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology University of Pécs,
Boszorkány u. 2, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary, kertesz.andras@mik.pte.hu

ABSTRACT

The focus of this paper is the environmental awareness used for the water-related built environment
– both on a building and urban scale. Water as natural element plays an enormous role in shaping
our natural and built environments, thus it has also radically formed architectural thinking on cre-
ating space throughout the ages worldwide. Observing evolving building technology gives us an
overview, which allows us to recognize a pattern in architectural thinking on creating water-related
spaces, even if it was built for residential, commercial, recreational or representational purposes. A
deeper understanding of the fundamental relationship between nature, water and settlements, helps
reduce the disadvantageous impact of human activity on nature, which has been growing over time.
Sustainable design methods need to be (re)invented to meet new and changing conditions in settle-
ments, for living in harmony with nature - as it once was. Nowadays, new paths and solutions have
opened up at an accelerating pace, thanks to the research and development in technology, which
also provides an opportunity for a continuous dialogue between nature and architecture. Contem-
porary architecture tries to reshape its way of thinking on nature, based on the idea of re-finding a
harmonious symbiosis with the power of science and technology to provide sustainable alternatives
for the future.

KEYWORDS _ water, urban planning, sustainability, technology, design methods

INTRODUCTION

Water has always played a central role in human history. When the first settlements were formed, the
proximity of water was a primary consideration for basic needs, strategic and commercial purposes.
With the development of technology, the appearance of water in architecture has become much
more diverse with new solutions, which only existed in the world of imagination before. Thanks to
new solutions, unprecedented opportunities are opening up in architecture, revolutionizing the rela-
tionship between the built environment and water.

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THE ROLE OF WATER AND TECHNOLOGY IN ARCHITECTURE

Water is one of the most versatile natural elements, so it appears in architecture in various ways
depending on the different techniques: building material (e.g. igloo, ice hotel), processing method
(water jet cutting machine), water-related facades (indirectly: algae, green facades or directly: fog,
programmed waterfall facades). However, in architecture, water not only influences the physical
space (such as swimming pools), but it can also determine the architectural thinking by its physical
or behavioural nature (e.g. fluid architecture), whether inside or outside the building.
In the built environment the water surface can be natural or artificial, which fundamentally deter-
mines the construction technology and influences the architectural design as well.
With the development of new ideas and technology, water can even symbolically appear on facades:
it can be parametric, biomorphic or kinetic - as in the case of Ned Kahn’s facade installation, which
imitates a vertical water surface with small swinging metal keys.
As water appears in our environment with an increased presence, the initial instinctive way of build-
ing has been replaced by a scientific approach in construction: creating a much closer relationship
by reducing the physical distance between the water and architectural spaces. This close relation-
ship makes the well thought out choice of the right technology in architecture essential in the future
(Figure 1).

_ Figure 1: Water features - Milan Expo, 2015 (source: G. Heckenast)

Knowing the physical properties of water opens up new opportunities in architectural applications
(such as surface tension - tension structures, water behaviour - water analogues in architecture,
light transmission - underwater architecture), which greatly determine the technology used as well.
Over time, as environmental conditions have changed with the earth’s climate, water levels have
also risen. Architecture must also respond to the changed circumstances and climate change with
the help of modern technology. New architectural and urban design approaches are emerging that
could provide a lifestyle in harmony with the environment (amphibious housing, green cities, solar
power, wind farm).
In the case of water-related architectural designs, form is not the principal, rather the idea itself,
which responds to needs in a creative way, offering a new opportunity and solution for the function.
Architecture is currently experiencing a period of transition, accompanied by unprecedented tech-
nological advances and ever-changing demands. Dynamic reflection in contemporary architec-
ture requires an environmentally conscious approach that responds to new demands and complex
effects.

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 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

THE HISTORY OF WATER RELATED TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT

Water management is as old as history, water supply is essential for life and for cities to function.
In most cases stagnant waters cause hygienic problems, so the quality of life has been greatly in-
creased by the water cycle and the establishment of the water network (e.g. Mesopotamia, Egypt
- irrigation system).
In Prehistoric times, primitive reservoirs and riverbed control appeared, which were the first ele-
ments of water management. In Ancient times, plumbing networks and canals were created. With-
out them, it would not have been possible to establish baths, toilets and irrigation systems. The
Middle Ages provided new solutions besides the old ones, along with defence structures (e.g. castle
ditches), such as giving new living space to the town’s inhabitants with the appearance of residen-
tial bridges over the rivers.
Since the Renaissance, complex systems have come to the forefront of technological advances:
underground cisterns, urban sewerage networks, buildings with utilities, spring houses and water
castles and other buildings on water. For example, the Paris Opera House was built over a natural
lake thanks to advanced technology. The construction of waterways and canals – with along fortifi-
cations - was one of the largest constructions in Europe, providing an essential basis for transpor-
tation and water management.
Until the 18th century in Europe technology was water and wood based. Most of the engineering
work was related to water, which was a branch of architecture, called “architecture hydraulique”.
Landscape architecture was also part of engineering education. (for example, Versailles waterworks
in the garden with hydraulic engines; Pontcysyllte navigable aquaduct, England, 1805). At that time
science started to deal with hydrodynamic regularities and introduced the fluid models that also
influenced the Haussmannian city.
From the Middle Ages to the end of the 18th century In Western Europe, water mills were one of
the major sources of energy for industry and agriculture, emphasizing the role of the geographical
position in the development.
From the 19th century, the role of water changed with the Industrial Revolution, when coal and steam
were the source of energy and railway was the new transport alternative, which transformed fun-
damentally the image of cities. As a consequence of the Industrial Revolution, cities have under-
gone an unprecedented transformation: large-scale waterbed control, waterbed filling, steel bridges,
steam turbine houses, and new neighborhoods were created.
Even though the steam engines of the Industrial Revolution are outdated, two-thirds of the world’s
energy consumption is still generated by turbines. Waterfront urban areas are becoming more valu-
able, displacing former water-based industrial activity.
With the era of modern architecture, new concepts have emerged regarding the role of water in ar-
chitecture, the use of water has become more subtle and flowing spaces have appeared.
In contemporary architecture, water has become a medium while still providing basic necessities
(water analogy, tool for illusion, e.g. Diller Scofidio + Renfro: Blur, Switzerland). Along with new en-
vironmentally conscious technologies, floating buildings and neighborhoods, underwater buildings
(e.g. Snohetta: Underwater restaurant), landscaped bridges start to transform our image of the city.
In the 21st and 22nd centuries, the relationship between water and architecture will be a key issue
to ensure sustainable development. In the future, this relationship will be taken to a whole new level
and the new technology will make it possible to build floating and underwater cities (e.g. Vincent
Callebaut: Citypad - Floating City; Arup Biometrics: Ocean City). The desire of building on water
has a long history, for example Uros Indians already built a floating reed island village on the Lake
Titicaca a long time ago.

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WATER, TECHNOLOGY AND BUILDINGS

One of the most important elements of architecture is the idea itself, so architects are constantly
looking for new solutions to bring them to life. This is where the technology comes in, which offers
several solutions to the upcoming problems. Even more, technology not only provides solutions, but
can also help the creative process itself. There are many examples of this close relationship, not to
mention the epoch-making discoveries.
In most cases, nature provides the best inspiration for solving a problem. The animals’ extraordinary
adaptation has provided many architectural solutions many times: beavers – dyke, nests - thatch,
use of leaves - shelters, bears - caves, spiders - rope structures, bee hive - module system.
As technology advances in water-related architecture, the language of architectural design is
transformed, further enriching our diverse built environment. Water greatly influences construction
technology: building materials (for igloo), manufacturing technology (water jet CNC), programmed
waterfalls, water towers, condensation towers, hydroelectric power plants, atomic energy
(heavy water), water facades, waterways, waste water management, that significantly shape our
environment.
The built environment is extremely complex, created by not only architecture but also the union of
the connecting fields to architecture. A well-functioning building must be settled in its environment
with a sort of symbiosis, which can only be achieved with landscape architecture. Not only land-
scape architecture can be used to place a building in its natural or built environment, but it is also
possible to use technology to create closer integrity. It not only has benefits for users but should
also have benefits for the environment as well: gardens with cleverly designed water surfaces
(pools, fountains, canals), trees like intelligent shades or natural wind canal like air conditioning can
create a better microclimate, increasing the comfort of the building without the extra energy input.
With a prudent design, conscious use of environmental features and new technological advances, a
more environmentally conscious, complex design methodology is being developed.
With climate change, water levels are rising and cities are faced with new challenges now: not only
in the aspect of the design of new buildings, but also in protecting the existing built environment and
adapting to the new conditions. It facilitates new building types and designs (e.g. footed houses) or
major changes in the urban structure (e.g. temporary urban flood areas, buffer zones).

_ Figure 2: Haus des Meeres – House of the Sea (source: G. Heckenast)

Case study: Haus des Meeres (House of the Sea), Vienna, Austria
After the Second World War, the former almost 50 meter high military facility, was sold by the City
of Vienna. The city has allowed the investors to completely convert the tower for a very different
function: a zoo, multi-storey-high aquariums and a palm house (Figure 2).
The memento of one of the darkest eras in history has been completely transformed with the help

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of water, both physically and in a mental sense. The remodelling is still going on and the exterior
surfaces of the building are also being transformed by green architecture.

WATER, TECHNOLOGY AND URBANISM

Our buildings and cities require new solutions due to changes in environmental conditions, usage
of space and lifestyle changes. The built environment is increasingly affected by technology, trans-
forming older “sculptural” buildings into a sort of machine. These urban machine units or cells, must
be integrated in the most responsible way in the environment with the best available technology.
By changing attitudes and choosing the right technique, not only can the problem of today be solved,
but the problems of the future can be prevented. This approach not only means thinking locally on
building-level systems, but using urbanism to implement complex solutions that incorporate the
entire built environment with technical and natural scientific aspects, thus interpreting and manag-
ing the built and natural environments in the cycle of nature. The built environment and the natural
environment seem to form a different system, but the built environment derives essentially from the
natural environment, so their reconnection to nature can be done with care while meeting the needs
of the age.
The used techniques are greatly influenced by the proximity of the water and the scale of the water,
which essentially determines the local architectural character of the area with the natural envi-
ronment together (e.g. pile houses, boathouse). The relationship between the city and the water is
getting closer, new models of the city are being developed, partly using historical structures and
technology (e.g. Amsterdam, Venice). A new era can be predicted through technological innovations
that would represent water cities (floating buildings, forests, transport hubs).
The green and blue systems of cities need to be reviewed in a complex way to create a viable model
for a new sustainable urban fabric. Hybrid solutions should be developed for the historical town
structures , which can also provide its residents a sustainable future while preserving the built her-
itage. For example, as an improvement of microclimatic conditions and to reduce artificial cooling:
millions of air conditioning units would not be needed if instead as a part of smart city design it
could include green spaces and integration of water surfaces alongside the creation of wind chan-
nels too. This methodology, combined with well-chosen technology, will provide the optimum solu-
tion for a given problem.

_ Table
Table 1: New 1: Newfor
concept concept
cities for cities
by city by city type
type
Coastal cities River cities “Dry cities”
settlement on the water revitalization of coasts creating new water surfaces
energy supply (E) energy supply (E) comprehensive water
management concept
environmentally conscious "moving stage" local economy:
transport - rivers, city attractions reduction of environmental and
- floating beaches transportation burden
fauna oases (biodiversity)
new levels in the city living space

By applying a new architectural /urban model, the built environment and humanity can be a part of
the cycle of nature again, living in harmony with it. This basically means rethinking the appearance
of water and green space in cities, from the building scale (e.g. water cycle in building, green facade)
to the urban scale (e.g. urban gardens, cooling, transportation). Nature can be integrated into city
life by creating biologically active areas, creating an urban ecosystem in symbiosis with nature (e.g.
floating islands in the river, floating forests, aquaponics, Japanese kabata water system).
Coastal cities are facing major transformations due to growing space demands and rising water
levels (e.g. New York The Dryline, Tokyo Bay, San Francisco Treasure Island, Amsterdam KNSM
Island). These transformations not only provide security and growth for the city, but also provide a

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7TH INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC CONFERENCE

new opportunity to redesign cities, even transform their energy supply (e.g. urban hydropower, wave
power, hydroelectric power plant, heat exchangers, new urban management strategies) (Table 1).
With the advancement of technology, the shrinking of land areas and the desire for living nearby
water, water is becoming more accessible. There are more and more floating water projects: house-
boats, office buildings, high-rises, parking lots, museums, airports, parks, forests, hotels, golf cours-
es, gardens, farmland, forts and prison.
Floating cities not only provide new living space for its residents, they are also eco-friendly: they
also provide shade in the shallow waters, home for plants and aquatic animals on the bottom of the
floating islands.

_ Figure 3: Amsterdam, The Netherlands (source: G. Heckenast)

Case study: City of Amsterdam, the Netherlands

With its rich architectural heritage and connected canal system, Amsterdam is rightly called the
Venice of the North. Two meters below sea level, the horseshoe-shaped city center includes 100 km
of canal system, 90 islands and 1,200 bridges (Figure 3).

_ Figure 4: Amsterdam multilevel space use (source: G. Heckenast)

Its history dates back to the 12th Century, a small fishing village called “Aemstelredamme”. In the
1st Golden Age -17th century- the city became a financial and commercial center (the world’s first
stock exchange, floating peat island in 1638), and later in the 2nd Golden Age -19th century- during
the Industrial Revolution major city developments and new canals were created in the city built on
wooden piles. After the Second World War, the city had to be redesigned, creating new suburbs and
a metro network.

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In the 21st Century, the city is constantly being revitalized with more and more green spaces, which
is made possible by reducing and redirecting flow of traffic: e.g. moving parking spots, Sail + Ride,
underwater tunnels, floating gardens and butterfly parks (Figure 4). New urban development strate-
gies are emerging, such as a 6-storey underwater shopping mall complex right under the historical
canal (Zwart & Jansma Architects: Amfora Amstel).
The architecture of Amsterdam is characterized by a water-oriented and creative attitude, reinter-
preting water surfaces and creating new ones based on centuries-old traditions.

CONCLUSIONS

Water appears in architecture in countless ways, resulting in the most diverse form of design and
engineering. Water plays a decisive role not only in architecture, but also in many fields connected
to architecture.
Utopian ideas can often be realized through the results of technological advances, redesigning our
buildings and cities.
With new environmentally aware technologies, based on the history of technological advancements,
we can start a new chapter in the history of architecture, while preserving our existing built environ-
ment and leaving behind the old, harmful technical solutions for the sake of a healthy environment.
As Earth is a living system, architecture must always be well thought out and adapted with the new
opportunities, which are provided by the technology. With the changing environmental conditions, a
harmonious complex system can form in association with the natural and built environment, thereby
ensuring the liveable conditions and the rights of future generations for a healthy environment.

REFERENCES

__ Fred Feddes. 2019. A Millennium of Amsterdam. Bussum: Thoth Publisers.

__ Michael Fazio, Marian Moffett, Lawrence Wodehouse. 2013. A World History of Architecture. London:
Laurence King Publishing.
__ Zoe Ryan. 2010. Building with water. Basel: Birkhauser.
__ Herbert Girardet. 2008. Cities People Planet. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
__ Koen Olthuis, David Keuning. 2010. Float! Amsterdam: Frame.
__ Liat Margolis, Aziza Chaouni. 2015. Out of water. Basel: Birkhauser.
__ Oliver Herwig, Axel Thallemer. 2008. Water – Unity of Art and Science. Germany: Arnoldsche.
__ David Lewis Feldman. 2017. The Water-Sustainable City. Chichester: Edward Elgar
__ Publishing.

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7TH INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC CONFERENCE

MASS HOUSING ESTATES IN CSEPEL, BUDAPEST: URBAN

FORM EVALUATION IN RELATION TO SUSTAINABILITY
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch3

_ Hlib Antypenko
PhD student, Csonka Pál Doctoral School, Faculty of Architecture,
Budapest University of Technology and Economics, H-1111 Budapest,
Műegyetem rkp. 3, hlib100694@gmail.com

_ Melinda Benko
PhD and habil., Associate Professor, Department of urban Planning and Design,
Faculty of Architecture, Budapest University of Technology and Economics,
H-1111 Budapest, Műegyetem rkp. 3, benko@urb.bme.hu

ABSTRACT

Mass housing is a global urban phenomenon, whilst in the Central and Eastern European countries
the majority of these neighborhoods were constructed during the socialist period. The research
focuses on the city of Csepel, former industrial town, since 1950 the 21st district of Budapest. Bu-
dapest is one of the Hungarian cities with a very high mass housing ratio, more than two-third of
its population lives there. The paper compares five housing developments in Csepel - three of them
were awarded on a national level at the time of their construction. Situated next to the main axis of
Csepel - Béke téri, a modern housing estate from the end of 40s; Rakéta utcai, an awarded modern
housing estate from the end of 50s; Ady út large prefabricated housing estate with 10 story high
slabs from the end of 60s; Simon Bolivár Estate, an awarded large prefabricated housing estate
from the end of 70s; and Rákóczi úti - one of the rare social housing developments from 2000s in
Hungary.

The urban position of these neighborhoods is similar, while the architectural and technical qualities
of the buildings vary and is often subjected to the original construction problems or actual renewal
policy issues. Taking into consideration that all these estates were planned as a single urban and
development unit, its urban form and open space elements should be revaluated, seeking the per-
spectives for its adaptation to the contemporary urban and market demands. Comparison uses
sustainability indicators related to physical environment such as: density, diversity, land use, green-
ing, transportation, compactness et cetera to give a fair picture of the estates’ urban values and
potentials. What are the architecture and urban qualities and weaknesses of these housing estates?
How the urban form developed over time? How sustainable is the urban form of these estates? What
can be done to boost its attractiveness to the citizens, architects, and developers?

KEYWORDS _ mass housing, urban form, sustainable

urban neighborhoods, post-socialist city, Budapest

INTRODUCTION

Located in the south of Budapest outskirt, separated from the city by the waters of Danube river,
the 21st district of Budapest, Csepel is now a reservation of middle-class mass housing estates
constructed mainly in the after-WWII period. From the 9th century Csepel used to be one of the firsts

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Hungarian settlements in the Carpathian Basin, remaining a small village thereafter. Csepel urban
development started with the 19th century industrialization, and finally it became the land of “Man-
fred Weiss Steel and Metal Works”. Nevertheless, industrial town and mass housing are mandatory
interconnected. In the in-between period of WWI and WWII, factories provided workers, officers, and
engineers with the new neighborhoods for living. Shortly after the end of the WWII, in 1949, Hungary
became a satellite state of the Soviet Union. The Hungarian capital city of Budapest was trans-
formed, Csepel became a district of a “big” Budapest realized in 1950, and “Csepel Works” func-
tioned as the biggest socialist urban factory (Benkő & Kissfazekas, 2019). This dramatic political,
economic, and social change determined the development of Hungarian cities and housing for the
next 40 years. Public mass housing program started under the motto of building “better, faster, and
cheaper” in all the socialist states of Eastern Europe (Engel, 2019). Nevertheless, among all post-so-
cialist countries, Hungary remained the land of “small” housing estates. As of today, only one fifths
of the Hungarians and one third of Budapest’s population lives in panel houses (Kovács et al. 2018).
In Csepel, however, this ratio is much higher, approximately, two-third of the actual population lives
in privately owned flats of inherited modern large prefabricated housing estates (Clapham, 1995).
The paper compares five mass housing developments (fig. 1), built in different time periods after
WWII, using different planning ideas and technology. This approach helps to understand how the
planning and urban design concepts of the selected estates evolved during the time, how it affected
urban form, and what are the potentials to adapt these estates to a more sustainable future. As-
suming that these modern buildings and neighborhoods will remain for a long time, they should be
considered as an integrated, well recognized part of contemporary Budapest, not just a hidden and
stigmatized heritage (Benkő, 2015).

SELECTION OF CSEPEL CASE STUDIES

The construction of the first modern housing estate in Csepel, the Béke tér (No1) began in 1948 as a
new home for 4000-6000 top workers of Csepel factories (fig.1). Not long after this, in the mid-50s,
Rakéta utcai (No2), a formerly agricultural land became the new development area for mass hous-
ing. The masterplan and several residential buildings for this area were designed by the Hungarian
architect Lajos Zalaváry, awarded with the most important Hungarian architecture prize, the Ybl-
Prize in 1956 (Barna et al., 1995). It’s worth mentioning that before introduction of panel technology
in the early 60s, most of the multi-family houses in Csepel were low-rise (3-5 story high) buildings
made of bricks. Traditional technology, small flats, and well-established greenery characterize these
housing estates. However, after 1965, with the opening of the first big panel factory in Budapest, the
10 story-high slabs became a general building typology. This can be seen in the Ady housing estate
(No3), where Soviet and Danish panel technologies were used to construct a homogeneous high-
rise neighborhood with some residential towers exceeding 15-storey height. The new development
phase of Csepel started at the end of 70s, evidently using the same panel technology for mass hous-
ing. Simon Bolivar housing estate (No4) introduced a new urban form varying 10 and 4 story-high
buildings organized in a superblock frame (Petz, 2017). In 1979 the Teréz P. Ürmössy masterplan
design for this estate received the Ybl-Prize, as well.
The Rákóczi block (No5), the last case for comparison was realized after the change of the political
and economic regime. It was one of the few contemporary Hungarian housing projects to be con-
structed at that time. The block itself is a result of an infrastructure development was divided into
three plots: the middle plot is municipality initiated social housing project from 2004, the Southern
part constructed by a private investor is a residential complex finished in 2012, and the Northern
part, which 20 years after still remains a vacant land for further development.

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_ Figure 1: Case studies area in Csepel. Red – the boundary of a housing estate; blue – Danube river. The
numbering follows the chronological order. Source: Author

METHOD

Around the time when mass housing in Europe got its first criticism and to the point when in some
countries of Western Europe, it was stopped as a practice, the discourse about sustainability as a
response to the forthcoming global challenges appeared in the social and scientific realm. Literary
works of Hough (1984), Calthorpe (1993), Frey (1999) are among the first to try to connect ecological
and social threats with the urban development. While sustainability is a broad term used in many
aspects of human life, the link between sustainability and urban design is well established and is
primarily based on the effect of urban form on transport, water quality and recharge rates, habitat,
equity concerns, and pollution. Following the sustainable urban design framework matrix, urban
form of the five selected housing estates of Csepel is analyzed on its relation to five components of
the sustainability: energy use/GHG, water quality and recharge, ecology/habitat, energy use/produc-
tion, equity and health (Larco, 2015). For the purpose of this paper, only elements that are directly
affecting urban form are analyzed and compared (Table 1). It is worth mentioning that in the frame-
work developed by Larco (2015) urban elements are grouped by 4 scales: regional, district, street/
block, and project/parcel. While in Larco’s study splitting elements by scales aims to help urban
designers to connect it to the actual area of intervention, for the purpose of this paper, the scaling
distinction is not used.

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Table 1:_Urban
Tabledesign
1: Urban design grouped
elements elementsbygrouped by sustainability
sustainability componentscomponents

Energy use/GHG Water quality Ecology/ Energy use/ Equity & health
And recharge habitat production
1. Small and defined 7.High surface 7.High surface 9.Dense/energy 11.Active/attractive
blocks permeability permeability efficient building open space
2.High building 8.High urban typologies 12.Mix of unite
/housing density forest 2.High building types
3.Multimodal street continuity/ housing density 8.Urban forest and
design diversity 10.Block size/street robust vegetation
4.High land use mix orientation for 4.High land use mix
5.Micro-parking microclimate
design mitigation
6.Platting for density
(quality of urban
planning)

Table 2: Evaluation of urban form elements in relation to sustainability. Where 5 and 1 point are the most and least
The research
sustainable uses international literature, but comparison data is based on local experience gained
results
by the field work. The most objective data was achieved from mapping. The goal was to collect in-
Béke Rakéta Ady úti Simon Rákóczi
formation about the actual density and the proportion téri
of built, green, and paved area
utcai
of eachblock
Bolivar
estate.
According
1. Small and todefined
Table blocks
1, density parameter is directly connected
4 3to at least2two sustainability
1 compo-
5
nents.
2. HighBoth energy usedensity
building/housing GHG and production are dependent 1 on2 urban form 3 density. Whereas
4 density
5
is3.rather a complex
Multimodal criterion and by many theorists
street design 4 is separated
5 into3at least housing,
2 building,
1
and human
4. High density,
land use for the purpose
mix (functional mix of theofhousing
this research,1only the 4building density
3 was measured.
5 2Salat
estate) defines building density as a ratio of floor area of all buildings to the plot area to which it
(2011)
5. Parking design 2 4 1 3 5
belongs. Another important parameter that this paper explores, is the ratio of built, green, and paved
6. Platting for density 1 3 2 4 5
area. This data is important to evaluate the sustainability of water usage, ecology impact, equity
7. High surface permeability 5 4 2 3 1
and health of the districts. Mapping, however, is limited
8. High urban forest continuity/diversity 5
to measure
4
urban
2
elements3such as active/
1
attractive open efficient
9. Dense/energy space, affordability of housing,
building typologies (if we multimodal
1 street
2 design,1 mix of unite
3 types etc.
5 For
this purpose,
imagine additional
renovation of every data from literature sources and personal observations of the site were
building)
used. Finally,
10. Block a relative
size/street ranking 1-5 (table2) helped the
orientation 4 classification.
2 1 5 3
11. Active/attractive open space (actual condition) 1 3 5 4 2
12. Mix of unit types (buildings) 3 4 1 5 2
Total 32 40 26 42 36
DENSITY AND RATIO OF BUILT, GREEN, AND PAVED AREA: ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

This paragraph presents the results of comparative analysis of space type and density of the 5
housing estates of Csepel. All the maps (fig. 3) and graphs (fig. 2) are shown in chronological order,
starting with the oldest estates up to the most recent one.
By looking at the actual maps of five housing estates of Csepel (fig.3), it becomes evident that
the first 4 estates from socialist time present a continues homogeneous urban environment with
distinctive master plans. The dominance of publicly owned green space and its continuity is also a
characteristic factor for these estates (fig.2). The earliest developments, the Béke tér and the Rakéta
utcai housing estates are somewhat representations of the “garden city”, human scaled concept
with low-rise buildings. In the meantime, the Béke tér presents a modern masterplan composed
mainly by “slabs and cubes” elements. Some years later, the Rakéta utcai redesigns traditional ur-
ban form with slabs being adjacent to the street lines and dominance of open courtyards. Ady úti
estate from the end of 60s can be more referred to the international “TeamX concept” of the 11-sto-
rey high-rise buildings floating in a vast area of green city park. The next by chronology Simon
Bolivar estate refers to the well-spread in the Soviet Union urban typology of micro-districts. It has
a clear, symmetrical urban structure forming a frame with a closed perimeter of residential buildings
and some commercial functions, whereas the center of the estate is a less dense space with public
buildings like a school and a day care center. The most obvious difference in both space ratios and
density (fig.2) belongs to the newest housing development of Rákóczi block. It is visibly the smallest
housing area from all 5, with characteristically different urban form. The area is private and fenced,

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and both housing projects of the block create fragmented volumes with huge paved areas for park-
ing facilities without providing ecological continuity typical for the former socialist developments.
As a result, the estate is 100% more dense than its predecessor Simon Bolivar from the 70s, it is also
80% less green than the first housing estate of Béke téri from the end of 40s.

_ Figure 2: Comparison results. Source: Author

_ Figure 3: Urban form analysis of the five housing estates of Csepel district. Source: Author

39
 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

What is also apparent from the comparison results (fig.2), is the growing density of the buildings
and reduction of green space over the time span. The ratio of built area stays almost the same,
while the green space is slowly being taken by paved areas in all socialist time estates. This leads
us to the preliminary conclusion that with the time denser urban developments were to be seen
as more efficient, and the shift towards the use of parking spaces instead of preserving green is
directly connected to the growing density. Nevertheless, the differences in density and proportions
of green, paved, and built land don’t give us definite answers about actual sustainability of these
estates (Poklewski-Koziell, 2015). While dominance of green spaces and low density in socialist
Table 1:can
estates Urban
bedesign
goodelements grouped by
for sustainable sustainabilitylike
components components
water recharge and ecology/habitat, the high
density of the newest development
Energy use/GHG Water quality of Rákóczi
Ecology/block is a goodEnergyindicator
use/ for both energy
Equity use/GHG
& health
and production. It is alsoAndsure that some habitat
recharge of the urban design elements cannot be accessed by the
production
indicators ofdefined
1. Small and density and space
7.High types. Therefore,
surface site visits and
7.High surface personal observations
9.Dense/energy were used as
11.Active/attractive
anblocks
additional assessmentpermeability
method. permeability efficient building open space
2.High building 8.High urban typologies 12.Mix of unite
/housing density forest 2.High building types
3.Multimodal street continuity/ housing density 8.Urban forest and
EVALUATION
design OF THE URBAN FORM INdiversity
RELATION TO SUSTAINABILITY
10.Block size/street robust vegetation
4.High land use mix orientation for 4.High land use mix
In5.Micro-parking
order to answer the question, which mass housing estate and what urban form has more sus-
microclimate
design parameters, the research created an objective method.
tainable mitigation
Table2 uses a relative ranking (1
6.Platting for density
least – 5 most) of the five estates (based on calculations and in-situ observations) for each of the
(quality of urban
sustainability
planning) components presented in table1, with total scores given at the end.

Table 2:_Evaluation
Table 2: Evaluation of urban
of urban form form elements
elements in relationin
torelation to sustainability.
sustainability. Where 5 andWhere 5 and
1 point are1the
point areand
most the least
most
sustainable
and results
least sustainable results
Béke Rakéta Ady úti Simon Rákóczi
téri utcai Bolivar block
1. Small and defined blocks 4 3 2 1 5
2. High building/housing density 1 2 3 4 5
3. Multimodal street design 4 5 3 2 1
4. High land use mix (functional mix of the housing 1 4 3 5 2
estate)
5. Parking design 2 4 1 3 5
6. Platting for density 1 3 2 4 5
7. High surface permeability 5 4 2 3 1
8. High urban forest continuity/diversity 5 4 2 3 1
9. Dense/energy efficient building typologies (if we 1 2 1 3 5
imagine renovation of every building)
10. Block size/street orientation 4 2 1 5 3
11. Active/attractive open space (actual condition) 1 3 5 4 2
12. Mix of unit types (buildings) 3 4 1 5 2
Total 32 40 26 42 36

As mentioned before, some of the urban design elements can be easily evaluated from the analysis
data (fig.2). For instance, when we talk about high building/housing density (2), the highest score
gets the estate with the highest density number from the analysis results. Both high surface perme-
ability (7) and high urban forest continuity (8) can be measured from the proportion of green space.
Small and defined blocks (1) is a parameter related to the urban structure. While socialist urban
planning was not following the traditional block system of historic towns, it couldn’t avoid creat-
ing urban unites at a larger sense. Hence, the estates with the more compact and defined blocks/
unites were accessed with higher scores. Multimodal street design (3) increases the efficiency of
transportation, encourages walkability and cycling. Ample, free and easily available parking (5) lo-
cated directly in front of destinations creates a ‘pull’ towards auto use and can create barriers and
uninviting conditions for pedestrians and cyclists (Larco, 2016). High land use mix (4) is more of a

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functional parameter, but it is directly connected to the urban structure of the estates. Platting for
the density or organizing of lots (6) of an area can affect mode choice as it often dictates possible
building typologies and, in turn, the relationship of buildings to the street (Larco, 2016). Dense/
energy efficient building typologies (9) is a parameter qualified by both of the building density and
materials of its construction. Block size/street orientation (10) is defined by the solar orientation of
the buildings within the estate and its exposure to the winds (close perimeter of the buildings saves
the energy within the estate). Active/attractive open space (11) evaluates the present condition and
maintenance of the open public spaces of each housing estate. And finally, mix of unite types (12)
indicates the diversity of build-up structure and variation of housing types.
As a result, we can differentiate three categories: Rakéta utcai from the 50’s (40 points) and Simon
Bolivar from the 70’s (42 points), have the best urban form related to sustainability. Interesting to
recognize that both estates received architectural award for its masterplans. Therefore, we can say
that the urban value, provided by the innovative masterplan has a long-term effect on sustainability.
However, the location and building technology of these 2 estates are different. Rakéta utcai was
constructed by the traditional brick method on the edge of the city, meanwhile, Simon Bolivar situat-
ed not far from Csepel center consists of large prefabricated panel buildings.
Rákóczi block, the contemporary housing development (36 points) and Béke téri, the oldest from
the 40’s (32 points) are in the middle position. Both are monofunctional developments with several
good architectural qualities related to residential buildings. Rákóczi block became a dense, fenced,
mineral part of the city, while Béke téri seems to be actually a neglected “green island” with a lot of
potential to become sustainable and livable neighborhood. The last is the Ady úti (26 points), a mass
production residential project of the 70’s. It is a Large prefabricated estate composed by only two
different types of monofunctional residential 10-storey high slabs. In this way, it is possible to say
that its actual problems are not only related to the social context but also physical one, presumably
on the building and neighborhood levels.

CONCLUSION

While the methodology of evaluation can be further developed, the research makes it apparent that
different urban form has different sustainability quality. In addition, it is important to recognize, that
the neighborhood long-term urban quality is not based on the time of construction. It is rather that
the lifecycle of a neighborhood is based on permanent changes, whilst the rhythm of buildings,
greenery, infrastructure, and residents are not the same. The comparative study shows that ar-
chitectural and urban qualities are interconnected, and in the case of a housing estates, the urban
design value could be one of the most important components of the sustainability.

REFERENCES

__ Barna, Krisztina. 1995. “Évek, művek, alkotók”. Budapest: Épitésügyi Tájekoztatási Központ Kft.
__ Benkő, Melinda. 2015. “Budapest’s large prefab housing estates: urban values of yesterday, today and
tomorrow” DOI: 10.1556/044.2015.29.1–2.2.
__ Benkő, Melinda and Kissfazekas, Kornelia. 2019. “Amoeba Cities”. In: Benkő & Kissfazekas (Eds).: Un-
derstanding Post-socialist European Cities. Budapest, Paris: L’Harmattan Publishers pp. 6-26.
__ Calthorpe, Peter. 1993. The Next American Metropolis: Ecology, Community, and the American Dream.
New York: Princeton Architectural Press.
__ Clapham, David 1995. “Privatisation and East-European housing model”, Urban studies journal, vol. 32
(4-5), pp. 679-694. DOI: 10.1080/00420989550012834
__ Engel, Barbara. 2019. Mass housing in a socialist city: heritage, values, and perspectives. p. 26. Berlin:
Dom publishers

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 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

__ Frey, Hildebrand. 1999. Designing the City: Towards a More Sustainable Urban Form. London, New
York: E & FN Spon.
__ Hough, Michael. 1984. City Form and Natural Process. London: Routledge.
__ Kovács Zoltan, Egedy Tamás, Szabó Balázs. 2018. Persistence or change: divergent trajectories of
large housing estates in Budapest, Hungary. In: Hess, D B; Tammaru, T; Ham, M van (szerk.) Housing
estates in Europe, Publisher: Springer pp. 191-214.
__ Larco, Nico. 2016. “Sustainable urban design – a (draft) framework”, Journal of Urban Design” 21(1),
1-29, DOI: 10.1080/13574809.2015.1071649
__ Petz, Nándor 2017. “Lakótelepek Csepelen”. Last modified June 12, 2017. Accessed February 3, 2020.
http://www.21keruleti-hirhatar.hu/index_cikk.php?hh=lakotelepek-csepelen
__ Poklewski-Koziell, Damian. 2015. “The Illusion of Better Living: Comparative Analysis of Prefab Hous-
ing Estates with the Contemporary Realizations in Cracow”, Periodica Polytechnica Architecture, 46(2),
pp. 57-63. DOI: 10.3311/PPar.8957.
__ Salat, Serge. 2011. Cities and forms: on sustainable urbanism. Paris: Editions Hermann, pp 119-120.

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7TH INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC CONFERENCE

SHARED SPACE IS HUMAN TECHNOLOGY

DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch4

_ Pieter de Haan
Consultant, researcher Knowledge Centre Shared Space Westersingel 4,
8913CK Leeuwarden, Netherlands, pieter@kenniscentrumsharedspace.nl

ABSTRACT

In the Dutch city of Drachten over 20 years ago a project started to design a junction without traffic
signs nor lines and with a single surface level. Later on it was called Shared Space and this concept
started to spread over the Netherlands and surrounding countries.

Background for this idea was that, certainly in old city centres and villages, technology was not
enough to acquire the behaviour that was preferable. More and more rules were violated and respect
and communication between road users was decreasing. An overview of these years can be found
in an article in Urban Design (De Haan, 2018).

After experiments and evaluations of many projects we now know that there is more needed to reach
a working Shared Space. A place should be related to the history of the place or neighbourhood.
Places are unique in a historical way, but have also a social meaning. So every Shared Space loca-
tion is unique and depending on the design it will have the results of a place that has more quality
and is more vibrant, lively.

If we (the designers) can design places in a way that more human behaviour is elicited, then places
are no longer traffic places, but social places, places to be, to shop and to meet. This is what hap-
pens in Shared Space.

People communicate with other road users all equal in their rights, no longer dependent nor de-
fined by the mode of transport they use or the place they use. Speeds are harmonized and low. The
technology used for this is design, urban design, architecture. Perception based on psychological
principles and risk balance in adapting speeds.

In the conference we now can present results of experiments and evaluative studies on Shared
Space. It’s no longer an idea, but a concept that’s becoming based on scientific results and data.

KEYWORDS _ shared space, urban design, human technology

INTRODUCTION: TECHNOLOGY IN THE PUBLIC SPACE

A facial recognition system is pure technology, trying to copy a human ability to recognize people
by their faces. But humans can do more, they see emotions, non verbal expressions and combine
them also with voices, places, gestures etc. This “technology” is not only a human ability, also most
animals can do the same.
Public spaces are the places where this human capability is needed to cope with the surrounding
and other humans.
More and more the motorised traffic becomes a technology driven way of mobility. Electric cars, lane
keeping systems, automatic braking, intelligent speed adaptation and self driving cars are prom-

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ising features in the public space. Artificial Intelligence is a phenomenon that’s becoming a main
and basic instrument to control and manage lots of systems. Junctions where traffic lights rule the
traffic flow of people, in cars walking and cycling. And what happens when the traffic lights don’t
work because of a electric outage? Most times it flows also, maybe a bit slower and certainly in
more chaos, but the road users rely then on the communication with each other, also an aspect of
human technology.
But most road users are walking or biking, without all of these means of travelling. They rely on own
decisions, made on habits, intuition, rapid perception and cognition. From a car driver’s point of
view car-driving looks safe, but we see that most of the (fatal) incidents, all over the world, happen
amongst pedestrians and cyclists. More than half of all road traffic deaths are among vulnerable
road users: pedestrians, cyclists and motorcyclists (Global status report on road safety, 2018). And
from the vulnerable road users, the children are a big proportion of this number. As the report says:
Road traffic injuries are now the leading cause of death for children and young adults aged 5–29
years.
Globally over 270,000 pedestrians are killed each year, one fifth of all death in traffic (World Health
Organization Geneva).
Maybe the systems in the public space need not only a technical but also a “human” touch. As a
parallel human technology could be an important contribution to make places more safe, places to
be and even more social.

_ Figure 1: Ljubljana, Slovenska cesta before and After

PSYCHOLOGICAL BACKGROUND FOR HUMAN TECHNOLOGY

Humans make decisions all day, with small or big impact on their own life and most times of others.
The way of decision making is a wide and thorough researched field of science. Pavlov (Pavlov,
1927) and Skinner (Skinner, 1938) started with the way how organisms, later confirmed for humans,
decide to decide. Rewards and penalties were the main engine to do things. This was the start of
behaviourism. Just looking at the outside to see what organisms do. It was Maslow (Maslow, 1954)
who made human motivation clear as a motor for behaviour.
The decision-making they studied was more or less based on considered possibilities. These de-
cisions take time, looking at the pro’s and con’s. “Where do we go on holiday?”, “Is this house suit-
able?”
But in every day life, certainly in traffic, we have a quite different task. Reacting on all the input, the
input of signs, stimuli we have to look at, understand, react toor ignore.

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We use simple heuristics to make decisions when in a hurry or just because there is no time to
overlook all the options. We use them also when the decision has not a big impact, as far as the
consequences are known. It was Herbert A. Simon (Simon, 1982) who came up with his model of
Bounded Rationality. In this theory he labelled this process “satisficing” and concluded that human
decision-making could at best exhibit bounded rationality. Although objective rationality leads to
only one possible rational conclusion, satisficing can lead to many rational conclusions, depending
upon the information available and the imagination of the decision maker (Munro and Nitta, 2013).
But: “This vision () has two interlocking components: the limitations of the human mind, and the
structure of the environments in which the mind operates.”, says Gerd Gigerenzer (Gigerenzer, 1999).
Certainly Simon was the one that predicted the possibilities of Artificial Intelligence, as computers
can calculate all the options. And in a very short time. When a human is called Homo Economicus,
then we talk about the person that calculates the pro’s and cons and decides. But look in traffic be-
haviour. A complicated task that’s most times too complicated. Certainly in crowded places where
lots of stimuli ask for attention. Then we have to choose, and on a basis that we hardly know. We
only can see that accidents happen when there are too many tasks – using a phone while driving –
and even commercial advertisements distract the driver from the right and quick choice.
This is what happens with behaviour in public spaces. Road users, normally don’t have time to
calculate the possible options they have, because of speed, hurry, complicated environments and
distraction, because of tasks and social surrounding.
What happens then? The organism looks for an optimal strategy, lets call it “best guess”.
Gigerenzer says that one-cue decisions are almost the second best after the economic consider-
ation of alternatives. Most times there are more cues to base a decision on, but it’s the choice of
cues that’s most times not known, not by an objective observer and even most times not by the
pedestrian or cyclist himself.
So to make decision-making better in complicated situations, and the urban environment is most
times a complicated situation, we need to make decision-making simpler. In cars, devices do already
help the driver concentrate on real random-happening tasks, while the system takes over routines
and controls.
For cyclists and pedestrians we need to look at the other part of the interlocking components, the
structure of the environment. But not only that, we know that the human brain can do much more,
including beliefs, emotions and needs when it makes decisions. They react on each other. They
communicate, visual, non-verbal and have routines.
That’s what we do in Shared Space.

SHARED SPACE AS A HUMAN SPACE FOR DECISION-MAKING

One of the first projects for applying the ideas of Shared Space was at the Laweiplein square in
the City of Drachten in the Netherlands. This is a sort of round about, but the design differs from
standard design, lacking zebras and clear ways of priority. So, on first observation we saw cyclists,
certainly also the young ones, school children, giving hand signs. Much more than in traditional
regulated locations. This was a first indication that the environment did not rule the behaviour in a
strict way but made road users communicate with others. Later students from the Groningen Uni-
versity did a research on this phenomenon and found out that in Shared Space locations, compared
to regulated locations, there were more non-verbal signs (Vries-Koopmans, 2013) In Figure 1, the
red-dotted line shows a higher average of communicative acts than in the two other places. We see
the most acts in situations with an average traffic flow.
It looks as if the lack of signs from the system urges road users to communicate with each other
instead of with the system This form of communication is not how we normally comprehend it,
because it’s just one way communication. Shared space system stimulates and enables 2-way
communication without additional infrastructure!
The observation and the research was an indication that the late Hans Monderman was right that it

45
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all deals with communication in traffic.

But is it good for all road users? Along the introduction of Shared Space in many places, not only in
the Netherlands, where it started, in the 1990s, but in Europe in almost every country and in places
in other continents. The concept of Shared Space strives to make the public space for all humans
accessible and with the same rights.

_ Figure 2: Signing by cyclists and number of gestures

SHARED SPACE FOR EVERY HUMAN?

Questions have come up, about vulnerable road users, like blind and visually-impaired people, who
don’t have the ability to communicate with vision. Making a street design in one level, without side-
walks and curbs, would give problems for blind people to orientate, but wheelchairs could move
easier.
A research done by Else Havik (Havik, 2012) comparing three conventional locations with Shared
Space places revealed that there were no significant differences between locations when asked
about the feeling of unsafety. In Shared Space we find most times people reporting that they felt
unsafe, when “their” place was reconstructed into a Shared Space. But when asked more in-depth
it was more a feeling of “insecurity”, not knowing what to do, because there was no clear guid-
ance. Older people reported this more than younger ones. After a certain time we saw this feeling
diminishing and also avoiding those places became less frequent. In the research of Else Havik,
when blind and visually impaired people had to walk a pattern through the place, the result was
that in one of the Shared Spaces, they got lost, problems with way-finding and orientation. A closer
look at that place learned that the design, could be done better, with more points that could serve
as orientation points. So we made a guidance for local designers, together with the Knowledge
Institute for the Blind. And for the blind and visually-impaired road users, new developments are
coming, developments that can help them move through Shared Space (See https://www.visio.org/
en-gb/professional/bevordering-deskundigheid/vision-2017/visio-presentations-at-vision-2017
or https://www.technologyreview.com/s/613632/these-colorful-stickers-are-helping-blind-peo-
ple-find-their-way-around/).
A better application is the use of Galileï. This can guide blind and visually impaired people. It’s much
more precise than GPS, and that’s important to find one’s way in public space. It’s not ready yet but
it’s a promise for future orientation for the blind and visually impaired.
But apart from all this technology, there is also the social way. When people can show their need, to
cross the street or to find their way, they can ask and I saw, in may cases, that this form of commu-
nication works well.
Shared Space is for every road user and gives each the same rights not depending on the mode of

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transport or where they are in the public space. It needs a responsible and creative input from the
designing engineers for the vulnerable road user. In the years that the Knowledge Centre grew in
experience we could make together with Royal Visio an expertise centre for visually impaired and
blind-people-guidelines regarding these road users (Havik and Melis-Dankers, 2014).

SHARED SPACE ACCEPTED AS URBAN DESIGN TECHNOLOGY

After the concept became a viable option to use in urban design, no longer the ideas of Hans Mon-
derman were the only source, although he brought these concepts with a lot of charisma. Still more
research became required: figures, measurements, and experiments. Besides that, the concept and
realisation lacked a process in the beginning and an evaluation afterwards. This was added by the
Knowledge Centre Shared Space: Functional ambiance as a method to assess the situation and
to formulate the ambition (http://www.urbanisten.nl/wp/?portfolio=functional-ambiance-2 visited
February 23, 2020.). From this we now know that these parts are essential to realise a project that’s
a project for the users, the people around that space. These projects are no longer suspect as only
coming from “the engineers and the politicians”. A peoples place is almost “owned” by the people,
it’s their square, village centre or street.

_ Figure 3 (left): Before and Figure 4 (right): After reconstruction (Pictures Google Earth)

At this junction in the village of Siegerswoude, The Netherlands, there were severe accidents, driving
too fast and even a fatal one. Engineers suggested a roundabout. That’s a technological solution,
also an easy one, a copy of the many roundabouts everywhere. But the villagers wanted something
better, something of their own and together with a group and help of the shared space workers,
another design was made, a square in a rural surrounding. No straight roads anymore, a place a
bit hidden with trees and bushes, so speeds go down and only on the square a road user can find
it’s way. It works, it’s found much nicer and even some functions could be added. This place got an
identity, the villagers named it “Ons dorpsplein” (“our village square”).
So here we see that with human intelligence it’s possible for people to reach their own solutions for
their own problems. These solutions will have support and less (or no) objections , because they are
from bottom up and therefore also sustainable.

CONCLUSIONS

“Is there a definition for Shared Space?” A question many times heard.
But a definition suggests that Shared Space is a standard solution, a concept to apply everywhere
and always with the same look. This is not what it should be. So in the run of over 20 years we found

47
 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

out that it’s better to find conditions for applying Shared Space.
__ A place is suitable for Shared Space when there are more functions than just moving from A to B.
__ The place or places should be part of a network with a higher hierarchy.
__ Speeds should be harmonized, with design measures.
__ Shared Space needs a design process that includes the community and their evaluation.
__ The design should reflect the history of the place.
__ The design characterises the identity of the place.
__ The place is accessible for everyone.
And we can conclude that the concept of Shared Space is still a concept, never ready and there are
still more questions to answer and more questions will be raised and researched.

In search of a definition of shared space:

Public space is all around us, a vital part
of everyday urban life: the streets we
pass through on the way
to school or work, the places where
children play, or where we encounter nature
and wildlife; the local parks in which we
enjoy sports, walk the dog and sit
at lunchtime; or simply somewhere quiet
to get away for a moment from the bustle of
a busy daily life. In other words, public
space is our open-air living room, our outdoor
leisure centre.

_ Figure 5: A short(left) and a longer definition of Shared Space

REFERENCES

__ De Haan, P, in 147 Urban Design, Summer 2018, Urban Design Group Journal, , ISSN 1750 712X Street-
scape
__ Global status report on road safety 2018: summary. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2018 (WHO/
NMH/NVI/18.20). Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO
__ Pedestrian Safety, A road safety manual for decision-makers and practitioners, World Health Organi-
zation Geneva 27 Switzerland
__ Pavlov, L.P. (1927) Conditioned reflexes Oxford: Oxford University Press.
__ Skinner, B.E. (1938) The Behaviour of Organisms, New York: Appleton Century-Crofts.
__ Maslow, A. (1954), Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper & ROW.
__ Simon, H.A. (1982) Models of bounded rationality, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
__ André Munro and Keith Nitta, 2013 Decision Making, Encyclopedia Brittanica.
__ Gigerenzer, G, Peter M. Todd, 1999, Simple Heuristics That Make Us Smart, Oxford University Press.
__ Vries-Koopmans, K.de, 2013, Communication and Traffic: Shared Space, University of Groningen.
__ Havik, E, 2012, Wayfinding and Accessibility for visually impaired people. Wöhring Printservice Zutphen,
ISBN 978-90-367-5733-1
__ Havik, E. and Melis-Dankers J.M. 2014, “Toegankelijkheid van Shared Space gebieden voor blinde en
slechtziende mensen”, Koninklijke Visio Huizen, The Netherlands
__ http://www.urbanisten.nl/wp/?portfolio=functional-ambiance-2 visited February 23, 2020.

48
7TH INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC CONFERENCE

THE SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION OF THE OLD

COMMUNITY IN BEIJING NO.72 OF TIANQIAO AS AN EXAMPLE
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch5

_ Xue Kang
Breuer Marcel Doctoral School, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology
University of Pécs, Boszorkány u. 2, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary, kangxue1017@gmail.com

_ Yufang Zhou
School of Architecture, China Central Academy of Fine Arts,
Huajiadinan Str. 8, Chaoyang, Beijing, China, zhouyufang@cafa.edu.cn

_ Gabriella Medvegy
Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology University of Pécs,
Boszorkány u. 2, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary, medvegygabriella@pmmik.pte.hu

ABSTRACT

Cities are the core space of human life and the comprehensive crystallization of human civilization.
The city construction gradually turns to globalization and internationalization, along with the prog-
ress of knowledge and the update of technology. As a historic capital, Beijing also faces the same
challenges of modernization and urbanization as other international cities. How to make cities more
suitable for future life is the goal of contemporary architects and urban planners. The sustainable
community construction of Beijing Tianqiao art district, which started in 2017, is an experimental
exploration of the future development of old urban communities. No.72 has been transformed from
a vacant rental house into a community cultural public service space, one of a series of projects
in the Tianqiao arts district. The project attempts to create a relaxed public space in a dense city.
Redesigning the abandoned or passively used space in the old community and giving it new func-
tions is an effective way to stimulate the vitality of the community and serve the urban residents in
this case. The Tianqiao arts district, as a typical traditional community in Beijing, makes the project
more representative. Repair the city from the tiny Spaces of the community, from point to line, and
then connect the whole city into a network. The innovation of community micro-governance and
the improvement of community self-service capacity are the beginning of the long work to improve
urban space.

KEYWORDS _ urban renewal, community, sustainable, space governance

INTRODUCTION

The gathering crowd developed into a “city”, and the trading society produced a “ urbanization”. Re-
newal is not a strange phenomenon in the process of urban development. The urbanization of a city
must have experienced a relatively complete cycle, and repeated exploration in multi-level practice,
operation and conflict, and finally chose to maintain the balance between development and cultural
tradition, there is a mature city.
At present, the pace of globalization is accelerating, and Beijing is gradually becoming an “inter-
national city”. However, in the rapid development of urbanization, the appearance of the modern

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city style convergence, the ancient city economic recession, the loss of urban characteristics and
vitality and other problems, so that Beijing is facing unprecedented challenges on the road of urban
renewal. Especially for the ancient Southern District in the center of Beijing. The Tianqiao area in
the south of Beijing has a history of nearly 600 years. As an integral part of the historic context of
the ancient Beijing, its development and construction are related to the integrity and diversity of
Beijing’s cultural development. The unique culture of Beijing hutong shows various disadvantages
in the development of urbanization, which brings annoyance and inconvenience to people living in
the city, and also has some influence on the operation of the city. Transforming traditional hutongs
into livable modern communities is one of the tasks of urban renewal.

METHODOLOGY

Urban regeneration
In the context of urban development, the alternation between ancient and modern urban space be-
comes more and more intense. The functions of the ancient city are failing intermittently, and the
current situation such as crowded traffic, high commuting costs, and security risks is in urgent
need. And modern city means efficient life style, advanced functional facilities, preferential policies
and so on.
The concept of urban renewal was given at the first seminar on urban renewal held in Holland in
1858. In a nutshell, urban renewal is to change the environment through repairs, transformations,
and other means to meet the increasing material and cultural needs and spiritual civilization needs
of mankind. With the progress of the city, the old houses in the past no longer adapt to the develop-
ment needs. If the city is to function, it will inevitably be renewed. This is not transferred by the will
of the person.

Ecological urbanism
Ecological Urbanism is a revolution in the modes and methods of urban planning, design, construc-
tion and management, and even a revolution in a new way of life. It is also the theoretical pioneer of
the concept of Green Infrastructure. Ecological Urbanism inherits the viewpoint of landscape urban-
ism and constructs the connotation of ecology. The idea of understanding the city as an ecosystem
dates back to the Archigram group in London in the 1960s. The theory has been proven to apply to
a range of urban development problems, such as the restoration of industrial wasteland, the revival
of shrinking urban centers and the development of new cities in the context of rapid development.

Community building
Community building, also known as community empowerment. “Community” refers to the people
who form a “community of life” with each other and are geographically clustered together. “Com-
munity building” is the process of creating such a social-psychological connection between people
and between people and the places. The concept of community building can be traced back to the
“Bedford Stuyvesant Restoration Corporation” in the United States in 1967. Locally, they re-cultivate
the community of the area by repairing them, rather than shoveling off the original building. For the
past half century, urban renewal in the United States is mainly driven by the bottom-up and sponta-
neous “community development corporation” (CDC). The focus of community building in cities is to
create residents’ sense of community, reshape community life, and emphasize “local” and “cultural”.

Placemaking
The concept of Placemaking was born in the development of “Community building” in Taiwan, China.
Placemaking is to use a site of transformation, to activate a place. This concept is based on the un-
precedented complexity of contemporary social life background, more constructive, transformative,
positive social management. Placemaking focuses on constructing and nurturing the relationship
between people and the environment in which they are located. Building Shared value, community

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capacity, and cross-sectoral cooperation in local cities through extensive and focused management
of local quality is the foundation of resilient cities and vibrant communities. And in this process, the
participants may or may not be residents of the community. This is a more open approach to com-
munity building and urban renewal.

THE BACKGROUND OF NO.72 IN TIANQIAO COMMUNITY

Beijing’s history of “urban renewal” can be traced back to nearly 30 years ago—Relocate a part of the
population within the framework of no major demolition. Through the introduction of municipal ren-
ovation, functional completion and modern design, hutong life has been changed. The new version
of Beijing’s urban master plan, released in 2017, clearly states that the ancient city will no longer
demolish hutongs and courtyards, and promote the protection and organic renewal of historical
and cultural neighborhoods, landscape coordination areas and other traditional bungalow areas.
“Organic renewal” replaces “Ancient city reconstruction” and becomes the development direction
of ancient city.
In 2017, Beijing international design week initiated a renovation project of vacant houses in Tian-
qiao community. The organizer invited the architects to make in-depth visits to the residents of the
Tianqiao community, design a series of public service spaces that activate the community life, and
carry out related cultural service activities with the residents. The inclusion of urban renewal as one
of the content sections of design week is rare globally, as international design weeks are almost
always dominated by industrial design. No. 72 of Zhaozhuizi hutong is the case to be discussed in
this paper, as well as one of the old community renewal exploration during the design week.

The location and history of Tianqiao

The Tianqiao of south Beijing is located in the southern section of the central axis of Beijing. The
nearly 600-year-old Tianqiao area was once a cultural and entertainment venue for the people of
Beijing. Set of cultural entertainment, food and beverage snacks and business services as a whole,
is the proof of many ancient Beijing people’s culture. The rise of Tianqiao culture is not only an
economic phenomenon but also a cultural phenomenon，leading the beginning of the economic and
cultural vitality of ordinary people in modern Beijing. The residents and vendors in Tianqiao area
are the main participants and promoters of Beijing’s leisure and entertainment life, and this unique
folk style has influenced the culture of the whole city (Figure 1). A Chinese proverb says, “Man can
prosper the land, and land can prosper the people.” Scholars studying the history of the Tianqiao
area also refer to this phenomenon as “civilian universities”.

_ Figure 1: left-’Second-hand goods seller at Tianqiao market’, https://ma.as/121284/centre-’Young ac-

robat at Tianqiao market’, https://ma.as/121292/right-’Roadside fortune teller’, https://ma.as/121304,A
Photographer in Old Peking,1933-1946 (by Hedda Morrison)

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Like other fast-growing cities around the world, Beijing suffers from urban disease. In the com-
munity of Tianqiao near the center of the capital, the contradiction between modern life style and
traditional community space becomes increasingly fierce. In the recent ten years of urban renewal
and construction in Beijing, the city has gradually solved a series of problems in the renewal of in-
frastructure in the ancient hutong life, such as domestic water, garbage treatment, management and
construction of public toilets and so on. However, the high-density hutong community space still
makes life inconvenient for many residents, so they finally choose to move out of the hutong. This
alleviates the high density of community life to some extent, but at the same time produces some
empty and wasted building space.

Architectural overview of Zhaozhuizi hutong No. 72

The no. 72 is located in the middle of Zhaojuezi Hutong in the northern bungalow area of Tianqiao
community (Figure 2). According to the measurement, the indoor area of building No. 72 is about
27.5 (Figure 3). From the room layout can be analyzed the original occupants of the building at least
two renovations. On one occasion, two entrance halls were illegally constructed on the north side of
the building. On another time, the middle partition wall was interrupted and the entrance door on the
east side was closed, making the two independent rooms into a set. The additional functional space
is a kitchen and bathroom, and there is no toilet in the room. There are no windows on the south side
of the building, while the added space on the north side obstructs the internal lighting of the rooms.
The indoor lighting is seriously insufficient and the ventilation is poor

_ Figure 2: left-Location analysis of no. 72 Zhaozhuizi hutong /right-No. 72 facade analysis diagram
(by author)

_ Figure 3: left-Spatial scale analysis diagram of No. 72 /right-No. 72 interior photo (by author)

THE RENOVATION STRATEGY OF NO.72 IN TIANQIAO COMMUNITY

The renovation of no.72 was positioned as a community service module: community medical and
health service space. According to the lack of community functions existing in Tianqiao, the purpose
of the transformation is to set up a series of community service stations based on the lifestyle and
living habits of residents in the community, so as to create a new public space mode for the commu-
nity. In these new spaces, while providing convenience services, participants will be given new social

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identities, and a more three-dimensional identity interaction network will be established.

Modernization of facilities
“Repairing the old as old” is the method of cultural relics protection, not the way of urban renewal.
Residents are 21st century people who need modern lifestyles to meet their needs for a better life.
Therefore, the building should first meet the convenience of modern people’s basic life, such as hot
water, electricity safety, sanitation, lighting, ventilation and other basic requirements of healthy life.

Return illegally occupied street space

In Beijing bungalow construction, there are more illegal addition of the phenomenon. This is closely
related to the transition problems in multiple stages of social transformation. It is difficult to funda-
mentally solve the phenomena left over from history, and mistakes can only be corrected through
continuous updates. Returning public space on the street can also solve many problems of the
original building.

Suitable for aging design

China is one of the countries with a rapidly aging population. Beijing’s traditional community resi-
dents are mostly elderly, who cannot afford expensive relocation costs. Therefore, the age-appro-
priate design of community public space is particularly important and hidden in every detail of ar-
chitectural design.

The continuity of community culture

Modern architectural design should go into hutong, and the concept of design is’ new born from the
old’, emphasizing ‘new’, but fundamentally old. The essence of community life is the resonance and
cohesion of culture, so retaining the original culture of the community is also the basis of design.
In particular, there are traditional cultural characteristics of Beijing Tianqiao art culture, Tianqiao
performance culture is the core of the community construction.

From community building to Placemaking

The no. 72 is named the “ Community Healthcare Center “ (CHC). The moral is to bring a space for
healthy living services and medical assistance to community residents. It also represents a desire to
energize the community. The architects wanted to use the “design” to guide the “lifestyle”, with the
community residents jointly managing and using the public service space. Then realize the “man-
agement” to “construction” transformation, and constantly in the use of the building to correct the
“design.” It is also a metaphor for the community as a sub-ecosystem within the urban ecosystem.
Guide the community’s self-renewal and emphasize self-government of residents.

RECONSTRUCTION PROCESS OF NO.72 IN TIANQIAO COMMUNITY

Project no. 72 lasted for two and a half months from site exploration, scheme design, construction to
participation in the design week exhibition. In the design stage of the scheme due to time, cost and
other problems, after several amendments.
The first version of the scheme wants to start from the multi-function and openness of the space
(Figure 4). By using the combination of gray mirror + double-sided shelving + reflector, the three
parts can be separated or combined separately along the two-way sliding track. Such homogeniza-
tion units can achieve the transformation of location attributes according to specific spatial func-
tional requirements. The illegal addition of the building has not been removed, and the architects
want to install two doors to enter the building through artistic means.
In the second discussion, two design schemes are proposed (Figure 5). The two design intentions
put forward in plan 2 are also intended to enrich the applicability of space by resetting and super-
imposing space functions. Different from Plan 1, which wastes part of the building space, Plan 2 is

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more practical and reasonable.

_ Figure 4: The first version of the plan’s aerial view, elevation, indoor renderings (by author)

_ Figure 5: Plan 2-1and 2-2’s aerial view, elevation, floor plan, indoor renderings (by author)

The third version of the scheme is based on a development in the second version. The biggest
change is the landscape renovation after the demolition of illegal construction (Figure 6). The fourth
and fifth versions of the scheme are also about the possibility of illegal addition construction trans-
formation into semi-closed courtyards (Figure 7).

_ Figure 6: The third version of the plan’s floor plan, elevation (by author)

_ Figure 7: The fourth and fifth version of the plan’s aerial view, elevation (by author)

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The plan 6 is also the final version (Figure 8). The biggest change lies in the determination of the col-
or of the building’s facade, which also determines the identity color named “Community Healthcare
Center”. Giving architectural identity and personality is an effective way to emphasize the existence
of its function.

_ Figure 8: The final plan’s elevation and Logo (by author)

After the final design scheme is determined, the inner area is 22.12. Illegal additions will be demol-
ished and the enclosed space will be opened. Install 1.5 HP air-conditioned outdoor unit. All around
metope is decorated with light steel keel gypsum board, middle enchase gray mirror. The interior of
the central partition door hole widened, with arc mobile combination furniture and drapes as parti-
tion, dividing into three functional Spaces: consulting room/lounge/ inquiry room.

CONCLUSIONS

With the acceleration of economic globalization, the advent of mass consumption society and the
rapid process of urbanization, social life has become unprecedentedly complex, which objectively
requires more constructive, transformative and active social management to integrate the order of
social life. There are discordant conflicts between old communities and urban construction, both
in physical environment space and function or in living mode and surrounding environment. Such
conflicts are becoming more and more prominent with the improvement of urban residents’ living
needs.
Community is the basic unit of people’s life. In the context of urban renewal, community building
should be based on local conditions and step by step. The micro-intervention of community space
should be emphasized. Firstly, modern and convenient services should be provided, and then com-
munity residents should be guided to participate in and manage. Finally, community construction
should be developed with community residents as the main body. The objective of project no. 72 is
to explore the possibility of creating subscale social services for multiple users in the limited space
of traditional hutong.
This project can be said to be a construction experiment, hoping that it will inherit the intimate space
of the hutong and revive its social performance, but it is completely new in form. Life in hutongs has
remained unchanged for decades, and if such “radical” design allows residents to see the possibili-
ties and diversity of modern life, it could become a progressive practice.

REFERENCES

__ M Mostafavi, G Dohert, and Harvard University Graduate School of Design. 2016. Ecological Urbanism,
Revised Edition. Zürich: Lars Muller.

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__ Simon Sadler. 2005. Archigram: Architecture Without Architecture. Cambridge: The MIT Press.
__ Beijing lnternational Culture Association, and Beijing Xuanwu district “Tianqiao of old Beijing” album
editor’s committee. 1990. Tianqiao of old Beijing. Beijing: Beijing Publishing Group.
__ Hedda Morrison.1985. A Photographer in Old Peking. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.
__ PC Xiang, YM Wang, Q Deng. 2017. “RESEARCH ON URBAN RENEWAL FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF
NATURAL DISASTER VULNERABILITY.” In WIT Transactions on Ecology and The Environment, Vol 226,
edited by C.A. Brebbia, J. Longhurst, E. Marco, C. Booth,85-94. Southampton: WIT Press.
__ JM Huang. 2017. “Emerging Challenges of Community Empowerment: Exploring a Harmonious Living
among Different Community Stakeholders.” Landscape Architecture Frontiers, 5(6):56-61.
__ John Friedmann.2010. “Place and Place-Making in Cities: A Global Perspective.” Planning Theory &
Practice, 11(2):149-165.
__ SR Wang. 2012. “Evolution of Beijing Tianqiao and Significance of Landscape Construction.” Beijing
Planning Review, no. 5: 150–153.
__ Sady Sullivan. 2009. “Coming Up in Bed Stuy.” Brooklyn Historical Society-Blog, July 29. Accessed
February 19, 2020. https://www.brooklynhistory.org/blog/bedford-stuyvesant-restoration/.

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SPACES THAT STIMULATE INNOVATION AND

CREATIVITY AND PROVIDE A SENSE OF COMMUNITY
AND PLACE – THREE CASE STUDIES FROM ZAGREB
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch6

_ Bojan Baletić
Ph.D, Faculty of Architecture, University of Zagreb,
Kačićeva 26, 10000 Zagreb, bbaletic@arhitekt.hr

_ Kristina Careva
Ph.D, Faculty of Architecture, University of Zagreb,
Kačićeva 26, 10000 Zagreb, kcareva@arhitekt.hr

_ Morana Pap
Ph.D, Faculty of Architecture, University of Zagreb,
Kačićeva 26, 10000 Zagreb, mpap@arhitekt.hr

ABSTRACT

The development of information technology and the global economy are causing the emergence
of new forms of work and entrepreneurial collaborations. These changes are at the intersection of
educational and business activities as well as creative and technological domains. This new design
thinking culture requires a stimulating environment. For the last ten years, we have been research-
ing new spatial configurations that provide support for creative and innovative processes. These
facilities, with creative and social dynamic they provide, were put into the context of new campus
planning, sustainable lifestyle promotion and urban regeneration founded on nature-based solu-
tions. This paper discusses the spatial development of architectural spaces which can house a mix
of activities (creation, innovation, enterprise) and offers an elaboration of their organizational and
functional characteristics. Moreover, it puts their characteristics into the context of brownfield reuse
for the establishment of a new urban identity and the quality of place. This innovative approach for
new facilities has been validated by academic community and a local community in Zagreb.

KEYWORDS _ Innovative methods, design thinking, brownfield reuse, community-driven hub

INTRODUCTION

The present pandemic has put into sharp focus the ways in which our society is changing, such as:
our global dependence, the possibilities of working online, the importance of the Internet technol-
ogies, but also a pressing need for real social interaction. The post-industrial transition has made
profound changes to cities and the way we work. There is a growing presence of small and medi-
um-sized enterprises which develop ideas and services as well as creative content. Creative and
cultural industries are recognized as not only the holders of cultural diversity in Europe, but also as
some of the most dynamic sectors of the EU’s economy.
In the architectural realm, we need to articulate the organizational and spatial needs of these groups
which are not homogeneous. It is more by defined “culture” than “functional” needs. New forms of
work and entrepreneurial collaborations are emerging, such as: co-working, start-ups, hubs, cre-

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ative labs, fablabs, makerspaces, etc. These activities are at the intersection of educational and
business functions as well as creative and technological domains. The new conceptual framework
and the new activities require an appropriate environment. In our research of these phenomena, we
considered the internal logic and motivation, the technological requirements, the organizational and
socializing aspects, the design and image expectations, but also the connection to the surrounding
community and the role in urban regeneration.
Brownfield sites are a consequence of our post-industrial transition. Large abandoned industrial
areas, often in the wider city centre, need redefinition, redevelopment and community building. The
new types of spaces and programs involving the creative and innovative community have an import-
ant role in revitalization by bringing these empty areas into focus at the start of their urban regen-
eration. In this paper, we will present some of the topics and projects covered by our research, such
as creative incubators, where engineering competences meet artistically driven impulses; student
housing, where innovation and new lifestyles merge; and community-driven hubs, where education,
social responsibility and entrepreneurial activities meet. These architectural programs were import-
ant in establishing a new University of Zagreb’s campus and the new centre for the local community
of Sesvete in Zagreb, which are both brownfields.

CASE STUDY 1: BORONGAJ CAMPUS IN ZAGREB

The new University of Zagreb’s campus was a former army base which had stared as the first airfield
in Zagreb a hundred years ago. In order for the new Borongaj Campus to be successful, it had to be
inspirational to the academic community, it also had to be conceptually progressive and it had to
facilitate change. The campus was expected to promote innovation, bio-consciousness, creativity,
interdisciplinary approach, knowledge transfer and provide a new educational experience. It had to
be urban, inclusive, outreaching and cost-effective. The campus planning and design processes, ini-
tiated in 2008, needed to address, among other things, the new reality of climate change, sustainable
campus design, living laboratory practice, the need for social innovation, urban quality indicators,
smart specialization strategy, as well as low university integration, the shift in educational paradigm
and social networks. All of them challenged the design process with a myriad of questions on how
to program, design and direct future processes.
Considering the 20-year development horizon of the campus, it was important to achieve some early
goals that would signal the change of mindset at the University and a vision for the future. One such
program is The Creative Incubator or The Centre for Creative Research, a place for collaboration of
different disciplines as well as of exploration of the intersection of new technologies, artistic sensi-
bility and social understanding. It was to be housed in an adapted army food storage building. At the
new campus, the CI’s activities should inspire curiosity and they should make the campus a place
of wider interest. The other important element for the new campus was student housing for some
four thousand students. As a part of a green campus, it should be a living laboratory for sustainable
development that introduces students to green technologies and sustainable lifestyles. Both needed
an architectural program that had to be researched.

The Creative Incubator – a space for interdisciplinary research and collaboration

The Creative Incubator at the Borongaj Campus was planned as The Centre for Creative Research
(Centre). The initial program for the Centre was defined by the representatives of selected acade-
mies and faculties. It was not easy to form the design brief since it had to address both artists’ and
engineers’ needs as well as engage the wider public. The project for the conversion of the existing
building into the Centre was conceived by an architect, Helena Paver Njirić (Careva, Baletić, Pap,
2015). This was the starting point for our research. In the research process, we looked at the facil-
ities for interdisciplinary activities and identified the different programs and spatial configurations
for new and innovative methods (Obrist, 2003). Based on these practices, we developed guidelines
for an architectural model which we then used to analyse the proposed project. The established

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architectural proposal is primarily of functional-social character and it allows for multiple levels of
collaboration by the disposition of the required spaces (Careva, 2012).

_ Figure 1 The schematic representation of process and collaboration gradation by spatial units in The
Creative Incubator. Source: Careva, K. (2012).

Since the creation of spaces for cooperation has been recognized as an imperative in the architec-
tural model, it is also necessary to consider the possibilities of achieving the physical and/or visual
connection of different spatial elements. We can follow connections both in linear and cross-spatial
sequence. In linear sequence connecting intimate workspaces with labs leads to team building, con-
necting labs with common spaces leads to community creation, and connecting common spaces
with the environment leads to a wider impact. Since creative principles often do not follow linear
principles, the possibilities of spatial interconnections are highly encouraged but there needs to be
a clearly defined connectivity control. The connection between intimate workspaces and shared
spaces is controlled by the individual, the connection between the laboratory and the environment
is controlled by the team, and the connection between laboratories and public spaces is controlled
by the community. A fully controlled approach should be provided between the common areas and
the public spaces of the Centre. Public space should be on the ground floor because the immediate
vicinity of the traffic artery and the university lawn provide an urban context for opening the contents
of the Centre to the community as well as using the university lawn as a spatial extension of the
Centre (Careva, 2012).

Student housing as a living lab for sustainability

A sustainable campus offers an understanding of what our built environment should aspire to. It
also stimulates the occupants, present and future professionals, to adopt the lifestyles that are
crucial for the sustainable development of the planet (Friedman, 2016). In this context, all student
housing on the campus should have the role of promoting sustainable living and social initiatives
(Baletić, Lisac, Pap, 2020). Our aim was to designate one student pavilion for an innovative green
building model that could be an educational, research and social tool for exploring advanced en-
ergy, technology and living proposition. The design of the building should be informed by the past
housing tradition but should also advance the sustainable character of the campus through energy
performance (nZEB, energy production and storage) and sustainable lifestyle choices. It should be
accommodating to social innovation initiatives and be a showcase for new efficient construction
methods and materials. Also, our interest was in the growing presence of the new IT technologies
(IoT, Big Data, smart assistants, digital fabrication) and their implementation within student housing,

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having in mind the future notion of a Thinking building (Pap, 2019).

_ Figure 2 Schematic representation of the student experience offered by proposed new student housing
programs. Left existing practice (one of the models), right advanced model (one of the two models).
Source: Pap, M. (2019).

The change in the programming of student housing is determined by the interests of the future
students, as well as by the expectations from the future workplace which demands new sets of
skills. We propose that the housing program should be extended from only dormitory (present prac-
tice) to include spaces that promote co-working, skills development (makerspace, entrepreneurial
training, creative expression) and social initiatives (urban gardening, second-hand items exchange,
alternative food choices, volunteer activities). In this respect, the new university campus becomes
a research and testing ground for future scenarios which will, with the involvement of business and
public sector partners, turn it into a living laboratory for the new and emerging sustainable society
(Pap, 2019).

CASE STUDY 2: SESVETE QUARTER IN ZAGREB

Sesvete is a city quarter on the east administrative edge of Zagreb. As it has grown from a village
into a city quarter during the past decades, it has never developed a clear urban form or identity.
The quarter has the highest population growth due to migration and natural growth. On average, it
is the youngest community in Zagreb. As a community it is rather traditional, close-knit and has an
entrepreneurial mindset.
Recently it has developed, through the local NGO activity and with the help of experts from the
Faculty of Architecture, an urban self-consciousness that demands public spaces, parks and green
spaces, bike lanes, additional public facilities, a better road network, a secure crossing of the railway,
a new music school, a hub for small spin-off companies and makers culture, the relocation of the
industrial zone, etc. and a new urban identity (Jošić, Baletić, 2016).
The ideal trigger for this new Sesvete downtown development has been a 125.000m2 plot of a for-
mer meat factory Sljeme, now owned by the City of Zagreb. Its location is adjacent to the present
centre of Sesvete, connected to the railway, and it will be well served by the future road network.
Among many buildings on the plot, several stand out as appropriate for reuse and reconstruction.
One of them, the vacant head office of the meat factory, presented a challenge for the development
of a program for a community-driven hub that would energize the transformation of the brownfield

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into a new centre of the neighbourhood.

Hub_Sesvete (HUB_S)
Contemporary entrepreneurship trends include creating spaces where innovation is encouraged,
experiences are shared, new values are created, and one’s own business is started (Tvede, 2015).
Through service sharing, spaces that house these new trends help people develop ideas more easily
and cheaply, take advantage of business opportunities, and organize businesses (Diez, 2018). There
are different forms of entrepreneurial incubators known worldwide. Hubs are one of them and they
represent a new place where young people and businesses whose interests are focused on digital
technologies come together and work. In addition to the already known spatial environment that
offers support for successful business start-up, HUB_S would house, under the same roof, creative
and innovative culture by aiming at creating new values. HUB_S should also stimulate cultural and
creative industries.

The above-mentioned processes also have their theoretical background. They are based on the logic
of the idea development, which is referred to as “design thinking” process. The process descriptions
in literature vary, but we provide a description we have tested through practice (Pap, Vdović, Baletić,
2019). The design thinking process consists of three basic stages, and each one of them contains
three steps. These are: to understand the problem (to understand - to perceive - to look at), then to
explore the solutions (to imagine - to make - to check) and finally to materialize the vision (to tell - to
start - to do business). Within such a process, one can perceive the activities of the hub. Since there
is no direct role model for such a complex program within a single building, we have been check-
ing our research findings through numerous discussions with persons running similar programs in
other EU countries. Those discussions corroborated the assumptions that the established model
could be successful, especially since it relates to the local community. The HUB_S project has been
part of two present Horizon 2020 projects. The first, proGIreg, is dealing with Nature Based Solution
principles in urban regeneration of brownfield sites into living green neighbourhoods. The HUB_S as
a building will promote high level of energy efficiency as well as green roofs and walls. This green
infrastructure approach will be promoted in the programs that the institution supports. The other
project, Centrinno, will promote brownfield neighbourhood development through support of skills old
and new, new digital technologies for production, as well as circular economy.

Within HUB_S, following entities would co-exist: a makerspace; a fablab; a co-working space, a
space for start-ups; workshops and an event venue. We will briefly describe each of them. Maker-
space is an easily accessible and well-equipped public physical space where people come together
to share resources and knowledge, work on projects, connect and produce. Fablab offers (personal)
digital production in a small workshop equipped with (most often) a range of flexible computer-con-
trolled tools that cover different product sizes as well as different materials, with the goal to produce
“just about anything”. Co-working is a style of working in a collaborative work environment where
people who are not normally employed by the same organization work together. Start-up is a level
at which a previously formed idea, quite often checked through a prototype, is developed into a
business venture. Workshop is an activity format that involves a larger number of people, focused
on discussing specific problems and presenting experiences and possible solutions. Event venue
allows organization of exhibitions, lectures, gatherings that can bring together people from HUB_S
and from the community. Off-line space on the roof admits the users to the natural surrounding and
allows them to enjoy the vegetation and fruit from the trees (Baletić, Jošić, Vdović, 2017).
The interested parties in this hub may be kindergartens, primary and secondary schools, colleges,
but also associations, artisans, retired people, the unemployed etc. The Fablab involves modern dig-
ital technologies that can be interesting for students, engineers, consultants, craftsmen, entrepre-
neurs and the unemployed. The start-up phase represents the realization of business opportunities
interesting for entrepreneurs, craftsmen, the unemployed, etc. HUB_S needs to stimulate and assist
these processes in order to enhance the economic potential of the neighbourhood in which it oper-

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ates. It supports the creative and entrepreneurial ecosystem, in which several external factors need
to be involved, such as: business angels, on-line crowdfunding, venture capital, etc. HUB_S could
have great importance for the local community of Sesvete.

_ Figure 3: Schematic representation of HUB_S cross section situating different activities and collabora-
tion. Source: Baletić, B., Jošić, M. (2020).

TOOLS FOR URBAN REGENERATION

HUB_S also plays an important role in the urban regeneration of the site. Sesvete has many young
people who will increasingly seek a career in the application of modern technologies. The entrepre-
neurial spirit that is recognizable in this neighbourhood needs to be further developed and taken as
an advantage and an opportunity to engage numerous small businesses which are affiliated with
new technologies. These entrepreneurs should be able to find the necessary infrastructure in HUB_S
to overcome challenges, or better said, open business opportunities, both in their local community
and in the city. Therefore, the interconnection between the HUB_S and the local community is ex-
tremely important. The local community should participate in the HUB_S programs, and the HUB_S
activities have to contribute to the development of that community. HUB_S should be inspired by the
community and be community driven. Urban resilience to negative changes (climate, demographic,
economic, social) is a significant issue these days and a lot of money is being invested in raising
the capacity of cities and communities in that direction. In this respect, HUB_S has a dual role: it re-
tains young people in the community and explores the solutions to the above-mentioned challenges
the community faces. The expected positive effects are: stimulating the development of the local
economy and entrepreneurship, the transition to new knowledge and skills, promoting the study of
STE(A)M. Sesvete brownfield site is also the case study for our present research into the topics of
green infrastructure and NBS (Nature Based Solutions) in proGIreg as well as FabCity strategies
dealing with local and digital fabrication and circular economy in Centrinno.
Similar to HUB_S, the Creative Incubator and the Living Lab student housing at the Borongaj Cam-
pus are important building blocks of the campus in the process of promoting a new vision and the
notion of change. The open and inviting nature of these facilities is an advantage that urban plan-
ning can build on. These new programs in reused buildings are a signal that the empty brownfield
areas begin their transformation for the good of the community, be it local or academic. In creating
the new campus, the university was determined to develop its research, education, development
and management capacity that can be used in the transformation of the society. Therefore, under-
standing the future process is so important for the design of the campus. The new campus must
stage “the four Is” - innovation, interdisciplinary collaboration, interaction and involvement (Baletić,
Jošić, 2017). The living lab approach takes the R&D and educational potential of the University and
brings the interests of research, enterprise, government and social groups to the table to ensure the
involvement and prosperity of the wider community.

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CONCLUSIONS

Every city has ‘’underused pockets’’ and these pockets weaken the city’s image, liveability, and pro-
ductivity. For that reason, our discussion and the above explained topic of the paper is set in the
context of brownfield reuse with the aim of establishing a new urban identity and quality of place.
Our intentions strived towards understanding and shaping appropriate architectural recommenda-
tions for the emerging forms of work and collaboration. The logic of these spaces is reflected in the
possibility of sharing ideas and building the awareness of community aspirations. Particularly inter-
esting in this regard are spaces whose purpose is not clearly defined, i.e. spaces that can be used in
various (unpredictable) ways. Not only do these spaces serve the individual in different ways, they
also serve informal socializing that has proven to be one of the best ways to gain new interdisci-
plinary ideas. By giving people different environments for work and socializing, we encourage their
creativity, which should be the most valuable tool for future success of both individuals and society.

REFERENCES

__ Baletić, Bojan; Jošić, Mladen. 2017. “An urban plan for a smart and resiliant community - A case study
of the new university campus Borongaj”. In Zagreb, MED.NET3 Resili(G)ence, ADD scientific meeting,
conference proceedings, curated by Gausa, Manuel; Andriani, Carmen; Gagnoni, Raffaella. ISBN 978-84-
941264-6-8. Barcelona: Paperdoc.
__ Baletić, Bojan; Jošić, Mladen; Vdović, Roberto. 2017. HUB_S (program and redesign of the head office
of former Sljeme meat industry in Sesvete for HUB_S), Expert study. Zagreb: Faculty of Architecture, Uni-
versity of Zagreb, commissioned by City of Zagreb.
__ Baletić, Bojan, Lisac, Rene, Pap, Morana. 2020. “A transition to sustainable lifestyles: The role of uni-
versities.” In Higher education and sustainability opportunities and challenges for achieving sustainable
development goals, edited by Ulisses Manuel de Miranda Azeteiro and J.Paulo Davim, 197–222. Boca
Raton London New York: CRC Press. Taylor & Francis Group.
__ Careva, Kristina. 2012. The architectural model of space for interdisciplinary research in art and tech-
nology, Doctoral dissertation. Zagreb: University of Zagreb, Faculty of Architecture.
__ Careva, Kristina; Baletić, Bojan; Pap, Morana. 2015. “Transformation of the industrial architecture her-
itage in the space for interdisciplinary research - an encouragement for new spatial development strate-
gies.” In Proceedings of the international scientific conference “Spatial and developmental opportunities
of cultural heritage”, edited by Obad Šćitaroci, Mladen, 514-519. Zagreb: University of Zagreb, Faculty of
Architecture.
__ Diez, Tomas. 2018. Fab City: the mass distribution of (almost) everything. Institute for advanced archi-
tecture of Catalonia, Barcelona.
__ Friedman, Avi. 2016. Innovative Student Residences: New Directions in Sustainable Design. Mulgrave,
Victoria: The Images Publishing Group.
__ H2020_Call: SCC-02-2016-2017: Demonstrating innovative nature-based solutions in cities, proGIreg
- Productive green infrastructure for post-industrial urban regeneration. Project lifetime: 2018-2023.
__ H2020_Call: CE-SC5-20-2019: Transforming historic urban areas and/or cultural landscapes into hubs
of entrepreneurship and social and cultural integration, CENTRINNO - New CENTRalities in INdustrial
areas as engines for inNOvation and urban transformation. Project to start in 2020.
__ Jošić, Mladen; Baletić, Bojan. 2016. Starting points for Green and Blue Sesvete project, Expert study.
Zagreb: Faculty of Architecture, University of Zagreb, commissioned by City of Zagreb.
__ Obrist, Hans Ulrich. 2003. Interviews, Volume I, Milano: Edizioni Charta.
__ Pap, Morana. 2019. Spatial and functional model of student residences in the context of university
campus, Doctoral dissertation. Zagreb: University of Zagreb, Faculty of Architecture.
__ Pap, Morana, Vdović, Roberto, Baletić, Bojan. 2019. “Design thinking method in scientific research,
education and business practice”. In Prostor Vol. 27, No. 2 (58): 334–347.
__ Tvede, Lars. 2015. The creative society: how the future can be won. LID Publishing Ltd, London.

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INFLUENCE OF VISUAL INTEGRATION AND PEDESTRIAN

MOBILITY ON EVERYDAY EXPERIENCE OF PUBLIC SPACE
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch7

_ Stefan Škorić
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Department of Architecture
and Urban Planning, Trg Dositeja Obradovica 6, stefan.skoric@uns.ac.rs

_ Aleksandra Milinković
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Department of Architecture
and Urban Planning, Trg Dositeja Obradovica 6, a.milinkovic@uns.ac.rs

_ Dijana Brkljač
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Department of Architecture
and Urban Planning, Trg Dositeja Obradovica 6, dijana.brkljac@uns.ac.rs

_ Milena Krklješ
Professor, Ph.D, University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Department
of Architecture and Urban Planning, Trg Dositeja Obradovica 6, m.krkljes@uns.ac.rs

ABSTRACT

During the previous decades, non-implementation of legal regulations has led to unrestrained ar-
rangement of inadequate physical and visual obstacles that have induced great negative effect on
the pedestrian mobility and visibility at the public spaces of Novi Sad (Serbia). On the other hand,
visual integration and effectiveness of mobility at the visited public space can induce a positive or
negative effect on the visitors’ perception of that space, which represents valuable input factor for
further analysis. Therefore, a space syntax methodology is used in order to comprehend complex
links between morphological and spatial characteristics of built environment and pedestrian move-
ment and visibility at the selected public spaces in Novi Sad, by applying visibility graph analysis
(VGA). The study is based on analyses of how are all fragments of public space visually intercon-
nected, and what is its relation to the pedestrian movement and usage of public space. The analysis
is done both at the ground level and at the eye level, with the focus on fixed and mobile physical and
visual barriers. Obstacles are grouped into different categories, with the focus on immovable public
furniture and moveable furniture of private cafes and restaurants that have particularly discouraged
people from moving freely around public space with greater selection of walking routes. Improved
visual integration of space and unobstructed pedestrian mobility are reassessed with the aim of
promoting walking without interruptions and impediments, and as a starting point for other public
activities.

KEYWORDS _ public space, mobility, visibility, obstacles, Novi Sad

INTRODUCTION

Urban space is a domain that arises through a symbiotic action between physical space, sensory
experience, and user activities that takes place in that location (Montgomery, 2007: 269). The urban

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environment with its form, morphology, traffic, and other aspects, influences various ways of the
public space usage in terms of frequency, function, accessibility, mobility, etc. The structure of urban
matrix is the most important determinant of urban movement (Stupar, 2009: 96), which makes the
parts of the city adapted to pedestrian traffic very different from all others due to design which is
adapted to the speed of a person moving about 5km/h. Walking as a sustainable form of transport
(Đukić and Vukmirović, 2011) is a significant motivator for organizing and branding of public spaces,
thus positively influencing the environmental, functional and psycho-physical aspects of space and
its users.
In accordance with the speed of pedestrian movement, walking as a mechanical action allows the
person to activate the sensory apparatus, and adaptation to pedestrian movement leaves the pos-
sibility for optimal understanding of the environment and events in the immediate vicinity. The con-
nection that happens between man and city, and with other people, is based on an individual expe-
rience that is subjective, and the activation of sight, smell, hearing, touch, taste and sound is more
intense due to the multitude of indicators of these sensory reactions that exist in the public space.
Pedestrian-friendly distances in both sensory and physical terms are adapted to the sense of space,
suggesting that human scale is the primary reference of those spaces. According to Montgomery
(1998: 97), this statement is confirmed through the claim that “urban quality must be considered in
much broader terms than the physical attributes of buildings, spaces and street patterns”, because
it is also influenced by architectural form, scale, landmarks, vistas, meeting places, open spaces,
greenery, etc.
Public space with urban integrity is extremely important for city marketing, branding and the image
of a city presented through its exploitation (Škorić, et al., 2016). The need to visit such places and
make users feel safe, satisfied and fulfilled (Speck, 2013: 11) is expressed in the urban policy of each
settlement. Such places are pedestrian areas and old parts of the city that bring together the largest
number of users and spaces that meet the criteria of hybridity, connectivity, porosity, authenticity,
vulnerability (Elin, 2006: 9), which Elin defines as fundamental in evaluating the quality of places.
Furthermore, the issue of walking is related to the horizontal and vertical spatial levels and the pos-
sibilities for viewing them. Horizontal level is the key domain in which the most intense contacts,
offers and diversity of elements are concerned, as well as the area on which the pedestrian moves,
uses the ground floors of buildings, exploits urban furniture, meets up with other people who are also
active users of space, etc. On the other hand, the vertical level represents an extremely significant
spatial extent, a physical boundary that closes the pedestrian viewing field, and serves as a land-
mark, scenery or motive and goal of movement.

STAYING ON THE PUBLIC SPACE AND PUBLIC ACTIVITIES

According to comprehensive research done by Jan Gehl, conducted on the topics of urban relations,
users and the quality of the place, it is concluded that the key motives that lead users to an area
are: easy transition between public and private spaces, the ability to see what is happening, a short
and convenient route, movement motivation, the need to go somewhere, and the need to do some-
thing (Gehl, 2013: 113-120). Being in a public space accordingly gains pronounced social benefits,
economic, cultural, and other characteristics that determine a person as a social being and affect
everyday quality of life. In spatial contact with other people, an individual can only collect informa-
tion about them, through a brief observation of the environment and events, which is an uncontrolled
interaction established among visitors to the space. Conversely, if controlled interaction is viewed, it
will be found that relationships among actors in space can be conditioned by the creation of focus
or events to which many users are directed, and among them, there is a closeness resulting from
gathering around the same landmark (Goffman, 1966: 24). Goffman states that such focused and
controlled activities, due to human contact and based on interests and personal affinities create
individual attention, while the focus on the event itself is conditioned by the number of participants
in the event.

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Outdoor activities can further be defined as necessary, optional and social activities (Gehl, 2010:
9-12), and their frequent occurrence depends on where they are established, the quality of the envi-
ronment and user comfort, favourable external influences, desire, mood and need of the user. Each
individual participating in the event, on that occasion, develops and meets personal needs and by
their wishes directly or indirectly influences the course, intensity or frequency of the same. By type,
an activity that is established in a public space can be:
__ passive - the person as the actor of the event is present, does not participate, does
not contribute, is not interested in the event or events and is absent;
__ half-passive - a person just watches, listens, buys, and has no communication with
anyone;
__ semi-active - the person observes the activity, but is himself active in some way;
__ active - the man is the actor of the event. (Milinković, 2019: 79)

PHYSICAL AND VISUAL OBSTACLES ON PUBLIC SPACES

Relations between people are basic aspects of public spaces in terms of socialization and their
initiation or avoidance is conditioned by spatial relations, organization of the place where the event
is established, placement of equipment, obstacles, movement trajectory, etc. Basically, walking is a
linear movement that brings the walker from one place to another, but figuratively, it is also a pro-
spective start for many other public activities. One of the requirements for a comfortable walk is a
free and undisturbed movement, without frequent interruptions and obstacles. Obstruction in space
can be primarily designed and planned, while there are those that are conditioned by the need for
safety, lighting, rest, etc. According to significant influential aspects in the public space, obstacles
may be:
A. in relation to type: physical or sensual (senses of vision, hearing, smell, and touch);
B. in relation to mobility: fixed or mobile (permanently set, periodically present).

Each of the obstacles in the public space is characterized by its purpose according to which their
exploitation and placement is possible, so that the flow and direction of movement is predesigned in
some space. Therefore, the most common obstacles in public areas are: elements of street furniture,
elements of urban equipment and signalling, equipment of cafes and restaurants, denivelation of
space, enclosure of space, elements for security and protection, etc.
By moving through public space, the user needs to feel comfortable, to look at the environment and
changes in urban space, to anticipate events, unexpected situations, and focus their attention on
things that sensory receptors recognize as dynamic and interesting. Visual integration of public
space is important, as “if people do not see a space, they will not use it” (Whyte, 1980: 58). Viewing
is thus differentiated into three spatial levels which are: at the ground floor level, at the eye level and
above the eye level (Gehl, 2011). It is important to note that spaces that are more difficult to access
are rarely used by humans. Accessibility and visibility are important but not decisive factors in urban
exploitation, since in pedestrian zones the absence of a car is the primary initiator of safety, freedom
and comfort for users (Stanojlovic, 2016: 31). The organization of contrasting places in space influ-
ences the dynamic and pedestrian potential (Reba, 2010: 48), which is significant for the recognition
and actuality of a place.
According to Jan Gehl (Gehl, 2011: 62), physical arrangement can promote or prevent visual and
auditory contact in at least five different ways:
A. Inhibiting contact: walls long, distances, high speeds, multiple levels, back-to-back ori-
entation;
B. Promoting contact: no walls, short distances, low speeds, one level, face-to-face orien-
tation.

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METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH TO THE RESEARCH

Introduction of new methodologies in public life studies that are based on mathematical models can
be used to “process data in order to predict where people will probably go and which way they will
probably take and how often they will take it” (Gehl and Svarre, 2013: 75). This paper studies link
between spatial aspects of built environment and movement/visibility at the public space through
space syntax methodology. Space syntax is based on theory of spatial configuration, introduced by
Bill Hillier, theoretical framework that is “capturing the inner logic of at least some aspects of the
form and functioning of built environments” (Hillier, 2007 [1996]: 1). Space syntax is used as method
in order to study the movement of people, patterns of their movement, most probable routes, visual
integration at public space, etc. Data is analysed through visibility graph analysis (VGA), a space
syntax technique for quantifying visibility relations between different points in the public space.
The specific focus of this paper is on visual integration and connectivity, two parameters that have
important role in visual perception at public space, and furthermore vitally effect pedestrian mo-
bility. Visual integration can be defined as “potential area in the layout where one can see much of
the layout and can be easily seen” (Al Sayed, et al., 2014: 37). It has a significant role in wayfinding,
navigation, as well as in decision-making considering direction of movement, etc. Connectivity in-
dicates the number of elements each element is directly connected to (Ibid.: 19). This measure of
the number of immediate spaces that are directly connected to the observed space can influence
pedestrian accessibility, permeability and mobility at open public spaces of the city.
Multi-layered analysis in this paper are done in a software platform DepthmapX, which studies a
spatial network in order to better understand social processes within a built environment (Varoudis,
2012). Model of public space which is used in analysis is based on representation of selected frag-
ment of urban structure as arrangement of opened spaces (e.g. streets, squares, etc.) and closed
spaces (e.g. buildings and other structures), whereas open spaces are commonly represented in
lighter colour and surrounding buildings are represented in darker colour. Software constructs a
coloured visibility graph that determines degree of visibility, and indicates which areas have a strong
visual link between them, and which ones are visually isolated.

_ Figure 1: Spatial layout of Dunavska Street in Novi Sad divided into a square network which is covering
visible and accessible areas of the street. Drawing shows open public spaces (lighter colour), closed
spaces such are buildings (darker colour) and all observed street furniture and equipment. (source: Ste-
fan Škorić)

In order to create the visibility graph, a CAD drawing of chosen public space intended for analysis

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has to be divided into a network of equal squares (generally in size of human step), which are cov-
ering publicly visible and accessible areas (Figure 1). In the next step of analysis, the inter-visibility
is determined between the central point of each unit (i.e. the square of the network) with all other
units within a selected area for analysis. The edges of the graph are then made between any two
units if those two units are mutually visible. Visibility graph represents all accessible routes and
areas of public space in red tones, and all locations that are segregated, difficult to reach and with
low visibility in blue tones.

CASE STUDY: DUNAVSKA STREET

The Dunavska Street (or Danube Street) represents one of the most visited pedestrian streets of
Novi Sad (Serbia). It is an important fragment of the pedestrian zone in the protected old town centre
(Figure 2), with many historic and cultural monuments of the city. A car-free pedestrian zone of the
city was developed in the 1980s, in contrary to construction of new boulevards and other vehicu-
lar infrastructure of the city. Up to today, it has been used as one of the most frequent pedestrian
routes, administrative and shopping centre, as well as for the gatherings of a large number of people
(demonstrations, music concerts, etc.) and for organization of various events in the open (film fes-
tivals, open-air exhibitions, etc.).

_ Figure 2: Dunavska Street today ― touristic, admistrative, shoping and social centre of Novi Sad and
main pedestrian walkway of the city. (source: Aleksandra Milinković)

Even though the street is without any immense visual or physical obstacles that could significantly
disrupt movement and visibility of pedestrians, arrangement of moveable furniture of cafes and
restaurants has induced great negative effect on the pedestrian permeability. Therefore, this paper
explores spatial parameters that are determining visibility and mobility relations within Dunavska
Street. The study is done in order to understand how are all spaces physically and visually con-
nected within the selected street, and how such relations can positively affect or limit pedestrian
movement and visibility.
Dunavska Street is linear route divided into pedestrian part and part of the street intended for motor
traffic which was not included in analysis. Pedestrian part of the street can be divided into three
fragments - intersection with Zmaj Jovina Street and Gimnazijska Street (1), middle part of Dunavs-
ka Street (2), and inflow into Ignjata Pavlasa Street and other part of Dunavska Street intended for
motor traffic (3). Three fragments of the street vary in functional and morphological characteristics
important for analysis (Table 1), particularly in the width of the cross section going from 7,5m in
narrowest part of fragment (2), to 30m in widest portion of fragment (3). Most of the surround-
ing buildings have two floors, with different uses and ground floor contents such are commercial
(restaurants, cafes, bank, shops, etc.), public (library, museum, etc.), etc.
The visibility graph analysis was done on prepared a CAD drawing of Dunavska Street that was di-
vided into a network of equal squares (100cmx100cm). The visibility relations were determined be-

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tween the central points of each unit of proposed grid with all others. The analysis was done on two
levels - analyses of connectivity at the ground level with the focus on pedestrian permeability and
mobility, and at the eye level with the focus on visual integration, both with and without the observed
obstacles. The focus of permeability analysis was on physical obstacles that could induce changes
primarily in the pedestrian movement such are moveable furniture of outdoor cafes and restaurants,
flower pots, street lighting, trash cans, benches, kiosks, and other elements of public furniture and
equipment. Observed obstacles have mostly effected pedestrian mobility, and in most of the cases
didn’t represent significant visual obstacles.

_ Table 1: Characteristics of the pedestrian part of the Dunavska Street and satellite image with three
Table 1: Characteristics of the pedestrian part of the Dunavska Street and satellite image with three fragments
fragments
pointed out (source:pointed out (source: https://geosrbija.rs/)
https://geosrbija.rs/)

Area: ~2 500 m2
Shape: Linear route with trapezoidal
extensions
Length: 175m
The width of the 7,5m-30m (mostly 8,5m-10m)
cross section:
Ground floor Commercial (restaurants, cafes,
contents: bank, shops, etc.), public (library,
museum, etc.)
Number of floors: GF, GF + 1, GF + 1 + attic
Urban furniture: Mostly outdoor furniture and
equipment of cafes and
restaurants

_ Figure 3: Visibility graph analysis of visual integration at eye level without the obstacles (up, left) and
with the obstacles (up, right); connectivity at ground level without the obstacles (down, left) and with the
obstacles (down, right). (source: Stefan Škorić)

The analysis of visual integration at the eye level without the observed obstacles (Figure 3, up, left),
indicates high results in almost every fragment of the street, with focus on fragments (1) and (3).
When observed obstacles are taken into analysis (Figure 3, up, right), fragment (2) shows drastically
lower values than other two fragments. The width of the street and the shape of its inflow into sur-
rounding streets have left observers with much wider viewing fields, covering most of its surround-
ing at fragments (1) and (3). Although it is part of the old town, pedestrian part of Dunavska Street

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is nearly clear linear route, which enables high values of visual integration on all parts of its entity.
Almost all points of space have high values of connectivity at ground level without the obstacles
(Figure 3, down, left), showing good connection between different parts of the street. The study
showed that observed obstacles had greater negative effect on mobility than it had on visibility at
eye level (Figure 3, down, right). Unregulated placement of moveable furniture of café bars creates
unclear pedestrian routes, constraining pedestrians from walking in strait line. Positive aspects of
spatial layout at fragment (1) and (3) such are size, shape and width, were annulled by obstacles
that were in some occasions placed directly on potentially most natural and logical walking routes.
Although it has shown the highest value of visual integration, fragment (3) showed lowest values
of connectivity at ground level where most of the outdoor cafes and restaurants, kiosks, and other
elements of public furniture and equipment were grouped.
Lack of denivelation of space, walls, larger structures, or any other greater visual obstacles, showed
that outdoor furniture and equipment do not induce greater effect on the users’ visibility. Both anal-
ysis had showed that alongside existing obstacles, a spatial configuration of the street, and espe-
cially its width, had played role in low values of visual integration in the middle part of the street
distinguished as fragment (2). Placement of moveable furniture of café bars in combination with
spatial configuration of the narrowest middle part of street had a negative effect on free movement
and on limitation of viewing fields.

CONCLUSIONS

Good visibility relations between different points in open public space create affirmative precondi-
tions for social interaction of users involved in various public activities taking place on public spaces
of city. It has been observed that people prefer areas with the major visual integration of space, and
which is offering them widest possible field of vision overlooking the public space. On the other
hand, the visual isolation and exclusion of certain points of public space generates parts of public
space that pedestrians are not likely going to use. In such sense, enhancement of visibility relations
can possibly expand probabilities for new encounters and social activities amongst diverse groups
of users engaged in public activities on open public spaces of the city.
Public furniture and equipment can partially obstruct or even completely limit pedestrian mobility
on public space, particularly if their positioning is not in line with most frequent pedestrian routes
and paths. Preconditions for a pleasant walk throughout the city is undisturbed movement with-
out interruptions and impediments. Therefore, special emphasis has to be put on legal regulations
envisioned for placement of furniture and equipment, particularly of private cafes and restaurants
that are disturbing free movement. Gehl (2011: 133) introduces a measure of “room to walk” defined
as the human level of tolerance for interferences encountered during walking. Therefore, adequate
design and positioning of urban furniture and equipment could considerably improve mobility on
public space by offering pedestrians with variety of undisrupted walking routes.
Study and understanding of visual integration of the built environment and its open public spac-
es, might be used in evaluation and prediction of the pedestrian movement, and patterns of their
movement. Additional direct observation would be necessary to furthermore explore the relations
of visibility and mobility with the spatial configuration of built environment. Research on broader
selection of public spaces in Novi Sad, could generate input for creation of new model for designing
and planning of new public spaces, and for the assessment or reconstruction of the existing public
spaces of the city.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research (paper) has been supported by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological
Development through the project no. 451-03-68/2020-14/200156: “Innovative scientific and artistic
research from the FTS (activity) domain”.

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__ Al Sayed, Kinda, and Alasdair Turner, Bill Hillier, Shinichi Iida, and Alan Penn. 2014. Space Syntax Meth-
odology. London: Bartlett School of Architecture, UCL.
__ Đukić, Aleksandra, and Milena Vukmirović. 2011. “Walking as a Climate Friendly Transportation Mode
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__ Ellin, Nan. 2006. Integral Urbanism. London: Routledge.
__ Gehl, Jan, and Birgitte Svarre. 2013. How to study public life. Washington: Island Press.
__ Gehl, Jan. 2010. Cities for people. Washington: Island Press.
__ Gehl, Jan. 2011. Life between Buildings: Using Public Space. Washington: Island Press.
__ Goffman, Erving. 1966. Behavior in Public Places - notes on the social organization of gatherings. New
York: The Free Press.
__ Hillier, Bill. 2007 [1996]. Space is the machine – A configurational theory of architecture. London: Space
Syntax.
__ Milinković, Aleksandra. 2019. Reperne i žižne tačke kao elementi fizičke structure vojvođanskih naselja
– doktorska disertacija, Novi Sad: Fakultet tehničkih nauka.
__ Montgomery, John. 1998. “Making a city: Urbanity, vitality and urban design.” Journal of Urban Design,
vol. 3, no. 1: 93–116.
__ Montgomery, John. 2007. The New Wealth of Cities: City Dynamics and the Fifth Wave. London: Ash-
gate.
__ Reba, Darko. 2010. Ulica - Element strukture i identiteta. Beograd: Orion art.
__ Škorić, Stefan, and Milena Krklješ, Dijana Brkljač, and Aleksandra Milinković. 2016. The Image, Trans-
formations and Permanence of Republic Square. Conference Proceedings of the 3rd International Aca-
demic Conference on Places and Technologies, 14th-15th April 2016, Belgrade: Faculty of Architecture,
University of Belgrade: 473-479.
__ Speck, Jeff. 2013. Walkable City. New York: North Point Press.
__ Stanojlović, Aleksandar. 2016. Pešačke zone u starim gradskim jezgrima. Petrovaradin: Pokrajinski
zavod za zaštitu spomenika kulture.
__ Stupar, Aleksandra. 2009. Grad globalizacije – Izazovi, transformacije, simboli. Beograd: Arhitektonski
fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu, Orion art.
__ Varoudis, Tasos. 2012. DepthmapX – Multi-platform Spatial Network Analyses Software. Accessed
January 10, 2020. https://github.com/varoudis/depthmapX
__ Whyte, William H. 1980. The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces. New York: Project for Public Spaces.

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THE IMPORTANCE OF YOUNGSTERS’ RESPONSIBLE ACTION IN THE

URBAN ENVIRONMENT: AN EXPERIENCE OF STREET CO-DESIGN
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch8

_ Lucia Martincigh
Department of Architecture, Roma Tre University, Via
Madonna dei Monti, 40, Rome, lucia.martincigh@uniroma3.it

_ Marina Di Guida
Department of Architecture, Roma Tre University, Via
Madonna dei Monti, 40, Rome, marina.diguida@uniroma3.it

ABSTRACT

By 2030, 5 billion people will live in cities asking for more transport, resources (energy, water, etc.)
and waste systems. While cities generate economic growth, they are also responsible for 70% of
global CO2 emissions. For containing this problem, it is necessary that all urban actors (citizens, lo-
cal authorities, research bodies, professional and production world) become more aware of the rela-
tionship between local/individual choices and global/collective challenges. So, a trans-disciplinary
approach, which integrates research and practice, through the cooperation between various working
and educational realities, and considers citizens as “knowledge producers” and “community build-
ers” in urban redevelopment processes, has to be used. Therefore, citizens, especially the younger
generations, have to be involved in urban co-design processes, as users but also as bearers of
knowledge. This paper reports an experience carried out in a project funded by the ESF-PON 2014-
2020 “For schools, skills and environments for learning: enhancement of global citizenship skills”.
One of the modules of this project, aimed at enhancing the active role of secondary school students
and their ability to identify problems and solutions through collective reflection, focused on the
re-appropriation of the street spaces facing the entrance of a historic school in Rome. Two different
proposals (low and medium/high budget), aimed at improving users’ quality of life, stemmed from
theoretical lessons, applying a requirement/performance approach, and surveys and laboratory
sessions, including: the devising and administration of an online questionnaire to define local prob-
lems; a brainstorming to propose possible solutions; some sketches. The proposals, displayed in
the school to involve all the students, were presented to the municipal authorities which expressed
the intention to carry on the design for future realization.

KEYWORDS _ youngsters’ participation, co-design, responsive

street design, requirement / performance approach

INTRODUCTION

European urban areas already host a large percentage of population (66% in Central and Eastern
European Countries, 75% in Western European Countries); nevertheless, urbanisation is constantly
increasing. The role of cities is significant, both nationally and worldwide, in terms of natural re-
source exploitation, waste production, soil, water and air pollution. In many European cities, the high
resource consumption, climate change and private transport increase (80% of the total motorized
transport) are the factors threatening most the urban environment and, consequently, the health and

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well-being of those living there. While annual lead concentrations have been dropping sharply since
the 1990s, thanks to the reduction of petrol lead additives, in some urban areas air pollution due to
traffic (SO2, CO, NOx, O3 and particulates) keeps exceeding the maximum values indicated in the
WHO guidelines, especially with high temperatures. Furthermore, in the 24 hours, about 65% of the
population is exposed to high levels of noise (LEq exceeding 55dB (A) and about 1.4% is exposed to
unacceptable levels of noise (LEq exceeding 75dB (A) due to road traffic (EEA, 2019).
Rome, too, presents various types of problems causing a decrease in the liveability of the urban
environment. First of all, a huge flow of vehicles, about 1 million 800 thousand vehicles (623 cars
and 123 motorcycles per thousand inhabitants) , high speed and traffic congestion that not only
increase the risk of accidents but also produce high levels of air pollution: in 2018 the concentra-
tion of nitrogen dioxide had an average value of 67 μg/m3 and the amount of PM10 was 30 μg/m3
. The ever increasing air and surface temperature, due to the combined presence of construction
materials with a high solar radiation absorption and sealed surfaces, preventing evaporative cooling,
but also to the “urban canyon effect” and residual heat, causes the Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect:
urban areas that are significantly warmer than the surrounding rural areas, especially at night. This
phenomenon and the high level of air and noise pollution, due to vehicular traffic, represent a threat
to human health and ecosystem. Second, public transport system cannot satisfy the mobility needs
of large flows of citizens and visitors; cycle paths do not offer an alternative as they are not yet a real
network; the large use of private motorized vehicles creates a high demand for on-street parking,
which leads to the invasion of most of the public spaces, making them unsuitable for slow mobility
and the many activities traditionally taking place along with it. Furthermore, the widespread arro-
gance of drivers, lacking civic sense, endangers pedestrians’ and cyclists’ safety and their right to
move at ease. It is clear that the mobility reorganization, aimed at increasing the liveability levels of
the urban environment, is a priority issue on the municipality agenda. There needs to be tools aimed
at improving sustainability, both in environmental and social terms, by creating public spaces that
are accessible, safe, comfortable, healthy and respectful of everyone’s rights and in particular of the
most vulnerable users, such as children, the elderly and people with reduced mobility (PRM); doing
this requires a cultural change.

THE YOUNGSTERS’ INVOLVEMENT FOR ACHIEVING CULTURAL CHANGE

This cultural change can be achieved by the active involvement of the population. Experience has
indeed shown that it: helps to proactively manage conflicts, reducing their intensity and turning
them into research opportunities; helps, by incorporating the preferences of the affected commu-
nities, to come to shared choices, which are perceived as legitimate and fair since they represent
the public interest and not a top-down imposition, and therefore prove to be more acceptable and
stable; enhances civic culture by making participants to become more aware, responsible and ac-
tive in the collective sphere, i.e. better citizens; increases their sense of ownership and thus their
respect for the common good (Castell, 2013). The reconstruction of the relationship of mutual “care”
between citizens and city is indeed central to improving the quality of life and urban space (Doglio,
1995). The approach of transdisciplinary research, integrating different parts of society (practice
and academia), is grounded on the awareness that each member or institution of the community
has knowledge and talents and that mutual learning is the best tool for problem solving. It therefore
considers citizens as “knowledge producers” for the urban development process (Stenberg, 2013)
and as “community builders” for the upgrading process (Stenberg, 2012).
2019 was an important year for participation, above all in terms of climate and environmental move-
ments. In the world, millions of people, students and adults, participated to the “Fridays for future”
demonstrations urging politicians to act. The younger generations had a major role: the challenges
of tomorrow involve indeed young people first, because both the future is their life and they are freer
from the influences of modern society, which for years behaved as if the future were no concern
of its own. The youngsters are, therefore, the key resource that western societies have for facing

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this profound transformation process. It was assumed that young people had disappeared from
the participatory arena (Lindström, 2010), but the forms of youth participation today are no longer
the traditional ones. In the past, for example, speaking of participation, we would certainly have
used three more words: membership, militancy and representation, but today their meaning must be
redefined, renewed (Checkoway, 2013). The European Commission issued a document containing
guidelines, new channels and forms for the inclusion of young people in participatory processes,
with the aim of involving them in decision-making bodies as active and aware citizens. Following
previous documents , the Council of the European Union approved the EU Youth Strategy for the
years 2019-2027; this “fosters youth participation in democratic life; it also supports social and civic
engagement and aims to ensure that all young people have the necessary resources to take part in
society “(EC, 2018). Italy also issued tools for youth participation, both at regional and municipal
level. The first Regional Youth Council was established by Regional Law (R.L.) in the small Italian
region of Molise 40 years ago (R.L. 21/1980). Participatory youth structures have been activated in
almost all regions since then; in particular, the Lazio Region promulgated two laws: “Promotion and
coordination of youth policies” (R.L. 29/2001) and “Promotion of instruments of the young gener-
ations’ institutional participation in the local political and administrative life (Regional network of
young councils)” (R.L. 20/2007). These tools tend to strengthen the concept that the exercise of
participation increases hope for the future and confidence in the possibility of producing change in
manifold associative contexts; numerous studies in particular have shown that exercising partici-
pation at home or at school affects significantly the strengthening of the perceived self-efficacy in
young people (Leone, 2011). Science-based insights, offered by the European Environment Agency’s
state of environment, underlined the challenges waiting for us and the need for immediate action
on everybody’s part, focusing on the importance not only “to change thinking” but also “to bring
about actual change”, implementing best practice “solutions and innovations, both technological
and social, […] while stimulating additional research” and “behavioural shifts”, “[…]listening to and
engaging citizens” (EEA, 2019).

THE EXPERIENCE OF CO-CREATION IN A SECONDARY SCHOOL IN ROME

The paper describes an experience carried out within a project promoted by one of the historic
schools in Rome, the “Liceo Classico Dante Alighieri” (a secondary school specialising in classical
studies), approved by the Ministry of Education, University and Research (MIUR) and supported with
European Structural Funds - National Operational Program (PON) 2014-2020 “For school, skills and
learning environments”: “Enhancement of skills of global citizenship”. Axis I - Education - European
Social Fund (FSE). The Director of the Classical Lyceum, Dr. Maria Urso, responsible for the project,
involved different territorial realities in the module “Environmental sustainability and care of spac-
es and times in social life”: the Department of Architecture of Roma Tre University, the Provincial
Architects’ Chamber of Rome and the Municipality of Rome I Centre in order to activate synergies,
share experiences and strengthen the sense of community between users and professionals. In
particular, among other activities, the university has a third cultural and social mission, the Archi-
tects’ Chamber has the task of raising young people’s awareness and directing them towards their
future, the Municipality has to care for urban maintenance and adaptation in order to meet citizens’
daily life requirements and improve performance. The authors were involved as external professor
and tutor; over the years, indeed, they both carried out research in the Department of Architecture,
dealing with various aspects of environmental sustainability and identifying intervention tools in
both buildings and urban design fields. In the latter, the research work was aimed at identifying and,
as far as possible, experimenting some tools having the potential to improve inhabitants’ quality
of life, such as the Environmental Island (Martincigh and Di Guida, 2016), the Urban Accessibility
Plan (Lauria, 2014), the strategies using Nature-Based Solutions (Kabisch et al., 2017). Basic and
applied research, carried out over the years, has made it possible to confirm that, in big cities, prob-
lems related to mobility and parking, air and noise pollution, physical and functional decay and lack

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of environmental quality, take on a particular extent in central areas, where goods and services are
located. The environmental requalification of these areas is today one of the major issues to be ad-
dressed. It is therefore worth focusing the attention on the identification of intervention strategies,
methodologies and techniques that are appropriate for addressing urban mobility challenges, and
in particular for rebalancing local modal share and promoting pedestrian mobility. The project was
an opportunity to integrate the specific contributions of the three involved institutions (which are
often assigned to collaborate in the “School-Work Alternation” program concerning the secondary
schools: cutting-edge research and technical knowledge, professional experience and regulatory
aspects, politics and participation, all aimed at guiding toward the future world of work through an
experience of individual and collective growth about a theoretical and practical subject. The intent
was also to comply with chapter 28.3 of Agenda 21: “Each local authority should enter into a dia-
logue with its citizens, local organizations and private enterprises and adopt “a local Agenda 21”.
Through consultation and consensus-building, local authorities would learn from citizens and from
local, civic, community, business and industrial organizations and acquire the information needed
for formulating the best strategies”. The project therefore aimed at encouraging the young lyceum
students to: acquire the concept of global citizenship; increase awareness of the interconnections
between local choices and global challenges, and between individual multiple identities and collec-
tive identity; enhance the experiential knowledge through practical work on real cases and product
realization; enhance the active role of students in identifying problems and solutions through col-
lective reflection and new co-creation and co-design trends, essential for implementing real partic-
ipatory processes (Gatenby and Cantore, 2018). The ultimate goal was to focus their attention on
the strategic objectives of the 2030 Agenda, in particular on: “Goal 4. Ensure inclusive and equitable
quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all; Goal 8. Promote sustained,
inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all;
Goal 11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable”.

THE LABORATORY METHOD OF TEACHING: THE APPLICATION OF VARIOUS APPROACHES

Methodologically, the innovative aspect of the project consisted in the application of the Laborato-
ry Method of Teaching, using various approaches: “project-based learning”, “problem-solving” and
“cooperative learning”. This method has eased the inclusion of students with SLD (specific learning
disabilities), mutual help and collaboration among peers, with a view to enhancing the differences.
Working together by these methods for creating a product and presenting it externally has allowed
students both to enhance their aptitudes and skills, not always emerging from the traditional study
of single disciplines, and to develop the competence of “learning to learn” and monitor their learn-
ing processes. This activity took place on the “Dante Alighieri” premises, located in a building in
Via Ennio Quirino Visconti, in the Prati district, just a few steps away from Rome historical centre.
As case study it was chosen a place that could make students feel personally involved. They were
therefore asked to analyse the stretch of street in front of the “Liceo Dante” main entrance and think
about its possible re-design. The students’ wish to re-appropriate the spaces in front of the school
for improving the quality of their life and of the other users’ was then fuelled, also by arousing their
awareness about public spaces being a meeting place between society, culture and environment.
They were thus motivated to unravel the complexity of the current situation with the aim of being
triggers of the change, identifying the protection of subjective rights, land and dignity of the per-
son as the strengths to prevent inequalities and reinforce social cohesion. The theoretical part of
the module was carried out by the external professors (Profs. Archts. Renata Bizzotto and Lucia
Martincigh). They first addressed the general approach and introductory issues regarding: urban
upgrading and sustainable mobility, environmental quality and natural resources. Then, they ad-
dressed specific topics regarding the application to the case study, such as: historical reading of the
place, urban survey and graphic restitution techniques, methods for the comprehension of the place
and in particular of the accessibility, safety/security, environmental comfort and attractiveness is-

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sues, techniques for identifying problems and solutions. They also analysed possible technologies
and technical measures, appropriate to control and improve urban living conditions. To apply ac-
tually the “problem solving approach” and “environmentally conscious design”, in addition to the
theoretical communications on the various possibilities of involvement, participatory techniques
and practice of listening, a structure of “self-learning” was launched. This involved all the actors
in an action which, although time-limited, caused the students to become more aware of the value
of their creative ability and to acquire relational and environmental responsibilities. The practical
workshop sessions were carried out by the teachers and, mainly, by the external and internal tutors
(archts. Marina Di Guida and Maria Luisa Assogna), side by side with the theoretical lessons. They
were organised both in classroom and in field activities. Observation and survey started first for
enriching the students’ and teaching staff’s knowledge of the case study, highlighting meanings,
unusual aspects and problems; these were later collected in a list, located and described on a map.
A questionnaire was designed and, for pursuing digitization objectives, as required by the PON calls,
administered online, first to the students of the class attending the module and then to the students
of the whole section, to their teachers and some members of the school’s staff. The data collected
by the questionnaire made it possible to draw up a second list of problems, representative of a wider
group of school users. The two lists of problems were integrated and polished by the teachers, in
order to organise a brainstorming aimed at making students come up with possible solutions to be
explored later. Two topics involved students the most: safety and mobility, meant as the freedom
of moving on foot or by bicycle. If the Administration has the task of implementing the necessary
and possible changes for both, citizens have to change their behaviour (for example, respecting
traffic signs or parking spaces), to assume a different mental attitude towards the city problems,
according to a collaborative logic aimed at activating a shared project. In particular, citizens are re-
quired to be willing to overturn acquired paradigms, guaranteeing the most vulnerable groups, since
“mobility” is ordinarily addressed almost exclusively from the driver’s viewpoint and rarely from the
pedestrian’s and less than ever child/teenager’s viewpoints (Brandberg et al., 1999). The results of
the questionnaires, revealed a specific attention to the accessibility, organization and maintenance
of public spaces, that had been designed to have car parking separated from walking and sojourn
spaces, but de facto are invaded by cars, abandoned or privatized. This led students to reflect on
the management of these spaces, once they are modified according to their wishes. For the noise
and air pollution, detected as a consequence of vehicular traffic, students thought of alternative
materials both for pavements (sound-absorbing asphalts and tiles) and for facades (green walls).
Communication and presentation techniques were part of the lessons; they were applied by stu-
dents in the workshop to prepare a final, public presentation. Each student contributed with one or
more slides, focusing attention on one aspect of his/her choice: theoretical topics, considerations
on the current situation and photos, survey re-design, personal photos or photo-references from
internet to illustrate the selected sustainable solutions, sketches and other graphic material for the
design hypotheses.

THE RESULTS OF THE CO-DESIGN

The teamwork produced various scenarios. After careful consideration and selection two of them,
both meeting the detected requirements, were chosen, designed and proposed to the local admin-
istration, as first ideas for the upgrading of the stretch of street in front of the school entrance.
They were characterised by technical measures (NACTO, 2013), different for importance and cost of
intervention. Both the proposals call for two traffic calming devices aimed at: decreasing the speed,
realizing a parvis in front of the school, removing parking in the most crowded area opposite the
school. Two consecutive chicanes or one speed platform plus one chicane compel drivers to slow
down, by causing them to shift their horizontal path or to climb a ramp, and create a curb extension
hosting a greater number of users, greenery and urban furniture. In both proposals, accessibility is
improved by: painting zebra crossings; adding ramps and route guidance, by natural guiding lines

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or tactile paving, in order to make the pedestrian network accessible for all; providing parking for
the most vulnerable users and loading bays. The improvement of the street landscape by design,
specific paving, colours, light poles and signs makes the street be autoexplicatory. To meet some
more requirements expressed in the brainstorm about cycling mobility, the proposal provides for a
new branch of bikeway, starting from the existing one in a nearby important street (via Cicerone) and
arriving to the school. Then, in Via Cesi, the carriageway width is reduced in order to keep the car
parking on both sides and make room for the bike path and reserved parking, separated from the
walkway, strictly reserved to pedestrians, by a green hedge. The low budget proposal suggests that
the pedestrian curb extension be made by a light wooden structure, at sidewalk height: light inter-
ventions, “feasible at once”. The medium/high budget proposal provides for a substantial transfor-
mation of the street by a raised platform near the school entrance, occupying the whole width of the
street, usable also as pedestrian crossing: a widening of the walkway with textured, permeable and
sound-absorbent paving, constituting an amenity for students and passers-by.

_ Figure 1: The design proposals elaborated within the Module “Environmental sustainability and care
of spaces and times in social life” (The figure was composed and graphically reworked by the authors).

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During an open meeting on June 10, 2019, both proposals were presented to the representatives
of Municipality of Rome I Centre. After a short introduction by the academic group, students ad-
dressed their topics. Dr. Anna Vincenzoni, Councillor for the Environmental, Mobility and Urban Dé-
cor Policies and Flavia De Gregorio, Municipal Advisor, participated to the debate and expressed
their interest communicating to the audience their intention to pursue the issue for a possible future
implementation. On January 11, 2020, during the show of “Classical Lyceums’ National Night” the
proposals were again presented.

CONCLUSIONS

The laboratory and participatory experience offered the students the occasion to discover the im-
portance of the relation society-inhabitants-territory and of the discussion on the choices to be
made with the logic of collective benefits. Dreaming of the future city, we hope it will be full of plac-
es where citizens’ wishes become true by projects returning to urban spaces their role of valuable
collective and identity places. In the short term, schools are the first to be considered since they
constitute an extensive network, having programs on civic education, widespread lawfulness and
environmental safeguards. It is appropriate to remember that, at the beginning of the century, we
were already aware of the importance of including the care for the urban environment in educational
programs (Abercrombie, 1921). Being able to experiment concretely and directly the possibility to
turn an exclusively individual dimension in favour of a collective and constructive one strengthens
the trust in the future and in the chance to change things. Understanding that planning is funda-
mental for collective and effective actions strengthens the ability to perceive the importance of time
and to overcome the short-sightedness typical of who clings to the present. Thus, participation
produces a great richness in terms of a “toolbox” that, today more than ever, helps the youngsters
grow into citizens who have to live in a society in which the structural and economic pressures force
towards an individual dimension. Supporting participatory processes means to give the youngsters
a training ground for finding their way, individual and collective, being the latter more suitable to
today’s changing world.

REFERENCES

__ Abercrombie, Patrick. 1921. “The place in general education of civic survey and town planning.” The Town
Planning Review, 9, no. 2 (July): 105-110
__ Brandberg, Valter, Johansson, Roger, Gustafsson, Tora, Kommunförbundet, S. 1999. Calm Streets! A
planning process for safer, more eco-friendly, pleasant and attractive streets in urban areas. Stockholm: The
Swedish association of Local Authorities
__ Castell, Pål. 2013. “Citizen dialogue in planning and the delicate balance of formality and informality”.
In International Conference on “Changing Cities”: Spatial, morphological, formal & socio-economic dimen-
sions, Skiathos island, Greece, June 18 to 21
__ Checkoway, Barry. 2013. Education For Democracy by Young People in Community-Based Organiza-
tions. Youth & Society, 45, no 3: 389–403.
__ Doglio, Carlo. 1995. “Le forme della socialità urbana”. Volontà, 49, no 2/3 (October): 209-213
__ EC (European Commission). 2018. Engaging, Connecting and Empowering young people: a new EU Youth
Strategy. COM (2018) 269
__ EEA (European Environment Agency). 2019. SOER 2020 - The European environment: state and outlook
2020. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union
__ Gatenby, Mark, and Cantore, Stefan. 2018. Co-Design, Volume I: Practical Ideas for Learning Across Com-
plex Systems. New York: Business Expert Press

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__ Kabisch, Nadja, Korn, Horst, Stadler, Jutta, and Bonn, Aletta. 2017. Nature-based Solutions to Climate
Change Adaptation in Urban Areas. Berlin: Springer
__ Lauria, Antonio. 2014. “Accessibility as a ‘Key Enabling Knowledge’ to Human Development: the Acces-
sibility Plan./L’Accessibilità come ‘sapere abilitante’ per lo Sviluppo Umano: il Piano per l’Accessibilità.”
Techne, journal of technology for architecture and environment, 7/2014: 127-131
__ Leone, Liliana. 2011. FTP Forme in Trasformazione della Partecipazione sociale. Rapporto di ricerca sui
processi partecipativi dei giovani e sui loro effetti. Roma: CEVAS
__ Lindström Lisbeth. 2010. “Youth Citizenship and the Millennium Generation”. Citizenship, Social and
Economics Education, 9, no 1: 48-59
__ Martincigh, Lucia, and Di Guida, Marina. 2016. “Sustainable mobility as a way for upgrading urban
street infrastructures: a methodological approach./La mobilita sostenibile come strumento di riqualifica-
zione delle infrastrutture stradali urbane: un approccio metodologico.” Techne, journal of technology for
architecture and environment, 11/2016: 180-187
__ NACTO. 2013. Urban Street Design Guide. Washington: ISLP- Island Press
__ Stenberg, Jenny. 2012. “The Strength of Codesign: Citizens as Community Builders”. In Design, Partic-
ipation, Sustainability, ICT: Sustainable Public Open Spaces and Participation through Interaction and ICT,
edited by Ooms Tomas and Verbeke Johan, 78-93. Ghent: Mistra Urban Futures
__ Stenberg, Jenny. 2013. “Citizens as Knowledge Producers in Urban Change: Can Participation Change
Procedures and Systems?”. Footprint, 7, no 13: 131-142

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THE CULTIVATION OF IDEAS

DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch9

_ Aleksandra Djukić
Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade, Bulevar Kralja
Aleksandra 73/II, Belgrade, Serbia, adjukic@rcub.bg.ac.rs

_ Admir Islamčević
Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Geodesy, University of
Banja Luka, Stepe Stepanovića 77/II, Banja Luka, Republic of Srpska,
Bosnia and Herzegovina, i.admir@hotmail.com

_ Dubravko Aleksić
Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Geodesy, University of
Banja Luka, Stepe Stepanovića 77/II, Banja Luka, Republic of Srpska,
Bosnia and Herzegovina, dubravko.aleksic@aggf.unibl.org

ABSTRACT

René François Ghislain Magritte is a Belgian painter known for paintings depicting real objects in
impossible relationships. The Cultivation of Ideas shows a change in the thought process frozen in
one moment. Looking at the picture, viewer can assume the next steps in the development of the
image. Further image change is depending on viewer perception.

The paper is the result of analyzing and interpreting the image The Cultivation of Ideas, by René
Magritte, through a methodology of decomposition. As such, it has a clear connection with artistic
creativity and it is the subjective grasp of the creative process embodied in the metaphor of culti-
vation that unfolds daily around us, through the micro-macro world. The research is a visual and
linguistic demonstration of thought processes. It functions as a guideline, not by any means as a
repeating pattern. It is based on short instructions, and opens the possibility for any kind of user
integration.

The methodology process of two-dimensional and three-dimensional spatial decomposition is re-

sulting in architectural order guidelines and matrix. The result of research is variable definition and
re-definition of a street, a square and a park. Street is a body movement symbol, the line and an ideal
way to observe the environment. It can be endless and a compound of an extremes. The square is
a point of intersection of different interests, needs and ideas. It is a public knot, a static and diverse
foundation on an event. The park can take on different roles. Its users are the creators of the park,
and the park educates the users.

KEYWORDS _ aesthetics, decomposition, street, square, park

INTRODUCTION

The works of René François Ghislain Magritte expose ordinary objects in unusual circumstances
or in strange contexts, giving them new meanings. The contradictions explain what is inexplicable.
They make the impossible possible. This is the way of creative thinking that allows us to ignore logic,
erase boundaries, bind opposites, and create new value. In art is often used to explain the complex-

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ity of the phenomenon it is talking about (Foucault, 1983).

In the picture The Cultivation of Ideas (figure 1) we recognize the nutritious elements (wood, quad
- substrate, stars, etc.), as well as surreal, artificial elements (fluid matter, texture of wood on mat-
ter, wood with two crowns growing out of the stone substrate). The picture itself is contradictory
because it contains a set of elements that together have no logical meaning and build a (semi)
fictitious world. Still, they create one new image that tickles the minds and widens the horizons. The
contradiction is not to be resolved, but to understand the lesson it represents (Alden, 1999).

_ Figure 1: The Cultivation of Ideas (source: https://www.renemagritte.org/)

DECOMPOSITION

In a compositional sense, we can observe René’s painting through the rule of the triangle in which
the tree closest to the viewer is placed in a golden cross-section. Individual elements as well as
the relations between them contain ‘the laws of beauty’, but as a whole they lose the classical con-
ception of beauty. Beauty is not the theme of the picture as much as the expressionlessness that
encourages reflection on the content. Things don’t have to be pretty, but they have to be meaningful.

_ Figure 2: Two-dimensional decomposition of the form - The Cultivation of Ideas (source: Authors)

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Two-dimensional decomposition
Three modes of two-dimensional decomposition are presented in the paper. Linguistic decomposi-
tion is a description of an image, its story and the narrative of the author. It is information based on
history, experience and facts. It is the rational component of decomposition, and it is the very begin-
ning of decomposition. Formal decomposition (figure 2) is everything we see in the picture. These
are the characteristics of each element for itself through its dimension, shape, form, colour and tex-
ture. It is like a project or plan where we can look at segments of the whole. Symbolic decomposition
is the subjective understanding of the image, the interpretation of the symbolism of particular parts
of the image, the deeper meaning, these are the questions that the image raises in observer, it is the
new context of the concept (associative, imagination, comparison, etc.). It does not have to be ac-
curate, but represents one possibility and an assumption that overlaps with the previous two steps.

Three-dimensional decomposition
The three-dimensional decomposition is represented by the continuation of the process of Rene
cultivation observed through a wider frame. The tree with two trees has been replaced by a Re-
naissance sculpture (David, Michelangelo) that represents the ideal, of the individual, observing the
world around him. He has the skill of changing concepts by (re) defining things with cognitive tools,
and thus developing into a being of cognition. Ideal geometric shapes represent other observers
who interact with one another. Fluid matter visually represents the complexity of the idea. It is like a
mirror of David’s inner world, an inspiration, an imagination, and a blending of the thought processes
we act upon and conclude (figure 3).

_ Figure 3: Three-dimensional decomposition of the form - The Cultivation of Ideas (source: Authors)

MATRIX

The matrix represents a guideline that stimulates the creative mind. The matrix can be represented
as a living cloud in which the input/information of whom to use is stored. Depending on the matrix
user, it can work wonders. The matrix not only wants to be the template by which monotonous solu-
tions are created, but it desires to be interactive and changeable. It lures creative potential into the
process of the alchemy of ideas. It functions as a living organism that evokes and transforms. It can

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function rationally, intuitively and uncertainly. It is based on definitions, transformed by trials and
associations, and manifested in form and form. It is not exclusive and opens as much as its user.

GUIDELINES: DEFINITION, ASSOCIATION AND FORM

Definition is a set of scientifically tested, experientially acquired meanings of a term taken as the
overarching standard for all or one period of time. Any used definition may be revised and altered.
The redefinition is an examination of the established standards and their useful values. It is a human
habit to examine the environment and alter its boundaries.
An association represents an amalgamation of concepts by summoning the notion of one term to
another. The human brain is like a cloud that collects information by contact with its environment.
Depending on the focus of the senses and experience, the brain groups images, concepts, ideas into
clouds of various dimensions and shapes. Inspiration comes from watching, listening, enjoying, etc.
Form is a set of characteristics that influence the logic of its functioning. The form changes and can
become more complex when re-defining its own parameters (definition, re-definition, association).

STREET

A street is a public parcel that typically serves as a passageway in a built or unbuilt environment. The
street can be unpaved, paved, and most often covered with asphalt. It traditionally connects cities
and countries globally. It can be divided in size and purpose (primary, secondary, tertiary, communal,
stationary, alleys, pedestrian, etc.). The streets are mostly linear (their length is greater than the
width). The street can be characterized by the meaning (name) of the street, its geographical posi-
tion, the objects that surround it. Street, in other professions, represents a path from the point A to
point B, a coordinate or a dashed line on screen, movement or dynamics.
Although official names and cultural symbolism have changed throughout official history, the cul-
tural notion of the street as a scene has survived and influenced European urbanism. It is necessary
to mention Vitruve’s descriptions of street scenes, used as backgrounds in theaters, as the first
categorization. There are three types of scenes: tragic, comic, satirical, which are different and have
different decoration. The tragic are marked with pillars, gables, statues and objects that glorify the
king; comic scenes depict private housing, balconies and rows of windows; satirical depict trees,
caverns, mountains and other rustic elements (Moughrtin, 2003).
The street is a symbol of body movement. The street is a line. It is an ideal way of perceiving the
environment, its stratification. It is like a personal photo album in which we can stop and look at the
picture, re-examine it or enjoy its scene. Infinite, the street is a symbol. An endless street is a unusu-
al combination of extremes. It is polluted, but it is also a factory for the production of the essence of
human existence, and that is its strength (figure 4).

_ Figure 4: Infinite street - matrix analysis and re-definition of a street (source: Authors)

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SQUARE

The square is an open public space most often set in the old city fabric, and is used to gather people
and often contains commercial functions. There are several types that explain the term square: city
center, square, square, plaza, market, etc. Most of the squares are paved spaces that serve as spac-
es for markets, music concerts, gatherings and other events. Set centrally, they are often surrounded
by a variety of shops. Within the square we often find a fountain, well, monument or statue. As in
other aspects of urban planning, square planning depends on multiple parameters that intertwine
through climate, function, and culture. For this reason, we cannot say that there is one type of square
even though they contain similar or the same principles.
According to Cliff Mougrtin, we utilize two methods of categorizing a square - through its function
and through its form. We can say that these two characteristics are equally important and neglected
in practice. Empty, desolate and windy, the space occupied by underutilized buildings is a com-
mon phenomenon in modern cities, while otherwise we have congested traffic islands or parking
lots around which are scattered unrelated buildings, also becoming frequent on the urban scene
(Moughrtin, 2003).
According to Alberti, there should be several different squares set up in different parts of the city. Al-
berti highlights the activity in the square, considering the possibilities of using the square. Particular
emphasis is placed on the square through the broader context of the city and its role associated with
different parts of the city. Activities inside the square are a sign of its vitality (Alberti, 1986).
The Viennese architect Camilo Sitte points out in the discussions that in the Middle Ages, as in
Antiquity, there was a greater activity of the square through the needs of the community and thus
a special intimacy with the surrounding buildings. . If we look at the square through activities, we
focus on the very need of the city. In this way, we view the square as part of the whole that serves
the city or, conversely, as an injection that should improve the vitality of the city. The types of open
spaces needed by the city are: open spaces next to buildings; main meeting places; spaces for
ceremonial events, entertainment spaces around facilities such as theatres, restaurants and ca-
fes; shopping areas, shopping streets, arcades and markets; spaces surrounded by administrative
buildings; semi-public spaces surrounded by housing; spaces connected to urban transport links
(Moughrtin, 2003).
The square is a public meeting/residence place for different people and serves as a landmark of the
city. The square is a point of intersection of different interests, needs and ideas. What is the food that
a man goes to the square for today? Is it in a tangible or intangible physical state? Is that food intel-
lectual or entertaining? Is the square, a source of information, a sense amplifier or an extended tool?
The square is a knot. The square is public. The square is static. The market is a group of diversity.
The square is the basis for what is happening. The square is practical (figure 5).

_ Figure 5: Three-dimensional decomposition and re-definition of a square: sitting, concert, exhibition

(source: Authors)

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PARK

A park is a green area located in a city or settlement. It can contain: paths, furniture, terrains, lakes
and various plants. Parks are often surrounded by significant buildings. The function of the park can
be aesthetic, recreational or park as a stabilizer of the microclimate. City parks reduce air pollution
and can also lower the temperature during high heat. It is often used for walking, sitting, recreation,
resting and playing. A typical park contains trees, shrubs, paths, trails, alleys, ponds, pools, streams,
sculptures and fountains (Wright, 2013).
Throughout history, we record different types and kinds of parks in different sub lands. For exam-
ple: Mesopotamian Garden, Semiramide Gardens, Egyptian Garden, strictly geometric, walled, tree-
lined avenues and lotus pools, Persian Gardens, rectangular, divided in the shape of a cross with
pools and canals, Chinese Gardens, harmony of seven symbols, Garden of Enchantment, horrors and
pastimes, Greek gardens, garden next to the house, Medieval Italian and French, rectangular with
straight paths, enclosed by walls, the size of the monastery, containing orchards, pools and ponds,
Renaissance, regular, cascading, fenced, Baroque gardens, large with various contents, with a long
alley (Campbell, 2016).
The park can accept diverse roles. The park can be unarranged wilderness, performance, manifes-
tation, fruit and vegetable growing area, sustainable strategy, recreational space, playground, etc.
(Stilgoe, 2015). The users of the park are the unknown creators of the park, and the park educates
the users. The park is flexible and appreciates every user on the planet. Park is an application. Park
is a video game (figure 6).

_ Figure 6: Two-dimensional decomposition and re-definition of a park (source: Authors)

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CONCLUSIONS

The paper is the result of the analysis and interpretation of the painting The Cultivation of the Idea,
by René Magritte, through the methodology of decomposition. As such, it has a clear connection
with artistic creation and represents a subjective understanding of the creative process embodied in
the metaphor of cultivation that takes place around us every day, through the micro - macro world.
The paper is a visual and linguistic demonstration of thought processes. It functions as a guideline,
not as a recurring pattern. Research sets as the main task the examination of concepts of spatial
definition and redefinition. It is based on brief instructions and offers the possibility for any user
integration. At the very beginning, when we collect basic data about the project (definition), until the
moment when we actively start designing, we enter the creative process - we redefine. The next step
is to start the cultivation process, merging the definitions with the forms and vice versa. Once we
generate information, we are capable to act associatively. We connect the information into pictures
and start with the first ideas. After the first forms that offer an adequate answer to a given problem,
its examination begins. The results are varied, and we can often give multiple answers to the same
problem. The paper presented linguistic and two-dimensional and three-dimensional redefinition of
the street, the square and the park.

REFERENCES

__ Alden, Todd. 1999. René Magritte. New York: The Wonderland Press.
__ Alberti, L. Battista. 1986. The Ten Books of Architecture: The 1755 Leoni Edition. New York: Dover
Publications.
__ Campbell, Gordon. 2016. A Short History of Gardens. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
__ Foucault, Michael. 1983. This Is Not a Pipe. Berkeley: University of California Press.
__ Moughrtin, Cliff. 2003. Urban design: Street and Square. Burlington: Architectural Press.
__ Magritte, Rene. 2020. “Biography, Paintings, and Quotes.” Accessed February 28, 2020. https://www.
renemagritte.org/the-cultivation-of-ideas.jsp
__ Stilgoe, John R. 2015. What is Landscape?. Cambridge: The MIT Press.
__ Wright, Amalie. 2013. Future park: imagining tomorrow’s urban parks. Collingwood: CSIRO
__ PUBLISHING

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SECURITY ASPECTS OF URBAN PLANNING

AND DESIGN - “THE EUROPEAN MODEL”
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch10

_ Milos Tomic
Researcher, University of Belgrade – Faculty of Architecture, Bulevar
kralja Aleksandra 73/2, Belgrade, Serbia, milosttomic@yahoo.com

_ Jovana Dinic
Researcher, University of Belgrade – Faculty of Political Science,
Jove Ilica 165, Belgrade, Serbia, jokadimitrijevic93@gmail.com

_ Elena Priorova
Associate professor, Moscow Region State University, Very
Voloshinoy street 24, Moscow Region, Russia, em.priorova@mgou.ru

ABSTRACT

The permanent development and modernization of urban infrastructure over the last few decades
have been crucial in increasing the vulnerability of the community.The need to minimize security
risks (urban violence, terrorist attacks) is particularly pronounced when urban planning and de-
signing everyday social environments. The goal pursued by urban planners is to create a positive
security atmosphere (perceptual or realistic) through strategic partnerships and cooperation poli-
cies between municipal, city and national levels of government. This model (so-called: “European
model”) of urban planning has been implemented in several European countries (such as Belgium,
France, Germany, Italy, Spain, United Kingdom ) to improve the quality of living conditions in populat-
ed urban areas. Urban planning and design implies the analysis and incorporation of safety security
elements in the form of specific functional barriers in the public space. Using sophisticated comput-
er software(Vulnerability Identification Tools for Resilience Enhancements of Urban Environments,
VITRUV), urban planners can accurately identify and analyze security risks and their damages, and
offer the right solutions. The aim of this paper will be to describe the security aspects of urban plan-
ning and design, and the efficient use of public space to improve the security situation with minimal
disruption to everyday social ativities.

KEYWORDS _ urban infrastructure, urban planning and design, security risks

INTRODUCTION

Preserving the openness and freedom of public space in European cities for all citizens and visitors
is a priority for urban security managers, political officials (at local, regional and national levels), ar-
chitects and urban planners. Increasing terrorist attacks and increasing crime in urban areas require
appropriate security measures, such as metal fences, barricades, traffic pillars, or standards that
combine Situational prevention - or Crime Prevention through Environmental Design. In addition,
the increased frequency of natural disasters (caused by climate change) indicates the necessary
cooperation of city leaders, urban designers and architects and, of course, the population in order to
achieve an acceptable state of urban environmental safety.

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The security aspects of urban planning and design can be viewed in two distinctive ways: the first,
called ‘an architecture of dis-assurance’, defines different types of barriers, surveillance cameras
and bollards, while this aesthetic design provides easily visible solid safety symbols but can have
less effectiveness in stopping the attack (Boddy, 2008: 278). Other ‘a passive-aggressive urban de-
sign style’ e.g. construction of streets made of composite materials that would collapse and prevent
the movement of explosive vehicles (Boddy, 2008: 278). This approach involves implementing Crime
Prevention Through Environmental Design strategy.

URBAN PLANNING AND DESIGN IN THE FUNCTION OF SECURITY

Respect for security policy (Sennett, 1970; Ellin, 1996) for adopting rigorous measures to protect
public spaces (streets, sidewalks and spaces) from potential threats that can threaten society (eg,
violence, terrorism, various types of organized crime, ) is negatively reflected in vitality and attrac-
tiveness of the urban environment. A number of European cities over the last few years have been
designing public spaces in a way that restricts the freedom of movement of people, thereby im-
pairing the functioning and overall quality of life in urban areas. On the other hand, the tendency to
reduce human and material losses is one of the main generators of development and improvement
of new ways of urban design and planning (Table 1). The ‘Action Plan to Support the Protection of
Public Spaces’ was just designed to integrate security security measures more effectively into the
urban environment.

_ Table 1.Security by Design vs Ad-Hoc Security Solutions (Source: European Commision, 2019.), Source:
European Commision, 2019.
Table 1.Security by Design vs Ad-Hoc Security Solutions

Security by Design Ad-Hoc Security Solutions

Efficiency

The project is more efficient as it is designed considering Ad-hoc solutions are less efficient as they, usually, cannot
security aspects from its initial design stages. Depending on address multiple threats and it is difficult to integrate them
the project, this may involve modifications in the interior and in the overall protective design.
exterior design, alteration and addition of access points,
ensuring structural robustness, introduction of perimeter
protection measures, redesign of the surrounding terrain
etc.

Installation

Security measures are incorporated in the overall urban Ad-hoc security measures are more likely to conflict with
design project and they are less likely to conflict with existing services and utilities as they are usually stand-
existing services and utilities (e.g. gas, water, electricity, alone projects and may lead to costly service diversions, cut
telecommunication lines). Costly and time consuming off of utilities for residents and slower project
diversions are avoided. implementation

Vulnerability

Various potential attack scenarios are assessed taking in The adoption of ad-hoc solutions may create additional
consideration not only the project's particular features but vulnerabilities or shift vulnerabilities to other public
also its positioning within the overall urban context (e.g. spaces as the installed measures are usually not examined
proximity to other crowded places, creation of bottlenecks,
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shifting of the flow of people). The creation of additional
vulnerabilities is prevented as such effects are addressed in
 Installation

Security measures are incorporated in the overall urban Ad-hoc security measures are more likely to conflict with
design project and they are less likely to conflict with existing services and utilities as they are usually stand-
7TH INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC CONFERENCE
existing services and utilities (e.g. gas, water, electricity, alone projects and may lead to costly service diversions, cut
telecommunication lines). Costly and time consuming off of utilities for residents and slower project
diversions are avoided. implementation

Vulnerability

Various potential attack scenarios are assessed taking in The adoption of ad-hoc solutions may create additional
consideration not only the project's particular features but vulnerabilities or shift vulnerabilities to other public
also its positioning within the overall urban context (e.g. spaces as the installed measures are usually not examined
proximity to other crowded places, creation of bottlenecks, in a holistic manner.
shifting of the flow of people). The creation of additional
vulnerabilities is prevented as such effects are addressed in
the planning.

Cost

The adoption of security measures as part of an overall Introducing ad-hoc security measures into an already built
urban design project can reduce the costs of protective environment is generally more costly, as there are fewer
solutions substantially as planning the protective measure available options that conform to the needs of the
is advance allows for resourcefulness, multifunctionality proprietors.
and cost-efficiency

Aesthetics

The security by design concept guarantees that security The integration of ad-hoc solutions into the urban
measures are harmonically integrated into the urban environment is more challenging and may lead
environment, as they are part of a protective urban to questionable results as they frequently do not blend in
development project. with the existing design characteristics.

Urban planning and design over the last few years has been gaining a relatively new security dimen-
sion. Talen (Talen, 2008) argues that creating a sense of security for people living in urban areas is a
fundamental component of any successful urban project. The best example of how urban planners
and architects can combine aesthetic and safety requirements with minimal change in the character
of the urban environment is the humble bollard. The circular poles (figures 1) have the function of
directing / preventing traffic to provide major pedestrian areas.

_ Figure 1. Anti-Ram vehicle barrier (bollards) (Source: Quartz, 2016).

Following the 2016 terrorist attack in Nice, urban planners in France are implementing a project to
build bollards in all traffic areas (figures 2). It is tempting to emphasize that the United States De-
partment of Defense issues a special list for designing these types of physical barriers (See more
at: https://www.usace.army.mil/Portals/2/docs/Protection/DOD_Anti-Ram_Vehicle_Barriers_Jan-
uary_20141.pdf). By accepting this as a standard, urban planners and architects in many western
cities adapt their projects to meet the requirements of urban security.

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_ Figure 2. Anti-terror barriers in Nice (Source: The Irish Sun, 2017)

Apart from the aforementioned counter-terrorism measures, a special influence on the contempo-
rary design of the urban environment are the demands for crime reduction and the fear of crime. It
is precisely the insistence on the consistent application of the Crime Prevention Through Environ-
mental Design (CPTED)1 principle that has inspired European political officials, architects, urban
planners and local community representatives to introduce a specific European (Western) CPTED
standard. Paul van Soomeren states that the text of this standard must be used in a concrete sit-
uation e.g. a new building plan for the outskirts of Paris, a plan for the renovation of an old harbor
site in Amsterdam, or the planning of a shopping area in London (2002: 180).The same author adds
that the European CPTED standard focuses on two areas: the first, urban areas and the second ur-
ban planning scale; this includes small developments but in most cases refers to larger areas, for
example parks, estates and entire neighborhoods.Thus, it can be said that the essence of the CPTED
concept relates to how Crowe (Crowe, 2000: 46) states that “proper design and effective use of the
built environment can lead to a reduction in the fear and incidence of crime, and an improvement in
the quality of life”.
EU Member States (eg United Kingdom, the Netherlands and Germany) implement the basic pos-
tulates of CPTED in various ways in accordance with their internal urban development planning
and crime prevention policies (Town et al., 2003). In 2003, the European Committee for Standard-
ization published the European Pre-Standard for the Reduction of Crime and the Fear of Crime by
Urban Planning and Building Design, (CEN, 2003). The two key components on which the European
Pre-Standard on Urban Planning and Crime Prevention is based are the following:

1. Urban planning can have an impact both on different types of crime and on the fear of
crime by influencing the conduct, attitudes, choices and feelings of the key players in these
processes, such as offenders, victims, residents and police.
2. There are specific types of crimes with environmental dimensions which can be seen as
being amenable to urban planning activities, such as burglary and vandalism (CEN, 2003;
Kitchen & Schneider, 2007).

In practical terms, the implementation of the CPTED standard involves the use (through urban plan-
ning and design) of all available architectural landscape elements to reduce a society’s vulnerability

1 Tim Crowe defines CPTED „The proper design and effective use of the built environment, that can lead
to a reduction in the fear and incidence of crime and an improvement in the quality of life. …The goal of
CPTED is to reduce opportunities for crime that may be inherent in the design of structures or in the de-
sign of neighborhoods“ (2000: 46).

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to potential security threats. For example buildings with buffer zone layers are much less appealing
targets than those without them (Figure 3) (Atlas, 2013: 178). Feldman argues that besides de-
signing the environment, other low-cost precautions such as e.g. locking manholes on the street
protects utilities then securing (with locks and alarms) the area where electrical, ventilation and
telecommunications stations are located inside or outside residential buildings (Feldman, 2005).
In addition, urban planning and designing of parks, busy streets, promenades, sidewalks, public
lighting, traffic retarding devices greatly contribute to preventing direct access to potential carriers
(terrorists, criminals).
In recent years, some authors (Hodson & Marvin, 2009; Томич & Кесич, 2020) view urban planning
and design as a strategic response to urban-environmental security. Namely, the increased eco-
nomic activities of the population (within urban spaces in the first place) affect the disturbance of
the climate balance. As a result of unsustainable exploitation of natural resources, by-products
appear (eg greenhouse gas emissions from cars, ash, etc.) which cause incalculable damage by fur-
ther transformation (occurrence of extreme physical phenomena such as floods, storms, hurricanes,
droughts). Cities, are positioning themselves as chief amongst the ‘victims’ of climate change
through, for example, the susceptibility of many coastal and river-side cities to flooding and the
health consequences of the urban heat island effect (Hodson & Marvin, 2009). In order to avoid this
type of damage, city leaders are adopting measures by which an urban ecological space is planned
and designed in an acceptable (balanced) way with continuous economic development. European
cities such as Malmö (Sweden), London, Hamburg, Copenhagen and Zaragoza (Spain) best illustrate
the state of urban environmental security in the context of sustainable use and efficient urban space
design (Shirley-Smith et al., 2008; Gawlik et al., 2017; European Commission, 2020).

_ Figure 3. Protecting Buildings and Infrastucture with CPTED (Source: Atlas, 2013:179).

It should be noted that urban planners and architects should not impair the undisturbed function-
ing of society or the entire aesthetic image of the urban environment by applying these security
standards. Therefore, the purpose of architectural security design (Atlas, 2013) is first and foremost
preventive, ie adequate design of public space significantly impedes targeted attacks (terrorist or
criminal) and thus minimizes security risks. Consequently, urban planners and architects can be
viewed as a kind of urban security provider.

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VULNERABILITY IDENTIFICATION TOOLS FOR RESILIENCE ENHANCEMENTS OF URBAN

ENVIRONMENTS, VITRUV

Vulnerability Identification Tools for Resilience Enhancements of Urban Environements (VITRUV)

funded by the European Commision under its F17 Research and Techincal Developmet Progranmme
is carried out by a constrium of 12 industry partnersm public and research institutions drawn from
European countries (Fischer, 2012).
This project is special software program used by planners to identify and analyze security risks and
their damages, and offer the right solutions.
Planners who use VITRUV’s tools will be able to deliver urban space less prone to and less affected
by attacks and disasters, thus sustainably improving the security of citizens.
The main objective of VITRUV is the development of software tools for the long and complex screen-
ing process, which is urban planning, moving across three levels from concept to plan to detail
design. The tools will enable planners:
- Concept level is important to make well-considered systematic qualitative decision
- Plan level is important for analysing the susceptibility of urban spaces, and
- Detail level for performing vulnerability analyses of urban spaces by computing the likely
damage on individuals, buildings, traffic infrastructure (See more on this link: https://cordis.
europa.eu/project/id/261741)
VITRUV is based on multiple event data, within a risk approach, quantities are derived that measure
averaged susceptibilities, vulnerabilities and risks for buildings and infrastructure in the context of
urban planning. The importance of empirical approach allows for local scaling factors for frequen-
cy of events, e.g., due to physical accessibility, and for consequences, e.g., due to physical count-
er-measures (Vogelbacher et al., 2016).
Republic of Serbia as a potential candidate for EU membership must organize urban space and
have to accept and implement this project at the lowest level. The best solution is cooperation of
all social and political actors in realization and implementation of this project. An important step
towards improving the safety of citizens by minimizing potential risks and threats within the urban
space, was made with the adoption of the Law on Critical Infrastructure in 2018. However, the lack
of institutional capacities of the Republic of Serbia in terms of continuous implementation of the
mentioned measures is the main obstacle to achieving acceptable European standards of urban
security.

CONCLUSION

The urban environment in modern conditions requires a series of security, technical and organi-
zational safeguards to protect human well-being. The need to implement effective urban planning
and design (part of the measures mentioned) is particularly highlighted by examples from European
Union Member States. Namely, in the last few years, European Union operational and expert bodies
have been developing specific standards and procedures by which existing (as well as future) urban
infrastructure is redecorated (planned and designed) in accordance with urban security require-
ments. Often the literature cites the example of ‘Action Plan to Support the Protection of Public
Spaces’ as a coded way of integrating security measures more effectively into the urban environ-
ment through planning and design. Some authors point to the close connection between design and
urban environmental safety as a fundamental prerequisite for sustainable population development
in modern conditions. The vulnerability of the urban population due to the emergence of various
types of extreme natural phenomena (ie natural disasters caused by climate change) is partially mit-
igated by the adoption of preventive measures, including modern urban and architectural standards
of design and construction (such as European cities London, Hamburg, Copenhagen).
The specificity of the European urban planning and design model is also reflected in the design of
specific software for the identification and analysis of risks and their damage within urban space.

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Vulnerability Identification Tools for Resilience Enhancements of Urban Environments allows urban
planners to analyze in depth the security risks and vulnerabilities of urban infrastructure. In addition,
the close cooperation and strategic partnership of urban planners and architects with representa-
tives of local, city and national levels of government further enhances the construction of a safer
living environment. Therefore, preventive action is the essence of urban planning and design, espe-
cially due to the fact that the intensity of potential damage to human health and their environment
is significantly reduced.

REFERENCE

__ Atlas, R. I. (2013). 21st century security and CPTED: Designing for critical infrastructure pro-
tection and crime prevention. CRC Press.
__ Boddy, T. (2008). Architecture emblematic: hardened sites and softened symbols. In M.
Sorkin (ed.), Indefensible space: the architecture of the national insecurity state, New York :
Routledge.
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7TH INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC CONFERENCE

THE ROLE OF IDENTITY IN SHAPING RESILIENT OPEN

PUBLIC SPACES SURROUNDING SMALL URBAN STREAMS
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch11

_ Aleksandra Djukić
Associate Professor, Ph.D, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture,
Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, adjukic@afrodita.rcub.bg.ac.rs

_ Višnja Sretović Brković

Research Assistant, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture,
Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, visnja_sretovic@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT

Open public spaces surrounding small urban streams are faced with a growing number of problems
in the last few decades as a result of climate change. Frequent floods and droughts made most of
these areas non-functional, abandoned and devastated for the better part of the year. Majority of
the spaces surrounding small urban streams currently are not capable to adapt and transform in
accordance with new ecological challenges.

In order to create public spaces that live year-round, it is necessary to design them according to
principles of resilient design. The socio-ecological resilience, an interdisciplinary concept based
in ecology, offers a conceptual ground for the principles for creation of resilient spaces, i.e. spaces
that are resilient to the changes and utilize natural disturbances for the improvement of space. Ac-
cording to this concept, one of the most important qualities of resilience is preservation of identity
in times of natural disturbances and recovery.

In this paper we will analyse the question of identity of open public spaces surrounding small urban
streams in the context of resilience, based on the case of watercourses in Belgrade. The goal of this
research is to identify the elements that shape the identity of open public spaces and to determine
their role in the future revitalization of these spaces, in order to realize year-round uniform quality of
space.

KEYWORDS _ small urban streams, public open spaces, resilience, identity

INTRODUCTION

In recent decades, small water streams in cities have experienced changes that have been inten-
sified under the influence of uncontrolled urban development and climate change. The water level
is becoming increasingly unpredictable, floods and droughts are getting more common as well as
high levels of pollution and erosion. All of this leads to exclusion of these zones from city life and
their perception as a problem. However, these spaces do not have to be eliminated from the urban
activity system and they have potential for improving urban quality in social, aesthetic, economic,
and functional terms. To become a functional part of the city, it is necessary to maintain a consistent
quality of space during all periods of gradual or sudden changes and disturbances.
Recognizing the value of small urban streams in cities, urban design plays an important role as the
essential carrier of potential for their sustainability, resilience, and the increase of their capacity

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as functional green open spaces. For urban design to respond to the revitalization of small urban
streams, it is essential to formulate its principles under the umbrella of the concept of socio-eco-
logical resilience, as well as to comply with local and specific requirements of small streams in an
urban area. Urban resilience to floods lies in a principle that instead of fighting the river, cities live
with periodic floods and allow them to enter the city (Liao, 2012). That brings major changes to ur-
ban design, as it now strives for a space that will constantly adapt and transform under the influence
of the disturbances while living and functioning for the duration of the change and recovery period
at the same time.
The framework of predictability and ready-made solutions used in urban design must be modified
and expanded with new knowledge regarding the inability to control change. This calls for a rethink-
ing of the different aspects on which urban design has been based on so far, and modification of
some of those aspects. One of these is identity. This is especially important element in urban design
and represents a significant part of the concept of socio-ecological resilience. In this text, we will
address the issue of the identity of open public spaces on the banks of small urban streams and
their position in the context of creating a resilient space, and we will analyse what elements of space
make up its identity.

IDENTITY WITHIN THE SOCIO-ECOLOGICAL RESILIENCE CONCEPT

Within the socio-ecological resilience concept, identity has an important role in affecting the resil-
ience. Walker and Mayers state in their often-cited definition that “socio-ecological resilience is de-
fined as the capacity of a system to absorb disturbance and to reorganize on its own for the duration
of the change caused by a disturbance while maintaining the basic function, structure, feedback,
and identity” (Walker and Meyers, 2004). Identity is, for the most part, constant, which means that
its basic structure remains invariable, despite changes which may occur. However, as it depends on
society – that is constantly changing in line with standards, expectations, and values – the question
is whether the identity is truly invariable (Gersonius et al., 2012).
Some authors even consider identity as the most important indicator of resilience of a given sys-
tem. If the resilience of a system is low, identity is lost, or vice versa, if identity is lost, the system
resilience is considered low. Resilience becomes equal to the maintenance and restoration of key
components and connections and their continuous duration over time and can be measured by
quantifying identity and assessing threats which indicate that change in identity will take place
(Cumming, 2011).
In conclusion, given the importance of identity for the creation of resilient spaces, it must be consid-
ered from the urban design perspective as well.
Within the field of urban design, the place identity is considered significant because man links a part
of his own self to a place. Every environment has features which make it different than others and
help establish its unique identity (White, 1996). However, understanding and defining the elements
that make up its identity is an open issue and requires further research. Kevin Lynch believes that
the way a certain space feels varies, and it depends on the person observing, their skills to observe
and differentiate spaces and forms, and that city spaces have a multifaceted meaning since they
are viewed and used by multiple individuals. This type of approach makes identifying elements of
identity more difficult (Đukić, 2011).
In order to apply the concept of identity from the socio-ecological resilience to the field of urban
design, namely the design of open public spaces on the banks of small urban water streams, further
study is needed to determine which elements of this concept are applicable to place identity and
under which conditions.

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THE CHARACTERISTICS OF OPEN PUBLIC SPACES ON THE BANKS OF SMALL URBAN

STREAMS AS A FUNCTION OF IDENTITY

Open public spaces on the banks of small streams need to be designed as resilient, due to the con-
tinuous and abrupt changes which they are faced with, which also threaten them. The concept of
socio-ecological resilience offers a response to those changes.
Open public spaces on the banks of small urban streams represent a special category of open public
spaces in cities. They contain several similarities to other urban spaces of this type, but also some
specifics that make them unique. The characteristics of resilient open public spaces on the banks of
small urban streams, which impact the formation of identity will be outlined below.

Integrity and segmentation of small urban stream shorelines

The first significant question in the approach to the revitalization of open public spaces along the
small urban streams is how are the banks viewed and perceived: as a whole or segmented? The
length of small water streams in the city area ranges from several kilometres to several tens of
kilometres, so the area is difficult to experience as a whole. In addition, the physical, functional, and
cultural diversity of the spaces through which the streams flow makes it difficult to view and gen-
eralize patterns as a whole. Urban spaces are most often experienced through a series of images
alternating as they move (Đukić, 2011).
On the other hand, the elements which tie these spaces together, such as water, shoreline, pedes-
trian and/or bike baths, are what the entire shoreline has in common with the city zone, and what
ties that space into one entity, creating the continuity of space. The recognition of this type of open
public space in relation to others in the surrounding area gives it a sense of integrity. From that, it is
safe to conclude that identity needs to be looked at from two angles, as a whole — the bank areas of
small urban streams and as individual open public spaces.
The representation of the identity elements which make up the whole should be so large as to en-
sure the continuity of space, but on the other hand not too large, to avoid the monotony of the same.
Large, monotonous spaces lose their identity (Đukić, 2011). Therefore, it is very important to work
on the diversity of identities of individual open spaces. Categorization of space is necessary to bring
clarity to the experience of space.

Spatial diversity
Considering that they run through different parts of the city, open public spaces along the banks can
significantly differ from one another. Their shaping is conditioned by the physical, functional, and
cultural qualities of the urban zones through which they pass. The distance from the city centre also
affects their design. The areas outside the central zone are generally large, rich in greenery and var-
ious contents, while ones in central zones are narrow stretches along river streams. The rhythm of
the elements in a space is also conditioned by the position in the city. Where pedestrian movement
is dominant, the rhythm should be more subtle compared to parts of the city where other forms of
movement are dominant (Đukić, 2011).
The appearance of water and the way the stream is regulated influences the approach to the de-
sign. Linear flow dictates a different way of shaping open public spaces, compared to retentions.
Spaces created along the concrete lined channels will completely differ than those created along the
streams that use natural landscaping. Combining different types of river regulations and appearance
of water through different urban zones and incorporating many activities creates a dynamic space.

Prevalence of green spaces within a public space

Open public spaces on the banks of small urban streams have even more pronounced features of
socio-ecological systems on which the concept of socio-ecological resilience is based, than any
other city structure. They are a union between nature and man, a union of the built and the unbuilt.
Natural processes are, to a great extent, what determines how these spaces are shaped (McHarg,
1996).

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The share of green spaces increases, when the design of the small watercourses is based on the
natural landscaping. This approach is possible within urban zones where spatial capacities are in
place and where such spaces can be integrated into existing surroundings. The safety and educa-
tional element of the space that uses natural landscaping systems are essential to their functions.
Safety is viewed in the context of traffic, prevention of crime, and unpleasant climate factors. The
educational function is about spreading awareness of the importance of nature through the involve-
ment of the community.

The unbreakable bond between banks and water

In large and wide rivers, water is the dominant element, while the banks are faraway, making their
identities quite independent and spatially detached. On the other hand, small urban streams repre-
sent a visually and functionally inseparable whole with open spaces that surround them. They need
to be seen integrally, as a single unit of open public space and water, defined in a broader context,
as physical and social space, saturated with all the complexities of the context in which it is located.

Variability of water appearance in open public spaces

As previously mentioned, the banks and the water are an inseparable whole. However, the ratio of
the representation of these elements changes significantly, depending on the cyclical and abrupt
changes which small water streams face. The consequences of the changes are the alteration be-
tween periods of low and high-water levels, floods, and drought.
Depending on these circumstances, the ratio of the representation of water and dry parts in space
also changes. When the stream dries, the connection between the banks is even more pronounced,
and the space is given completely new features and with that, a new identity. With extremely
high-water levels and floods, the water dominates and occupies much of the open public space.
Because of this variability, the question arises: during the design, what should the focus be on? The
open public space with elements of water, or is the water surface dominant, along with its influence
on the surrounding space.

Activities within a space

When spaces are high-quality, there are many actives from which the users can choose from, as well
as a whole number of social activities that can pop up spontaneously as long as there is a presence
of people (Gehl, 2010). Considering that the design of a space is viewed thought the physical aspect
as well as though the behaviour and activities of people, it is very complicated to coordinate the
urban form and existing patterns of human activity in space and time (Lynch, 1972). The structure of
activity in public spaces is affected by the design and shaping of the physical environment, while at
the same time, the space stimulates the activities that are to take place in that environment.
Combinations of different types of activities are required to create resilient open spaces. Activities
occurring in a space must be synchronized over time. Conflicts between activities competing at
the same time need to be reconciled (Lynch, 1972). Human-rich urban spaces allow for comple-
mentary activities that overlap in space and are complexly interconnected (Carmona, et al., 2003).
Understanding the patterns of activity in space and time makes it possible to achieve the synergy of
activities in one space and improves the quality of space.

THE EXAMPLE OF SMALL URBAN STREAMS IN BELGRADE

Belgrade lies on a complex network of small urban streams, which are concentrated on the right
banks of the Sava and Danube rivers. There used to be more of these streams, and they played a key
role in the urban life of the city. That is how, for example, the Topčider River, one of Belgrade’s largest
streams, was used as a beach, which was connected to the hot spring baths which were once part
of the Topčider Park (Ćorovic and Blagojević, 2012).

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_ Figure 1: Small urban streams and rivers in Belgrade (Image sources: 1) Master Plan of Belgrade 2021,
2) own work, 3) www.blic.rs, 4) L.Vuletić (V.V., 2008), 5) www.beobuild.rs

In the twentieth century, small urban streams lost their role in the development of the city and began
to be seen as a problem. Their value becomes insignificant in the rush of mass construction. Many
of them are piped and removed from the urban landscape. Some have been preserved (regulated or
not), however completely cut off from city life. Additionally, their waters are highly polluted and cause
major flooding in the city.
According to the General Regulation Plan of the System of Green Spaces in Belgrade, a green urban
network is planned, as well as green corridors on which recreation is planned. One of the priorities is
the preservation of the natural valleys of small water streams, and their regeneration. The tenden-
cy is to use natural regulation of the stream bed with the necessary biotechnical measures in the
catchment area.
Taking into consideration the planned revitalization of Belgrade’s streams, it is necessary to un-
derstand whether there is an awareness among the citizens of stream’s identity and whether it’s
possible to identify which elements making the identity of the streams should be preserved following
the revitalization. The question is whether, after many years of exclusion of streams from city life,
citizens recognize some patterns that need to be preserved, that is, whether there are memories that
have a longer life span than the space itself. Early recognition of the identity elements of existing and
future spaces, present in the minds of citizens, is important for maintaining identity in the process of
creating and using resilient open public spaces along the banks of small streams.

_ Figure 2: Different types of landscape and activities (Images sources: Historical park- https://bit.ly/3g-
Dw6OJ; Water entertainment - https://bit.ly/3gJFX5t; Walkway - https://bit.ly/2XoUoEE; Public perfor-
mances - https://bit.ly/3cl1XjT; Nature parks - Photo by Atelier Dreiseitl https://bit.ly/3eGk8lv; Restau-
rants and bars - https://bit.ly/2Mm4akg; Social spaces - https://bit.ly/2ySu5Nq; Cultural and theme
parks - https://bit.ly/2MjLt0D; Recreation by the stream - https://bit.ly/2AxxZvv; Open museum -https://
bit.ly/2Mi8HEj)

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In order to determine the level of awareness of the identity of streams, and analyse the way the citi-
zens perceive them and wish them to look like and be used following the revitalization, we conducted
an online pilot survey involving 117 respondents. All were legal adults (over 18 years of age) and
have been residing or staying in Belgrade for a long period of time. They were presented with multi-
ple choice questions about potential appearance of the small urban streams in Belgrade, accompa-
nied by photographs showing different types of landscape and activities with brief descriptions. The
selection was created in such way to offer diverse combinations of river regulations and pursuits
that could be organized there (Figure 2). The questions address each of the identity-relevant char-
acteristics of the spaces, as defined in the previous chapter.
Integrity and segmentation of space. One of the goals of the survey was to find out if citizens per-
ceive the streams as a whole, or if they assign importance to only segments of it. Majority of the
citizens believe that the condition in which the streams are is very bad and that very few elements
need to be preserved. This is confirmed by the answer to the question in which the respondents were
asked to assess the appearance of streams on a scale from 1 to 5, one being “unsatisfactory” to five
being “nicely landscaped streams” and their general impressions of them. The highest percentage
of respondents (47.8%) feel that the appearance of the streams is unsatisfactory. Only 9.7% consider
their appearance to be average, while none of the respondents rated the streams satisfactory or
nicely designed (Đukić and Sretović Brković, 2018).
The current condition of the streams is estimated by citizens to be very poor and they do not recog-
nize the elements that need to be preserved, but they perceive all streams as a whole. When select-
ing activities which they would like to take place at these streams after revitalization, they generally
chose those activities that extend along the entire shore: most of the respondents (93.2%) selected
nature parks. Recreation by the stream was in second place, selected by 70.9% of the respondents.
In third place was a walkway, selected by 68.4% of the respondents.
On the other hand, citizens have identified zones that differ in their distinctiveness, and there is a
completely different attitude to them when it comes to preserving their identities. Of the total num-
ber of respondents, 85.5% of the respondents had heard about Topčider River. It is one of the largest
small urban streams in Belgrade. It can be visited only in part that passes through the eponymous
Topčider Park, which has great natural, historical, and cultural value, as part of the identity of the
entire city. 50.4% of the surveyed citizens believe that the preservation of cultural heritage in the
valley of Belgrade streams is significant, which is mostly related to this park.
The diversity of open public spaces. The second part of the survey focused on gaining insight into
the diversity of the space. To get more information about the potential future look of the streams and
the surrounding areas, we presented the respondents with photos illustrating various landscaping
solutions: (2) concrete stream channelization, (3) natural channel design, (4) a mixture of natural
and concrete design and (1) an option of piping a stream and using a land above. We asked them to
choose an option they consider the most attractive. It is important to emphasize that this question
dealt only with the appearance of streams. It was interesting that none of the respondents opted
for piping a stream and using a land above for the development, and only 1.71% of respondents
opted for concrete stream embankments that are the most common way of regulating small rivers
in Serbia. Out of the 98.29% of users that choose more sustainable and resilient options, 86.32% of
them opted for the diverse look of stream banks – a mixture of natural channel design and stream
channelization. According to the results, we concluded that the citizens would like the streams in
their environment to be visible and that most of the survey participants prefer the diverse look of
stream banks (Figure 3).
When it comes to diversity of the activities which the survey participants would like to follow the
revitalization, they mostly chose activities which they were already accustomed to: spending time
in nature, riding bikes, walking, and socializing. Only a small portion of the respondents opted for
activities such as public gathering, performances, and open-air concerts, swimming, and water en-
tertainment. Based on that, it is concluded that they aren’t very interested in a large number of
activities, and instead, they opt for the activities which they are used to, or that are tied to existing
green spaces within the city.

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_ Figure 3: Responses on the question: “Which of the following approaches looks the best?” (Image sources: https://
www.herndon-va.gov/departments/stormwater-management and https://cartas.typepad.com/main/2011/04/
downtown-san-luis-obispo.html)

Great representation of green spaces within open public spaces. Throughout this survey, it is con-
cluded that there is a clear majority stance regarding green spaces. One of the main conclusions
of this study is that citizens want to reduce the pollution on small streams and enable a return to
the natural surroundings with their revitalization. Almost all of them surveyed, 97.3% indicated that
large quantities of waste along the shoreline as well as water pollution were considered the biggest
problem. When asked about the future desired appearance and purpose of open public spaces along
the shoreline, most of the respondents, as many as 92.9% opted for nature parks.
An unbreakable link between the river and the bank. An important issue for understanding identity
is how citizens perceive the connections between open public space and water, especially their
relationship to water in a space. Respondents consider water an important element, which has a
decorative role and serves only to create a pleasant environment.
The multifunctional use of water or its integration into other parts of the space was not widely ac-
cepted by the respondents. Although these streams have been used for swimming and leisure in the
past, such perception of the streams has not been retained. When interviewing several older respon-
dents who recalled the time when the streams were used for bathing, all responded that they would
not want the streams to be used for this purpose after revitalization, since they remember stories of
their danger, as well as the drowning of several children. This was confirmed by the response of all
respondents: less than 15% of citizens opted for one of the suggested methods of interactive water
use.
Variety of water forms in the relation between river and banks. Citizens were not asked about the
changes of the streams since the revitalization in the function of resilience has not been carried out.
Activities within a space. As mentioned, the current condition of the streams is deemed unsatis-
factory by most respondents. The pollution and the quantity of waste are recognized as the largest
problem by the majority of the respondents (97.3%) while inaccessibly to streams, that was listed by
57.76% of the respondents, was recognized as a significant issue. That has led to a small number
of activities that can currently be observed in these open public spaces along the banks of small
streams. The streams are poorly visited, apart from the well-known ones such as Topčider Park in
which various activities are present and could be discussed.

_ Figure 4: The preferred activities following the stream revitalization (Image sources: same as in the Figure 2)

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To get a clear representation of the preferred activities following the stream revitalization, the survey
respondents were asked to select at most five of the photographs showing different landscape types
with description of activities that may appear on the small rivers and streams. The results show
that citizens prefer open public spaces along the shorelines and spending time in nature, recreation,
walking, and socializing. Things of historical value were also quite important to the respondents.
Theatres, concerts in the open, and or conversion of brownfields into cultural or theme parks did
not prove to be of interest to them. Finally, swimming and water entertainment were chosen by the
smallest number of respondents (Figure 4). It is interesting to note that only 19.5% opted for restau-
rants and bars, which are otherwise very popular in Belgrade. Whether there is an oversaturation of
such contents or they did not find them suitable for small urban streams cannot be deduced from
the survey (Đukić and Sretović Brković, 2018).

CONCLUSION

The conducted research considers the planning stage of the small watercourse revitalization pro-
cess. Given that existing spaces in Belgrade are not designed to be resilient, and that disturbances
such as floods or droughts completely devastate space, it was not possible to investigate the vari-
ability or the stability of identity elements. This may be the subject of research during or after the
streams’ revitalization is completed. However, the step taken here is significant, as it identifies and
narrows down the identity elements that the respondents consider important and which should be
nurtured in further interventions on Belgrade’s streams. It should be noted that the survey presented
in this study was conducted on a small number of respondents (not all ages were included, and all
streams were observed in general). As such, the results of this survey should be used as an input for
organizing another survey on a more accurate sample, which would then provide more valid data on
the citizens’ opinion of streams.
The question of resilient spaces and their identity requires a great deal of further research that
should more clearly define the position of social resilience within the concept of socio-ecological re-
silience. While the ecological segment of resilience is highly elaborated within the socio-ecological
resilience framework, the social aspect requires further research which would verify the possibility
of linking the social and eco-systems together and defining their relationship (Olsson et al.,2015).
The issues of change and/or the stability of identity are still under-researched and require defining
the basic elements of stability and/or change, or the formation of principles for determining them.
Identity must have some variability due to the continuous changes in society: values, attitudes of
citizens, etc. In the event of disturbances, spaces significantly change their character and function.
After passing disturbances, the spaces renew their identity and try to restore it. However, throughout
the disturbance and recovery periods which are not necessarily brief, a space acquires another iden-
tity that is also significant and becomes part of the citizen’s consciousness. The question arises as
to whether there is only one identity, or perhaps it is necessary to look at several different identities
in one area (e.g. during floods, high water levels, low water levels, droughts) or whether it is that
constant variability of a space forms its identity.

REFERENCES

__ Carmona, Matthew; Heath, Tim; Oc Taner and Steve Tiesdell. 2003. Public Places - Urban Spaces: The
Dimensions of Urban Design. Oxford: Architectural Press.
__ Cumming, Graeme S. 2011. “Spatial resilience: integrating landscape ecology, resilience, and sustain-
ability” Landscape Ecology, 26: 899–909
__ Ćorović, Dragana and Ljiljana Blagojević. 2012. “Water, Society and Urbanization in the 19th Century
Belgrade: Lessons for Adaptation to the Climate Change.” Spatium, no. 28: 53-59.

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 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

AN URBAN DESIGN TECHNIQUE REGARDING

ACTIVE AGING IN OUTDOOR SPACES
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch12

_ Fernando Brandão Alves

DEC /CITTA, Faculty o Engineering, University of Porto, alves@fe.up.pt

_ Lara Mendes
Municipality of Caminha – Portugal / CITTA, lara.at.mendes@gmail.com

_ António Brandão Alves

University Lusíada Norte - Porto, cenarioeterno@mail.telepac.pt

ABSTRACT

Good public spaces should encourage elderly people to get rid of their private/home space and
should be considered as a vital opportunity to promote health through activity that elderly can de-
velop in outdoor spaces. This study aims to propose a new methodology that combines the Inter-
national Classification of Urban Design (IC-UD), based on “functioning and disability associated
with health conditions” (CIF) and the “health conditions” (CID-10), in order to assist oriented urban
design solutions regarding elderly’s healthier lives. Therefore, the combined technique that feeds
the methodology represents an important tool for urban design practitioners.

To strengthen this technique, the method is based on relevant findings coming from literature re-
view: some related to active ageing by analysing the program of the age-friendly cities (WHO) and
others concerning the international classification of functioning (CIF). Specially in residential areas
it is important to retain international good practice for urban design, along with the WHO guidelines
and the standard language defined CIF, as a universal lexicon for urban design - International Clas-
sification of Urban Design (CI-DU), which should be associated with educational programmes at
different levels.

The (new) International Classification of Urban Design (CI-DU) can (i) provide a scientific basis for
understanding and studying the determinants of active aging, results and conditions relating to
quality of life, (ii) establish a common language for describing health and health-related states, to
improve communication between different users, such as health professionals, researchers, politi-
cians, policy makers and the public, including people with disabilities, (iii) allow the comparison of
data between countries, between disciplines related to active aging and practice in public spaces in
residential areas, (iv) provide an universal coding scheme to base an information system geared for
urban design and public spaces, including residential areas, (v) support design decisions and best
practices.

KEYWORDS _ ageing friendly techniques, active ageing, inclusive design, elderly’s health

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INTRODUCTION

Global society is experiencing an exponential ageing (WHO, 2002; INE, 2017; Oliveira, 2010), a marked
tendency for mid-XXI century, translated by the worrying number of people over 60 years between
2006 to 2050 that will fold proportion of 11% to 22%, exceeding the number of children (aged 0-14
years) in the European population. The following graphics show the growing number of elderly peo-
ple who have tripled in the last 50 years and will exceed triple in the next 50 years.

_ Graphic 1–Number of world population aged 60 or over since 1950 to 2050. Left to right: Average an-
nual growth rate compared to total population and the proportion between the world population and the
population in “more” and “less” development regions (WHO, 2002).

This scenario shows the world population evolution, starting in 1950 with about 205 million, were 3
countries had more than 10 million: China (42 million), India (20 million), and the USA (20 million).
In2000 the number raised over more than 10 million in 12 countries and 5 with more than 20 million:
China (129 million), India (77 million), USA (46 million), Japan (30 million) and Russian Federation
(27 million). This result getting over the first half of the century, predicts to 2050 grow more than
threefold, representing almost 2 billion in 33 countries with more than 10 million and 5 countries
with more than 50 million: China (437 million), India (324 million), USA (107 million), Indonesia (70
million) and Brazil (58 million).Based on WHO Global Guide for age-friendly cities and communities,
and on the World Report on ageing and health, elderly is seen today as a resource (WHO, 2010; 2015).

THE STATE OF ART

Considering public spaces as a “place of aging”, who encourage the elderly to get rid of their space
“private / home,” can be considered as a vital opportunity to promote health through activity that
old people can develop outdoor (Peace, Kellaher & Holland, 2005). For this study topic two knowl-
edge fields are relevant. One related to active ageing: the program of age-friendly cities edited by
the World Health Organization (WHO, 2010), which comprises a checklist obtained through a study
that involved thirty-three cities from twenty-two countries (all from WHO region). This study iden-
tified the key elements of the urban environment that gives support to active and healthy ageing.
The other is related to the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health- CIF
(WHA54.21, 2001),a classification accepted by 191 countries as the new international standard for
describing health and disability, classifying functioning, disability and health of human beings in the
world, establishing a common language for health (WHO, 2004). It also includes the components
and determinants of the program Longitudinal Study of Active Aging-ELEA (Estudio Longitudinal

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sobre Envejecimiento Activo) (Fernández-Ballesteros, 2012, p. 147), that established a methodolo-

gy with predictors, determinants and out comings of active ageing, which integrates the following
Three European Studies: The HALE Project - Healthy Ageing: a Longitudinal study in Europe (Bo-
gers, R., Tijhuis, M., Van Gelder, B., Kromhout, D., 2005); EXCELSA – Cross-European Long Study
(Fernández-Ballesteros, R., SchrootsR., et al., 2004, p.11); SHARE – Health and Retirement Study
(Börsch-Supan, A., Hank K., Jürges, H., 2005); as well as several projects for healthy and age-friendly
cities. The relevance of rethinking aging in the presented research is based today on the following
statements:
A) Elderly& Health – Elderly’s quality of life is about much more than just health and physical func-
tioning. Public urban spaces can improve good health conditions, socio-economic situation, social
networking, meeting emotional needs (Gladstone B., Boydell K., Seeman M., McKeever P., 2011; Al-
dridge J., 2006). Biological condition must be considered as a natural process -the effects of aging
are a function not only of genetic predisposition but also of individual lifestyle and environmental
influences which includes physiological changes that influence the ability and limit the perception
(Russ, 2009)
B) Elderly and Urban Design – Urban design plays an important role regarding public space quality. A
lexicon of design has been identified as also important concepts and studies. Important contributes
feed the research method, related to the interaction between elderly people and public spaces in
terms of outdoor comfort, and peoples’ enjoyment in public spaces, like i) “Bodyspace” concept (Mi-
chael Y., Green M., Farquhar, S. 2006), ii) “Urbaging”concept (Biddulph / Martinoni, M., Sassi, E., Sar-
toris, A., 2009; Peace, S., Kellaher, L., Holland, C., 2005), iii) “Home Zone” concept (Biddulph, 2010), iv)
and “Walkability” concept (Frank L., Andresen M., Schmid T. 2004; Transportation Research Board –
Institute of Medicine of the National Academies. 2005; Rebecchi A., Buffoli M., Dettori M., Appolloni
L., Azara A., Castiglia P., D’Alessandro D., Capolongo S. 2019). Local services and food supply are
relevant as they determine the quality of life (mainly in residential areas) – “Food and Urban Design”
topic (Barton H., Grant, M. 2006). Relationship between dementia and the neighbourhood, has to
become an integrated topic in urban design proposals – “Dementia and Neighbourhoods” topic
(Burton and Mitchell, 2005).

METHODOLOGY

The proposed methodology combines the International Classification of Urban Design (IC-UD),
based on “functioning and disability associated with health conditions” (CIF) and the “health condi-
tions” (CID-10),in order to assist oriented urban design solutions regarding elderly’s healthier lives,
in outdoor. Based on the literature review, it is possible to systematize the central relationships
between the public space and human dimensions, in regards to outdoor active aging. These trans-
versal relations will strengthen the proposed methodology:
- Association with physical activity - the relationship with the environment requires movement (most
often on foot), then physically active lifestyle should be well documented as it can be a key contrib-
utor to healthy aging. Evidence shows that outdoor living improves individuals’ health, strengthen
elderly’s functional capacities, and combats depression (Mendes & Alves, 2015). Published stud-
ies reveal how public places can efficiently promote every people’s activity, highlighting walkability,
neighbourhood’s attractiveness and how different levels of activity are influenced by urban design
(Alves, 2003; Ball, 2012; Barton et al., 2010; Brown et al., 2004; Burton and Mitchell, 2007; DGS, 2015;
Walkinginfo.org; Wong, 2003).
- Social interaction and public spaces - in general, public spaces in association with the dwelling,
configure the environment outside the family home and assist in the daily lives of residents (Pedro,
2000). The use of public spaces by residents, implies the (in)direct involvement with others, the op-
portunity to social interaction. Therefore, providing common places for enjoyment and benefit of all
citizens becomes a key point in design strategies (Pedro, 2000; Mendes & Alves, 2015).
The proposed methodology seeks an integrative format for inclusive-oriented urban design, based

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on elderly’s quality of life style, their life course marked out by aging and active aging highlights.
For this purpose, one must define the type of elderly profile, seeking their active and early stages of
prevalence (dementia and degeneration), to enable the identification of requirements and enhancers
of active aging, promoters of life quality and also providing public spaces quality, in residential ar-
eas. Therefore, it is important to retain international good practice of urban design, along with the
WHO guidelines in conjunction with the International Classification of Functionality (CIF), as an uni-
versal lexicon for urban design – the International Classification of Urban Design (CI-DU), that in
turn should be associated with an educational programme (the e-DUcar programme), capable to
promote a new the culture of fundamental principles and citizenship on the scope of active aging
purposes. This association of factors confers an inclusive (even resilient) profile to the proposed
methodology.

THE DESIGN OF A METHODOLOGY FOR INCLUSIVE-ORIENTED URBAN DESIGN

In the last paragraphs the conditions that must characterize public spaces in residential areas, from
the perspective of elderly’s inclusiveness was defined. It is now important to describe the methods
and tools that structure the proposed methodology, as also, theories and concepts in the health and
urban policy fields. These refer to (i) the determinants and components of the mentioned interna-
tional classification of functioning and disability (CIF - the methodology central support), in health
states and related fields, (ii) the practices developed in the (inter)national territory to compare and
assess parameters for the design of spaces in urban residential areas, (iii) the definition of factors,
determinants and urban components that help to construct the new proposed programme, named“
International Classification of Urban Design” (CI-DU). As may be expected, to successfully reach this
goal, citizenship culture is considered as a key factor and transversal matrix to any society. Figure
1 illustrates our PI-ENVE proposed design, applied to a specific menu that aims combining the CIF
and the new CI-DU, together with several related urban space aspects.

Menu PI-ENVE
Data Base
Residential Area
SIG Data
Surrounding
Morpho-typological Data
Questions
Residents
Biometric Data
Profile
Questions
Condition
Urban Space
Geometric Data
Typology
Indicators Questions
Function
SurroundingPróxim
Built and Resources
Consideration
Residents Evaluation Elements
CIF-ELEA
Urban Space Considerations
CI-DU Evaluation Elements
Evaluation Considerations
Surrounding Evaluation Elements
Surrounding Selection
Justificatory report
Residents Quality Profile
User Selection
Justificatory report
Urban Space Quality Profile
SpaceSelection
Justificatory report
Evaluation options Quality Profile
Exit

_ Figure 1: The Menu Pi-ENVE tree (Mendes & Alves, 2015p. 289)

Figure 1: The Menu Pi-ENVE tree (Mendes & Alves, 2015p. 289)

107
Table 1 CIF and ICD-10 (WHO) classification framework and CI-DU proposed classification/assessment (adapted
from Mendes & Alves, 2015, p. 293)
 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

The following list enumerates some fields that are expected to integrate the database such as struc-
ture and size of the materials, among others, to be verified by an integrated analysis like it is pro-
posed in the methodology:

- Characterization of Public Space;

- Materials;
- Textures;
- Colours;
Menu PI-ENVE
Data Base
- Magnetism; Residential Area
SIG Data
- Visual urban perception; Surrounding
Morpho-typological Data
- Emotional, relational and security fieldsQuestionsassociated with childhood;
- Emotional, relationalResidents
and security fields associated with people over 60;
Biometric Data
- Public urban space as a scientific Questions
object; Profile
Condition
- Applied bioclimatology and
Urban Space
sustainability;
- Urban space as a synergies promoter; Geometric Data
Typology
field in line with the feed; Questions
- SynergyIndicators Function
SurroundingPróxim
- Sensory field associated with science (ex.: Feng-Shui);
Built and Resources
- Conclusions on binomials for sustainability: accessibility / mobility, communication /
Consideration
Residents Evaluation Elements
comfort and safety / health. CIF-ELEA
Considerations
This architecture informatics toolUrbanwill
Spacesupport decision actions, creating a platform that combines
Evaluation Elements
the assessment of the quality parameters ofCI-DU the urbanConsiderations
design and aging with the space typology in
Evaluation
residential areas, keeping elderlySurrounding
people and active aging as central topics. Evaluation Elements
Surrounding Selection
Justificatory report
Residents Quality Profile
RESULTS User Selection
Justificatory report
Urban Space Quality Profile
SpaceSelection
The proposed methodology reveals to be efficient throughout Justificatory
its inclusive
reportprofile, combining two
main domains: elderly’s healthEvaluation
& urban design. Table 1 presents the articulationQuality
options Profile
designed between
Exit
three main components, i.e., the CIF, the ICD-10, which is an international statistical classification of
diseases and related health problems (WHO, 2002), complementary to the CIF one, and the resulting
classification of our project, the IC-DU (International Classification of Urban Design).
Figure 1: The Menu Pi-ENVE tree (Mendes & Alves, 2015p. 289)

_ Table 1 CIF and ICD-10 (WHO) classification framework and CI-DU proposed classification/assessment
Table 1 CIF and ICD-10 (WHO) classification framework and CI-DU proposed classification/assessment (adapted
(adapted
from Mendes from 2015,
& Alves, Mendes & Alves, 2015, p. 293)
p. 293)

CIF CID-10 CI-DU

Main Functioning and disability Health conditions (diseases, Urban quality - life promoter
topics associated with health conditions disorders, lesions, etc.). (senior citizens) & active
Different types of diseases aging stimulator
Combined Complementary programmes - when combined allow to obtain Friendly domain supporting
objectives summary measures for monitoring the health of populations and decision and practice
their distribution by evaluating the proportion allocated to different
causes
Big actions To promote the combination of WHO international classification (for To develop an urban design
encoding wide health information) and a lexicon standard allowing a classification to (future)
worldwide communication (on health and health care, across integrate the WHO global
multiple disciplines and sciences) lexicon
Result CI-DU – A new methodological framework that support design decisions and best practices in the
light of inclusive and age-friendly public spaces, reinforced and perpetuated trough education (the
e-DUcar programme)

The methodology is structured in two phases, a strategic one articulating the most important in-
ternational sources on elderly health, active aging and urban design, and a second operational one.
These operational actions, composing the 2nd vertebral phase of the methodology, are key factors

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whether in terms of assessing the quality of public space, whether from studying populations or
even from the outdoor comfort levels. They are composed by the use of adequate technical labora-
tory equipment, the vital analysis software, the modelling and representation of information and the
comparative analysis of residential areas. The CIF has a more neutral position in the raised CI-DU
technique, however, it facilitates the study of the determinants and environmental factors that ex-
plains individuals’ living, and health conditions associated with functioning and disability. Cumula-
tively, CID-10programme complemented with CIF information, fully inform all about “functionality”.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Today, urban design plays an important role regarding the inclusiveness of public spaces. One of
the gaps in the literature, as well as in professional practice, is the lack of techniques / tools that
allow decision makers, technicians and designers to find effective measures in order to reach the
inclusiveness of public spaces. In this sense, the aim of this study was to design a methodology that
would make possible closing the gap. Therefore, the presented methodology combines fundamental
relationships, determinants and quality requirements of urban design and outdoor living, with the
international adopted measures of functioning and disability associated with human health con-
ditions (Table 1). This combined technique (CI-DU) represents an important tool for urban design
practitioners as it (i) establishes a common language on health and health-related issues for urban
design (integrating the essence of the WHO global lexicon), (ii) promotes a friendly collaborative
domain through the participation of different actors (elderly people, people with disabilities, health
professionals, researchers, politicians and policy makers, and (iii) gives provision to design deci-
sions and best practices in public spaces inclusiveness.
Systematizing, the CI-DU methodology constitutes a tool that support design decisions and best
practices in the light of inclusive and age-friendly public spaces, progressively reinforced and per-
petuated trough education.
Future studies will allow the implementation of the methodology in urban renewal operations es-
pecially focusing on disadvantaged residential communities. The CI-DU methodology also aims to
include in its structure a pilot project (e.DU.car), a model for active aging culture at distance edu-
cation. Finally, another phase is the application of an informatics program for decision support on
active aging and quality of public space (PI-ENVE).

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 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

SAFE COMMUNITIES THROUGH

ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch13

_ Giovanni Sergi
Architect and City Planner freelance, strada del Cavallo 81/B
Portone 60019 Senigallia (An) Italy, sergi.giovanni.pietro@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

The “Sustainable cities and communities” is one of the 17 objectives defined in September 2015 by
the United Nations Development Program for sustainable development to be achieved by 2030. In
particular, it highlights the need to be able to make available to all the populations of the globe by
2030 “…. universal access to safe, inclusive and accessible, green and public spaces, in particular for
women and children, older persons and persons with disabilities.”

In many countries central and local authorities have worked to implement concrete measures in or-
der to make urban environments safer. To sum up several measures have been implemented among
which tools for urban planning to tackle deviant behaviours of some social groups. One of the el-
ements characterising urban policies is the systematic cooperation between public authorities in
charge of urban planning, real estate companies and experts in security issues.

In Italy some interesting experiences regard the Municipality of Reggio Emilia, Varese, Padua, Genoa,
Piacenza and some other urban areas. It can be argued that over the past few years, the following
approaches have been used in Italy, with alternate results: 1) national and local legislation and ad-
ministrative decisions by Municipalities to increase safety and security. This framework includes
ordinances issued by Mayors to regulate specific problems such as the use of public areas, the open-
ing/closing time of shops and many other issues; 2) some initiatives regarding urban planning aiming
at changing and creating urban areas to improve the safety of areas having different dimensions and
functions: a square or a road, a new or already existing residential settlement; 3) some initiatives
based on the model of Smart City which give the opportunity to use new technologies in a systematic
way.

In this paper we will present in detail the initiatives recently taken by two important Italian Munic-
ipalities with regard to the problem of urban safety: the Municipality of Reggio Emilia which has
172,000 inhabitants and the Municipality of Piacenza which has 104,000 inhabitants.

KEYWORDS _ safe urban environments, sustainable

development, urban settlements, Reggio Emilia, Piacenza

INTRODUCTION

For many years Italian cities of different sizes have had to deal with the issue of urban safety due not
only to traditional crime but also, increasingly, to episodes of petty crime, vandalism, youth deviance,
drug abuse and other problems.
The lines of intervention developed by the Central Institutions and the Municipal Administrations

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concern, in general, the social prevention in areas and social groups at risk of crime, the requalifi-
cation of areas and public spaces affected by critical situations, together with actions of repression
through the Law Enforcement Agencies and the Local Police (Acierno, 2003). State and Municipal
Administrations are well aware that a city cannot only be functional and equipped with urban spac-
es of good architectural quality but it must also be and appear safe. The disciplinary knowledge of
urban sociology, anthropology, architecture and urban planning together with criminology and crime
mapping help to address the problem of urban safety by providing effective tools for analysis, pro-
posal and monitoring (Fasolino, 2018 and Ummarino, 2013).

THE DEBATE ON URBAN SAFETY. FROM THE STUDIES OF THE CHICAGO SCHOOL IN THE
1920S TO THE 2017 INTEGRATED URBAN SAFETY PLANS IN ITALY

The first discussions on the relation between crime and the urban environment date back to the Chi-
cago School, which can be placed in the area of urban sociology. These studies were carried out in
the period 1920-1940. The results of these experiences were introduced in Italy with the translation
in 1967 of the book “The City” by Park Burgess McKenzie published in 1925.
In the USA, anthropologist Jane Jacobs published in 1961 “The Death and Life of Great American
Cities” which offers a consideration on the relationship between urban planning and safety built on
an in-depth analysis of a neighbourhood in New York. Jane Jacobs’ theory can be summed up in
two concepts. The first factor of safety for a neighbourhood consists in the presence of activities
and movement of people as well as the presence of windows overlooking the streets. The second
concept concerns the inhabitants’ ability to identify with the urban environment they live in.
In this case, the citizen defends and respects the environment he feels as something belonging to
him. Jane Jacobs analyses the spontaneous practices of control of the urban territory and relates
them to the shape of buildings and public or semi-public spaces.
Following the publication of the highly successful book “Death and Life of Great Cities” at Colum-
bia University in 1970, an interdisciplinary work team was created, coordinated by architect Oscar
Newman, to transform Jane Jacobs’ analyses into operational design guidelines. At that time, the
problem of safety in public housing districts inhabited mainly by African Americans was particularly
serious. Oscar Newman’s research group was supported both by Columbia University and by the
Housing and Urban Development, the important Federal Department dealing with urban issues.
Newman’s research group studied spaces in New York’s social housing districts and published
“Defensible Space” in 1972, the first book to address the problem of designing safe urban space.
According to Newman, the safety of an urban environment can be achieved by designing places so
that criminal activities have fewer chances to thrive.
Starting from the theses of Jane Jacobs and Oscar Newman, several studies and experiments have
been carried out on how to design buildings, neighbourhoods and public spaces to achieve a good
level of safety in urban space.
This experiment has been supported by the U.S. Department of Justice and involved Canada and
Great Britain. This range of experiences is called Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design
CPTED and in the 80s and 90s gave impulse to applied experiences, conferences, research projects
and scientific publications in the Western countries (Coccoi, 2014).
European countries, apart from Great Britain, are not involved in the development of the Crime Pre-
vention Through Environmental Design disciplinary sector. Interest in the issue of safety in cities
was highlighted at a conference organised by the Council of Europe in 1989 on “Stratégies locales
pour la reduction de l’insécurité en Europe”. Since then, environmental prevention has started to
spread throughout Europe, giving rise to a wide range of initiatives. To sum up, it can be argued that
many European countries give great importance to prevention in connection with the local police,
whereas little attention is given to the issue of safety in the urban space.
At the end of the nineties the idea arose to draw up a set of rules on crime prevention and urban de-
sign and in 2007 the European Committee for Standardisation CEN published the European standard

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“Prevention of crime through urban planning” CEN 14383. The effect of this standard has been to
integrate the concepts of crime prevention into the technical and cultural framework of planning and
design in the EU countries (Cardia, 2011).
The standard CEN 14383 contributed to highlight the three key elements to ensure safety in urban
areas: urban planning, urban design and the management of urban spaces.
Today in Italy, Decree Law No. 14 of 20 February 2017, converted into Law No. 48 of 2017, introduced
urgent provisions on urban safety in cities, providing for the adoption of integrated urban safety
plans by the Municipalities (Comune di Firenze, 2018 and Regione Toscana, 2018).

THE PROBLEM OF URBAN REQUALIFICATION IN THE AREA OF THE REGGIO EMILIA

RAILWAY STATION

The Station Area was mainly built close to the Old Town in the seventies with medium-level build-
ings. Strong speculative tensions together with the typical dynamics of an area around the railway
station and the considerable migration flows have led to a social situation characterized by strong
tensions and close to collapse.
The area has 31 streets with about 6,250 inhabitants. In this area the percentage of foreign residents
is 53% compared to 16.8% in the municipal area. In some important streets such as Via Turri and Via
Paradisi foreign residents reach 77%. As a result, there is a huge social problem.
Through a process of participatory planning, a “Covenant of coexistence” has been developed,
signed by the Municipality, citizens and social organizations.

_ Figure 3: Reggio Emilia. Railway Station area: some of the planned or implemented measures. Source:
Google Maps, 2019

The objective of the Covenant is to ensure that the Station Area remains integrated into the territory
and social dynamics of the city.
The Municipal Administration followed four basic principles:
The first one is related to the role of the Law Enforcement Agencies: 1. Establishment of an organi-
sational panel with Carabinieri, State Police and Municipal Police 2. Monitoring of the territory by the
Municipal Police moving on foot to operate in the areas around the Station.
IV Novembre Avenue will host the construction of the new Municipal Police headquarters in order
to intervene more effectively in the Station area. 3. Prohibition on the sale of take-away alcoholic

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drinks after 5.30 p.m. in some streets close to the Station. 4. Activation of a large and widespread
video surveillance system managed by the control centres of the Carabinieri and Police.
The second principle is related to the quality of urban design: 1. The relationship between urban
planning and safety was considered as a key element 2. On Domenica Secchi Square near the rail-
way station a large green area was created with a high quality urban furniture with the inclusion of a
kiosk, the Caffereggio, where no alcoholic drinks are sold. This area previously known as “Lucchetto”
is the result of a redevelopment activity that led to the demolition of existing decrepit buildings 3. Ur-
ban redevelopment through new interventions focused on two parks in the area affected by several
problems. Particularly interesting is the project for the new “Parco delle Paulonie” covering a surface
of 3,200 square meters near the station between Via Paradisi and Via Sani 4. Great importance to
maintenance activities in the railway station area to show attention towards local inhabitants.

_ Figure 4: Municipality of Reggio Emilia, Secchi Square and Caffereggio kiosk near the Railway Station.
Photo: G. Sergi, 2019

The third principle is the development of the network of services as an important factor for meeting,
integration and dialogue: 1. Interventions with services focusing on city maintenance: from public
transport to urban hygiene 2. Interventions of a socio-cultural, welfare and educational nature. Two
examples: the nursery school “Oasis” in Via Caravaggio 2 and the educational facility for post-ado-
lescents under risk of deviance called “Spazio Raga”and located in the “Meeting Centre Reggio Est”
3. Specific projects against degradation aimed at addressing the issue of alcohol abuse in some
areas
The fourth principle is related to the activity of social prevention and cultural workshops: 1. The
central element is represented by the “Meeting Centre Reggio Est” founded as an ARCI club in Via
Turri 49 which is a reference point for all actions carried out in the area. Among these actions an
Incubator of Solidarity Economy IES to promote social inclusion 2. Opening of a “Social Mediation
Centre” in Via Turri 27 available to citizens and social workers. They work to prevent conflicts in
private spaces such as condominiums. It is also a centre to host conflict mediation and residential
education projects. 3. A system of labs dedicated to music, dance, theatre, photography etc. 4. Cre-
ation of a Festival that reflects these cultural activities within the territory.
Some phenomena that are taking place, such as the sale of houses and shops by inhabitants who
have lived here for decades to new immigrant residents, represent a reality for which the Municipal-
ity cannot take measures. There is a clear need for general policies that give new intervention tools
to the Municipal Administration together with the certainty of adequate resources (Corradini, 2014).

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THE PROBLEM OF URBAN SAFETY IN THE CITY OF PIACENZA

In 2019 the Municipality of Piacenza had a resident population of 104,000 inhabitants with a slight
growth trend due to a good productive fabric both in agriculture and industry and a lively activity
in the tertiary sector also due to its favourable location within the motorway and railway network
between Milan and Bologna.
The Municipal Administration of Piacenza has been committed in recent years to carry out projects
aimed at fighting crime, vandalism, child deviance and to resolve social and cultural conflicts due in
part to the presence within the municipal territory of 20,000 immigrants from Eastern European and
non-European countries.
Over the last two years, the Municipal Administration has drawn up an action programme aimed at
addressing the various problems that have caused concern within a large part of citizens towards
the problems that can be defined within the category of urban safety.

_ Figure 5: Municipality of Piacenza, Marconi Square and Seta company bus stop at the Railway Station.
Photo: G. Sergi, 2020

These actions refer to two types of intervention.

The first concerns a change in municipal rules that can take action against the most obvious mani-
festations of petty crime, youth deviance and vandalism.
These are new rules introduced in October 2018 as part of the Municipal Urban Police Regulations,
which reduce the possibility of selling and consuming alcoholic drinks in certain areas of the city
and at certain times.
Specifically, article 18 of the Regulation has been modified with an amendment that allows, thanks
to specific resolutions of the Municipal Council, to identify areas in the municipal territory where
1. it is forbidden to consume alcohol or drinks in glass bottles on public land at certain times 2.
it is forbidden to remain open beyond 9 p.m. for premises without adequate internal space for the
administration of drinks such as ethnic stores or beyond midnight for those premises that have a
suitable space such as bars or restaurants 3. it is forbidden to sell for take-away alcohol or drinks
in glass bottles at certain times.
Other actions have been developed because city has to face a series of critical areas in terms of
urban safety that can be identified in some sparsely populated districts, in the areas around some
schools, on some bus lines for the transport of students, in the area around the Railway Station of
Piacenza i.e. on Marconi Square and inside the Margherita Gardens. The situation around the Rail-
way Station is particularly complex due to the confluence of numerous public service bus lines, the

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presence of an important shopping centre and the Margherita Gardens, which have become one of
the stopping points for homeless people.

_ Figure 6: Municipality of Piacenza, Margherita Gardens and residence of the Mille. Photo: G. Sergi, 2020

In 2018 the Municipal Administration in agreement with the Prefettura (Territorial Government Of-
fice) of Piacenza outlined a “Pact for the implementation of urban security” which received sub-
stantial funding from the Ministry of the Interior to set up a video surveillance network covering the
entire city and consisting of 40 cameras. Of these, 11 will be cameras capable of reading car number
plates. The other 29 will be cameras capable of monitoring a part of the urban territory. The points
where the cameras will be installed have been decided by the Municipality together with the Prefet-
tura (Territorial Government Office).
The “Safe Schools” project has been developed by the Municipality of Piacenza together with the
Education and Law Enforcement Authority. The aim of this project is to combat drug use among stu-
dents, vandalism and bullying. Among the measures carried out is the placement of seventy cam-
eras on buses carrying students. In June 2018, the Municipality of Piacenza, together with the Mu-
nicipal Residential Building Agency ACER, developed and implemented a plan to increase the safety
of the inhabitants of Barriera Farnese, a residential district inhabited mainly by low-income families
who have been affected by numerous episodes of youth petty crime. The Municipal Administration,
together with ACER, has installed 16 video surveillance cameras inside the Barriera Farnese district
to provide a deterrent for those gangs of petty criminals who not only produce annoying noises until
late at night but make it difficult for the inhabitants to return home in the evening.
In 2019 the Municipality of Piacenza and ACER carried out a project to place another 16 surveillance
cameras in the district of Ciano inhabited by middle-income families. These cameras are paid by the
inhabitants of the apartments with a small monthly fee.

CONCLUSIONS

In Italy, the Constitution and other fundamental laws provide that urban security and public order are
a primary responsibility of the Central State which operates through the Forces of Law and Order:
Carabinieri, State Police and Guardia di Finanza (Finance Guard) coordinated by the Ministry of the

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Interior and the Prefects on a provincial scale. A series of laws promulgated by the Regions in recent
years have given greater power to the Municipal Administrations with regard to urban security.
A recent and important Italian law: number 48 of 2017 “Urgent city security provisions” has tackled
the problem of security in urban areas and has established the Plans for integrated urban security
that include, among the many possible interventions, interventions capable of modifying the urban
conformation of some critical points of the cities in order to guarantee greater security for citizens.
In the Italian reality, two different types of approach to the problem of urban safety have emerged in
recent years.
A first approach that we could define as “conservative” as the case of Piacenza where a lot of im-
portance is given to security systems based on video and audio technologies as well as some social
and urban design interventions.
A second approach that we could define as “progressive” as the case of Reggio Emilia where great
importance is given to the issues of social integration of groups that present behaviors character-
ized by marginalization phenomena as in the case of ethnic minorities. The theme of social support
has, in this approach, much more importance than repressive measures. Obviously, available tech-
nologies such as video surveillance are also used, but interventions capable of regenerating urban
spaces in order to favour social integration are preferred.
While the Municipalities of the Anglo-Saxon Countries that follow the model of the “Crime Preven-
tion Through Environmental Design” tend to develop a Municipal Plan for urban security in Italy,
today, the line followed by the Municipal Administrations, in agreement with the Prefectures, is that
of leaving to the Police Force the primary responsibility of guaranteeing urban security. The Munici-
palities deal with the issue of urban security by collaborating with the Police and implementing video
surveillance systems developed in agreement with the Prefectures. Municipalities also integrate the
work of the Police through interventions in the field of social policies and in the urban redevelopment
of areas with obvious critical issues in terms of urban security. It seems that with a certain gradual-
ness in the coming years in Italy too, integrated plans for urban safety will be realized.
In recent years in Italy the debate on urban security issues has been very articulated. Universities,
municipal administrations and cultural associations dealing with urban safety at national level have
participated with interesting contributions. Italian urban planners are realizing that a city can not
only be functional, beautiful and able to contribute to the balance between different social groups
but must also be safe.

REFERENCES

__ Acierno, Antonio. 2003. Dagli spazi della paura all’urbanistica per la sicurezza. Firenze: Alinea Editrice
__ Cardia, Clara, and Carlo Bottigelli. 2011. Progettare la città sicura. Milano: Editore Hoepli
__ Coccoi, Sandro. 2014. Città, obiettivo sensibile. Disegno urbano e sicurezza. Milano: Libraccio Editore
__ Comune di Firenze. 2018. Patto per Firenze sicura. Patto per la sicurezza urbana. Firenze
__ Corradini, Franco a cura di. 2014. Dalla città all’Europa. Strategie di sicurezza urbana. Città di Reggio
Emilia: Edizioni Nuova Prhomos
__ Fasolino, Isidoro, and Francesca Coppola, and Michele Grimaldi. 2018. La sicurezza urbana degli insedi-
amenti. Milano: Franco Angeli Editore
__ Jacobs, Jane. 2009. Vita e morte delle grandi città. Torino: Giulio Einaudi Editore
__ Park, E.Robert, Ernest W. Burgess and Roderick D. McKenzie. 1967. La città. Milano: Edizioni di Comu-
nità
__ Regione Toscana and ANCI Toscana. 2018. Toscana Sicura. Libro bianco sulle politiche regionali di si-
curezza urbana. Firenze
__ Bravo, Fabio. 2014. “L’efficacia del crime mapping per la sicurezza urbana: il caso di Enfield (Londra).”
Rivista di Criminologia, Vittimologia e Sicurezza Vol.VIII- no. 1 (Gennaio-Aprile): 38-73
__ Ummarino, Alessandro. 2013. “Una introduzione ai software per il crime mapping.” Rivista di Criminolo-
gia, Vittimologia e Sicurezza Vol.VII- no. 1 (Gennaio-Aprile): 147–59

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THE CHALLENGES OF DOCKLESS CYCLING IN THE

CITIES OF SE EUROPE: THE EXAMPLE OF BANJALUKA
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch14

_ Mladen Milaković
PhD candidate, University of Belgrade – Faculty of Architecture,
Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, mladenmilakovic0401@gmail.com

_ Aleksandra Stupar
Professor, University of Belgrade – Faculty of Architecture,
Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, stupar@arh.bg.ac.rs

ABSTRACT

In the familiar context of urban pollution and traffic jams, technological evolution again offers pos-
sible solutions for solving these problems. One of the new trends of urban mobility is the introduc-
tion of so-called dockless bike-sharing system, as an upgraded version of the previous mode of
bike-sharing. The paper focuses on its implementation in the cities of South East Europe (SEE) and
the selected case of Banjaluka.

The dockless bike-sharing system involves locating (via embedded GPS device) and renting the
closest bike in a service area, while not being limited by a specific home location and fixed sta-
tions. Nonetheless, dockless bike-sharing operators encourage bicycle drop-off near predetermined
spots. This mode of transportation is quite new and requires further improvement since its has been
noticed that users often leave their bicycles in extremely awkward positions, while the number of
stolen bikes has been increased too. Therefore, the legislation which would support this system
needs to be adjusted and updated in accordance with its specificities. However, there are numer-
ous advantages related to cheaper infrastructure, greater availability and accessibility achieved by
the simple use of a smartphone and a credit card. Consequently, the application of the dockless
bike-sharing system might contribute to the reduction of motor traffic, air pollution, and a greater
use of bicycles. Considering this, the case of Banjaluka will be analyzed and the recommendations
for the introduction of this system will be presented.

KEYWORDS _ dockless bike-sharing, mobility, environmental awareness, efficiency

INTRODUCTION

Since 2015, the fourth generation of bicycle-sharing schemes (dockless bike-sharing) has had the
predominant growth in the world of bicycle-sharing systems. While the third generation is rooted in
Europe and the USA, the precipitous growth of the fourth-generation has been launched in China, by
Ofo and Mobike companies. In 2017, the cities in the USA and Europe also started its application.
Over time, several names have been used to describe its main feature - e.g. dockless, free-floating
or stationless. This system provides a possibility of picking up and leaving bicycles at any place,
within the designated urban zone. According to the European Bicycle Manufacturers Association
(EBMA), in 2019 the dockless system also appeared in the cities of Austria, Belgium, the Czech

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Republic, France, Germany, Italy and the United Kingdom, with oscillating numbers of both bicycles
and operators (EBMA, 2019). However, it is not present in the SE Europe, except in Tirana (Albania),
which introduced it in 2018 (Mobike, 2020). Unfortunately, after only seven months of operation,
the operator reduced the service area, and already at the beginning of 2020, the system in Tirana
stopped working. The official position of the service provider is not available, but it is assumed that
the number of realized rides was not at the level of cost-effectiveness, while at the same time the
number of damaged bicycles was high. This condition also illustrates a low level of environmental
consciousness in other SEE countries, especially regarding the activities of local authorities. Mean-
while, this system has created hundreds of thousands of new jobs in China, illustrating their com-
mitment towards reducing the use of fossil fuels in transportation sector (Sun, 2018).
The dockless bicycle system is relatively new, especially in SEE, and its capabilities have not been
fully tested. In many cities, the system functions independently, simultaneously complementing and
competing with the third generation system. When it comes to Banjaluka, apart from the favorable
geomorphological conditions, additional engagement in the field of development of bicycle traffic
is noticeable. Although modest, this engagement has a slight upward trajectory, following the Eu-
ropean trends. A link to this could be also found in one of the topics launched for the Banjaluka’s
application for the European Capital of Culture 2024 - “Return to Europe through the discovery of a
new narrative” (Banja Luka 2024, 2019). The good functioning of the existing third generation bicycle
rental system provides the basis for its upgrade in the form of the next generation.

SYSTEM FEATURES

If we consider all pros and cons of dockless system, we can highlight its availability, flexibility, ef-
ficiency and affordability as positive characteristics. On the other hand, the negative features in-
clude the appearance of scattered bicycles, the so-called “zombie” bicycles, occupied sidewalks and
exposure to vandalism. Since the system relies primarily on the use of smartphones (for locating
available bikes, payment, malfunction reports, inappropriate parking, etc.), the elderly population
does not find it handy enough. The scope and manner of use are regulated through several param-
eters, and one of them is the adoption of appropriate legislation, both at the state level and the level
of local communities. However, it is not enough to pass legislation or even build infrastructure. It is
necessary to promote, learn, and work toward the culture of using bicycles as a form of transport,
and to involve the whole society in the process. Technological, ecological and social aspects of its
application are quite important, especially if we keep in mind that the use of bicycles in many envi-
ronments (including ours) is associated with lower social status, although this is not the case in the
Netherlands or Denmark. This implies that awareness and mentality need to change.

_ Figure 1: Obike dockles bike sharing system (photo by Laura Laker), London. Retrieved from https://
www.bbc.com/news/technology-50946871 (accessed on May 20, 2020)

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Dockless bike-sharing system belongs to the type of shared micromobility. Some studies show
that this form of transport could represent 8-15% of all trips up to 5 miles (Shaheen & Cohen, 2019).
They also indicate that the application of dockless bike-sharing system can contribute to increased
mobility, reduce the emission of greenhouse gases (GHG), reduce car use, develop economy, but
also improve health. According to the same study, the main users of shared micromobility (including
dockless micromobility) are:
1. Highly educated (faculty and/or postgraduates)
2. Younger adults (from 21-45 years of age)
3. Families without children
4. Families with middle and higher pay income and
5. Users living in densely populated urban areas, often with limited motor traffic.
By combining the features of the third and fourth generation systems, a hybrid system has ap-
peared. It combines the possibilities of (1) renting bicycles at a fixed station and leaving them any-
where in operational area; (2) renting anywhere and leaving them at a fixed station, (3) renting and
leaving bicycles at a fixed station; (4) picking up and returning bicycle anywhere within the space
provided for its use (Yanocha et al., 2018). According to the same source, the advantages and dis-
advantages of the system are divided into those concerning the city and the user. Therefore, the
main advantages of dockless bike-sharing systems are reflected in smaller initial investments, the
flexibility of the number of bicycles, and GPS data, which are the basis for planning the system and
cycling infrastructure. When it comes to users, the main advantages are the flexibility and usability
of the system. On the other hand, the disadvantages of the system are the impact on public space
(primarily the occupation of sidewalks) and unevenness (bicycles can be concentrated in city center
or around attractions), while for users the downside could be the high cost of use for regular users,
a model of payment only per ride, and limited access to bicycles. If we compare the third and the
fourth generation of bike-sharing, it could be noticed that the third generation relies on fixed stations
and government funding, while the fourth generation appears as a product of private capital based
on the use of smartphones and high-speed internet. In some cities (for example Beijing), the driving
time of 60% of users of this system is up to 10 minutes, while in 91% it ends within 20 minutes.
Also, it was noticed that the most frequent use is in the period from 7:00 to 9:00 and 17: 00 - 19:00
(Sun, 2018). Similar behavior was detected in other countries. These data indicate that the dockless
bike-sharing system is mostly used for shorter rides (to and from work, other regular daily activi-
ties). Considering the prevalence of bike-sharing systems in the United States, there are at least 70
smaller or larger cities where the 4th generation system coexists with the 3rd generation (Zamir et
al., 2019). According to some research (Wergin & Buehler, 2017), the users of dockless bike-sharing
show slightly different paths and habits compared to users of station bike-sharing. The directions
of movement of occasional users are more diverse, as well as the places of picking up and leaving
bicycles, while regular users show a greater attachment to a certain pattern. The dockless system is
consistent and complementary to the conventional one, and its users often emphasize recreational
goals (Zamir et al., 2019).

GENERAL CONTEXT

SOCIAL LEVEL
Private entrepreneurs (operators) in the field of mobility have changed the way people move in the
city. For short and spontaneous journeys, new forms of mobility, such as dockless bike sharing,
represent a new and sustainable opportunity. Despite the success in many cities, the docking bike
system did not develop evenly, because some local administrations simply did not have the will or
ability to finance it. Recognizing an opportunity, private companies have offered a fourth-generation
bike-sharing system, i.e. the dockless bike-sharing. Therefore, enterprising sections of society have
initiated and implemented a system that can contribute to the reduction of all types of pollution,
reduce user stress and thus affect the lives of people in urban areas. Recently, as a supplement to

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the system, electric scooters without stations (dockless e-scooters) have appeared, next to bicycles
or instead of them (London, San Francisco etc.). The costs, as well as the regulation of the system,
are mostly an open issue. There is no doubt that both sides in the process must provide, but also
make some profit. Cities should enable the development of these systems as an addition to public
transport, and/or alternatives to motorized transport, but also as a concrete and acceptable reso-
lution for the “first and last mile” of public transport users (train, bus). Investments are relatively
small in the long run, especially comparing them to the conventional modes of transport. The role
of cities is to use the potential of interested private investors while preserving the public interest. In
the area of SEE, which has a socialist legacy, the acceptance of a healthy private initiative is always
questionable, as well as a balanced symbiosis between private stimuli and often sluggish adminis-
tration. Also, the turbulent socio-economic and political events of the transition period conditioned
the functioning through formal (but not essential) procedures, often directed by subjective and/or
unethical decisions. In such condition, the phenomena that contribute to a better quality of life, but
do not bring enormous profits, rarely represent a priority for government officials. However, the diffu-
sion of technological and social innovations is inevitable, in spite of possible obstacles and delays.
Therefore, some authors provide guidelines for the future (Yanocha, 2018):
1. Cities should and must plan new bike/sharing systems, taking into consideration their
needs and capabilities, planning steps, and set goals. In the meantime, it is necessary to
work on new infrastructure,
2. Sharing data on rides, bicycle parking, the number of users, all for planning purposes,
maintaining order on streets,
3. Inclusion of bike-sharing systems in the public transport system, by introducing a shared
subscription (examples LA, Montreal, Mexico City). This kind of symbiosis should be a com-
petitive alternative to the comfort of a private car,
4. Respecting the rights of everyone to these services, regardless of social status. City policy
should regulate and equalize the need for profit, but also the need for service. The service
should be available to everyone and everywhere, as realistically as possible.
From a social point of view, the focus should be on the last two guidelines. The public transport
system (train, bus) represents a small society itself. It is a place of socialization, but also its ratio-
nalization. By integrating users of public city transport and users of the public bicycle system, we
are working on the homogenization of society, which is more responsible towards itself and natural
resources. Simultaneously, the use of individual motor vehicles in urban areas is decreasing. The
policies of the city should be the policies of society, those that articulate its needs and rights. In this
particular case, the cost-effectiveness of the dockless system will not be the same and sufficient
in all city zones, but it is the job of city administration to eliminate potential differences at all levels.
The bicycle-sharing system, referring mainly to the 3rd generation, began to function in Chinese cit-
ies with a slight delay compared to the European cities, but its development was much faster. Today,
Hangzhou has the largest bicycle rental system in the world (Zhai et al., 2019). In 2015, OFO installed
a dockless bike-sharing system in the university campus, and from there, its dizzying expansion in
China has begun. This example directly indicates which social groups should be targeted when aim-
ing to set up and develop this type of public transport system. The dockless system could be an ex-
cellent addition to the 3rd generation of public bicycle systems, adding new quality and capabilities
at the user level, although complicating the process at the organizational and administrative levels.
It should come as no surprise that certain aspects or elements within this system are intertwined,
and their boundaries are often unclear. Consequently, the problem of dockless bike-sharing system
could be reduced to several main elements:
1. Effective management of public space
2. Nurturing fairness and accessibility
3. Improving system planning and implementation
4. User protection
5. Education of users, and continuous popularization of the system among users.
The use and general choice of the dockless bicycle system are influenced by the needs of users,

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the possibilities of the system, infrastructural adaptation, but also social acceptance. Therefore,
it is necessary to continuously work on its popularization and integration into society. The area of
SEE still does not perceive bicycle transport as modern and competitive, relating bicycles to pov-
erty. Therefore, the education of users, potential users, but also those who are not, is an important
factor in creating an environment for the acceptance and development of all public bicycle systems.
Popularization should contain elements of modern marketing, advertising, use of social networks
to inform the widest possible social circle about the system and its benefits, but also “learning by
model” where those who exercise power would show an example by using the dockless system and
potentially increase the number of users.

ECOLOGICAL LEVEL

Based on the above, it is only a matter of time before cities, primarily larger and congested ones,
will develop this type of transport to some extent. Therefore, the sooner the step is taken, the better.
The cities will reduce pollution and harmful emissions and the residents will get more diverse and
efficient public transportation. Also, the omnipresent use of smartphones supports the assumption
that the dockless system will have users accustomed to a completely electronic way of operating
bicycles. The cities of SEE, such as the surrounding cities of Zagreb, Novi Sad, Sarajevo, already
have public bicycle systems with fixed stations, which could be upgraded to the fourth generation.

_ Figure 2: NSbike sharing system (photo by Parking servis, Novi Sad), Novi Sad. Retrieved from https://
www.parkingns.rs/bicikl (accessed on May 20, 2020)

The evolution of bicycle sharing has gone from “manual” bicycle sharing within the community, to
sophisticated sharing supported by modern information technology. Nowadays, cities in China have
the largest share of bike sharing systems in the world, making a significant shift from previously
dominant car use. While the third-generation (fixed station system) was used and developed in the
EU, the fourth generation has been expanding in China since 2015, transmitting the model around
the world (e.g. Mexico City). The dockless bike sharing system is a tool for achieving long-term
goals in reducing pollution. As a by-product of its use, a lot of data from GPS on bicycles will appear.
They should be available to public institutions in order to provide a better insight and planning of
infrastructure and mobility strategies (ECF, 2017). One of the most important things to plan for is
bicycle parking. Although free, it could threaten other aspects of city life.

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_ Figure 3: A pile of dockless cycles in Beijing, Mobike and Ofo (photo by Sam Shead, BBC), Peking. Re-
trieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-50946871 (accessed on May 20, 2020)

For this reason, dockless bicycle parking stations can be determined virtually, with the help of so-
called geofencing technology, but also physically, by outlining parking spaces, or simply by placing
“combs” for bicycles. The dockless system does not search for a station, does not require return to
fixed place, but encourages users to park them in the proposed places. Within this, there are two
types of bicycle security - one which involves locking with a cable for a fixed object (fence or simi-
lar), and the other which involves locking with a system installed on the rear wheel of a bicycle. The
possibility of arriving exactly at the targeted place, stimulates the users of the dockless system to
use this type of transport more, reducing the use of a personal car.

_ Figure 4: Mobike dockless bike parking example (photo by Mobike). Retrieved from https://altaplanning.
com/dockless-bike-share/ (accessed on May 20, 2020)

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Some documents state that the Greater Manchester region in the UK uses a dockless bike-sharing
system to achieve a goal in which the share of bicycle travel will go up to 10% by 2025, reducing
pollution (Yanocha et.al, 2018). The target percentage of cycling in Singapore is as high as 75% by
2030, and dockless bikes play a significant role in achieving this goal. Given the current pandemic of
Covid-19 virus, it should be noted that this situation has greatly highlighted the possibilities of using
bicycles in urban areas, so in some countries an intensive work has been done in order to increase
the number of cyclists - either legislatively or regarding the physical transformation. By reducing
human movement - primarily motor transportation - the environment has shown signs of recovery
in a short time, which also highlights the positive effects of dockless bicycles.
In any case, regulation and communication between all parties involved are necessary. Consequent-
ly, dome companies require that bicycles should be tied to a “rack” or other elements of urban furni-
ture, which largely prevents bicycles from being discarded at undesirable places.
The pollution of urban space is certainly not a desirable outcome of the dockless bicycle rental
system use, so the planned parking spaces should be provided by the city, for all bicycles (e.g. in a
car parking space). One of the biggest challenges in regulating the operation of this system is rebal-
ancing, which is essentially the transfer of bicycles from one place to another. Rebalancing involves
hiring a service vehicle that collects the bikes and redeploys them according to the operator’s plans.
The lower the need for rebalancing, the smaller the carbon footprint of the system, and thus its neg-
ative impact on the environment.

TECHNOLOGICAL LEVEL

Regardless of the undoubted positive effects of micromobility, it is necessary to regulate the area,
set restrictions for designated areas of use (geofences), define locations allowed for parking bicy-
cles, impose obligation to tie them to the fence or urban furniture and define the allowed usurpation
of space, primarily sidewalks. Some cities have established their own rules, or guidelines for the
dockless bike sharing system. Those in force in Seattle are reflected in the fact that bicycles are left
in parts of pedestrian zones which are under urban furniture or city greenery, and widths are greater
than three feet (approx. 90 cm). This also means that bicycles are left - tied in a “racks” or “staples”
wherever they do not block pedestrians, or left in marked zones whose size is usually equal to the
size of a car park (Shaheen & Cohen, 2019). It is also necessary to limit the number of bicycles, and
some estimates say that their optimal number is between 10 and 30 per 1000 inhabitants (Yanocha
et.al, 2018). The number of bicycles that can be recommended to circulate in the system depends
on the city, population mentality, infrastructure or geomorphology. Smaller fleets of 500 bicycles are
recommended to get the system up and running (Bordenkircher & O’Neil, 2018). The instructions
from London say that bicycle parking is one of the most important items of this system, so in Lon-
don is forbidden to park them less than 2m from the intersection, on the sidewalk whose effective
width is less than 2m, but also in some specially designated areas (Transport for London, 2018).
It can be said that the 4th generation bicycle-sharing system has the potential to attract a larger
number of users, and to supplement the existing public transport system (Transport for London,
2018). London aims to have 80% of all travel by foot, bicycle or public transport by 2041, and the
2018 code describes the term dockless bike as a pedalless bicycle, bicycle with pedals and an elec-
tric bicycle that uses a “cloud” or smartphone applications for unlocking and locking (Transport for
London, 2018). When it comes to electric dockless bikes, LIME ones are present in both Europe (Mil-
ton Keynes) and the US (San Francisco). The electric bicycle industry is growing, and we can take
the Netherlands as an example, where one in three purchased bicycles is electric (Wakefield, 2018).
One of the insufficiently researched areas related to the dockless bicycle-sharing system is the
prediction of bicycle availability at the observed locations. Research on this topic is based on the
principle of network or on the principle of distance (van der Meer, 2019). This system is both a
supplement to the 3rd generation, but also a competition. In London, during the 36 weeks since the
introduction of the 4th generation, there was a 20% reduction of the number of rides in the already

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existing system (Li et al., 2019). On the other hand, building the appropriate infrastructure is a direct
incentive to increase the number of users, as shown by some research on bicycle highways (Cycle
Superhighways) in London (Li et al., 2018). Stationless bicycles started operating in London in 2017,
including several operators such as Ofo, Mobike, oBike and Urbo. By the end of 2019, London had
at least five dockless bike schemes (Li et al., 2019). There are many factors influencing the choice
of one or another system, such as the rental price, terrain configuration, technical characteristics
of bicycles, etc. During 2019, an innovative version appeared in London - dockless e-bike system,
whose effects will be visible in the future. The start of the dockless e-scooter system in Cologne,
Germany, has been announced for 2020 by Spin, owned by Ford (Ford Media Center, 2020). For the
necessary regulation of the dockless system, an “electric fence” (geofence) is used, i.e. GPS regu-
lation of the areas of use and parking of bicycles. Depending on the configuration of terrain, GPS
service can also be inaccurate (Wergin, J. and Buehler, R., 2017). RFID (radio frequency identification
device) or bluetooth signals are also used for this purpose (Zhang et. Al, 2018). All users who ride
and/or leave dockless bicycles outside the defined area pay extra money. An electric parking fence
can hold up to 100 bicycles on average, and the economic viability of this system is only possible
with the protection and respect of bicycles. The same authors state that if the level of vandalism is
excessive, the question of system sustainability arises (Zhang et al., 2018). The applications used
in the dockless bicycle system enable finding the bicycle, paying, but also warning if the user leaves
the intended zone.

_ Figure 5: Unlocking dockless bike using smartphone station (photo by Todd Bishop), Seattle. Retrieved
from https://www.geekwire.com/2017/testing-new-breed-bike-sharing-pitted-spin-vs-limebike-
streets-seattle/ (accessed on May 20, 2020)

Each way of communication in the system must take into account the specificities of local com-
munities. Different local government units also have different acts that regulate areas important for
the public bicycle system. In 2019, London had a total of seven bicycle-sharing system operators,
three of which are dockless (O’Brien, 2019). This example reveals that parking bicycles should be
avoided along water surfaces, considering that vandalism is especially expressed there. Parking bi-
cycles with the dockless system is quite free, but that does not mean they can and should be parked
everywhere, in a laid position, or interfere with life in a city. Since the system is still new, many pilot
projects are trying to explore what the optimal solution is, suggesting parking on a marked “island”

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or within the space allocated for bicycle parking - hub centric model. Operators should transparently
announce the position of each bike, refreshing that information every minute. City authorities should
mark public positions for parking (leaving) bicycles, as well as prohibited parking spaces. According
to the ECF (European Cyclists’ Federation), these bikes are accessible via smartphone and credit
card, parked everywhere or in marked places, and their location is detected visually or with the help
of GPS. As already mentioned, many operators limit the areas of bicycle use, and in order for the
system to function in accordance with the life of a city, the parking strategies are necessary, as are
infrastructure construction strategies. Operators must invest additional effort in assembling, re-
balancing and servicing bicycles, and synchronize with local governments (ECF, 2017). This means
ensuring a good flow of information between operators and authorities. The fast-growing system of
the 4th generation should be accompanied by adequate control, law enforcement, and infrastructure
development. The system development should ultimately contribute to reducing the number of car
journeys, and the system itself should provide every user with comfort and safety (ECF, 2017).
Dockless bicycle-sharing system combines the function of bicycle and payment, which was partly
the function of a terminal (dock, station), and one of the advantages of the system is that the size of
a bicycles fleet is not limited by station capacity (Shen et. al, 2018). According to Shen and others,
used bicycles of the dockless system are mostly located next to public transport stations and thus
represent a solution for “last mile” travel. The dockless system is easier to expand compared to the
3rd generation since it offers a lot of data on the movement and number of bicycle rides, directions,
distance traveled, ride duration, etc. Cities must always be involved in the regulation of the dockless
bicycle-sharing system, participating as a corrective factor that encourages the positive sides, but
also discourages and reduces negative phenomena (Bordenkircher & O’Neil, 2018). According to
these two authors, an important aspect is reporting of malfunctioning or any problem. If the opera-
tors do not respond within ten hours, the city authorities take on the obligation to solve a problem. Of
course, they charge service from operator. This aspect is not alone, but it is an example of a potential
relationship between operators, city authorities and problem solving.

THE DOCKLESS CYCLING IN BANJALUKA

Except the example of Tirana (even for a small period of time), there is no bicycle-sharing system
of the fourth generation Southeast Europe. Therefore, its introduction is a challenge, which was
also recognized in Banjaluka. There are many questions - how and in what way this idea should be
promoted, how its implementation should be planned, conducted and regulated? The emergence
of a dockless bicycle-sharing system in Banjaluka would help increase the total number of bike
rides, with minimal investment, without a need to build fixed stations. With the existence of the 3rd
generation, the preconditions for the emergence of a hybrid bike sharing system have been created.
Given the limited infrastructure and the relatively small current number of potential users, the fu-
ture of the dockless public bicycle system in Banjaluka could be reflected in relying on the existing
third generation, but also in supplementing the existing one. Today, it has 5 user terminals with 36
bicycles (City of Banjaluka, 2020), over 1100 subscribers within around 200000 inhabitants, and it is
growing. According to the data that can be obtained in the local administrative bodies, the average
number of daily rents during the working day is 60-70, and the largest number of them is realized
between 7 and 8 AM, and 4 and 5 PM. Having in mind all the above, with the potential introduction
of the dockless system in Banjaluka, one percent of the existing bicycle rides of the station system
would belong to the stationless system, but the total number of rides would increase, which should
be imperative. The conditions for the installation of the fourth generation are similar to the previous
one. The existence of an internet connection on the territory of the entire city, together with wide-
spread smartphones, meets the basic technical and technological requirements.
Declaratively, the authorities of Banjaluka intend to equip each larger settlement with one station for
the third generation public bicycle system, and for 2020 it has been announced that one or two new
stations will be set up in one of the city areas. This part of the system represents a significant share

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of investment and the city might not be able to finance new terminals. Therefore, the system with
dockless bicycles could be perceived as a supplementing option, with a minimal investment. The
resulting hybrid system could reconcile the features of both systems, providing a better transport
service of public bicycles. Consequently, Banjaluka could follow several steps of implementation:
1. The initial step in the introduction of the fourth generation should include the campus of the Uni-
versity of Banjaluka, as an institution with a target group for the use of this type of transport. The
university campus (Vrbas) has a significant number of potential users, and represents a node with
good infrastructural preconditions.
2. Investing in new infrastructure, primarily in densely populated urban areas. The first phase of the
introduction of the dockless system would include a part of the city within a radius of approximately
2.5 - 3.0 kilometers from the city center. It should be noted that Banjaluka has a longitudinal urban
geometry, with maximum distance of 12 kilometers (south - north).
3. The establishment of a single record at the city level, which would contain graphic, numerical and
textual representations of all existing and planned bicycle paths and lanes. Information on the num-
ber, duration and length of rides through public bicycle systems of the third, as well as (to-be-in-
troduced) the fourth generation of bicycle-sharing systems. This database should include the issue
of parking, and all data should be available to institutions and individuals involved in planning or
research of urban development.
4. It is necessary to perform partial or complete integration of public city transport with bicycle-shar-
ing systems, with special emphasis on mastering the “last mile” using dockless systems. Within
this, a joint subscription for these two types of transport should be introduced, and the obligation to
install external bicycle racks should be introduced on public city transport vehicles. The introduction
of bicycles inside vehicles (buses) should be also formally enabled.
5. Funding of the public bicycle system and its supplement in the form of dockless bicycles, should
be regulated through a public-private partnership, or a completely private investment with respect
to general and detailed norms governing the area, following the example of the cities cited as ex-
amples. The city must balance the need for profit and the need for affordable and quality public
transport services for as many citizens as possible. This can be done through sustainable transport
subsidies, which must be provided as an item in city budget.
6. Provide parking for public bicycles of the fourth generation in the vicinity of all important public
facilities, increase the price of car parking in the central city zones, and redirect a part of collected
money to bicycle infrastructure.

_ Figure 6: Nextbike sharing system with docks – 5th station (photo by Milana Piljak) Banjaluka

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CONCLUSIONS

Based on the provided information and the conducted analysis, it can be concluded that the future
of the fourth generation public bicycle system is not fully guaranteed since it depends on many fac-
tors. The system could function well in communities with a higher degree of emancipation, social,
environmental and technological awareness, but the support of governmental structures is needed.
If the dockless system does not function independently and sustainably, it can always rely on the
achievements of the third generation public bicycle system, and as a supplement able to provide
a better choice for users of public transport in urban areas. The problems of urban life are always
layered and intertwined, so the possibility of introducing dockless bicycles in Banjaluka depends on
several factors. Focusing on users with the developed sense of environmental and health benefits
provided by this transportation mode would be beneficial, along with appropriate logistical steps.
The introduction of the fourth generation public bicycle system, would add a new quality to the entire
public transportation, traffic congestion would be reduced, as well as air pollution and car noise. If
we take into account that about 17,000 students study at the University of Banjaluka (University of
Banjaluka, 2020), and that there is a terminal of the third generation bicycle-sharing system near
the Vrbas campus, it is clear that it represents a good environment for activating and developing a
dockless system.

_ Figure 7: Nextbike sharing system with docks near university campus (photo by Mladen Milaković) Banjaluka

The distance of this location from most important historical, cultural, traffic and other objects is
between one and one and a half mile, which completely fits into the category of cycling trips of
medium distance. It is certain that there are other locations in Banjaluka with good potential for the
development of dockless systems, but as a starting point it is enough to dedicate one, to initiate the
first period of system implementation.
For the development of this system, as well as that of the previous generation, it is necessary to
invest in bicycle infrastructure, including parking lots (canopies) for bicycles. There is also a need
for increased interest in this topic from all professions involved in the urban planning process, such
as traffic engineers, especially from the aspect of system implementation in the city traffic system.
This thought can refer to the specific case of Banjaluka, but also to other cities. The general sug-
gestion is that activities should be monitored during the use of bicycle-sharing system, and special
attention should be given to the redistribution of bicycles and their proper parking, with a ready
institutional and operational framework for preventing and reducing the impact of vandalism. The
dockless system of public bikes should serve Banjaluka as one of several tools that will improve
living conditions in the city, influencing its urban characteristics in a positive sense, making it us-
er-friendly and accessible to all.

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__ Mobike. 2018. “Mobike launches in Tirana, Albania” Mobike blog, Last modified June 09. Accessed
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__ Shen, Y., Zhao, J. & Zhang, X. 2018. „Understanding the usage of dockless bike sharing in Singapore.”
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SKOPJE PUBLIC SPACES EVALUATED:

ANALYSIS AND TYPOLOGIES
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch15

_ Divna Penchikj
Associate professor, PhD, Faculty of Architecture, University “SS. Cyril and Methodius”,
Blvd. Partizanski odredi 24, Skopje, Republic of Macedonia, pencic.divna@arh.ukim.edu.mk

_ Jasmina Siljanoska
Professor, PhD, Faculty of Architecture, University “SS. Cyril and Methodius”,
Blvd. Partizanski odredi 24, Skopje, Macedonia, jasiljan@ukim.edu.mk

_ Dana Jovanovska
Assoc. MSc, Faculty of Architecture, University “SS. Cyril and Methodius”,
Blvd. Partizanski odredi 24, Skopje, Macedonia, danajovanovska@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

In order to influence the design agenda locally in the city of Skopje the municipalities have adopted
a range of strategies, standards, guidelines and control practices for quality public spaces which in
many cases accommodate ‘generic’ and ‘globalized’ design principles and are not always appropri-
ate to the local context and peculiarities. For better understanding the requirements of the different
public realm spaces and guiding local communities’ decisions on future responsive planning solu-
tions it was necessary to structure proper public realm typologies created for a locally recognised
purpose and based on criteria relevant to that purpose. At this juncture, although broad comparisons
across extremely diverse spatial classifications and versatile framework are made, we primarily refer
to one of the most recent international definitions in this area which is offered by The Charter of Pub-
lic Space, while the valuation to the analysis and findings presented in the Public Space Profile for
the city of Skopje, a study which was supported by the UN Habitat (Enhanced Right to the City for All)
as a brief overview of the current practices of public space development and management in Skopje.

The presented study was focused on understanding and analysis of the existing system of public
spaces in Skopje in relation with relevant municipalities and local peculiarities. In-depths analysis
has been performed on selected public spaces with focus on selected indicators through a combi-
nation of cadastre maps, city and municipal GIS platforms and site visiting. Definition of urban public
space, of quantitative and qualitative indicators relevant to public space and the methodology for mea-
suring of the quantitative and qualitative parameters of public spaces in Skopje has been performed
relevant to the SDG 11.7 developed by UN Habitat (Target 11.7: By 2030, provide universal access to
safe, inclusive and accessible, green and public spaces, in particular for women and children, older
persons and persons with disabilities) and site analysis. The results and the findings from the re-
search are supported by a set of recommendations, which provide solid basis for future discussions
and improved urban policy on public space development and management.

KEYWORDS _ public spaces, public space typologies, sustainable

development goals-target 11.7, Skopje public space profile

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INTRODUCTION

In the city of Skopje there is a wide variety of public spaces resulting from its discontinued devel-
opment which was a consequence of changing planning paradigms, major societal changes and
natural disasters. On the other side, recent urban interventions, densification of built environment
and architectural incidents in line with Skopje 2014 project (Grcheva, 2018) are challenging com-
plex historical and sociological situation threatening to reflect on the long-history-development and
values of the inherited buildings and escorted ever worse abuse of public space. Violation of public
property and public space is the cause of destruction and shrinkage of these areas that were histor-
ically clearly articulated as public spaces - streets, squares, river banks.
A brief overview of the current practices of public space development and management in Skopje
was made by the researchers from the Faculty of Architecture, University Ss. Cyril and Methodius,
Skopje. The research was commissioned by UN- Habitat and performed according to the suggest-
ed methodology and typology, adapted to the local characteristics and conditions. The study was
focused on understanding and analysis of the existing system of public spaces in Skopje in relation
with relevant municipalities and local peculiarities. In order to respond properly to the rich variety of
public spaces in the city of Skopje different characteristics were examined, such as activity and use
pattern, access and flow, safety and comfort.
Typologies and Definitions in Theory and in the Charter of Public Spaces
At the very beginning, we would like to stress that the typology for the public spaces we have used in
the survey are mostly based on the Charter of Public Spaces (Biennale Spazio Pubblico, 2019) and
locally adapted to Skopje’s characteristics and our intention was not to make broad comparisons
and definitions across diverse spatial classifications of open spaces which have been differently
evaluated by theorists considering the formal, functional, social, political, and physical health signif-
icance to the urban residents.
Although public access is common for many types of open spaces, it does not automatically im-
ply public access which is important notion for the valuation of the friendly use and safety issues
we wanted to discuss in Skopje. It is certain that their public accessibility can closely determine
their cultural and economic functionalities. There we arrive to the category and definitions of pub-
lic realm. Carmona et al. (2008, p. 5) find that “public space (narrowly defined) relates to all those
parts of the built and natural environment where the public has free access. It encompasses: all the
streets, squares and other rights of way the open spaces and parks; and the ‘public/private’ spaces
where public access is unrestricted.”
No matter of different approach and focuses which different definitions and typologies evolved, any
public space has three characteristics: physical, social and cultural. To make a successful city, it
should provide a sense of place that strengthens community’s identity, which improves community
relation while creating a place for all types of people to congregate. In this regard Richard Sennett’s
remarks (Sennett, 2010, p.2), who attributes himself to the so-called “performative” school in ap-
proaching the issue of public, are very important.
However, when we look at these famous definitions, we realize that most of them understand public
space as the one of gathering, encountering – not of “moving through”. On the other hand, social
scientists admit that space is getting more and more often expressed not through the “place” but
through the “mobility” the place itself is less characterized by the stability, and more often - by the
movement and flows, as well. (Castells, 1998)
In support of this discussion, The Charter of Public spaces was adopted at the Second Biennial of
Public Spaces in 2013. In order to make a significant contribution to the preparatory process of the
third Conference of the United Nations on Human Settlements 2016 this document immensely con-
tributed to the definition of public spaces. The broad and comprehensive definition of public space
in the Charter of Public Spaces elaborates that: “Public spaces consist of open environments (e.g.
streets, sidewalks, squares, gardens, parks) and in sheltered spaces created without a profit mo-
tive and for everyone’s enjoyment (e.g. public libraries, museums). Both when they possess a clear
identity can be defined as “places”. The objective is that all public spaces should become “places”.

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(Sennett 2010, p.2)

The Global Public Space Toolkit is prepared to become a user-friendly guide towards a quality of
public spaces, produced by UN-Habitat in cooperation with Instituto Nazionale di Urbanistica (INU)
and other partners, using The Charter of Public Spaces as one of the main reference definitions of
public spaces. In this document: “The notion of public space as a common good implies its acces-
sibility by all with no direct cost to the user, and also its spirit of public service without any purpose
other than contributing to the overall quality of urban life. The term ‘place’ is used to allude to the
quality all good public spaces should possess.” (Biennale Spazio Pubblico 2019, p.24)
Under this definition the document distinguishes a variety of different types of public space, which
can be regrouped into five main categories, starting from those that guarantee maximum access
and versatility. The types are subdivided into three main categories, while the fourth category is for
the “non-physical” public spaces. The first (I) category of “Streets as public space” is subdivided
into: Streets, avenues and boulevards; Squares and plazas; Pavements; Passages and galleries;
Bicycle paths. The second (II) category of “Public open spaces” is subdivided into: Parks; Gardens;
Playgrounds; Public beaches; Riverbanks and waterfronts, and the third category of “Public urban
facilities” consists of: Public libraries; Civic/community centres; Municipal markets; Public sports
facilities, as specialized urban spaces.

PUBLIC SPACES SAMPLES EXAMINED

Following the elaborated typology in the Charter of Public Spaces and the Global Public Space Tool-
kit, the Public Space Profile for city of Skopje was completed as part of the UN-Habitat project
“Enhanced right to the city for all” (UNKT, 2018). Measurement of quantitative and qualitative pa-
rameters of public spaces has been performed according to the SDG 11.7 developed by UN Habitat
and indicator 11.7.1 which was calculated for each of the five chosen sample areas (UN Habitat,
2018). The in-depths analysis has been performed on selected public space with focus on selected
indicators through a combination of cadastre maps, city and municipal GIS platforms and site visits.
Research of five sample sites with size of 10 hectares each, provides an opportunity for measuring
and making a comparative analysis of the parameters in five different sites in city of Skopje. The
samples differ in urban morphology, relation to public and private property, scale and position, and
equipment. In all five samples comparative overview on quality of public spaces based on Indicator
11.7.1. was made measuring the proportion of total surface of land allocated to streets (street and
pavement); proportion of total surface of open public spaces (parks and green areas, children and
sport playgrounds, squares, etc.); proportion of total open public space; proportion of open public
space per capita. In this paper are presented only two samples, both being part of the same and
most common typology of public space: street and square.

_ Figure 1: Five investigated samples (10 ha) (Source: UN HABITAT, 2018. Skopje Public Space Profile)

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#1 TYPOLOGY: STREETS AS PUBLIC SPACE

The very well-known neighbourhood “Debar Maalo”, located on the western fringes of the central
core of the city of Skopje, in its layout is a heritage of post-ottoman planning of the Skopje when the
development was oriented towards building a European city, while its built form is a combination of
that same traditional town architecture and today’s architecture. Programmatically, “Debar Maalo”
is a predominantly residential neighbourhood with ground level of its buildings usually used for
mixed uses such as: cafeterias, bars, restaurants, local shops, galleries and other service-oriented
facilities that make “Debar Maalo” one of the most vibrant, diverse and attractive parts of the city.
The street network is composed of residential streets with sidewalks and tree lines that do not al-
low heavy and fast traffic. They are quite straight and linear in their layout, and form rectangular or
triangular urban blocks.
The calculations made for this sample show a lack of any open public space dedicated for specific
use, as: parks and green areas, children and sport playgrounds, squares, etc. The result is 0 %. On the
other hand, the result obtained for land allocated to streets is 37,45 % and it is to some extent above
the expected 30%. Proportion of total open public space is 37,45 %, which is less than expected 45 %.

_ Figure 2: “Debar Maalo” map with the measuring points: Aminta III Street, Miroslav Krleza Street, Antonie
Grubishikj Street and Square Krug.

In spite of its residential character, “Debar Maalo” hosts diverse activities in which participate the
local people as much as participate the people from the whole city, of all generations and genders.
The vicinity to the inner city centre core, the city park and stadium, and the disposition between im-
portant city boulevards “Partizanski Odredi”, “Kliment Ohridski”, “Ilindenska” and “Ruzveltova”, make
“Debar Maalo” streets part of important network that connects assets and places together, and as
such accommodates dynamic and multi-layered flow throughout the whole day, regardless if it is a
working or non-working day.

_ Figure3: Aminta III Street (by Authors)

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With lack of designated public parking zones, the cars have completely acquired the pedestrian do-
main. Namely, all sidewalks with no street bollards are occupied by parked cars in addition to exten-
sive use of the sidewalks by the bars/restaurants, including tables, decorative elements and shading
structures. This superiority of cars parked and bars’ outdoor areas, leaves the pedestrian completely
out of sidewalks and puts them on the asphalt surface together with cars and cyclists. Amenities
and equipment comprise of street lights, waste bins, traffic signs and parking notice boards, and
they are mainly in good shape, but not sufficient in quantity though.
Aminta III Street is the busiest street with bars and restaurants, used dominantly during the coffee
brake hours 12-18h. All aspects apply same to both working days and weekend days. The cul-de-
sac Miroslav Krlezha Street has lowest car frequency, which turns the asphalt of the street into a
promenade used by people walking, alone or with kids and prams. Being the street that leads to the
food market of “Bunjakovec”, makes the female users of age category 15-64 principal users in the
mornings, while in the later hours male overtake. There is no significant difference between the use
of the street in working days and weekend days. Antonie Grubishikj Street, besides engagements in
bars, fosters kids play in kindergarten “Kocho Racin” which can be seen between 10-12h. Like Miro-
slav Krlezha Street, Antonie Grubishikj Street is also used by people who visit the local food market.
Along the sidewalks, there are jardinières with greenery. Antonie Gribishikj Street demonstrates sim-
ilarities with Miroslav Krlezha in all three differentiation aspects of activities and flows. Vicinity of
the primary school “Kole Nedelkovski” and kindergarten “Kocho Racin” (both on the street itself) on
working days, in working hours show prevailing female users of age category 15-64.

_ Figure 4: Miroslav Krlezha Street (by Authors)

Based on measurements taken on four streets i.e. public spaces in “Debar Maalo” we concluded
that the streets are part of the permeable neighbourhood with great accessibility and connectivity,
which brings dynamic and multi-layered flow throughout the whole day. But, in terms of traffic,
the critical evident domination of the cars either parked or in motion, is in conflict with many other
non-motorized uses, pedestrians or cyclists, of the streets as a public space. Other than cars, side-
walks are “conquered” by outdoor areas of every bar/restaurant. Consequently, safety and comfort
come into question! In spite of the issues of mobility and maximizing cars capacity, “Debar Maalo”
streets manage to function as a place well known in the city’s cognitive map. However, possible
multiple activities are not developed because socializing in the bars and restaurants, or to transiting
activities, dominate.

#2 TYPOLOGY: SQUARES AS PUBLIC SPACE

Skanderbeg Square, located between Skopje’s old Bazaar on north, and the Inner city core on south,
is a highly heterogeneous and stratified space inherited form the post-earthquake development of
Skopje, set upon an existing urban form of an ottoman town. The calculations made for this sample
show a high amount of land allocated to pavement, 44,32 %, and 26,84% to streets or in total surface
71,12 %. This result is much above the expected 30%, due to the fact that this part of the city is more
pedestrian as a part of Old Bazaar and new city square – Skanderbeg Square. Proportion of total

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surface of open public space dedicated to parks and green areas, children and sport playgrounds,
squares, etc., is very limited 6,11 % and is less than expected 15 %. Proportion of total open public
space is 77,28 %, which is much more than expected 45 %. Given its location, the Skanderbeg Square
is very permeable and therefore allows very dynamic flow of public space users.
The whole complex of Skanderbeg square accommodates various types of public spaces.
Towards Goce Delchev Boulevard and Filip II Makedonski Street there is a small Piazza that extends
into public parking. On its western part there is tall equestrian bronze statue of Skanderbeg of 2007,
complemented with ethnocentric murals and symbols. This open public space operates primarily
as transitional space between the Skanderbeg Square and the Old Bazaar and the public parking.

_ Figure 5. Skanderbeg Square with it measuring points: Public Parking / Piazza; Pavement of Mixed-use
Street; Skenderbeg Square; and Entrance to Skopje Old Bazaar

The Piazza is equipped with urban equipment of moderate quality such as: light poles, concrete
flower boxes and notice boards and the lack of services and amenities onsite makes it a quite un-
derutilized public space.
The Skanderbeg Square is a large public space – elevated surface, that covers over 8,000 square
meters, gained by enclosing part of the Old Bazaar and accessed by massive staircases. The elevat-
ed square offers open vistas of the surrounding Old Bazaar, the fortress Kale, Macedonian Philchar-
mony, Macedonian National Theater and the Ottoman Daut Pashin Hamam, as well as other areas
in the city centre. It is complemented with centrally located, sphere-shaped canopies that provide
shade from the sun. On the western side it is accessed through massive “cavea” like staircase that
open up towards the Department Store Most. Similar staircase has been erected on the opposite
corner of the elevated plateau, which faces the Skanderbeg Piazza. The northern and southern edg-
es of the square provide urban terraces.
In spite of that, the square is highly non-contextual, incoherent with the already establish urban
monuments (Daut Pashin Hamam and the Old Bazar) and uses.
Even though it is designed as Public Square, its fairly restricted access which runs solely through
stairs and elevators makes it isolated from the natural pedestrian flows which run underneath. The
flow measurements of the place have confirmed that the number of users is extremely low for a

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place of such size, capacity and urban significance. Namely, most of the users are limited to tourists
and deliberate local visitors, with no significant change in pattern of use over the day, regardless of
working or rest days.
The urban equipment is comprised of notice boards, street lights, waste bins and standardized
benches. The quality is good, standardized and sufficient in number. Natural elements are limited to
jardinières with greenery. In terms of safety and comfort, there are no particular remarks, however
the overall perception of the place is underwhelming.

_ Figure 6. Skenderbeg Piazza (by Authors)

In terms of traffic, it is limited to pedestrians. The flow measurements have shown significant flux
that tends to intensify over the business days as opposed to rest days. The numbers vary over the
course of the day and the number of users which simply pass through the place is significantly larg-
er as opposed to the users that actually engage with the public space and its amenities.
The analyses and measurements of this case-study area around Skanderbeg Square show that its
integration in the urban fabric and the mental memory of the city varies significantly. While the en-
trance to the Old Bazaar Plateau, Piazza / public parking and the pavements of the large boulevards
and streets are morphological continuation of the present physical structure and its urban proper-
ties, the newly imposed Skanderbeg Square do not establish relevant contextual relationships.

CONCLUSION

The study provides an opportunity for comparative analyses of the parameters in five different sites
and public places in the city of Skopje. The samples besides the fact they have been chosen for
their difference in typology, out of which only two typologies were presented in this paper, they differ
in urban morphology, provision of public space stock, relation to public and private property, scale
and position. Baseline analyses of supply and quality of public spaces examined in the study, were
concentrated on pedestrian count and flow patterns, and on use pattern. As an outcome of the
performed observations and calculations, three differentiated groups of valuable data have been
provided concerning: activity and use, access and flow, safety and comfort.
The results and the findings from the research have provided solid basis for recommendations for
future discussions and improvement of urban policy on public space development and manage-
ment. The overview leaded to a conclusion that the approach to public space design in the city of
Skopje must employ different concepts in order to respond properly to the rich variety of public
spaces. Public space in the city should be perceived as an integrated network of different types of
public space, rather than dispersed and isolated spatial elements, and they should be hubs of multi-
purpose spaces integrating different activities, spatial features and modes of transport.

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REFERENCES

__ Biennale Spazio Pubblico, 2019. “Charter of Public Space”. Accessed Jun 10, 2019. http://www.bien-
nalespaziopubblico.it/outputs/the-charter-of-public-space/.
__ Carmona, M., De Magalhaes, C., and Hammond, L., 2008. Public Space: The Management Dimension.
London, UK: Routledge.
__ Castells M., 1998. The Information age: economy, society and culture. Vol. 3. End of Millennium. Oxford:
Blackwell.
__ Grcheva, Leonora, 2018. “The birth of a nationalistic planning doctrine: the ‘Skopje 2014’ project: Con-
tributions towards planning theories from the South-East”. International Planning Studies. 24. 1-16.
10.1080/13563475.2018.1523712.
__ Sennett, R., 2010. “The public realm”. In “The Blackwell City Reader” edited by Gary Bridge and Sophie
Watson, 261-272. London: Blackwell Publishers.
__ UN-Habitat, 2014. “Guidelines and Metadata on the City Prosperity Initiative, use of selected indica-
tors”, Nairobi. Accessed Jun 5, 2019. https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/files/metadata-compilation/Metada-
ta-Goal-11.pdf
__ UN Habitat, 2015. “Global Public Space Toolkit- From Global Principles to Local Policies and Prac-
tice”. Accessed Jun 5, 2019. https://oldweb.unhabitat.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Global%20
Public%20Space%20Toolkit.pdf
__ UN Habitat, 2018. “Skopje Public Space Profile”, as part of the “Enhanced right to the city for all” UN
Habitat project, in preparation.
__ UNKT, 2018. Accessed Jun 5, 2019. http://unkt.org/2018/11/21/enhanced-right-city-regional-proj-
ect/

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THE PLACES OF (NON)REMEMBRANCE - THE USE OF DIGITAL

TECHNOLOGIES IN CREATING THE PLACES OF COLLECTIVE MEMORY
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch16

_ Milja Mladenović
PhD Student, Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade, Bulevar kralja
Aleksandra 73/II, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia, miljamladenovic@outlook.com

ABSTRACT

The topic of the paper is related to the processes of promoting the cultural heritage of Belgrade by
creating a system of interactive places of remembrance. By identifying the relevant and the forgot-
ten landmarks of Belgrade, the research aims to revive the stories of the places that played a role in
the cultural development of the city but remain unmarked to this day. In the research, the landmarks
are named “Mesta (Ne)Sećanja” – The places of (Non)Remembrance. The paper aims to define
the means of creating site-specific virtual memorials that promote the identity of Belgrade, while
simultaneously implementing the “Digital City” concept of urban development. The polygon of re-
search is divided into two zones of Belgrade city centre, that are most visited by tourists. The focus
of the work is connecting the 24 historically relevant and unmarked places in Belgrade in a single
GIS-based network, which can be accessed by mobile phones or tablets in the specific locations. By
connecting the georeferenced places with stories and augmented-reality (AR) models that provide
interaction with users in real-time, it is possible to design virtual memorials that create the interfer-
ence between the physical public space marked in 24 locations and virtual space at the specific web
page or application. The paper relies on the results of an experimental project “Mesta (Ne)Sećanja”
(The Places of (Non)Remembrance) conducted in 2017 that tested the implementation of the con-
cept at the location of the “Kafana Albanija” historical landmark. The results include the numerical
data of user interaction with the digital memorial as well as the guidelines for the physical sign of
the memorial in the exact location, based on the tested design variables.

KEYWORDS _ “Mesta (Ne)Sećanja”, site-specific, public art, augmented reality, digital memorials

INTRODUCTION

Contemporary development of various social, ecological, and technological factors influencing city
development has affected the architectural approach of public space. By intertwining different pos-
sible scenarios of maintaining a contemporary public life in the old cities, the borders of material
space are being questioned. The requirement for interaction in the cognitive process of getting to
know a certain space has affected the architecture in terms of interlocking the cyberspace with the
material space (Virilio, 2011). The contemporary city concepts require the use of new technology
when interpreting elements of cultural heritage in public spaces. The new relation between technol-
ogy and space is being constructed, and it serves as a medium of digitalized interaction in the form
of digital projections, 3D Mapping, holograms, augmented reality installations, and different means
of virtual or mixed reality activities. With such use, the technology becomes both the activator and
the generator of the public life and also gives new meaning to the relation of time-space-information
(Renaud, 2002).

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NEW MEDIA AND CULTURAL HERITAGE

The switch from analogue to digital technology in architecture and urban planning has enabled
a new way of interpreting the cultural heritage, both trough productive and reproductive aspects
(Malpas, 2007). Elements of technology can be involved in a digital reconstruction of existing spatial
elements as reproductive, or create an entirely new architectural or artistic structure, even aesthet-
ically identical to the original element of heritage – as productive. From the aspect of architecture
and urban planning and the project “Places of (Non)Remembrance”, the focus of the paper will be
on the productive aspect of heritage interpretation, which creates a new aesthetical value (Mako,
2009) identical to the artefact, but in a digital medium. Since the concept of a virtual world knows no
boundaries (Zancheti, 2002), because it happens in interaction with personal devices, the recogni-
tion of heritage value is being made possible if being designed as site-specific, by virtually interpret-
ing an artefact in cyberspace but in its exact location – on site. For the given relation time-space-in-
formation, the time value is treated differently since the interaction through technology (devices)
enables a faster flow of information.
The interaction through new media is enabled by a growth in the accessibility of public internet
access points that are currently an important part of urban mobiliary, especially as it relates to the
implementation of the “Digital City” concept. With accessible internet hotspots, it is easy to create
web-based platforms for VR, AR, or other digital interaction. And with the development of smart-
phone technologies as well as other personal devices, it is now possible to scan QR codes with a
device without the need for additional software or applications, which enhances the accessibility of
heritage-related digital platforms.

PLACES OF (NON)REMEMBRANCE

Case of Belgrade – Unmarked Landmarks

The heritage of the Belgrade city centre is a rich field of various fragments of history. In many of the
spots of the historic area, it is possible to recognise multiple historical layers of heritage that has no
physical interpretation or landmark at present. Especially when it comes to the elements of cultural
heritage related to everyday life, there has not yet been a consolidated method of categorizing the
places of relevance that are related to many urban legends or historical events, which are significant
for both the city and the region.
In the research conducted in 2017 there had been recognised over 20 possible places of collective
memory that can be connected in tourist paths within a walking distance. Since the new urban con-
cepts, such as Smart City, promote the pedestrian way of urban mobility, it is of a higher significance
for urban development to find ways of promoting both the smart mobility and the smart heritage
preservation methods. For the project “Mesta (Ne)Sećanja” the landmarks were connected in two
networks – linear and polygonal, that tell the historical tale of Belgrade.

Concept
The project and the research were a part of Public Art and Public Space Course at the Faculty of
Architecture, intending to create small urban interventions within Belgrade city centre. The first part
of the project was related to recognising the possible spots for further research, and the second part
was designing an architectural intervention that communicates with the users of public space. For
the project, 24 unmarked landmarks created the touristic path (Figure 1). Since the attractiveness of
a place in contemporary world is connected to a digital sphere, the marking of the landmarks was
designed as a system of QR codes positioned at the site-specific spots. When scanned, the codes
lead to a webpage with the story of the place in the Serbian and English languages, with audio-visual
materials from various digital archives. Besides the touristic potential, the project also targets the
citizens of Belgrade in attempt to familiarize them with the lesser-known elements of their city’s

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heritage. By doing so, it is possible to raise awareness of the value of cultural heritage with the
inhabitants.

_ Figure 1: Map of “Mesta (Ne)Sećanja” Landmarks

The linear zone of landmarks traces the path from Kalemegdan to Slavia Square, following the Knez
Mihailova Street, Terazije Square and Kralja Milana Street and consists of a network of 10 land-
marks:
1. The place of the announcement of the beginning of WWI (Today the Faculty of Fine Arts)
2. The American Library (Today the Cervantes Institute)
3. The Kafana Albanija (Today the Palace Albania)
4. The hotel where Ivo Andrić wrote the novel Prokleta avlija
5. First cinema projection
6. The first location of The Victor Monument
7. The site of the Founding of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes
8. The site of Obrenović Palace
9. The Jovan Bulj traffic officer Crossroad
10. The site of the Sundial in “Mitićeva rupa”
The polygonal zone consists of 14 landmarks related to everyday life, such as the site of the be-
ginning of the Student Revolution in 1968, the first discotheque, the first brewery, the first private
pizza-place, the first telephone, the first streetlight, etc. The landmarks 3 and 9 of the linear zone
were chosen for the further development of the project.

How it works?
The design of the “memorial” consists of a mark with a printed QR code, located at the exact site of
a historical event (Figure 2). When scanned by a user with a personal device, a webpage http://mes-
tanesecanja.blogspot.com/ with the information about the site opens (Figure 3). At the webpage
it is possible to interact with the data, and also find the nearby digital monuments within the zone,
within the GIS map.

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_ Figure 2 (left and in the middle): The design concept and Figure 3 (right): The webpage

The results of the experiment

The analysis and the numerical data (Table 1) provided by the experiment at “Kafana Albanija” and
“Jovan Bulj Crossroad” points of “Mesta (Ne)Sećanja” in December 2017 are focused on recognising
the digital sphere as the medium of communication between users and information in public space.
It was conducted both in site-specific areas, as well as the virtual sphere of social networks. The
gathering of the data had a duration of 24 hours, targeting the most frequent use of marked space.
While the interaction with the “monuments” in public space had only several interactions, the viral
results from social networks show the interest in topic, as well as the tendency to switch to more
digital mediums. By making the user-information relation more accessible in the public space, it
can be anticipated that the further research in the field can result in wider range of interaction that
connects public space and virtual data in site-specific spatial points.

_ Table 1: Numerical data, December 2017

Social Media Social Media

QR Code Social Media interractions - interractions - Link
readings in interactions - Link Clicks Clicks (Shared Blogpost
site
models, which can have a function of a digital memorial. Reach
Instead of with text(Twitter)
(Twitter)
a webpage data) interaction
archive data, a user can have
Kafanaa more interactive experience
Albanija 14 with the model
2049in virtual 16 46 76
e. In a contemporary setting, this project can refer to the AR application used at the 30
Jovan Bulj Crossroad 7 1504 29 16 52
e Mauerfall event in Berlin in 2019 (Figure 4), as a guideline.

Table 1 - Numerical data, December 2017

Guidelines for further development of the project
Due to the technology requirements which were higher in 2017
than they are now, there were issues with the scanning of the
codes, since the devices didn’t have a built-in code reader. From
today’s perspective, the scanning of QR codes is much simpler,
and the interactions it provides are richer. Now it is possible to
create an application with GIS based AR models, which can have
a function of a digital memorial. Instead of a webpage with text
and archive data, a user can have a more interactive experience
with the model in virtual space. In a contemporary setting, this
project can refer to the AR application used at the 30 Jahre
Mauerfall event in Berlin in 2019 (Figure 4), as a guideline.

_ Figure 4: The AR model of Berlin Wall,

Kulturprojekte Berlin, 2019

Figure 4 - The AR model of Berlin Wall, Kulturprojekte Berlin, 2019

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CONCLUSIONS

By treating cultural heritage as a form of digital information, it is possible to enable a new method
of promoting heritage throughout public space. The relation space-information transforms from a
material space to digital, thus providing the ability to layer different heritage values within the digital
medium. By using AR, VR, 3D mapping, and other digital means for user interaction, the promotion
of heritage in the cities becomes more attractive to diversified social groups. By accepting the new
media as a way of creating monuments, it is possible to implement the Smart City concept and to
pursue a contemporary approach to cultural heritage protection. In cities such as Belgrade, where
cultural heritage plays an important role within the inhabitants, it is important to create landmarks
that don’t interfere with the material space but enrich it from the point of the virtual sphere. Es-
pecially within the protected sites, it is important to recognise the value of cultural elements and
reconstruct them in a way that doesn’t include an invasive spatial intervention. The positive side
of “digitalizing” such heritage is the possibility to adjust the information to the user, and to update
it frequently, which is accomplished easier in the digital sphere all while preserving and promoting
heritage sites.

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TRANSITIONING THE PUBLIC SPACE -

THE CASE OF BELGRADE SHOPPING MALL
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch17

_ Marija Cvetković
Teaching Assistant, University of Belgrade - Faculty of Architecture,
Bulevar Kralja Aleksandra 73-II, marija.cvetkovic@arh.bg.ac.rs

_ Ivan Simić
PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Belgrade - Faculty of Architecture,
Bulevar Kralja Aleksandra 73-II, ivan.simic@arh.bg.ac.rs

_ Aleksandar Grujičić
Teaching Assistant, University of Belgrade - Faculty of Architecture,
Bulevar Kralja Aleksandra 73-II, aleksandar.grujicic@arh.bg.ac.rs

ABSTRACT

The (shopping) mall is a utopian common space that aims to form new gathering places and bring
people together, functioning as a “city within a city” (Gruen & Smith, 1960; Kaliski, 2008). They are
becoming new downtowns and are now ubiquitous and frequently visited places (Kowinski, 1985).
Contrary to the concept of a mall being considered a non-place (Augè, 1992), it is now often viewed
as one of the better-quality forms of public life in a modern city - spaces that have the highest level
of attendance, and are able to function as super-places.

The emergence of shopping mall is notable after the World War II, differentiating the USA model
and the European one. While in the USA the problem of traffic expansion in the use of shopping
facilities was solved by placing trade facilities on the outskirts of cities adjacent to transit streets
and interchanges, in Europe a controlled separation of heavy traffic was carried out, which allowed
the creation of spaces synthesising the pedestrian corridors and shopping areas in the city core.
The transition process has had significant consequences in the context of economic, political and
social structures in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe. A visible aspect of these changes is
also seen in retail organization, privatization and the formation of new trade organizations, and the
opening of markets to foreign capital and international trading chains.

Presenting the examples of one characteristic shopping mall in Belgrade - Rajićeva Shopping Center
- distinct by its urban extent and morphology, this paper aims to explore potential urban identity and
quality of space increase in the case of newly formed semi-public spaces within open and closed
areas of the mall, by analysing the spatio-physical aspect of the mall and its role in the definition of
immediate urban surrounding.

KEYWORDS _ shopping mall, semi-public space, urban identity, public space quality, Belgrade

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INTRODUCTION
Trade is one of the most vital and important urban functions and as such has an important role in the
emergence, development and shaping of cities, undeniably impacting the urban environment. Rela-
tionships and connections between urban structures and trade, as the cause of city development,
is one of the most common explanations presented in the studies of the history and development
of cities and settlements. Until the Industrial Revolution, trade was the main driver and key factor
in the development of cities. Throughout history, trade has been located along the main streets or
intersections of several key routes in the city, where the development of such settlements is linked
exclusively to the development of trade, which requires spatial expansion of trade and results in the
formation of networks of new spaces. New contents appear, which are important for the develop-
ment of the city and the everyday life of the inhabitants, and those soon become the spaces of gath-
ering and exchange of goods. Markets are considered an important functional urban space of the
city, where a unique urban communication environment is created - bringing citizens together. The
need for a controlled trade space soon arose, and the market was moved to covered areas, where
open spaces were vacated, thus becoming city squares. The emergence of complex functions, as
well as clear spatial relations in the city are one of the features of a quality urban environment. The
development of the city’s economy and its physical structure is intertwined, and with the growth
of the city’s economic power, there is a need for new types of buildings and spaces, changing the
relations between the public and private spheres of life in the city.

SHOPPING SPACES IN URBAN SURROUNDINGS

By creating new forms and transforming the existing structure through the positioning of consump-
tion space, the space of the modern city is reshaped (Dawson, 1983; Goss, 1992, 1993; Howard,
2007). Spatial relations in the traditional urban fabric are changing with the construction of new,
modern spaces of the modern city. On the one hand, public spaces in traditional cities maintain their
importance in city centers, while on the other hand, new “public” areas are constantly being formed
within new types of buildings specific to modern society. A modern shopping center is a typical
example of this type of facility. It is a building within which the public and commercial spaces of a
traditional city coexist. Along with the appearance of this type of buildings in the inner city center,
the traditional commercial space of the city has changed, and public spaces have become less visit-
ed and sometimes abandoned, showing that this new type of building reflects the individualistic and
materialistic nature of social structure, reinstating the previous functions of public spaces.
In the modern city, the primacy of shopping spaces is taken over by large-format shopping centers.
Some researchers see the emergence of shopping centers as “the culmination of human consumer
nature” and “one of the biggest milestones in urban space organization” (Pušić, 2009). Shopping
centers are taking precedence over the commercial and entertainment functions of the city street,
and consequently, shifting the public space - bearing the networking function and the basic deter-
minant of the spatial structure of the urban area. The evolution of the shopping center was marked
by the inclusion of increasingly different contents, so these spaces became gathering and leisure
time places, which justifiably gave them the epithet of social places. In recent research, the mall
is no longer perceived only as a form of retail, but also as a postmodern place of consumption in
which trade and leisure intertwine (Holbrook & Jackson, 1996). Shopping malls as temples of con-
sumerism (Debord, 1967; Mumford, 1938) and cathedrals of consumption (Ritzer, 2005; Goss, 1993;
Kowinski, 1985; Sikos & Hoffmann, 2004) are becoming new centers of social life - a place of so-
cialization, trade, spectacle and information exchange. Despite its intrusive individualistic ideology,
the shopping center provides a venue, generates motivation for audience visits, where shopping and
leisure activities merge into a unique time of consumption, while the space itself has become a place
of gathering and social liveliness (Bloch, 1983, 89, 94; Sit, 2003; Howard, 2007).
The shopping mall is viewed as an integral part and one of the essential components of the imme-
diate urban environment. Such facilities are specific places in terms of design, content and func-

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tions, sociability and meaning, therefore it is important to determine which aspects of the urban
environment are impacted with this facilities. The quality of the urban environment depends on
several factors, which have been discussed in the professional literature of the past few decades,
where there are sets of criteria and characteristics of urban space quality proposed by different
authors (Lynch, 1960; Jacobs, 1961; Jacobs, Appleyard, 1987; Bentley, 1985; Whyte, 1988; Tibbalds,
1988, 1992; Francis, 2003; Carmona et al, 2003; CABE, 2000, 2004, 2006). Of all the above criteria,
the most important factors for evaluating the quality of the urban environment can be systematized
in four specific groups of quality factors of the urban environment: physical (continuity, legibility,
visual suitability, permeability); functional (flexibility, vitality, diversity, usability); social (inclu-
siveness, sociability, control, convenience); symbolic (peculiarity, authenticity, attractiveness, per-
ceptiveness).

_ Table 1: Quality factors of the urban environment

able 1: Quality factors of the urban environment

quality factors of the

description
urban environment

integration of mall space into the existing structure of the urban environment; spatial
continuity
and dispositional relation to the environment; continuity in pedestrian and traffic flows

a place with an easily understandable, logical and clear structure and network of links
PHYSICAL

legibility
and content, with clear paths and connection points, physically accessible to all users.

aesthetic quality of space. fitting - connecting - visual adequacy and appropriate

visual suitability
shaping and materialization

permeability quality can be measured by the number of alternative and basic pathways
permeability
through the urban environment; ease of movement; creating responsive places

a place that easily adapts to changing user requirements and technological and
economic conditions; a space that can be modified, transformed and adapted to a
flexibility
variety of functions and activities; user participation in changing the physical structure
of the place
FUNCTIONAL

ecological sustainability of space; sustainable places that meet local needs; the degree
vitality to which the design of the space supports the functions, biological and environmental
conditions, as well as the abilities of the users;
diversity and appropriate combination of content, activities and services; space
diversity structure should invite and encourage public life, to provide multifunctional space and
diversity of users

usability a clear and functional space that contains all the necessary elements for functioning

environment that is available and accessible to all; a space that encourages

inclusiveness communication between different cultural groups; user participation allows
personalization of the place

creating a meeting place and a sense of community, a place that provides an

sociability opportunity for user interaction and receptivity; spaces that encourage citizen
SOCIAL

participation in social and public life through passive and active involvement

clean space with a high level of maintenance; space users can create and manage
control
access to space and activities; a safe, well-lit and marked area
comfortable spaces that enables basic human needs; furniture that provides space for
convenience
relaxation and enjoyment, meetings and activities

a place with its own identity and character; a sense of individual or collective belonging
peculiarity
to the environment; user involvement to increase a sense of belonging
SYMBOLIC

clear meaning and image of space; thematization of space; creating a recognizable

authenticity
identity; the authenticity of the spatial structure and architectural composition
creating certain benchmarks that define the look, provide a recognizable meeting
attractiveness
space; a place that attracts users and provides space for creativity
perceptiveness understanding the context of the area; symbolism and memory places

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Emerging Megastructures - Shopping Malls

It is noticed in recent literature that shopping malls are presented as new city centers from both the
physical-functional and the social aspect. These are spaces that users perceive as new gathering
places, where various events are organized, where it is possible to find all the necessary things under
one roof and in one place - similar to the urban city center. According to Victor Gruen, the designer
of the first shopping centers, these facilities are “a vehicle that leads to the intention to redefine the
modern city.” He believes that the “mall” is a place of utopian common space that aims to gather
and bring people together, he considers the “mall” a new city. Contrary to the concept where the
mall is considered a non-place (Augè, 1992), they are now often seen as one of the better forms of
public life in the modern city, ie spaces that have the highest attendance in the city and are able to
function as super- places. Kowinski believes that shopping malls have become new centers of the
city and today ubiquitous and frequently visited places (Kowinski, 1985). With their appearance,
shopping malls give the impression of glass boxes of various contents, implying generic design.
These facilities are characterized by a higher degree of comfort, security, concentration of activities
and content, they become better, more acceptable and more attractive places of socialization. The
result is new (public) spaces that become interesting to the capital.

Geographical Varieties
Observed from the socio-cultural aspect, where culture is a complex of beliefs of society, its role, tra-
dition and customs, it is possible to notice that within the object (being a product of globalism), one
can recognize cultural heritage and traditions of a region, habits and customs of consumers. Such
features significantly affect the design and visual identity of objects. A notable difference can be
observed in facilities in different geographical areas, such as the Middle East, the USA and Europe.
There is a difference in the concept of a shopping center in American and European cities. Urban
conditions related to trade facilities after World War II in Europe were quite different from those in
the United States, while a common factor for both areas was the growth of automobile traffic. Social
and spatial changes were manifested in the expansion of the city, ie the conversion of rural areas
through urbanization and the formation of new housing units with all the necessary accompanying
facilities, including trade. While in the USA the problem of traffic expansion in the use of trade facil-
ities was solved by placing trade facilities on the outskirts of cities next to transit streets and junc-
tions, in Europe a controlled separation of heavy traffic was carried out, which enabled the synthesis
of pedestrian corridors and trade zones in urban core. The transition process has had significant
consequences in the context of economic, political and social structures in the countries of Central
and Eastern Europe. A visible aspect of these changes can be seen in trade, ie retail organization,
privatization and the formation of new trade organizations, and the opening of the market to foreign
capital and international trade chains.

Post-socialist Transformations
The characteristic of the development of post-socialist cities is that the cities went through complex
changes under the conditions of post-socialist transformation, globalization and Europeanization.
Socialist countries lagged behind in the domain of trade due to closedness, while in Western Europe
the trade power of cities grew in the trade sector. Radical changes in the former socialist states of
Central and Eastern Europe in the early 1990s created a new social, economic, spatial and cultural
environment that shaped a new urban reality (Lazić, 2011). Large cities in transition countries re-
corded a sharp increase in retail sales in those years as a result of increased demand for consumer
goods (Lukić, 2002). Market liberalization represents a systemic economic change of post-socialist
society, which fundamentally changes many aspects of life and functioning, including urban forms
and spatial development (Tsenkova & Nedović-Budić, 2006). Unlike the socialist period, in the period
of transition, the attitude towards the spatial distribution of non-residential contents within the city
is changing.

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Evolving Shopping - Belgrade Shopping Areas Between 1990s and the New Millenium
The post-socialist period of shopping facilities includes the period of temporary facilities, street
sales in the open and the first generation of shopping centers from 1990 to 2000, such as the tem-
porary Open Shopping Center in New Belgrade block 43, the so-called “Flea Market”, which began
operating in 1994 (according to the new plans, it is to be moved to a new location by 2021 next to
the “Kvantaš” market). The main characteristic of that period is the sale in the open, ie on the streets
(Bulevar kralja Aleksandra), flea markets, green markets, in a large number of temporary facilities
and kiosks. During the “late” transition in the mid-1990s, shopping malls meet social needs and the
first generation of shopping malls was created (some of which are temporary). Nowdays, they are
considered unsuccessful due to the neglected solution of parking spaces. The need for “filling the
space” is created and shopping centers emerge within the city blocks that are completely outside
the communicative flows, such as Čumićevo sokače, Sremska, Milenijum, Staklenac, Zemunikum,
City Passage and others. Lately, however, we have witnessed the recontextualization and refresh-
ment of the sales area of Čumić’s alley, which began the renovation and return to life of that ambi-
ence, with a new character and meaning for the city. Since November 2010, Čumićevo sokače has
become a meeting place for local designers, buyers and fashion fans. Therefore the ambience of the
first shopping center in Serbia is revived. Working on such projects opens the basic theme of reviv-
ing and transforming a city place with a specific function into a modern interactive center of design,
art and complementary content.

Evolved Shopping - 21st Century Belgrade Shopping Spaces

During 2000s large modern shopping formats were formed, resulting in the emergence of shopping
centers and hypermarkets. In the period of ten years - from 2001 to 2011, about 25 large trade for-
mats appeared in Belgrade, of which 15 covered an area of 5,000 to 130,000 m2, starting the even
greater expansion throughout the city. There is a need for shopping malls to effectively monitor
planning mechanisms. With the opening of the market and the introduction of large capital (inves-
tors), shopping centers are nowadays located in large plots in the city and function as generators of
development in the urban fabric. They are becoming signs of a modern city - function, symbolism
and social roles are changing. The importance of local centers is diminishing, which is shown by
the fact that “Delta City” and “Ušće shopping center”, as market leaders in this category are the
preferred choice than all local shopping centers combined (Djukić & Cvetković, 2016). In addition,
it should be emphasized that a good part of the sales space in the central city municipalities is lo-
cated in the facilities that were built a long time ago. Namely, in these municipalities (Savski Venac
and Stari Grad) there are some traditional shopping streets such a Knez Mihailova, Kralja Milana,
Karađorđeva, Sarajevska and others. Since these are central city municipalities, trade was the first
to develop in them.
In Belgrade, shopping malls are located in the city itself, and not on the bypass around the city, or
on the outskirts of the city, as is the case in other countries, which affects the shopping facilities
located in the central city center. As a result of such distribution, numerous contents from the city
center become less attractive and more empty with the opening of new shopping centers. More than
a decade ago, “City Passage”, “Millennium”, “Staklenac” and “Čumićevo sokače” were places where
citizens flocked to buy clothes and shoes in the latest fashion. Today, that image can be seen only
in large shopping malls such as “Ušće”, “Delta City”, “Rajićeva”, and many others, and apart from
the goods, they are also attractive to customers because of the service and entertainment facilities.
New forms of trade are emerging, through the combination of various services and activities within
the center, and through the “formation of a new city” - resulting in form complexity.

IMPACTING THE SURROUNDINGS - THE CASE OF BELGRADE SHOPPING MALLS

Objects that are incorporated into modern urban fabric cease to exist in the form of a static segment
of urban tissue, but are integrated into the network of the urban environment and exist in synergy

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with the contents of that area. Therefore, the shopping center building is seen as an integral part
of the urban environment. There is no universal definition of the term urban environment, and in
existing research this term is presented through a series of interpretations and definitions, and the
definition of the term depends on the context in which it is used. The character of the urban envi-
ronment, according to Norberg-Schulz, is the totality of concrete things that have materiality, shape,
texture and color, where these things together determine the “character of the environment”, which
is the essence of the place, and the concrete expression for the environment is the place (Schulz,
2003). The place is, therefore, a qualitative phenomenon of “totality”, which we cannot reduce to one
character trait.
This segment analzyes unique shopping mall in Belgrade - Rajićeva Shopping Center, distinct by its
urban extent and morphology, exploring the potential urban identity and quality of space increase in
the case of newly formed semi-public spaces within open and closed areas of the mall, by analysing
the spatio-physical aspect of the mall and its role in the definition of immediate urban surrounding.
Basic contextual characteristics are presented for this shopping center, while their relation and im-
pact to the quality factors of the urban environment are summarized in four separate groups: phys-
ical, functional, social and symbolic. Sub factors are then used to form detailed qualitative impact
and valuate the potential increase of urban identity and quality of space corelating with immediate
urban surrounding.

RAJIĆEVA Shopping Center

The project of the hotel-business complex in Rajićeva 82 is located in the municipality of Stari Grad
in the central city area in the traditional city matrix, at an altitude of about 116 meters. The facility
is located in a densely built urban environment, in the main city pedestrian zone near Kalemegdan
Park. The complex was designed by the author team of Milan and Vladimir Lojanica at the end of the
20th century as an integrated and non-invasive system of buildings fused into an organic whole in
the area of the former trolleybus turnpike at the end of the main city pedestrian street Kneza Mihaila.
More than twenty years ago, this project won the first prize in a competition of thirty-five author
teams at a public architectural and urban competition. The project task of the competition was the
urban transformation of the existing state of the city block in the historic core, filling the empty,
decomposed location with inconspicuous gables in the exposed reverse of the city block, with mul-
tifunctional contents emphasizing commercial content.

_ Figure 1: Position of shopping mall Rajićeva in the city matrix. Source: author. Right: Ortophoto image
of shopping mall Rajićeva 2014 and 2018. Source: Google Earth

Within this complex, which was created by block interpolation, the purposes of a predominantly
commercial character are represented: trade, business, service and hotel facilities, and in the under-
ground floors there is a space for stationing vehicles, as well as the space of the city library depot.
The project strives to fit into the traditional city core and local cultural heritage by combining the
new and the old, and with its spatial concept and architectural design, this building unites the entire
city block into a single communication structure. A square has been formed in front of the building

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towards the pedestrian street, which connects the contents of the complex and the public space of
the pedestrian zone. It is also important to emphasize that the shopping center is located on the
archeological finds of the Roman Singidunum. The excavated artifacts are exhibited in situ in the
glass pools of the entrance to the shopping center in Knez Mihailova Street, which makes it even
more attractive (Plemić, 2018).

_ Figure 2: Panoramic image of shopping mall Rajićeva. Source: author.

There was a lot of controversy in the professional public about whether this building has a place in a
protected environment at all (Maldini, 2017), believing that this building threatens and inadmissibly
changes the existing values of the previously created urban matrix and environment, and that the
building in significant conflict with the urban image of that part of the center of Belgrade.

_ Table 2: Quality factors of the urban environment in the case study of Rajićeva Shopping Center
able 1: Quality factors of the urban environment

quality factors of the

description
urban environment

integration of mall space into the existing structure of the urban environment; spatial
continuity
and dispositional relation to the environment; continuity in pedestrian and traffic flows

a place with an easily understandable, logical and clear structure and network of links
PHYSICAL

legibility
and content, with clear paths and connection points, physically accessible to all users.

aesthetic quality of space. fitting - connecting - visual adequacy and appropriate

visual suitability
shaping and materialization

permeability quality can be measured by the number of alternative and basic pathways
permeability
through the urban environment; ease of movement; creating responsive places

a place that easily adapts to changing user requirements and technological and
economic conditions; a space that can be modified, transformed and adapted to a
flexibility
variety of functions and activities; user participation in changing the physical structure
of the place
FUNCTIONAL

ecological sustainability of space; sustainable places that meet local needs; the degree
vitality to which the design of the space supports the functions, biological and environmental
conditions, as well as the abilities of the users;
diversity and appropriate combination of content, activities and services; space
diversity structure should invite and encourage public life, to provide multifunctional space and
diversity of users

usability a clear and functional space that contains all the necessary elements for functioning

environment that is available and accessible to all; a space that encourages

inclusiveness communication between different cultural groups; user participation allows
personalization of the place

creating a meeting place and a sense of community, a place that provides an

sociability opportunity for user interaction and receptivity; spaces that encourage citizen
SOCIAL

participation in social and public life through passive and active involvement

clean space with a high level of maintenance; space users can create and manage
control
access to space and activities; a safe, well-lit and marked area
comfortable spaces that enables basic human needs; furniture that provides space for
convenience
relaxation and enjoyment, meetings and activities
151
a place with its own identity and character; a sense of individual or collective belonging
peculiarity
to the environment; user involvement to increase a sense of belonging
C
 conditions, as well as the abilities of the users;

FUNCT
diversity and appropriate combination of content, activities and services; space
diversity structure should invite and encourage public life, to provide multifunctional space and
PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020
diversity of users

usability a clear and functional space that contains all the necessary elements for functioning

environment that is available and accessible to all; a space that encourages

inclusiveness communication between different cultural groups; user participation allows
personalization of the place

creating a meeting place and a sense of community, a place that provides an

sociability opportunity for user interaction and receptivity; spaces that encourage citizen
SOCIAL

participation in social and public life through passive and active involvement

clean space with a high level of maintenance; space users can create and manage
control
access to space and activities; a safe, well-lit and marked area
comfortable spaces that enables basic human needs; furniture that provides space for
convenience
relaxation and enjoyment, meetings and activities

a place with its own identity and character; a sense of individual or collective belonging
peculiarity
to the environment; user involvement to increase a sense of belonging
SYMBOLIC

clear meaning and image of space; thematization of space; creating a recognizable

authenticity
identity; the authenticity of the spatial structure and architectural composition
creating certain benchmarks that define the look, provide a recognizable meeting
attractiveness
space; a place that attracts users and provides space for creativity
perceptiveness understanding the context of the area; symbolism and memory places

CONCLUSIONS

The urban environment in modern civilization is largely subordinated to the visions of designers and
investors in the construction sector. The role of architectural and urban design, based on design
principles through systematized education and technological conditioning, is to subordinate these
visions to the user and improve the quality of the facility, space and area in which the project is
located. A historical review of shopping complexes indicates the exponential growth of shopping
center facilities in the world, with an emphasis on the increasing multifunctionality and adaptability
of these spaces.
The case of Belgrade on the other hand shows a tendency to develop shopping centers in the central
city areas with the characteristics of buildings that, with their size, shape and functional structure,
are more suitable for areas in the residential tissue or the outskirts of the city. Such positioning
is a consequence of the political, institutional and economic aspects of development, as well as
the so-called investor urbanism, which is manifested by a series of physical, functional and social
consequences on the quality of the immediate urban environment. Therefore, there is a need for
precise definition of the concepts of the urban surroundings, as well as the identification of urban
environment quality factors as the initial theoretical determinants for defining models for evaluating
the impact of the shopping center on the urban environment. The following are defined as general
factors for evaluating the quality of the urban environment: continuity, readability, visual suitability,
permeability, flexibility, vitality, diversity, usability, inclusiveness, sociability, control, comfort, pecu-
liarity, authenticity, attractiveness and perceptiveness. By analyzing the context of the location in
which the shopping center is positioned, certain spatial preconditions for the positive effect of the
building on the immediate urban environment from the point of view of urban development have
been noticed.
Multiple contribution to the quality of the immediate environment is achieved by open areas through
their potential to create adequate spatial conditions for different types of permanent and occasional
leisure activities. In the current conditions, there is a trend of marginalization and degradation of the
quality of open public areas of the city. Neglecting the adequate design of open spaces within trade
facilities, which are considered to be somewhat new social centers of the city, leads to a progressive
decline in the quality of the immediate urban environment. The paper points out the importance of
the affirmation of open public areas in front of the shopping center as fundamental components of
the urban fabric, which have a direct impact on the quality of life of users in these areas. In this re-
gard, the interdependence of basic human needs and the quality of open public spaces is of particu-

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lar importance for this work. In addition, the potential of these spaces is important for the realization
of spatial-ambient and symbolic values of space.
The research of the derived characteristics in selected shopping center in Belgrade confirmed that
the impact of the building on the quality of the immediate urban surrounding changes depending on
the characteristics of the building. It was concluded that buildings that respect the historical and
aesthetic values of the environment, which are integrated into the existing pedestrian flows and their
design open to the urban environment have a positive effect on the immediate urban environment,
maintaining the current identity of the place, or slightly creating a new one.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The article is realized as part of the project “Studying climate change and its influence on the en-
vironment: impacts, adaptation and mitigation” (43007) financed by the Ministry of Education and
Science of the Republic of Serbia within the framework of integrated and interdisciplinary research
for the period 2011-2020.

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THE RESTORATIVE EFFECTS OF MULTI-SENSORY OPEN

SPACE DESIGN – THE EXAMPLE OF JAPANESE GARDENS
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch18

_ Eva Vanista Lazarevic

PhD, Full Professor, University of Belgrade, Faculty
of Architecture, Bul. Kralja Aleksandra 73, Belgrade,
Serbia, eva.vanistalazarevic@gmail.com

_ Tena Lazarevic
M.Arch, Faculty of Architecture, University
of Belgrade, e-mail: tekac@hotmail.com

_ Jelena Maric
M.Arch, Teaching Assistant, Faculty of Architecture,
University of Belgrade, jelena.maric1989@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT

The primary health issues of modern urban lifestyle are stress-related and can lead to serious dam-
age to both physical and mental wellbeing. In this context, the topic of restorative effects of natural
environments and multi-sensory design of public open space is rather significant. This particular
paper aims to expand the knowledge base regarding different relations between the characteristics
of urban design, sensorial aspects of space and their therapeutic and healing effect. Focusing on
users’ multiple sensory dimensions, sensory parks emphasize the stimulation of various senses, en-
hancing human communication with others, and positive emotional responses. Multi-sensory per-
ception in a rehabilitation garden is closely related to the users’ sense of existence, emotions, and
physiology and it could establish a wordless “communication”, which is beneficial to realize an ex-
tended emotional and existential awareness and increase the mental restorative effect accordingly.

The methodology is based on the focused literature review regarding theoretical concepts such as
Environmental psychology, Attention Restoration Theory, Place Attachment, Restorative gardens,
etc. Also, this paper will present the case study analysis, including expert observation of good prac-
tice examples of Japanese gardens and open public space. Therefore, this paper will examine the-
ories and practical examples that show the therapeutic impact that the multi-sensorial approach
in design has. As a result, through the methodology mentioned above the specific set of spatial
guidelines for successful urban design of sensory open space will be presented.

KEYWORDS _ multi-sensory, public space, urban design, healing space, wellbeing, Japanese gardens

INTRODUCTION

In the modern era of everyday life, one of the most critical resources is public health. According to
the salutogenesis based approach and the principles of Constitution of WHO health is defined as:
“a state of complete physical, mental, and social wellbeing and not merely the absence of disease
or infirmity” and it is a right, and as such it underpins all other fundamental rights, which belong to

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all people” (WHO, 2010d; Antonovsky, 1979). The initiative of the World Health Organization - Re-
gional Office of Europe began, in 1987, with the launching of Healthy Urban Planning Initiative, which
integrated the concept of health and wellbeing into sustainable development. Today, main health
issues regarding urban lifestyle in city areas are stress-related and can lead to serious damage to
both physical and mental wellbeing. In this context, the topic of restorative effects of natural envi-
ronments is widely recognized as important for individuals as well as for public health in general.
Urbanisation is connected with serious problems regarding public health. In developed countries,
people spend the majority of their time in densely built environments, thus weakening the oppor-
tunity for people to interact with the natural environment (Cleveland, 2014; Kaplan, 1995). With the
new millennia, urban theory, as well as urban design throughout the world is returning to the issue
of open spaces usage, particularly regarding public open spaces. In this context, open public space
is understood not as streets, alleys, buildings, but as the green environment with elements of natural
setting that act as “lungs” of the city (WHO, 2017 ). Health and wellbeing of urban residents can
be enhanced through the adequate usage of these well designed open green spaces. Therefore,
urban planners and landscape architects have a complex role in the design of open space in order
to transform them into restorative and healing environments and provide for this growing number
of urban residents.
In this paper, in particular, we are dealing with the design guidelines for therapeutic environments.
Good design of open space in cities worldwide is critical and multi-sensory design is considered a
new paradigm for wellbeing design, which is rather significant. The aim of this paper is to expand the
knowledge base regarding different relations between the characteristics of urban design, sensorial
aspects of space and their restorative and healing effects. Based on the good practice examples,
regarding natural and built characteristics of restorative spaces, we will try to define the set of urban
design guidelines for open public space in order to increase the quality of urban life in the city.

BACKGROUND RESEARCH

The theoretical background of this research is focused on multi-sensory design principles that can
transform open space into healing environments with restorative effects. In the last few decades,
more and more researchers, theoretical concepts, declarations and organizations are connecting
the open space characteristics, such as greenery, fresh air, sunlight and natural settings with pos-
itive health outcomes. However, this topic is not new, in past centuries, these open spaces were
seen as essential components of healing in settings ranging from medieval monastic infirmaries to
the variety of gardens (Djukanovic, 2016). Aside from these natural settings, built characteristics of
open space can influence people behaviour and in that sense have a positive restorative effect on
people (Ulrich, 1993; Ulrich et al., 1991). One of the main objectives of the healthy city concept is to
provide a physical environment that supports health, recreation and wellbeing.

The “restorative healing environment”

There is growing recognition for the role of open space, focusing on green infrastructures, such as
gardens and parks in overall physical and mental health and wellbeing. The therapeutic effect of
open space has been a crucial topic of many scientific types of research in the last few decades. Dif-
ferent theories and theoretical concepts, which are dealing with the subject of restorative environ-
ments, are based on environmental psychology and psycho-evolutionary theories. Based on these
two theories, different scientific concepts are developed. Psycho‐physiological stress reduction the-
ory proposes that exposure to natural stimuli triggers a parasympathetic nervous system response
leading to a more positive emotional state and mental health (Franco et al., 2017; Ulrich, 1983; Ulrich
et al., 1991). On the other hand, well-known Attention Restoration Theory (ART) suggests that there
are several components of restorative environments that are derived from nature: 1. being away, 2.
soft fascination, 3. extent and 4. compatibility.
Regarding restorative effects of natural environments Olmsted (1865) stated that: “it employs the

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mind without fatigue and yet exercises it; it tranquillizes and yet enlivens it; and thus, through the
influence of the mind over the body, gives the effect of refreshing rest and reinvigoration to the whole
system” (Olmsted, F. L. (1865). p. 22, cited in Kaplan, 1995). A range of authors from psychologists
and sociologists to landscape architects and urban planners are contemplating the role of nature
and open space in public health and wellbeing, on different levels. Firstly, natural characteristics can
contribute to physical and mental health. Restorative environments, natural views, ambient, colours
and sounds can have a soothing and calming effect and influence stress reduction, which directly
affects the heart rate and blood pressure (De Vries, 2010; Ulrich, 1984). Apart from natural qualities,
built characteristics of open space can engage people in physical activity, sport and recreation as
well as socialization and communication (Thake et al., 2017; Tyrväinen et al., 2014). These activities
are strongly connected with positive behaviours that have restorative outcomes on people. Urban
green spaces particularly offer health benefits for citizens in dense urban areas. In the current
modern era where we are either exposed to the social distance in open public space or staying in our
homes away from the natural environment, we learn to cherish restorative open spaces with their
crucial significance for normal and healthy everyday living.
World Health Organization has released important publications in 2016 and 2017 (WHO, 2016; WHO,
2017) where they list and explain in detail all of the positive effects that open green space can have.
In addition, the variety of studies and researchers agree that overall benefits of natural settings on
people are: improved mental health and cognitive function improved functioning of the immune sys-
tem and improved physical health (Thake et al., 2017; Tenngart & Hagerhall, 2008; Tyrväinen et al.,
2014; Ulrich, 1984; Ulrich et al. 1991). When speaking about the specific restorative environments,
one of the main concepts that emerged from theoretical research were different kinds of gardens,
such as healing gardens, which are often connected with healthcare facilities (Cooper Marcus and
Barnes, 1995) and Japanese gardens, as a representation of multi-sensory natural environments.

Multi-Sensory Experience of nature and its impact

While strolling down the forest, one can, according to Echart Tolle, experience the sacredness of
nature that connects us to the stillness within. In his video “a walk through nature”, he talks about
the acute alertness, which happens when we slow down and just observe what nature has to offer.
It is essential to educate people on how to stop and to focus on the environment. According to him,
what happens is the connection to the present moment while we are listening to the subtle sounds
and watching the environment around us. Throughout history, the natural environment has been
believed to be very beneficial for mental restoration, mainly because it stimulates all our senses,
in a harmonious way, while not seeking direct attention. In the aforementioned Attention Resto-
ration Theory, or ART, developed by Stephen and Rachel Kaplan (1989) the mental fatigue recovery
stage starts, when the thoughts, concerns and worries, demanding our direct, effortful attention
start flowing away, and leave some quiet space for the mind to relax. Sensory elements of open
green space have been recognized firstly as an aid in the tuberculosis treatment. Also, only visual
stimulants have been proven to have great healing “power” regarding studies from the early 20th
century (Ulrich 1984).

Sensory gardens
Focusing on users’ multiple sensory dimensions, sensory parks and gardens emphasize the stimu-
lation of various senses, communication with others, and positive emotional responses. Multi-sen-
sory perception in a rehabilitation garden is closely related to the users’ sense of existence, emo-
tions, and physiology and it could establish a wordless “communication”, which is beneficial to
realize a widespread emotional and existential awareness and increase the mental restorative effect
accordingly. The following good practice examples of traditional Japanese gardens will try to ex-
plore the restorative effect of designing a space while incorporating various senses into space plan-
ning. This type of gardens has been chosen due to their unique approach regarding sensory design,
that thrives from Buddhism and Zen concepts.

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METHODOLOGY

The methodology used in this particular paper is based on the critical and focused literature review
regarding different theoretical concepts and case study analysis of good practice examples. Re-
garding the topic of urban design of healing and restorative environments, most used contemporary
methodologies for research are Evidence-Based Design and Post-Occupation Evaluation. These are
both collaborative techniques that put the focus on people, on individuals, on users (Ulrich et al.,
1991). This research process is divided into several steps that are chronologically listed below:
_ Theoretical background research;
_ Good practice examples - expert observation research;
_ Developing a unique set of design guidelines and recommendations to be implemented in
the next future to legislation.
Theoretical background research is crucial for understanding the subject of restorative and healing
environments, trying to answer the questions such as: How do people perceive the environment;
What makes any environment restorative; Why do we choose natural over urban spaces; How nat-
ural settings can improve overall physical and mental health and wellbeing. The answers to these
questions we found in theoretical concepts, such as: Environmental psychology, Psycho-evolution-
ary theory, Psycho‐physiological stress reduction theory, Attention Restoration Theory and different
theoretical concepts, mentioned and explained earlier. In addition to the theoretical, this paper will
present the case study analysis, including expert observation of good practice examples of Japa-
nese gardens, seen as multi-sensory gardens and therapeutic environments in open public space.
The focus of the research is on the specific design principles and guidelines that are represented
in these gardens. Through the generalization of the data, by connecting the theoretical and prac-
tical solutions, we tried to develop a unique set of design guidelines and recommendations for the
multi-sensory design of open space. In the next chapter, we are going to systematically present
some of the results of this research.

RESULTS - CASE STUDY

In this paper there is the intention to show one of most significant case study as Japanese row
model, already mentioned as pioneer activists in this topic, we are going to present the overview of
our observation regarding restorative, sensory types of environments. We will analyze ways in which
different senses are stimulated and planned, using landscaping tools.
Japanese gardens are traditional gardens deriving from Japan, designed to unfold the essence of
nature. They are a perfect combination of the natural landscape and man-made scenery, constantly
changing and evolving over time and different seasons. They are meticulously planned sanctuaries
that integrate all the senses, creating a calming atmosphere that aims to clean the mind and awaken
the soul.
Visual elements of Japanese gardens: The visual side of Japanese garden design highlights tran-
sience and imperfection following the dynamic essence of Zen philosophy. This system could be
related in historian difference between French gardens, perfectly organized in symmetry and an En-
glish one, known for its natural imperfection with intent. Since there are many visual elements we
will focus here only on a few, most distinguished ones, such as: (1) The balance and asymmetry;
(2) The fractal composition of Ryoanji temple; (3) The Borrowed Landscapes (Shakkei): Travelling
through space and time;
(1) The balance of a-symmetry: This concept is derived from the dynamic philosophy of Zen and
Tao. After the Japanese civil war in the 15th century, and the rise of Zen Buddhism, the idea of
experiencing the garden as a dynamic process brought the idea of asymmetrical balance. In the
Book of Tea, Kakuzo Okakura writes that only the one who completes the incomplete can discover
true beauty. For him, the power of life and art is in their (dynamic) ability to grow. According to ART
by Kaplan and Kaplan, such an environment restores the mind by stimulating effortless attention,

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followed by a sense of mystery and continuous motivation for discovery, valuable for avoiding the
feeling of boredom (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989). Several design elements are part of this concept: Asym-
metrical composition of garden elements (rocks, shrubs, trees, water features); The elements would
form compositional triangles, with uneven sides, always guiding the eyes to different parts of the
garden. This would enhance the sense of the depth of space, leading the eyes to zig-zag along with
the garden; The rocks, the bone structure of a Japanese garden, are always placed in groups of odd
numbers - 3, 5, 7, emphasizing the sense of incompleteness; In order to obtain the sense of harmo-
ny and serenity, a general rule of golden ratio was used for the spacing and rhythmic play between
elements.
(2) The fractal composition of Ryoanji temple: Kyoto’s Ryoanji Temple, is one of the most famous
zen gardens consisting of a composition of 15 rocks spread across a gravel field. Esther Stern-
berg, in her book “Healing Spaces”, explained that only recently the researchers from Japan, dis-
covered using a technique called medial-axis transformation, the fractal pattern behind the rock
cluster composition. According to this research, the rock clusters, when observed from a slight left
point of veranda (where visitors sit), form the fractal contour of a tree, growing into branches as
the vision flows down the garden (he total thickness of the branches at a particular height is equal
to the thickness of the trunk). Ary Goldberger, a professor of cardiology at Harvard Medical School,
suggested that when we gaze at fractal structures (“porous” holiness, carved-out appearance, the
repetition of various shapes in nature or gothic churches), our mind responds to the complex, re-
petitive, increasing-decreasing patterns. Freed from rigid boundaries of scale, the mind can move
inward or outward, up or down, at will. (Sternberg, 2009). In addition to the fractal composition, the
absence of sensory stimulation is considered a very powerful meditation tool of the abstract Zen
gardens. The whiteness of vast gravel fields in between the very few rocks, calls for an unfocused,
meditative gaze.

_ Figure 1: Kyoto’s Ryoanji Temple: source: www.japan-guide.com

(3) The Borrowed Landscapes (Shakkei): Travelling through space and time: Shakkei or Borrowed
Scenery is a design principle where the background elements such as mountains or trees are inte-
grated into the landscape, manipulating the viewer’s perspective. In this way, the boundary between
interior and exterior disappears. The famous scenes similar to postcards (like Mount Fuji) were
scaled and reproduced by precise positioning of stones, gravel, and other greenery, in relation to the
background. Therefore, the promenade through the garden allowed an imaginary time and space
travel through all these different environments. According to ART, when facing mental fatigue, a
great rescue and restoration tool could be travelling to the other worlds, where we discover beautiful,
serene places that foster a sense of awe.

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Sonic elements of Japanese gardens: The landscape appeals to all senses. The shape of gardens
and chosen materials create specific aural environments – scenes.
The setting of Japanese tea house gardens (rojiniwa) developed in the 16th century with the tea
master Sen no Rikyu and the first independent tea house. It combines the elements of gardening and
serving tea. In order to reach the tea house, one needs to cross the Roji (path) through inner and out-
er gardens. The outer garden serves as a sonic buffer zone, with more controlled landscaping. The
inner garden is a place for quietness, positioned to be away from the outside noise. There, a more
natural arrangement of plants occurs, with deep tree shades, a carpet of moss and lightly trimmed
to follow a natural look. One can be in the middle of the city and yet feel as if they are in the woods,
Kakuzo Okakura writes in the book of tea. The idea behind the Roji path leading to the tea house
is to represent a break from the everyday thoughts and worries. In the other types of gardens, like
stroll gardens, different sonic interventions occur. Michael D. Fowler, in his book called Sound World
of Japanese gardens, explains how visual and aural elements are intertwined. He calls this phe-
nomenon an acoustic horizon: “Waterfalls are obvious design features that provide an aural content
that can focus attention locally, or equally mask the exterior, or articulate a particular region in the
garden through an auditory zone or acoustic horizon“ (Sound World of Japanese gardens, page 35).
He further explains that the tuning of the sound produced by water is done by different placement
of rocks and variation of drop depth. In addition, in order to plan various acoustic zones, special at-
tention is paid to positioning the greenery in the gardens: different atmospheres emerge according
to places where birds are feeding, roosting or crickets singing. Berry trees or shrubs invite birds. The
bird sounds are particularly important as a restoration tool, because their presence, subconsciously,
represents the lack of danger in a natural environment.
Textures: Along the Roji path, the rustic, naturally looking stepping-stones are carefully chosen to
slow down the movement of the visitors. As visitors walk into the peaceful, natural environment of
the inner tea garden, they should get the feeling of travelling long distances: out of the hectic every-
day life in the city into the serene, far away forests and mountains. Thus, while walking slowly across
the stepping stone path, there is enough time to calm down and release the mind chatter, before
arriving restored to the tea house. Sometimes the water is poured over the stepping stones, making
it slippery, so one would walk even more slowly and carefully, watching every step.

_ Figure 2: Roji path, source: https://learn.bowdoin.edu/

Often, as well as other sensory cues, textures are chosen to manipulate viewers’ perception of real-
ity. Rocks symbolically represent different natural elements: rivers, sea, mountains, lakes, evoking
the feeling of distant landscapes. When representing mountains, for example, rocks have pyramid
shapes, with jagged or stepped edges. When they represent rivers and shorelines, their shapes are
smooth rounded or flat. Since their role is just to sparkle imagination and open a mental space to

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different worlds, they are planned only to be viewed from a distance and meditated upon. Plants
can also affect the sense of scale in the site. For example, fine detailed textures of moss or juniper
on the rocks enhance their size, shrubs and groundcovers evoke fields or forest floors, creating a
very relaxing sensory ambience. Wildflowers like irises, or ferns, bring a sense of grace to the overall
atmosphere.
Smell: Fragrance is not always necessary in Japanese gardens. The natural feel calls for subtleness,
freshness (of forest pines and moss) and delicacy, unlike modern sensory gardens which are very
intense. But sometimes, fragrant plants are still planted, such as: Winter Daphne, Common gardenia
or Rhaphiolepis umbellate.
Within this chapter, we have identified some of the most distinguished features of Japanese gardens
in the context of unique sensory design. In the following table, we summarised some of the afore-
mentioned design principles as recommendations and guidelines for gardens in order to transform
them from mere green space to restorative or healing environments.
Within this chapter, we have identified some of the most distinguished features of Japanese gardens
in the context of unique sensory design. In the following table, we summarised some of the afore-
mentioned design principles as recommendations and guidelines for gardens in order to transform
them from mere green space to restorative or healing environments.
Once when the importance of healing places are implemented as a most needed element in the new
organization of public spaces in the years to come, it would be wise to insert those guidelines in
booklets or manuals for their design or even as the parts of legal obligations and official guidelines.
Only when inserted in legislation, new investors and/or city councils will have to use them and ful-
ly implement in. These regulations are already, fully or partially implemented in countries such as
Holland of France.

_ Table 1: General design recommendations for sensory gardens and healing spaces, source: author

A) General recommendations
A) General recommendations
Assemble a team of experts before the beginning of the design project
Assemble a team of experts before the beginning of the design project
Enable the participation of users / evidence-based design
Enable the participation of users / evidence-based design
Use natural potentials of the location/greenery, sunlight, fresh air, etc.
Use natural potentials of the location/greenery, sunlight, fresh air, etc.
Respect the context and identity of the place
Respect the context and identity of the place
Enable a sense of control and peace and comfort
Enable a sense of control and peace and comfort
Engage all the senses
Engage all the senses
Table 2: Design guidelines for sensory gardens and healing spaces, source: author
_ Table 2: Design guidelines for sensory gardens and healing spaces, source: author
Table 2: Design
B) Design guidelines for sensory gardens and healing spaces, source: author
suggestions:

B) Design suggestions:
Use natural, rustic materials;
Pay special attention to positioning the greenery in the gardens
Use natural, rustic materials;
Pay special attention to positioning the greenery in the gardens
Use the balance of a-symmetry /asymmetrical composition of garden elements

Use the balance of a-symmetry /asymmetrical composition of garden elements

Design curving and bending paths, using various natural textures that would speed or slow the movement,
for intimacy and mystery (“the beauty lies in the tension of the unknown”)
Design curving and bending paths, using various natural textures that would speed or slow the movement,
for intimacy and mystery (“the beauty lies in the tension of the unknown”)
Use the principles of the golden ratio

Use the principles of the golden ratio

“Imitating the principles of nature” with the fractal composition of key landscape elements in the garden

“Imitating the principles of nature” with the fractal composition of key landscape elements in the garden
161“Borrowing the distant scenery or the context beyond the garden”, gradual positioning of elements from
smallest to biggest in the background; emphasize the sense of depth with colour: blue, dark green and grey
“Borrowing the distant
for the background, scenery
yellow or thefor
and white context beyond the garden”, gradual positioning of elements from
the foreground
smallest to biggest in the background; emphasize the sense of depth with colour: blue, dark green and grey
 Use natural, rustic materials;
Pay special attention to positioning the greenery in the gardens
PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

Use the balance of a-symmetry /asymmetrical composition of garden elements

Design curving and bending paths, using various natural textures that would speed or slow the movement,
for intimacy and mystery (“the beauty lies in the tension of the unknown”)

Use the principles of the golden ratio

“Imitating the principles of nature” with the fractal composition of key landscape elements in the garden

“Borrowing the distant scenery or the context beyond the garden”, gradual positioning of elements from
smallest to biggest in the background; emphasize the sense of depth with colour: blue, dark green and grey
for the background, yellow and white for the foreground

Design quiet places deprived too much sensory stimulation, such as Dry Zen gardens, for meditation,
sensory breaks.
Combine the elements of gardening and serving tea, such as designing a viewing shelter or a tiny house in
the garden where people can pause and rest, drink a tea.

Design several sound devices:

-Discrete dripping or murmuring water for tranquillity
-Waterfall insulates exterior noise and generates good sound - the water barrier
-A water pond or a hard surface such as stone reflects environmental sounds
-Plan the bird sounds, by planting shrubs that attract them and water basins

Design space with subtle smell, freshness and delicacy.

Plan the smells, sounds and foliage colours throughout different seasons

CONCLUSIONS

In the era of increased stress and health-threatening issues that surround us, the main focus re-
garding our habitat and living environment should be on preserving natural resources and increas-
ing overall public health and wellbeing. A paradigmatic shift towards an integrative understanding
of the determinants of health and wellbeing extended the health preservation beyond the healthcare
institutions and emphasized the role of the environment.
We, as people, are drawn to natural environments and open space. This paper summarised the ex-
isting evidence of significant positive effects of urban open spaces and natural green surround-
ings on people. Therapeutic environments offer many public health benefits, such as psychological
relaxation and stress reduction, enhanced physical activity, immune system elevation and overall
physical health.
Urban planners and landscape architects have a complex role in the design of urban open space in
order to transform them into healing environments and provide for this growing number of urban
residents.
There is a strong connection between multi-sensory environments and restorative or healing spac-
es. Traditional Japanese gardens are a great example of a multi-sensorial space, portraying the
Universal laws on a subconscious, bodily level, through various visual and aural scenes, as well as
smell and touch. Therefore, every single bush or flower is planted carefully, every stone positioned
with a precise function. While slowly moving through the garden, one gently gets to explore differ-
ent times and places. The most intense restorative effect comes from shifting the focus from the
self-absorbed mind to the bodily sensations, leaving
Isabelle Stengers much space for rejuvenation and restoration of mind and body. Planning this kind
of complete and complex experience can be a great inspiration for today’s architects and planners,
who often neglect the importance of various senses in the design process of restorative places.

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These sensory values of gardens and natural settings are recognized on the national level, pro-
moting green urban re-use of old industrial and infrastructure heritage, such as “Highline” project
in New York, or similar ones in Paris and other parts of Europe. Even the “common men”, intuitively,
understand the impact of nature, with the example of urban community gardens that are developed
inside the living area by the inhabitants themselves.
Overall, the main contributions of this particular paper are expanding the knowledge base regarding
restorative effects of open public space on our health and wellbeing and defining a set of universal
recommendations and guidelines for multi-sensory open space with restorative effects.

REFERENCES

Books:
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__ Đukanović, Z. (Ed.). (2016). Otvoreni prostori zdravstva: Open health spaces. Beograd: Univerzitet u
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healing gardens and restorative outdoor spaces. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
__ Fowler D. Michael. 2014. Sound Worlds of Japanese Gardens, An Interdisciplinary Approach to Spatial
Thinking. Berlin: Transcript-Verlag
__ Hara, Kenya. 2019. 100 Whites. Zürich: Lars Müller Publishers
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__ Kaplan, S., & Kaplan, R., 1989. The experience of nature: A psychological perspective. New York: NY:
Cambridge University Press.
__ Musgrave, Toby, Lincoln, Frances. 2015. Paradise Gardens: Spiritual Inspiration and Earthly Expression,
London: Lincoln Publishers Ltd, 2015
__ Olmsted, F. L., 1865. The value and care of parks. Reprinted in Nash, R. (Ed.) (1968), The American Envi-
ronment: Readings in the history of conservation. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, pp. 18-24.
__ Pallasmaa, Juhani. 2012. The eyes of the skin. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons Inc
__ Sternberg, M. Esther. 2009. Healing Spaces, The Science of Place and Well-Being. London: Belknap
Press of Harvard University Press
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tions. In: W.Thompson, P. Aspinall and S. Bell. (Eds.) Innovative Approaches to Researching Landscape
and Health. Abingdon: Routledge.
__ Journal article:
__ Cleveland, A. C. 2014. Symbiosis Between Biophilic Design and Restorative Healing Environments: The
Impact on Overall Well-Being of Urban Dwellers. Retrieved from http://purl.flvc.org/fsu/fd/FSU_migr_etd-
8958).
__ Cooper Marcus, C. and Barnes, M. (1995). Gardens in healthcare facilities: Uses, therapeutic benefits,
and design recommendations. Retrieved from https://www.healthdesign.org
__ Franco L.S., Shanahan D.F., Fuller R.A. 2017. A review of the benefits of nature experiences: More than
meets the eye. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health. 2017;14:864. doi: 10.3390/ijerph14080864.
__ Kaplan, S., 1995. The restorative benefits of nature: Towards an integrative framework? Journal of
Environmental Psychology, 15(3), 169–182.
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__ Tenngart Ivarsson, C., & Hagerhall, C. M. 2008. The perceived restorativeness of gardens −assess-
ing the restorativeness of a mixed built and natural scene type. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 7,
107–118.
__ Tyrväinen, L., Ojala, A., Korpela, K., Lanki, T., Tsunetsugu, Y., & Kagawa, T. 2014.The influence of urban
green environments on stress relief measures: A feldexperiment. Journal of Environmental Psychology,
38, 1–9.
__ Ulrich, R. S., Simons, R. F., Losito, B. D., Fiorito, E., Miles, M. and Zelson, M. (1991). Stress recovery
during exposure to natural and urban environment. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 11, 201-230.
__ WHO. 2010d. Urban Planning, Environment and Health: From Evidence to Policy Action. Meeting Re-
port. Copenhagen, Denmark: WHO Regional Office for Europe.
__ WHO 2019. Constitution of the World Health Organization: Basic Document. WHO; Geneva, Switzerland
[(accessed on 10 September 2019)]. Available online:https://www.who.int/governance/eb/who_consti-
tution_en.pdf.
__ WHO 2016. Urban green spaces and health. Copenhagen: WHO Regional Office for Europe.
__ WHO 2017. Urban green space interventions and health. Copenhagen: WHO Regional Office for Europe.
__ Internet source; Japanese gardens; design and concept, Accessed on February 2020; http://www.
japanese-gardens.info/plants/distinctive-shrubs.html; https://books.google.rs/books?id=-El BgAAQ-
BAJ&pg=PA188&lpg=PA188&dq=sunset+as+important+restorative+tools&source=bl&ots=blLVNX-
vrRr&sig=ACfU3U19bNx0RnKIXOYc_Xuv_rp8gGeZRA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi1hZC57_HoAh-
VFs4sKHSDPD9YQ6AEwAHoECAwQKA#v=onepage&q=sunset%20as%20important%20restorative%20
tools&f=false; https://www.japan-guide.com/e/e2099_elements.html; http://www.japanese-gardens.
info/plants/distinctive-shrubs.html; https://japanesegarden.org/garden-spaces/tea-garden/;https://
www.japan-guide.com/e/e2099_elements.html; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iVaoDNEZwNg;
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RPcYrUQN44g&t=594s https://soundzipper.com/blog/sound-envi-
ronment-japanese-gardens/know a certain space has affected the architecture in terms of interlocking
the cyberspace with the material space (Virilio, 2011). The contemporary city concepts require the use
of new technology when interpreting elements of cultural heritage in public spaces. The new relation
between technology and space is being constructed, and it serves as a medium of digitalized interaction
in the form of digital projections, 3D Mapping, holograms, augmented reality installations, and different
means of virtual or mixed reality activities. With such use, the technology becomes both the activator
and the generator of the public life and also gives new meaning to the relation of time-space-information
(Renaud, 2002).

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URBAN LIVING LABS FOR SENSITIVE

CITY CULTURAL HERITAGE REGENERATION
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch19

_ Jasmina Siljanoska
Prof. PhD, Faculty of Architecture, University “SS. Cyril and Methodius”,
Blvd. Partizanski odredi 24, Skopje, Macedonia, jasiljan@ukim.edu.mk

ABSTRACT

The turn of the century was characterised by many different tendencies and shifting paradigms in
theory and practices that affected the way the cities are planned and governed. Out of many present
tendencies in the knowledge about the contemporary cities’ future development, the sensitive city
paradigm stands out as an effective way of transition from smart city because it has added the
component of equity into equation. The sensitive city paradigm uses data innovation, artificial intel-
ligence along with human consciousness in order to advance the decision-making processes in ur-
ban planning, while promoting discussion and inclusion of various stakeholders to find out solution.

In this respect the paper refers to the concept of living labs which perpetuate inclusive city and pres-
ent a real-life test and experimentation environment. For the idea to be described the experiences
and results carried out through the Skopje Urban Living Lab (SkULL), established as part of the
ROCK (Regeneration and Optimisation of Cultural heritage in creative and Knowledge cities), Euro-
pean Union’s Horizon 2020 project, have been used. The historic area of the city centre of Skopje, in-
cluding the Old Bazaar, Medieval City Fortress and the immediate vicinity, presented demonstration
area on which to develop collaborative and innovative ways of local citizens, businesses and other
stakeholders’ involvement in the processes of cultural heritage rehabilitation and re-utilisation.

The paper presented three core activities which have been carried out through the SkULL: 1. Those
that supported the concept of “open” city, especially open data and open knowledge. In order to re-
alise the idea a digital platform for open sources information on land use, property of the parcels and
other cadastre information has been launched, as well information on different urban data collected
through sensors and ICT tools; 2. Those that support and foster collaborative ideas and shared
experiences for better understanding of the protected area development potentials and qualitative
spatial re-use, by introducing ICT incubators and innovative technologies, as well creative industries
and contemporary “crafts” as suppliers of new products and services. The dominant forms of the
activities were “Open days” and the “Shops with history” initiative inauguration and 3. Those that
brought together multiple stakeholders (researchers, artists and students, citizens and local govern-
ment) in creative workshops to participate in co-designing and co-shaping of the spaces/structures
of the historic city.

KEYWORDS _ Sensitive City, Skopje Urban Living Lab, Cultural Heritage Regeneration, ROCK Project

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INTRODUCTION

The paper elaborated the ideas and utilized the findings of the ROCK (Regeneration and Optimis-
ation of Cultural heritage in creative and Knowledge cities), a European Union’s Horizon 2020 re-
search and innovation programme funded project. The ROCK project followed the shift paradigm
on global scale that moved the cities towards exploring new forms of collectivism and experience
of sharing, simultaneously revealing the new potentials and relations of the emergent technologies’
involvement in everyday life improvements. This general idea of the project was fully in line with
the sensitive city paradigm which showed an effective way of transition from smart city, because in
addition to smart city this city is able to sense, understand and respond to changes in its environ-
ments. The concept of sensitive city creates a new way to deal with urban planning and the effective
operation of the networks, while promoting discussion and inclusion of informed participants to find
out solutions that reflect the values of various stakeholders in the urban environment. (Greco and
Bencardino, 2012)
The ROCK project primary interest was the transformation of three historic city centres (Bologna,
Lisbon and Skopje) into creative and sustainable districts. ROCK vision for Skopje, in particular,
was developed around the idea of transforming the historic area in the city centre (including the
Old Bazaar, Medieval City Fortress and the surrounding area), into a knowledge, culture and tech-
nology-driven hub. The three specific demonstration areas of intervention were: The Old Bazaar
area; ‘Skopje Jewish quarter’; and the Skopje Medieval fortress. The project aimed at promotion of
creative and ICT supported spatial practices, by bringing different stakeholders together in creative
living labs to discuss and develop innovative working and business models based on collaborative
and sustainable economy.

_ Figure 1 and 2: Cultural heritage in the ROCK circular system and ROCK Skopje demonstration areas

Skopje in the ROCK project participated with the idea of Cultural Archipelago. An overarching con-
cept integrates different activities of knowledge and cultural heritage promotion, carried out through
several Actions such as: Skopje Jewish quarter virtual guide, visualizing historic layers of the neigh-
borhood and the Virtual Guide of Old Bazaar reinforced with augmented reality; Common sensing:
provision of system of sensors and digital tools monitoring the microclimate, environmental fea-
tures, light and sounds of the Old Bazaar and Festival of Light, organized as an annual social event;
the Art Fortress, activities which aimed at extension of the innovative art practices and CH related
events in the spatial realm between the Museum of Contemporary art and Skopje Medieval fortress
and SkULL – Skopje Urban Living Lab, established as an open hub for transferring of ideas between
the stakeholders and the municipalities in support of revitalisation of the Old Bazaar.
Skopje Urban Living Lab (SkULL) activities during the project implementation were focused primari-
ly on the area of the Old Bazaar. But, among the other things, it was intended to extend the influence
of the idea and the good practices of different activities exercised in the urban living laboratory
beyond the limits of the Old Bazaar area, thus serving as an example for the entire city of Skopje.

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URBAN LIVING LABS FOR SENSITIVE CITY

The concept of urban living lab was novel to the regeneration practices in the Old Bazaar and in its
conceptual setup it shared the same objectives with many others urban living labs that have been
established for different reasons in the European cities. The best general description of the urban
living labs tasks is that they refer to deployment of various methods and modes for social inclusion
of the residents and other stakeholders in developing and trying out new possibilities and ways of
operation in their daily life. Living labs are of critical importance for the rapid development of the
cities and different social realities because they perpetuate inclusive city and present a real-life
experimentation environment. This concept empowers citizens (end-users) as active co-creators to
participate and get involved in the innovation process that should benefit the whole society. Urban
living laboratory is supposed to act as a forum for innovation and dialogue in urban environments,
focusing on solving real challenges in the area and bringing together in dialog multiple stakeholders
and interests. Moreover, apart from finding and producing concrete solutions, the aim is to learn and
exchange knowledge among the interested partners.
In this respect the paper referred to the experiences accomplished through the Skopje Urban Living
Lab (SkULL). For the purpose of achieving collaborative setting and introducing innovative models
of work and sustainable economic development for the regeneration area, new participants to the
community of the Old Bazaar were invited. Actually, the essence of creating an effective Skopje ur-
ban living lab (SkULL) was mostly connected to initiating and developing a network of collaborative
stakeholders, already involved and responsible for the vitality of the Old Bazaar, which might com-
plement each other with knowledge, responsibilities and resources.

SKOPJE URBAN LIVING LAB OBJECTIVES IN THE CITY CULTURAL HERITAGE

REGENERATION

Established Skopje Urban Living Lab (SkULL) utilised the territory of the Old Bazaar as a laboratory
from which it is possible to learn about the concept of sharing and collaboration. In order to achieve
synergies between the new technologies supported development and sustainable heritage led re-
generation it was important to enable interaction and involvement of local citizens, businesses and
other stakeholders in a socially inclusive process. As the Old Bazaar has functioned historically as
an area in which the concepts of sharing and collaboration had been inherent to its spatial and func-
tional resilience, it was logical to stand for and perpetuate this tradition in the search for innovative
ways of involvement of local stakeholders in the regeneration of the area, while at the same time
preserving and revitalising its social, economic and cultural distinctiveness.
The aim was to acknowledge the potential of the cultural and historic heritage protected area of the
Old Bazaar through carefully taken actions towards different aspects of its regeneration, while add-
ing new values, creative industries and technologies innovations in order to create new social and
economic possibilities in multitude of social, economic and cultural diversity of the area.
Gradually, SkULL managed to become a platform for distributing and acquiring information, to fully
involve the stakeholders in its activities and to start serving as a forum for dialogue and for innova-
tive actions leading towards testing new technologies, policies and solutions for regeneration and
urban planning.
It is important to mention that, unfortunately, the collaborative involvement into the planning pro-
cesses led by the municipalities in the city of Skopje is insufficiently developed and it is character-
ised by poor communication and inclusion of various stakeholders in the decisions making process.
Although there are formal mechanisms in place, the reality is far from satisfactory state of partic-
ipatory planning. Not less important is that the Old Bazaar territory exists under divided authority,
among the City of Skopje and the municipalities of Centar and Chair, and the ineffective commu-
nication among the different levels of the two-tier municipal government system in Skopje always
presented a further obstacle in the organisation of certain activities initiated by SkULL.

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For this reason, when developing the programme of activities of SkULL, the starting point was to
identify the gaps and constraints in the coordination and communication among the stakeholders
in order to apply new approaches into the policies and practices of the municipalities and other gov-
ernmental bodies and public agencies. The collaborative nature of urban living labs meant bringing
together multiple stakeholders (researchers and artists, companies and business community, NGOs,
citizens, politicians and local government officials) who were to complement each other with their
diversity of competences, knowledge and skills, financial resources and political influence.
Another important fact about the area of the Old Bazaar is that it is a part of the historic area in
Skopje and it is one of the oldest, but still active commercial zone and market place of the city. Most
recently the area started losing its genuine creative socio-economic and cultural heritage values in
a process of loosely controlled development, influenced by strong market oriented speculative ac-
tions. This tendency resulted in a gradual loss of its cultural identity, phenomena of marginalisation
and degradation of its built stock, losing this way its importance in the city central area and acting
only as a potential tourist destination submitted to the logics of consumption rather than being an
integral part of the everyday life of the city centre.
Although the area is protected by the provisions of the Law on Protection of the Old Bazaar Cultural
District, the actual control of the development process and the way the preservation measures are
implemented, devalues the existing cultural heritage and decreases the chances for appropriate
treatment of its socio-economic sustainability in the strategic spatial and economic planning doc-
uments of the local government.
Consequently, the real challenge before SkULL was to propose a variety of actions which would
bring both immediate, but also long term benefits and changes, to stop the decay of the historic area
by finding out new and appropriate approaches to design and regenerative uses that could re-es-
tablishing its spatial and economic vitality and bring life into the valuable cultural heritage setting.
It is expected that the processes started in the SkULL will provide new insight into the potential and
preservation of the heritage protected area by bringing opportunity for qualitative re-use and cre-
ative industries employed in the effort to replace the compromising and incompatible uses.
SkULL promoted various activities and new initiatives by implementing a network of local stake-
holders in order to enable the processes of co-creation, joint decision making and shared respon-
sibilities in the cultural heritage area development. By careful selection of actions and topics, in
which different ROCK partners were involved, the SkULL managed to regain the interest of local shop
owners and other interested parties who felt the potential of the area, but were gravely disappointed
by its current state.
There were three major premises on which SkULL based its activities, which stem both from the
nature of the living labs’ approach, but also from the basic features of the concerned area:
- All actions were based on a participatory approach and social inclusion. SkULL made efforts to
bring together multiple stakeholders – local citizens, artisans, artists, researchers, public organiza-
tions, citizens, companies, and local governments who complemented each other with the diversity
of their competences, knowledge and skills. Aiming at providing a network of local ecosystem of
stakeholders it was necessary to start with identifying all parties involved and in charge of the Old
Bazaar regeneration. One of the first and most important tasks was the provision of open access to
data including maps with planning, cadaster and conservation information which were crucial for
the equal access of all stakeholders to basic information on which discussions and proposals were
to be based. For this purpose, new data infrastructure was put in place which was easily accessible
to all parties involved.
- The majority of actions were related to provision of new insight into the potential of the heritage
protected area by exposing new opportunities for qualitative spatial re-use and re-design of ne-
glected or underused areas and structures in the Old Bazaar. These actions addressed issues which
were influencing the normal functioning of the area such as stationary traffic, increase of green ar-
eas, improving of accessibility, multifunctional use of public spaces, etc. In the context of traditional
uses and space organization of individual shops and buildings efforts have been made to document
the new possibilities for inclusion of contemporary “crafts” by way of involvement of artisan associ-

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ations and creative industry community.

- The adoption of regeneration measures utilizing ICT advantages included new technologies and
new services in order to create new ways of mapping/accessing/appropriation of the cultural heri-
tage by avoiding socio-environmental decay and improving safety perception, while taking into ac-
count market trends, new commercial opportunities and the compliance with the standards and
regulation related the area of the Old Bazaar. These measures introduced new models of work, such
as ICT incubators and collaborative workspaces, while creating new and reinforcing the existing
local economy ecosystems, in order to allow for more viable business solutions that preserve the
area by promoting sustainable and equitable economy.
Based on the above-mentioned premises SkULL undertook numerous activities in compliance with
the ROCK objectives, testing different scenarios for involvement of the stakeholders and discussion
environment on existing problems, as well as on propositions and solutions for development of
the protected area of the Old Bazaar. The core activities organized and completed during the proj-
ect period included: Open days: Thematic meetings and debates with different focus groups and
stakeholders; Workshops of two different kinds: Design challenge workshops with graduate stu-
dents from the Faculty of Architecture and Co-design workshops with the invited guest tutors from
the cities with best practices; Open calls for competing with ideas: such is the “Shops with history”
initiative; and ideas for new souvenirs on re-interpretation of the tradition crafts in a contemporary
manner; Exibitions: Permanent and Temporary exhibitions; and Lectures and presentations, talks
and debates with guest lecturers from the cities with best practices and other promotors of ideas.
Three main conceptual approaches used in the SkULL might be identified:
1: Activities that supported the concept of “open” city, especially open data and open knowledge:
For a city to be inclusive it has to support the concept of “open” city, especially open data and open
knowledge. In the context of modern technology use this means that the city is characterized by
development of new useful services and open public databases for citizens and innovations that can
improve the quality of life. As such, the advantages of modern technology through the e-services
and web communication are used for mutual awareness and informing, as well as for inter-opera-
bility of databases with a sound impact on decision making.
For the idea of enabling availability of open data, which was identified as the most missing opera-
tional practice in the area, it was necessary to carry out a comprehensive survey on data collection.
An access to open data on all important information and documents from different sources and in-
stances dealing with the cultural heritage protection, urban planning and cadastre information was
enabled. For this purpose a digital platform for open data and open sources information and com-
prehensive mapping on existing building stock by urban blocks, hight, bulc, land use, preservation
plan status of the territory and the monuments, ownership status of the land parcels and cadastre
information of the area, has been launched.

_ Figure 3 and 4: SkULL premises in the Old Bazaar and Permanent exibition on open data (source: S
kULL, 2019)

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Aiming at better social inclusion and Open days have been organised, in support of the collabo-
ration and dialog between the stakeholders. The idea was to enhance the community interaction
and citizen participation, allowing them to actively disseminate information about the spaces they
use and the problems they have, while enabling the municipalities to address future problems that
dominate urban life in the manner of responsive urban planning and development of the area. For
these purpose thematic Open days meetings have been organised in which different participants
and stakeholders have discussed the problems and ideas for overcoming the situation. In addition
to the institutions responsible for taking care of the Old Bazaar, such were planning and heritage
protection officials, local government representatives from the city of Skopje, Centar and Chair, the
key contributors were the owners of shops, citizens, craftsmen, various associations and NGOs
whose activity is related to the Old Bazaar.
Another type of Open days presented different experiences and practices of the role model cities
involved in the ROCK project. The idea was the community to benefit from the know-how of the
Eindhoven, as a role model for their experiences with the living lab, especially the one that has been
established in the former industrial regeneration area, which succeeded to rediscovered the place
for industrial heritage. The other open day meeting was dedicated to sharing experiences from Ath-
ens, in particular of that how it was possible to embrace citizens’ initiatives in the decision-making
process of the civil society. The website platform of synAthina, which was developed as a public
platform for connecting citizens and the ideas they submit, with the relevant local government rep-
resentatives, non-governmental organizations and private businesses, as a result of this coopera-
tion, is expected to get in operation in the near future in the city of Skopje, helping this way enhance-
ment of the direct citizens inclusion.

_ Figure 5 and 6: Co-design workshop with tutor from Eindhoven, Marianne Willemsen
(source: SkULL, 2019)

2: Activities that supported and foster collaborative ideas by bringing opportunity for qualitative
re-use and re-design, by introducing ICT and innovative technologies, or creative industries and
contemporary “crafts”. For this purpose, “Shops with history” initiative has been inaugurated, which
aimed at presentation, documentation and redesign of existing shops with continuity in existence
and capability of showing the history layers of the Old Bazaar. This Initiative assumed that certain
crafts, which existed previously in the Old Bazaar, might be irrelevant in today’s socio-economic
development, but their remembrance is worth to be presented not only in the Museum of the Old
Bazaar, but also in the existing premises of the shops. Likewise, in support of the creative industries
and their innovative approach to improving the offer of souvenirs for the City of Skopje, and their
creative re-interpretation of the traditional craft products representing the Old Bazaar specificity in
a contemporary manner, an open call for ideas for new souvenirs has been launched.

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_ Figure 7 and 8: Design challenge workshop and “The Old Bazaar in the Past “exhibitions (source: SkULL,
2019)

3: Activities that supported creatve re-design and collaboration.

For this pupose several creative workshops have been organised and completed. Multiple stake-
holders (researchers, artists and students, citizens and local government) have been brought to-
gether to participate in co-designing and co-shaping of the public spaces, abandoned or under used
physical structures of the Old Bazaar. One type of workshops were carried out as Design challenge
workshops on the Old Bazaar regeneration and transformation, which embraced new uses and de-
sign ideas proposed by graduate students from the Faculty of Architecture and the other type were
Co-design workshops organised with the invited guest tutors from the cities with best practices set
up within the ROCK network. New programmes for the Old Bazaar for different urban design tasks
have been challenged such as: accessibility and movement improvement, transformation of public/
semi-public spaces and parking lots, new landscape design and greenery introduction, as well as
transformation and re-design of the abandoned, or underused physical structures and shops.

CONCLUSION

The SkULL have successfully promoted various activities and new initiatives for the benefit of re-
sponsive led regeneration process, enabling inclusion and engagement of a wide range of partic-
ipants in co-creation and joint decision making. The SkULL has managed to contribute to the im-
portant shift in comprehending the importance of civic engagement and that given opportunities
can bring changes in the real world. The technology and creative industries driven regeneration
process have already started showing results through novel digital platforms, urban data collected
through sensors and ICT tools introduced. Undoubtably, SkULL has helped inclusive processes ad-
vancement and begun to utilize the place, knowledge and ICT infrastructure in the area of the Old
Bazaar and it is expected it will continue to work as cultural, social and economic innovation lab and
a resource centre for innovative business and sustainable development activities. Fortunately, the
legacy of SkULL shall continue through the Skopje Urban Lab, that was already established by the
City of Skopje. A great deal of follow-up activities have been applied already, but the lessons learnt
from the results of SkULL should certainly, help in planning and designing the future activities.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT: THE ROCK PROJECT OUTCOMES HAVE BEEN USED IN THE PAPER. THIS
PROJECT HAS RECEIVED FUNDING FROM THE EUROPEAN UNION’S HORIZON 2020 RESEARCH
AND INNOVATION PROGRAMME UNDER GRANT AGREEMENT NO 730280

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__ 1970. Skopje Resurgent. The Story of a United Nations Special Fund Town Planning Project. United
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__ Stevens, Quentin. 2015, December. “Creative milieux: how urban design nurtures creative clusters”.
Journal of Urban Design 20 (1): 1-7
__ openlivinglabs.eu, European Network of Living Labs (ENoLL) Official website. Accessed Dec 12th,
2019. http://www.openlivinglabs.eu/livinglabs
__ ROCK: Regeneration and Optimisation of Cultural Heritage in creative and Knowledge cities. Accessed
December 12th, 2019. https://rockproject.eu/about
__ Rock/ About. “Vision and Ambition.” Accessed February 14th, 2020. https://rockproject.eu/about

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OBSERVING THECITY’SUSERS BEHAVIOURS: PRODUCTION

OF A SOCIAL CYCLELEADING TO A SPACE OF COMMUNICATION;
CASE OF SIDI-BOUSAID
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch20

_ Ons Ben Dhaou

Department of Architectural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of
Pécs, Boszokány u. 2, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary, onsbendhaou@gmail.com

_ Norbert Vasváry-Nádor
Department of Architectural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of
Pécs, Boszokány u. 2, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary, vasvary.norbert@mik.pte.hu

ABSTARCT

The functional use of a space is never a mere material use, but a situation that creates an imaginary
relationship with that space and gives it meaning. In fact, when people talk about space, they talk
about themselves, they translate their experiences in space and then engage in a process of mean-
ing. It is assumed in this article that the forms and components of Sidi Bou-Said can give meaning
to space and otherwise influence its practices. Presented under this image of a public space, social
practices fit into it. Sidi Bou-Said is therefore “the immaterial and media space” the space of com-
munication understood as “public sphere”. A place where one seeks to communicate, to identify
with a community. The combination of the observed spatio-temporal elements consists in talking
about the user/space relationship with all that it entails of otherness, temporality, spatial devices
and culture.

KEYWORDS _ public space, spatio-temporality, spatiality, temporality, observation, social behaviours

INTRODUCTION

At the beginning of the 20th century, Sidi Bou-Said became the favorite place of artists and men of
culture who were seduced by the village and its atmosphere. Artists and intellectuals, then, writ-
ers, architects, plastic artists, filmmakers etc. choose it as their home. An eminent personality was
strongly linked to the destiny of the village. This is Baron Rodolphe d’Erlanger, a British banker of
German origin. This music lover, full of good taste and painter, came for the first time to the village at
the beginning of the century. Seized by the beauty of the site, he resolved to take up residence there.
And it was then that he built his palace which he named “NejmaEzzahra” of an essentially orientalist
architecture. As a leading musicologist, he is the author of a treatise on Arabic music. It was at the
origin of the beylical decree of August 6, 1915 safeguarding the village and it was he who pushed to
introduce the white and blue of Sidi Bou-Said.
It is at Sidi-Bousaid that we meet the traditional model. The secondary residences are very close to
each other and form a dense solid fabric reminiscent of the medina. The spatial hierarchy of the me-
dina makes the central location the mosque. Thus, the centrality of the city is religious: everything
is ordered around the religious landmark which is the Zaouia of the saint. (Santelli 1956). In this
ground, we shall take into account a communication between different elements which confront:

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Architectural style, Light, View and position effect with narrow streets to produce actions, reactions
and interactions between these elements in a precise social and spatial code. This communication
bases itself on the various memberships and the identity that it is religious, cultural, historic and
artistic. It turns out, moreover, that during this research, we shall be interested to study the influence
of the arrangement of this narrow streets in a direct or indirect way on the psychology and the be-
haviour of the users.
To illustrate the purpose of this research, the work has been divided to two correlative parts. The first
is theoretical, which offers an overlooking about the history of the city to understand and discover
the relation between the elements presented in the site; As follow the second part is practical with
the aim of presenting the influence of the arrangement of narrow streets and its architectural details;
a work on a case study was conducted; an observation of the city’s users behaviours. The main
interest is to set the light on the communication created between the city and its users in order to
create a process of meaning during the previous years.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The first phase of this research study exhibits the characteristics of both exploratory and descriptive
research. Include in this phase, an initial review of existing literature was undertaken to develop an
understanding of how the issues has been explored and adapted in these environment. The obser-
vation technique will be use in order to gain the information and data about this research. Towards
the end, this study will capture key of well designed street furniture in narrow streets in Tunisia.

PROFILE OF THE SITE

Sidi-Bousaid in its global morphology presents itself as an open-air pedestrian space with a total
area of 217 hectares. Facing east, it welcomes the first light of day. It is wide open to the urban land-
scape on one side and a natural landscape on the other. Sidi-Bousaid is a famous tourist attraction
in Tunisia. Its positioning next to the Mediterranean Sea gives the city a cool atmosphere. The walls
and staircases of the age-old buildings are of marble white, while the doors, window frames, shut-
ters, and moucharabiehs are of blue color. Baron, Rodolphe d’Erlanger, who was a French painter and
a musicologist, introduced the blue and white theme. We chose, besides to study this outside living
space which are frequented by infinity of users which include a social, cultural, commercial, artistic
diversity. It is a small city with a population of around 6,000. Sidi-Bousaid is an important touristic
pole, it is one of the sites the most visited of the Mediterranean sea and welcomes up to 100 000
visitors during the weekends of the summer months.
It seems that the architectural style, the colours, the opening or closing, the lighting, the surface,
the geometric shape, the spatial arrangement of the components of a space, the activities that an-
imate it, the routes and the mode of accessibility, promote the birth of social practices. The spatial
arrangement of the components: The terraces of the cafes, a little behind the main axis, are remi-
niscent of the second balconies or bathtubs in a performance room. They offer a complete view of
the scene.
The Café des Nattes, one of the emblematic places of Sidi-Bousaid, located on the first floor
in the entrance, with its balcony, intimate and comfortable, a strategic position, right in the
center of the village.
The Café des Délices is located at the top of the village and offers a view of the Gulf of Tunis.
Its blue umbrellas are the same blue color used throughout the village.
The palace of the Baron d’Erlanger, which houses the headquarters of the Arab and Mediter-
ranean music center on the top of the hill, offers a surprising view of the Mediterranean Sea.
The public lighting devices also accentuate, by their artisanal shapes and their soft orange light the
scenic appearance of the space. In addition, the spatial organization and the various human activi-

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ties taking place in the square contribute to its dramatization.

The perception of the urban landscape depends largely on the observer’s position and viewing an-
gle. the zoning performed during the content analysis identified perceptive fragmentation of SBS.
Users create imaginary holes and angles from their positions and their discourses seem to reflect
these invented limits.

PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF THE SURVEY CORPUS

The purpose of the observation is the direct collection of spatial behaviors at the time they occur.
Moreover, the dramatization of space would not be rhetoric. Users by their attitudes and behaviors
contribute to the staging of space. We also approach an audience that is not only a spectator «it is
also capable of judgment; and it participates in the plot of the actions and characters that appear
on the stage.
The following map represents the practices recorded in Sidi Bou-Said, during our investigation, by
entering the site, the first activity that we can face are the commercial activities including social
meetings and gathering.

_ Figure 1: Practices recorded in Sidi Bou-Said during a day (Author)

Going further inside the city, we notice the distribution of various activities, such as the discovery of
place, the resting, the relaxation and nostalgic behaviors by using different sorts of street furniture
such as the benches, the sitting walls all along the site.

Spatial elements of a daily observation

The following table summarizes the spatial behaviors recorded in Sidi Bou-Said through the obser-
vation in ordinary days. It illustrates:

_ Table 1: Social practices observed in Sidi Bou-Said: Mode and images

Table 1: Social practices observed in Sidi Bou-Said: Mode and images

Practice Mode Emplacement Image

Commerce Individual and collective The entrance to the city Exhibition
Rest Individual The wall Lounge
Meeting Collective The entrance to the city Crossroad
Relaxation Individual The bench, the wall Public park
175
Nostalgia Individual The wall Parental house
Discovery Collective The surroundings of the city Museum
Passage way Individual All the city Passage
Table 1: Social practices observed in Sidi Bou-Said: Mode and images PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

Practice Mode Emplacement Image

Commerce Individual and collective The entrance to the city Exhibition
Rest Individual The wall Lounge
Meeting Collective The entrance to the city Crossroad
Relaxation Individual The bench, the wall Public park
Nostalgia Individual The wall Parental house
Discovery Collective The surroundings of the city Museum
Passage way Individual All the city Passage

From2:these
Table results, we
Daily dynamics notice the
of practices on existence of several functions that take place throughout the day,
Sidi-Bou Said
from sunrise to sunset. These practices are carried out by different modes of use, in a collective or
Hours Type of practices Intensity
individual way in order to extract different images from a single space or furniture. Based on the
6am - 9am Passage way Weak
practices observed
Table 1: Social onobserved
practices
CommerceSidi Bou-Said, we notice
in Sidi Bou-Said: that
Mode and these practices are mostly carried out in the
images
individual
Practice
mode. We
Restcan say
Mode
that each space is transformed
Emplacement
into a place by integrating
Image
a function
according
Commerce to the needs
MeetingofIndividual
the users.and collective The entrance to the city Exhibition
9amRest
- 1pm RelaxationIndividual The wall
Average Lounge
Meeting elements
Temporal of a Collective
Nostalgia daily observation The entrance to the city Crossroad
Relaxation Discovery Individual The bench, the wall Public park
The following table summarizes the dynamics of space use during the day from 6am to midnight.
Nostalgia Passage Individual
way The wall Parental house
WeDiscovery
note that most of the practices
Collective take place between 9am and 12pm,
The surroundings they start
of the city with a long rhythm
Museum
Commerce
until they reach
Passage way a maximum intensity
Individual All the city Passage
Rest
Meeting
_ Table 2: Daily dynamics of practices on Sidi-Bou Said
1pm - 3pm Relaxation
Table 2: Daily dynamics of practices on Sidi-Bou Said Strong
Nostalgia
Hours Type of practices
Discovery Intensity
6am - 9am Passage way Weak
Passage way
Commerce
Commerce
Rest
Rest
Meeting
9am - 1pm
Meeting
Relaxation Average
3pm - 6pm Relaxation
Nostalgia Strong
Nostalgia
Discovery
Discovery
Passage way
Passage
Commerce way
Rest
Commerce
Meeting
Rest
1pm - 3pm Relaxation
Meeting Strong
6pm - 9pm Nostalgia
Relaxation Very strong
Discovery
Nostalgia
Passage way
Discovery
Commerce
Passage way
Rest
Commerce
Meeting
3pm- -12
6pm Rest
Relaxation Strong
9pm pm Strong
Meeting
Nostalgia
Passage
Discoveryway
Passage way
Commerce
Rest
Meeting
6pm - 9pm Relaxation Very strong
Nostalgia
Discovery
Passage way
Commerce
Rest
9pm - 12 pm Strong
Meeting
Passage way

This suggests that most practices occur between 6:00 am and 12:00 pm. They begin with a weak

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rhythm, intensifying as the day progresses to reach its maximum in the middle of the day and de-
creasing towards the end of the day to extinguish itself to the rhythm of sunlight.
The combination of the temporal spatial elements recorded in Sidi Bou Said, during ordinary days,
produces curves highlighting the temporality of the images released by the typologies of use of
space.

_ Figure 2: Curves of temporal evolution of the images released on Sidi Bou-Said (Author)

Indeed, this space experiences a spectacular dynamic analogous to the movement of living beings.
In fact, the dynamics observed in this space make us think of vegetal tropism; the latter being a
biological phenomenon by which living matter is oriented [1], it depends entirely on the external
factor called stimulus. By following the progress of Sidi Bou-Said, we can see a dependence on
light. Peaceful in its night sleep space recognizes its first users. And as the sun rises and the day
progresses, the movement intensifies. and the movement is reversible when the sun tends at sunset,
the movement weakens and the place deserts little by little and prepares for another quiet night. This
phototropism is in reality only an imprint of social time. The urban time of space is strongly marked
by social time. In fact, the identity of a group is expressed through its rhythm, its temporal and spa-
tial organization the identity comes from culture rather than from the strict physical location [2]. The
practices of space are conditioned by a contextual character, they are carried out in time and space.

CONCLUSIONS

It was presented, in this phase of research, the importance of the generator elements that allows the
users of this space to act in a way that creates a process of meaning helping the transmission of
Sidi-Bousaid city from a spatial to mental image then a space of communication.

_ Figure 3: The production cycle of a space of communication

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Sidi-Bousaid as an object of study, is a space presenting the result of a development project. And
there, in this space, social practices begin to appear and take place. This is where according to Marc
AUGE announces that everyone has his own history with and in the city, it is the support of an infinity
of memories, lives, expressions, feelings. The city becomes a place of life, passage, experience, con-
sumption and work. This study will contribute in developing awareness for providing street furniture
by considering the several criteria. The understanding of street furniture design including economic,
environmental, and the social benefits are also considered to be in this study. The next step for this
study is to provide a recommendation in creating suitable design for street furniture which results in
widespread application by designers in producing the new design street furniture in narrow streets.
Moreover, the findings of this study will contribute to experimental aesthetics in street furniture de-
sign from academic perspectives. The study also will contribute possible sustainable design criteria
for street furniture values.

REFERENCES

__ Kevin Lynch, The image of the city, France, Aubin, 1969

__ MoatazFatnassi, the relation between the identity and the design product: the identity product, the
memory(report) of Master’s degree of search(research), College of the sciences and the technologies of
design, 2011
__ Alain Blanchet and Anne Gotman, the investigation and its methods: the interview, NATHAN, 2001
__ AgnésLevitte, the perception of everyday objects in urban space, Hall, (EHESS) Paris, 2010.
__ The city and its location across the highlighters of vision of the city: ATLAS, FAUCHEUR, OIL, TOMTOM,
GIER Catherine and Anne-Christine Bronner is my city, Paris, 2005
__ Raoudha Ben Ayed, Urban Environments: Mechanisms and Effects in the Bab Bhar square, Tunis, 2009.
__ Re-imagining public space: Urban renewal, Identity and discourses of comption in Montpellier, France,
University of Sheffield, 2013.
__ Re-imagining public space: Urban renewal, Identity and discourses of comption in Montpellier, France,
University of Sheffield, 2013.
__ Sidi Bou-Said collection regards, Dunes editions, 2006.
__ Sidi Bou-Said website: http://www.commune-sidibousaid.gov.tn/index.php?lang=fr

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[TECH]
RESPONSIVE TECHNOLOGIES IN ARCHITECTURE

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APPLICATION OF VENEER BASED PANELS

IN EXOSKELETON ARCHITECTURE
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch21

_ Neda Sokolović
University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Department of Architecture Technologies,
Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/2, Belgrade, Serbia. neda.dzombic@arh.bg.ac.rs

_ Ana Kontić
University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Department of Architecture Technologies,
Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/2, Belgrade, Serbia. an.ko@arh.bg.ac.rs

_ Andrej Josifovski
University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Department of Architecture Technologies,
Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/2, Belgrade, Serbia. andrej@arh.bg.ac.rs

ABSTRACT

The development of new materials and technologies is one of the greatest initiator of new architec-
tural thought. Development within the long-standing continuous improvement of wood as material
was induced by technological development and new market demands. Good mechanical and phys-
ical properties of wood and its easy accessibility, initiated further development and improvement of
products based on this material. The aims of this improvement are more rational wood application
and improvement of its physical and mechanical properties in regard to monolithic wood. In partic-
ular significant are wood-based products made from veneer layers, plywood and laminated veneer
lumber (LVL). These materials stand out from other wood-based panel materials due to their me-
chanical and aesthetic performance. Previous application of veneer-based panels as a structural
element in architecture has been implied as secondary or tertiary structural elements which transfer
the load to supporting structural members, or to stiffen wooden structures. Recognition a good me-
chanical property of the material and its advantages as a small self-weight encouraged examining
the possibilities of using wood-based panel products as the primary structural support element in
exoskeleton structures, i.e. using building envelope as object structure. Application plywood and
LVL is research study, so in this paper authors will analyze the possibilities of using these prod-
ucts as an exoskeleton supporting element, through case studies of realized experimental struc-
tures. Through research realised structures will be analysed, with a focus on shell structures. They
will be evaluated through recognition of its advantages and disadvantages, especially those are
directly conditioned by the structural characteristics of the material. Analyses of structures will be
done according following criteria: structure design, spatial stability, span constraints, possibilities
of loads the structure can support and connections between elements. In order to encourage use
of veneer-based panels as load-bearing element in the exoskeleton structure, the paper will set
guidelines for further research in this area and will recommend possibilities to improve mechanical
characteristics of material. Rationalization of the use of wood-based panels in folded structures will
highlight in paper. Forming exoskeleton structure from this material contributes rational use of the
structure and raw wood materials saving.

KEYWORDS _ veneer panels, plywood, еxoskeleton,

structural elements, building envelope as construction

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INTRODUCTION

Wood as a natural material has remained throughout history as one of the most commonly used
materials in construction, primarily because of its easy availability, but also due to its excellent
physical and mechanical properties. Technological development and new market requirements have
led to development of many wood-based products from wood as a basic material, as a result of the
main advantages of wood raw materials such as more rational use and better physical and mechan-
ical properties than monolithic wood. In architecture, products based on veneer layers, plywood and
laminated veneer lumber (LVL) are of special importance, and they stand out additionally due to their
mechanical and aesthetic performance.
Plywood and LVL materials are wood-based products obtained by veneer layers glued together. The
way of their formation contributed to the improvement of certain constructive properties in relation
to monolithic wood, primally due to the decreasing material limitations as a result of its anisotropy.
By distributing the errors through the panel and eliminating them in production, they reduced the
variability in material properties, that is, they equalized the mechanical properties of the product in
the longitudinal and transverse direction.
The application of veneer-based panels in architecture today is most often in conventional ways,
and can be non-constructive - in the form of roof, floor and wall coverings, and constructive - for
making diaphragms and shear walls, beam elements or filling elements of complex beam systems.
Wood-based panel materials are most often secondary or tertiary structural elements, which serve
to accept loads and transfer them to load-bearing structural elements, or to increase the stability of
wooden structures.
The weight of element itself and its mechanical properties have encouraged researches in the direc-
tion of application of wood-based panel products as a supporting element of the structure- spatial
structures. This type of application can be named unconventional method of application, where
wood-based panel forms the entire exoskeletal structure, thus becoming the primary supporting
element in spatial structures - primarily shell and fold structures. The formation of such structures
from wood-based panels contributes to material savings and rational use of construction. For the
purpose of this research, in the world, only a few architectural structures have been formed in which
veneer and / or LVL panels represent the only structural element and thus form both the struc-
ture and the envelope of the building. Due to the dimensional limitations of the panels, the objects
formed in the structural system of the shell are made from interconnected smaller flat segments of
panels formed of veneer.
Within this research, possible ways of applying veneer - based panels as bearing exoskeletal struc-
tures will be defined. The paper will point out the potentials of the application of veneer - based
panels in architecture, the analysis of the spatial structures realized so far, but also the problems
and limitations of this material. The result of the research is the definition of guidelines and rec-
ommendations for the possibility of improving veneer-based panels, with the aim of their wider
application in design practice.

PLYWOOD AND LAMINATED VENEER LUMBER (LVL)

As above-mentioned, veneer-based products that are most often used for construction purposes
today are panels formed from layers of veneer - plywood and laminated veneer lumber (LVL). These
products are created by gluing layers of veneer together with adhesives. The advantage of products
created in this way is the possibility of creating high-strength elements, theoretically without di-
mensional limitation. The increasing use of these composite products in the construction industry
is a consequence of the reduction in the volume of the trunk (logs) and the need to form materials
of greater length.
Veneer panels (plywood) are panels made of at least three veneer sheets glued together, whose
wood grains are usually placed in a mutual orientation at an angle of 90 degrees (Николић, 2004).

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They are formed in standard thicknesses of 6.35–28 mm (Stalnaker, 1997), and for their formation
veneers of 2-6 mm thickness are used (Walker, 1993), glued together with adhesive. They can be
three-layer boards (triplex), or multi-layer boards (multiplex), with the most common number of
layers 5, 7, 9 (Николић, 2004). In order to reduce the anisotropy of the veneer board, the veneers are
placed in layers oriented at an angle of 90 ° to the first adjacent layer. This orientation reduces the
anisotropy of wood as a material, affects the reduction of swelling, and achieves a more uniform be-
haviour of the board in two directions due to changes in humidity (Irle & Barbu, 2010). Cross-layering
prevents the movement and deformation of individual layers in-plane, the longitudinal orientation of
the grains of one sheet of veneer prevents tangential changes to its adjoining sheet. The constant
orientation of the veneer layers results in approximately equal stiffness and dimensional stability of
the board in both its directions - longitudinal and transverse, and thus the mechanical properties,
primarily compressive and tensile strength and stiffness of the board are about the same in both its
directions.
Compared to monolithic wood panels, the basic and most important advantage of veneer panels
is that the physical and mechanical characteristics of the panel in the longitudinal and transverse
direction are quite equal, reducing the possibility of splitting the panel, and enabling the production
of larger panels (Youngquist, 2002). In addition to the above-mentioned, the cross-linking of veneer
layers in the construction of veneer sheets increases the stability of the board through its layers,
i.e., reduces the possibility of splitting veneer sheets, which from the aspect of forming connections
between veneer board elements become suitable for mechanical joints - nails, screws, etc. Precisely
because of the good mechanical properties in both directions, the application of veneer-based pan-
els can be reflected in constructions with spatial load transfer.
Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) is a wood-based composite product formed of at least three inter-
connected veneer sheets with a parallel orientation of the grains in the longitudinal direction. Lami-
nated veneer lumber can contain up to 20% of veneer layers whose grains are transversely oriented.
Veneers 2.5 mm, 3.2 mm, 3.5 mm thick are used for its production (Šorn, 2006). Laminated veneer,
unlike veneer board, is composed of layers of veneer oriented with parallel grains. When forming
laminated veneer, as with veneer sheets, the direction of the grains of the outer sheets of veneer
(veneer faces) is oriented in the direction of the longer side of the composite product. In this way, its
maximum strength in the direction of the span is achieved. The mechanical properties of LVL rein-
forced with only parallel grains orientation are very often compared with the mechanical properties
of monolithic or glued laminated wood, while the mechanical properties of LVL with the existence
of strain-oriented grains are compared with the mechanical properties of veneer panels. Laminated
veneer is widely used in linear structural elements, where the load is transmitted in one direction,
and can also be applied in spatial structures, but taking into account the way the element is loaded
in the structure and its position in the entire system.

_ Figure 1. Construction of three-layer veneer sheet and construction of laminated veneer lumber. Au-
thor’s illustration.

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EXOSKELETON STRUCTURES IN ARCHITECTURE

It is mentioned that elements made of veneer-based materials can have a constructive role, as
elements that accept and transmit loads in the structure, which are the most common diaphragms,
shear walls, beams or part of beams of complex cross section, but also non-constructive, in the
form of roof, floor or wall coverings. All of the above can be considered conventional ways of ap-
plying veneer-based panels. There are other ways of applying veneer-based panels, which we can
freely say are unconventional ways of application, and that is primarily in the form of the supporting
outer membrane of spatial structures - exoskeletons. The exoskeleton (Greek: έξω - éxō - outside,
beyond) is the name for the outer, supporting structure outside the body, and within which the or-
ganism is located and which actually forms its supporting structure. The term exoskeleton enters
the processes of biomimicry of nature in many sciences and disciplines such as medicine, but also
in the branches of technology, especially in robotics and architecture. An exoskeleton in architecture
can be defined as an external structure that also becomes the supporting structure of an object, and
its role is not only the role of a static and constructive element, but it becomes a structural envelope
that can solve complex sets of problems by integrating different building systems (Scuderi, 2015).
The exoskeleton is actually the envelope of an object whose role is constructive, it is a membrane
that can divide the outer and inner space of an object, it becomes a thermal envelope, controls its
energy performance, but also aesthetic values forming the geometry of the object, its shape and
expression. The exoskeleton in its primary meaning, using only the external structure of the object,
without integration with the internal structure - the endoskeleton is used in only a few structural
systems, and these are primarily systems of spatial surface structures - shells and folds. The shell is
characterized by the optimal ratio of the mechanical strength of the material since it was formed and
its own weight. This is of crucial importance and can provide a significant advantage in the choice of
wood-based materials for the formation of exoskeletal architectural structures.
An exoskeleton in architecture can be defined as an external structure that also becomes the sup-
porting structure of an object, and its role is not only the role of a static and constructive element,
but it becomes a structural envelope that can solve complex sets of problems by integrating differ-
ent building systems. The exoskeleton is actually the envelope of an object whose role is construc-
tive, it is a membrane that can divide the outer and inner space of an object, it becomes a thermal
envelope, controls its energy performance, but also aesthetic values forming the geometry of the
object, its shape and expression. The exoskeleton in its primary meaning, using only the external
structure of the object, without integration with the internal structure - the endoskeleton is used in
only a few structural systems, and these are primarily systems of spatial surface structures - shells
and folded structures. The shell is characterized by the optimal ratio of the mechanical strength of
the material since it was formed and its self weight. This is of crucial importance and can provide a
significant advantage in the choice of wood-based materials for the formation of exoskeletal archi-
tectural structures.

SHELL STRUCTURES AS EXOSKELETON

Shells are spatial thin-walled curved structures with three-dimensional load transfer, usually large
spans, surface-loaded, which are in the membrane state of stress. In wooden spatial structures,
shells are formed as polygonal spatial structures composed of panels, interconnected. For their re-
alization, wood-based materials are used - veneer-based panels (veneer and LVL panels) or CLT. Po-
lygonal shells are constructions whose shaping follows the shape of a shell, single or double-curved,
positive and / or negative Gaussian curves, but it is composed of flat segments interconnected in
a system that forms a single spatial structure. This type of shell provides great opportunities for
geometric experimentation and free-form design.

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_ Figure 2: ICD/ITKE Research Pavilion 2011. Taken from ttps://visuall.net/2012/05/22/icditke-re-

search-pavilion-2011/, accessed 25.09.2020.

So far, this type shells have been realized only as experimental research facilities, and the pioneers
of their development are the research teams of the University of Stuttgart. The objects of polygonal
shells that were realized within the research are:

Table 1:_Realized
Table 1:objects
Realized objects ofshells
of polygonal polygonal shells
based on based on veneer
veneer

Structure
Year Location Project Name Team Material
Span

Veneer
based
University of
Stuttgart, ICD | ITKE Research panels –
2011 Stuttgart -
Germany Pavilion 2011 birch
ICD/ITKE
(6.5mm)

2014 Schwäbisch Landesgartenschau University of Veneer 10m

Gmünd, Germany Exhibition Hall Stuttgart - based
ICD/ITKE/IIGS panels –
beech
(50mm)

2019 Heilbronn, BUGA WOOD PAVILION University of Veneer 25x35m

Germany Stuttgart - based
ICD/ITKE panels

2019 Sidney, Australia HexBox Canopy University of LVL ~4.5m

Sydney - „Code to
Production“ and
DTC group

In the exoskeleton structures of the above - mentioned objects, formed as polygonal shells,
In the exoskeleton structures of the above - mentioned objects, formed as polygonal shells, common
common constructive principles based on the principles of trivalent polyhedral segments are
constructive principles based on the principles of trivalent polyhedral segments are observed (Krieg,
observed (Krieg, et al., 2015; La Magna, Waimer, & Knippers, 2016; Bechert, Groenewolt,
etKrieg,
al., 2015; La Magna,
Menges, Waimer,
& Knippers, & Knippers,
2018). 2016; Bechert,
This constructive Groenewolt,
principle implies aKrieg, Menges,
topological rule& of
Knippers,
2018).
shaping and forming a polygonal shell by always joining three surface elements in one point shell
This constructive principle implies a topological rule of shaping and forming a polygonal
by(Fig.
always joining
3). The threeissurface
structure formed elements
so that theinthree
one point
plates(Fig. 3). meet
always The structure is formed
at one point, so that the
stabilizing
three
eachplates
other always meetaatspatially
and forming one point, stabilizing
stable system. each other and forming a spatially stable system.

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7TH INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC CONFERENCE

_ Figure 3. Cell hierarchy and load distribution between elements in a trivalent-polyhedral system. La
Magna, Riccardo, Frédéric Waimer, and Jan Knippers. „Nature-inspired generation scheme for shell struc-
tures.“ Proceedings of the International Symposium of the IASS-APCS Symposium 2012: From Spatial
Structures to Space Structures. (Seoul: IASS, 2012.).

The design and construction of polygonal shell segments is possible in two ways. The first method
involves the formation of a shell of segments (cells) composed of several parts forming a segment
of box or variant cross- section (Fig. 4). Another way is to form a shell from segments of monolithic
cross-section, where one element is a solid veneer-based panel, without substructure elements.
Polygonal shells are usually composed of segments (cells) - consisting of a plate (surface plane
layer) and a substructure positioned along the edges of the plate (Fig. 4). The most common are
segments of hexagonal shape, which also belongs to the group of trivalent polyhedral networks, in
which the other two plates meet at one point of the polygonal plate (Fig. 3). The hexagonal matrix
has the possibility of adjustment and shaping in parts of the shell with positive or negative Gaussian
curves (Li & Knippers, 2015).

_ Figure 4. Structural system of a single segment of a shell composed of several parts, forming a segment
of box cross-section. Robeller, Christopher, Mina Konaković, Mira Dedijer, Mark Pauly, and Yves Weinand.
„Double-layered timber plate shell“, International Journal of Space Structures 32 (3-4), (2017): 160–175.

The construction and behaviour of individual segments - slabs in the structures of polygonal shells
can be compared with the behaviour of a diaphragm or slab in the construction of folds. Common
to all the mentioned elements is that axial forces in-plane appear as the dominant load in the con-

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 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

struction. Each plate in the construction must work according to the principle of the diaphragm, i.e.,
accept the forces acting in-plane, i.e., the slabs must not be constructed in such a way as to accept
torsion or moments in order to achieve the stability of the structure. The connections between the
plates are formed as linear joint connections, through which the transmission of exclusively axial
and shear forces is enabled.
The slab in the structure accepts the load acting outside the plane of the slab, the forces are further
distributed by forces in the plane of the slab, and by shear are transmitted to the substructure or to
the adjacent slab if the shell is formed of slabs in one layer, without substructure. The plate accepts
external forces over its entire surface, but their distribution occurs along the edges of the plate, not
only through axial forces but also by shear forces in the plane of the plate. The distribution of forces
can occur in any direction, depending on the geometry of the shell and the way the connections
between the elements are formed.
Precisely due to the distribution of forces in several directions and directions, the most suitable
for such constructions is the use of materials that have similar mechanical properties in all di-
rections, and the most commonly used material is veneer panel. Due to its low self-weight and
good mechanical characteristics in two directions, the veneer panel is suitable for the formation of
exoskeletal structures according to the principle of polygonal shells. Also, its advantage is low self-
weight in relation to other wood-based materials, which enables the formation of light structures,
low self-weight, where the weight of the material itself does not represent a large constant load on
the structure. The small static height (thickness) of the veneer panel can lead to the appearance of
protrusions in the plane of the panel when exposed to axial pressure forces. Also, the small thick-
ness of the veneer panel causes small spans of the shell construction, the impossibility of forming
a connection. To avoid this, the shell is formed polygonally, in segments, where each segment has
its own substructure that reduces the span of the panel itself. Another way to form a shell is in the
form of full panels of great thickness, as a massive section of greater static height. The system of
receiving and transferring loads on the entire structure does not differ in these two cases.
Pavilions with the segments formed only from veneer-based panels, without substructure, require
a large thickness of the panel, i.e., the static height of the element is achieved by increasing the
thickness of the panel, which is much larger than usual. The large thickness of the panel in this case
is necessary due to the formation of connections between the elements, because in panels with
substructure connections between elements are formed at the level of the substructure, while in this
case connections are formed directly between two panels. Also, the large thickness of the panels
is conditioned by the lateral bending of the panel in-plane at large spans of one element, when the
panel is loaded with axial forces. The advantage of such constructions is the possibility of forming
a connection between the panels in-plane. The disadvantage of the construction is its more difficult
assembly due to the way the elements are connected and their more difficult access. The biggest
drawback is the high consumption of materials, and thus the increase in the self weight of the struc-
ture, which leads to a large load on the structure under its self weight, which results in a reduction
in the span of the exoskeletal structure. Also, the problem in certain elements and positions of these
constructions occurs with elements loaded with large shear stresses or large axial forces, which
very often the veneer panel cannot support.
Panels based on laminated veneer lumber are not often present in the spatial structures of shells,
precisely because of their good mechanical properties expressed in one direction. Since the shells
are spatial structures with three-dimensional load transfer, LVL boards are not a good solution in
this case, especially for double-curved shells. One realized example of shells using LVL is the con-
struction of a single curved shell, where the load transfer is dominant in only one direction.

CONCLUSION

Veneer panels have proven to be an extremely good material in the design and implementation of
exoskeleton spatial structures. In addition to good geometry in such structures, a good choice of

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materials for their realization is also important. Veneer panels are a natural, environmentally friendly
wood-based material with exceptional mechanical properties. Also, their production reduces the
consumption of wood raw materials compared to solid wood panels. Different spatial structures can
be formed by their application. Their behavior in spatial structures is very good, especially important
is their low self-weight. However, there are material limitations in the field of span and load capacity.
In order to make their application more widespread in the realization of exoskeleton spatial struc-
tures, further research is proposed in order to improve certain mechanical characteristics of veneer
panels. Reinforcement of the material would enable the retention of the principle of forming the
structure with panels of small thickness, which would enable the achievement of even larger spanes
of the structure, by retaining light constructions, with low self weight. The advantage of reinforced
wood-based panels is the possibility of using soft wood, with poorer mechanical characteristics for
their production. This would contribute to the saving of wood resources and nature conservation.

REFERENCES

__ Bechert, Simon, Abel Groenewolt, Oliver David Krieg, Achim Menges, and Jan Knippers. 2018. “Structur-
al Performance of Construction Systems for Segmented Timber Shell Structures.” In Proceedings of the
IASS Symposium 2018: Creativity in Structural Design. Boston: IASS.
__ Irle, Mark i Мarius C. Barbu. 2010. „Wood-Based Panel Technology.“ In Wood-Based Panels - An Intro-
duction for Specialists, ed. H. Thoemen, M. Irle, M. Sernek. London: Brunel University Press.
__ Krieg, O., T. Schwinn, A. Menges, J., Knippers Li, Schmitt J., and Schwieger, V. A.. 2015. “Biomimetic
Lightweight Timber Plate Shells: Computational Integration of Robotic Fabrication, Architectural Geom-
etry and Structural Design.” In Advances in Architectural Geometry 2014, ed. by P. Block, J. Knippers, N.
Mitra and Wang W., 109-125. Cham: Springe.
__ La Magna, R., Waimer, F. & Knippers, J. 2012. “Nature-inspired generation scheme for shell structures.”
In International Association of Shell and Spatial Structures Symposium: From Spatial Structures to Space
Structures. IASS: Seoul, South Korea.
__ Li, Jian-Min, Jan Knippers. 2015. “Pattern and Form - Their Influence on Segmental Plate Shells.” In
Proceedings of the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposium 2015,
Amsterdam: Future Visions. Amsterdam: IASS.
__ Scuderi Giuliana. 2015. „Adaptive building exoskeletons: A biomimetic model for the rehabilitation of
social housing.“ International Journal of Architectural Research 9 (1): 134-143.
__ Stalnaker, J. Judith i Ernest C Harris. 1997. „Plywood and Similar Wood Products.“ In Structural design
in wood. New York: Springer-Verlag New York Inc.
__ Šorn, Štefo. 2006. „LVL kao mogućnost supstitucije masivnog drveta.“ Prerada drveta no.13: 23-28.
__ Walker, J.CF. 1993. „Wood panels: plywoods.“ In Primary wood processing: principles and practice,
аутор J.C.P. Walker, B.G. коаутор: Butterfield, T.A.G. Langrish, J.M. Harris и J.M. Uprichard, 377-416.
London: Chapman & Hall.
__ Youngquist, A. John. 2002. „Wood-Based Composites and Panel Products.“ In Wood Handbook - Wood
as an Engineering Material, еd. Forest Product Laboratory, 207-238. Ontario: Algrove Publishing.
__ Николић, Михаило. 2004. Фурнири и слојевите плоче. Београд: Универзитет у Београду,
Шумарски факултет.

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 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

RESEARCH ON ENERGY SAVING PERFORMANCE AND PROMOTION

STRATEGY OF WATER PURIFICATION PLANT IN NORTH CHINA—
— CASE OF WATER SUPPLY SUPPORTING PROJECT IN SHENYANG
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch22

_ He Jin
Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of Pécs; 7624 Pecs, Hungary, Boszorkany
str. 2; 185661698@qq.com

_ Bálint Bachmann
Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of Pécs; 7624 Pecs, Hungary, Boszorkany
str. 2; bachmann.balint@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

The water purification plant is more important than other public buildings in north China, but its
energy saving level is low and the building comfort is poor. To achieve energy conser-vation and
emissions reduction strategy and protection of water resources of the target in north China, the
government has introduced policies to support to guide the construction of public building energy
efficiency, the market also emerge some suitable products and tech-nology. This paper aims to
summarize the current energy saving technologies at home and abroad, and then analyze the ener-
gy saving construction and renovation work of public buildings, such as standard setting, financial
subsidies, technology and material innovation drive. According to the specific cases, the existing
problems of energy saving technology are expounded, and the solutions are put forward. On the
basis of practical cases, this paper tries to look forward to the development trend of building energy
saving technology.

KEYWORDS _ public building, energy saving, water purification plant

INTRODUCTION

Shenyang is located in the south of northeast China and the central and northern part of Liaoning
Province, between east longitude 122°25 ‘9 “~123°48’ 24” and north latitude 41°11 ‘51 “~43°2’ 13”.
It is 115 kilometers from east to west and 205 kilometers from north to south. At the same time,
Shenyang is also located in the south of northeast China, in the center of northeast Asian economic
circle and Bohai Economic circle. It is a comprehensive hub city from the Yangtze River Delta, Pearl
River Delta, Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region to the Kanto region. The city has jurisdiction over 10 dis-
tricts, 2 counties and 1 county-level city. The total area of the city is over 12,948 square kilometers,
with an urban area of 3,495 square kilometers. In 2015, the city had a permanent resident population
of 8.291 million and a registered population of 7.304 million, with a GDP of 728.05 billion yuan.
Shenyang is a sub-humid continental climate in the north temperate zone affected by monsoon.
The an-nual temperature and precipitation distribution decreases from south to northeast and from
southeast to northwest. Four seasons throughout the year, winter is long; Spring warming fast, full
of sunshine; Summer is hot and rainy, and the air is moist; Autumn is short, cloud-less, cool and

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pleasant. The dominant wind direction in winter is north wind and northwest wind, and the average
outdoor wind speed is 3.1m/s. The dominant wind direction in sum-mer is south wind and south-
east wind, and the average outdoor wind speed is 2.9m/s. The annual average temperature was 8.1℃,
the extreme maximum temperature 38.3℃, and the extreme minimum temperature -30.6℃. The annu-
al average precipitation is 621.7mm, the maximum permafrost depth is 1.48m, and the maximum
snow cover thickness is 0.20m.
By 2020, Shenyang must close 215 urban groundwater resources and self-provided water sources,
close 495 water source Wells, and reduce the amount of groundwater exploitation to 20.443,000
cubic meters per year. In its place are the Northwest Water Supply Phase II project, the Partnership
House water Purification Plant Phase II project and the public water supply network expansion proj-
ect. Among them, the fifth, sixth and seventh plants under the Water supply group in the northern
area of Shenyang have a total of 135 underground water Wells. The need to reduce groundwater
extraction capacity to 66.85 million m3 / year (183200 m3 / d) is to be replaced by the Northwest
Liaoning Water Supply Phase II project. According to the scope and construction sequence of the
project, the water supply and groundwater replacement project will be divided into three projects
respectively. Specifically, this project is Shenyang North Water Construction Project, namely “Shen-
yang Northwest Liaoning Water Supply Project, water conveyance Project”. This project project in-
cludes three parts: water conveyance pipeline project, water treatment project and water project. In
the design process of the project, while meeting the basic functions of water treatment, also realized
the energy saving of public buildings.

DESIGN CONSTRAINT

Legal provisions in the fields of ecology, water supply, infrastructure and so on can better help us
understand the use function and spatial nature of public buildings. Therefore, in the early stage of
design, it is necessary to understand the relevant laws and regulations unique to China.
2.1Relevant laws and regulations
(1) Energy Conservation Law of the People’s Republic of China (revised in July 2016);
(2) Construction Law of the People’s Republic of China (Order of the President of the Peo-
ple’s Republic of China No. 91);
(3) Electric Power Law of the People’s Republic of China (amended in 2015);
(4) Decision of the State Council on Strengthening Energy Conservation (Guo Fa [2006]
No. 28);
(5) Notice of the State Council on Printing and Distributing the Comprehensive Work Plan
for Energy Conservation and Emission Reduction during the 13th Five-Year Plan Period,
No. [2016] 74;
(6) Measures for Examining Energy Conservation in Fixed Asset Investment Projects No. 44
of 2016;
(7) “Comprehensive Utilization of Resource Conservation and Environmental Protection
Technology encouraged by the State” (Decree No. 65 of the National Development and Re-
form Commission);
(8) Notice of the State Council on Strengthening the Prevention and Control of Urban Water
Supply, Energy Conservation and Water Pollution (No.36 [2000]).
2.2 Planning, industry access conditions and industrial policies
(1) Outline of the 13th Five-year Plan for National Economic and Social Development of the
People’s Republic of China;
(2) Outline of the 13th Five-year Plan for National Economic and Social Development of
Liaoning Province;
(3) Outline of the 13th Five-year Plan for Shenyang’s National Economic and Social Dev-
el-opment;
(4) China Energy Conservation Technology Policy Outline (2006);

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(5). Outline of China’s Water-saving Technology Policy (2005);

(6). Implementation Plan of National Action for Energy Conservation and Emission Re-
duc-tion;
(7) Liaoning Province Building Energy Saving Technology (Product) Accreditation Project;
(8) Catalogue of National Key Energy Saving Technology Promotion;

RESEARCH EXPERIENCE IN ABROAD

Room air conditioner

As a representative of energy-efficient buildings in Asia, Japan’s creativity in this area is worth
learning from. Relative to Japan’s high technology of air conditioning, central air con-ditioning pen-
etration rate is very high in the United States, the main reason is that America’s economy is relatively
developed, so the living standards of its people, and economic income is higher, this led to the elec-
tronic products, especially air conditioning such essential elec-tronic products in the United States
is very popular in the family, at the same time, the resi-dents of the United States are often very high
to the requirement of quality of life, this kind of circumstance also indirectly promote the use and
popularity of the small central air condi-tioning.

Green Building
The use of the maximum energy efficiency highest, guarantee the building will not affect the sur-
rounding environment, and maximum reduce the consumption of non-renewable re-sources, as a
worldwide subject, the theory of green building has relatively complete, eu countries, for example,
many countries have paid great attention to green building tech-niques, the European countries by
testing for a variety of energy, green building techniques of inspection, Such as the use of solar en-
ergy technology, geothermal energy technology and the use of water energy resources technology,
for practice and application, and finally made great achievements.

Cogeneration of heat and power

With the rapid development of co-generation of heat and power in the world, the technology of
co-generation of heat and power is gradually concerned by people. Take the United States as an
example, its installed capacity of co-generation of heat and power is constantly improving, with
the capacity increased by 45GW so far. Meanwhile, in Japan’s energy supply market, cogeneration
systems are second only to gas and electricity in terms of energy sup-ply, and are very popular. In
some European countries, such as Denmark, the Netherlands and Finland, combined heat and power
generation has reached one third of the domestic energy generation capacity, and carbon dioxide
emissions have been directly reduced by 200 million tons, greatly protecting the surrounding envi-
ronment.

ENERGY SAVING MEASURES IN THIS PROJECT

Standard Policies
The Proposal of the CPC Central Committee on Formulating the 13th Five-year Plan for Na-tional
Economic and Social Development clearly states that it is necessary to regard resource conserva-
tion as a basic state policy, develop a circular economy, protect the ecological envi-ronment and
speed up the building of a resource-conserving and environment-friendly soci-ety. The comprehen-
sive utilization of resources is a basic state policy of resource conserva-tion, an important way and
an urgent task to transform the pattern of economic growth, develop a circular economy and build a
resource-conserving and environment-friendly socie-ty.

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Fiscal Policy
Strengthening energy conservation is an important measure to thoroughly apply the scien-tific
Outlook on Development, implement the basic state policy of conserving resources and build an
economical society, and is also a long-term strategic guideline and urgent task for national eco-
nomic and social development. Energy saving design of engineering projects is an important part of
strengthening energy saving work, which is of great significance to ra-tional use of energy, improv-
ing energy utilization efficiency, eliminating energy waste from the source, and promoting industrial
restructuring and industrial upgrading.

Technological and material innovation

As China is a country short of energy, it is especially important to save energy. “China Energy Con-
servation Technical Outline” puts forward the requirement that water pump equipment should give
full play to its energy-saving function. For this project, water pump load is the main electrical equip-
ment, so it is particularly important to save energy and reduce con-sumption. In water pump station
adopts frequency control of motor speed technology, can realize stepless speed regulation, meet
the requirements of water under various working conditions in the process of, and can be realized to
save energy and reduce consumption, reduce the number of open stop related equipment, prolong
the service life of equipment, operation scale and can deal with the engineering practice with the
design size of deviation, to coordinate all kinds of conditions, play an important role in regulating.

Measures to save energy in production process

(1) According to the current situation of water supply, rationally plan the water supply sys-tem, de-
termine the location of water plant and be close to its water supply range.
(2) water on the premise of meet the technological process, the function layout to clear, reasonable
arrangement of concentration and partition, good life, convenient production and reasonable use of
terrain conditions, at the same time try to consider the process is smooth, the pipeline system layout
is short, to avoid pipeline circuitous repeat, reduce fac-tory head loss, reduce the water pump room
of the pump head, save power.
(3) This project adopts the advanced processing technology of the same industry in China, with
high technology maturity, strong process adaptability, good matching with the pro-cessing scale,
and high energy efficiency. While ensuring continuous and stable production, it can ensure a low
comprehensive energy consumption level.
(4) The technological process of this project is simple and smooth, reducing turning and de-tour as
far as possible, reducing water lifting height and saving power consumption. In addi-tion, this proj-
ect has short technological process, compact, balanced and coordinated pro-cess, few structures,
short fluid transport distance, small head loss and high energy efficien-cy level of the system.
(5) In the design and selection of process equipment, necessary technical measures such as motor
frequency conversion and speed regulation technology should be adopted to reduce the energy con-
sumption of production equipment while meeting the requirements of mechanization, automation,
program control and intelligence.
(6) The configuration of production equipment is suitable for the processing scale, the matching
between the main machines and auxiliary machines is reasonable, and the degree of automation is
high. At the same time, energy-efficient mechanical and electrical equip-ment is selected to further
improve the operating efficiency of equipment and achieve the purpose of energy conservation and
consumption reduction.

Electrical energy saving measures

(1) Power system to minimize the circuit transmission current loss; The terminal transformer station
should be distributed reasonably according to the load and close to the load center to reduce the
line loss.
(2) Improve the power factor, compensate the power factor not less than 0.92, reduce the power loss.
(3) The substation of the water plant is located next to the water supply pump room and is close to

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the monomer with large load, which can effectively reduce transmission loss. The cable is conve-
nient in and out and can effectively reduce transmission loss.
(4) The distribution transformer selects the low-loss transformer and determines its capacity ac-
cording to the economic load rate, so as to achieve the relative unification of economy and energy
saving.
(5) The power supply and distribution system can not only achieve electricity saving of 5%-10%, but
also be safe and reliable, green and environmental protection by reducing line loss, improving power
factor, balancing three-phase load, suppressing harmonic and other tech-nical measures.
(6) In the distribution system, the reactive power compensation method, compensation point and
compensation capacity should be reasonably selected to effectively stabilize the voltage level of the
system and reduce the active power loss caused by reactive power transmission through the line.
(7) Strengthen the training of maintenance and operation personnel, strive to fully grasp the use and
operation performance of the equipment, and achieve the effect of energy saving by improving the
use efficiency of the equipment

Energy saving technical measures for heating

(1) The outdoor heating pipe network of the plant is directly buried with polyurethane insu-lation
pipes to reduce the heat loss of the pipe network, and the heat preservation efficiency of the pipe
network is more than 95%.
(2), choose a penetration alarm line of prefabricated polyurethane insulation pipe, once oc-curred
during penetration, through the conduction alarm line, can be displayed on the spe-cial detecting
instrument of thermal insulation pipe water seepage, leakage of precise loca-tion and size of the de-
gree of leakage, easy to maintenance personnel quickly deal with leakage section, ensure the safety
of the factory district heating operation, saving a large amount of hot water resources at the same
time, also save accident situation of heat loss.
(3) Ensure water balance in pipe network. The premise of implementing all kinds of energy sav-
ing technology means is to ensure the hydraulic working condition of pipe network. Good thermal
condition is guaranteed by good hydraulic condition, and hydraulic balance tech-nology is the first
step of energy saving. In order to ensure the stability of the pipe network pressure and the hydraulic
balance of the system, to ensure that each hot spot can get the designed water flow, it has the out-
standing advantages of no need for initial regulation, good hydraulic stability.

Energy saving of lighting system

(1) Choose high-quality and energy-saving electric light sources and try to use LED lights to improve
luminous efficiency.
(2), choose energy-saving lighting accessories, such as ballast, etc., in all kinds of gas dis-charge
light sources are required to have electrical accessories. For example, the inductance ballast of
the old T12 fluorescent lamp consumes 20% of its electric energy, while the ballast of 40W lamp
consumes about 8W; However, the energy-saving inductive ballast consumes less than 10% of the
electricity, while the more energy-saving electronic ballast only con-sumes 2 ~ 3% of the electricity,
which can effectively save energy.
(3) Choose lighting circuit reasonably and adopt three-phase five-wire power supply.
(4) In the lighting system design of this project, under the condition of meeting the standard illumi-
nation, three lighting modes of general lighting, local lighting and mixed lighting are appropriately
selected to meet the illumination and save energy at the same time.

Building energy efficiency

(1) Rationally plan the orientation and orientation of the heating buildings in the factory to ensure
sufficient sunshine in winter and avoid the dominant wind direction, so as to maxim-ize the natural
heat gain and reduce heat loss.
(2) The building of the project will create a comfortable indoor environment by means of construc-
tion technology to reduce energy consumption and emissions; Control its body shape coefficient,

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reduce the contact between the outer surface and outdoor air, reduce heat dissipation, reduce build-
ing heating energy consumption.
(3) External thermal insulation structure is adopted for building exterior walls. The hollow light-
weight aggregate concrete block and EPS insulation material with low heat transfer co-efficient, low
heat storage capacity and low strength are used to make the thermal perfor-mance of the outer wall
of the building meet the specified energy saving standards.
(4) The roof energy consumption accounts for a considerable proportion in the total energy con-
sumption of the envelope structure. Therefore, the roof of this project adopts efficient heat preser-
vation and heat insulation roof. According to the form of the roof, different insu-lation materials are
selected, and the heat transfer coefficient and thermal inertia index should meet the local standards.
(5) External doors and Windows are the most active and sensitive part of heat exchange and heat
conduction in buildings. Their insulation performance and air-tightness performance have a signif-
icant impact on heating energy consumption, which is 5-6 times of the heat loss of the wall. There-
fore, they are the key part of energy saving, as well as the important link to improve indoor thermal
environment quality and building energy conservation. In order to reduce the energy consumption of
external doors and Windows, this project adopts measures such as appropriate window-wall area
ratio and window-glass layer to improve the thermal insulation performance of doors and Windows
by improving the air tightness of doors and Windows according to the specific situation of the proj-
ect.

Energy saving in transportation system

In order to reasonably control the cost, the number of vehicles invested in the transport ca-pacity
should be rationally formulated according to the different trips, models and working conditions, in
line with the principle of maximizing benefits, and the single and total con-sumption of each trip,
model and vehicle should be stipulated. Regular, directional and quantitative consumption should
be adhered to.
At the same time, I carried out supervision, examination and analysis, actively coordinated with the
dispatching, and insisted on using energy-saving vehicles. Secondly, the vehicle mileage statistical
analysis, strive for accurate data, energy conservation management work into the network man-
agement, to achieve the timing, qualitative and quantitative analysis of fuel, effectively guide energy
conservation work, do everything possible to reduce transpor-tation costs.
The vehicle should be inspected regularly to ensure that the vehicle is in good condition and experi-
enced drivers are employed to reduce fuel consumption and save energy.

INTEGRATED ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF THE PROJECT

5 INTEGRATED ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF THE PROJECT
According to general Rules for Calculation of Comprehensive Energy Consumption (GB/T2589-
According to general
2008), the annual Rules forenergy
comprehensive Calculation of Comprehensive
consumption Energy Consumption
of the project is calculated and shown in the
(GB/T2589-2008),
following table. the annual comprehensive energy consumption of the project is
calculated and shown in the following table.

Major energy Annual demand for The calculation US- Discount coal quan-
The measuring unit
sources physical quantity ES the scaling factor tity (TCE)

equivalent val-
2695.443
ue0.1229kgce/kW·h

Electric power KW · h 2193.2

indifference val-
7040.172
ue0.3210kgce/kW·h

diesel t 15.64 1.4571kgce/kg 22.789

193
equivalent value 2718.232
total
indifference value 7062.961
 ue0.1229kgce/kW·h

Electric power KW · h 2193.2

PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020
indifference val-
7040.172
ue0.3210kgce/kW·h

diesel t 15.64 1.4571kgce/kg 22.789

equivalent value 2718.232

total
indifference value 7062.961

Comprehensive energy consumption list of the project

Comprehensive energy consumption list of the project

OUTLOOK ON KEY TECHNOLOGIES OF BUILDING ENERGY CONSERVATION IN CHINA IN
6THE FUTURE
Outlook on key technologies of Building energy conservation in China in the future

buildingenergy
building energy conservation
conservation can can bebe effectively
effectively promoted
promotedonly onlywhen
whenbuilding
buildingenergy
energycon-serva-
con-
servation is carried out jointly from two aspects, which mainly include reducing room com- and
tion is carried out jointly from two aspects, which mainly include reducing room com-patibility
improving
patibility andenergy utilization
improving energyefficiency. Reducing
utilization housing
efficiency. price compliance
Reducing housing price re-fers to reducing
compliance re- the
heat
fers toand cold load
reducing theof the and
heat room.coldDesigners are required
load of the to use the
room. Designers latest
are energy-saving
required to use thematerials
latest to
reduce the room
energy-saving compliance,
materials such as
to reduce thereducing the energy loss
room compliance, suchcaused by the heat
as reducing release loss
the energy of lights
and electrical equipment. Improving the efficiency of building energy consumption
caused by the heat release of lights and electrical equipment. Improving the efficiency of system mainly
refers toenergy
building the improvement
consumption of the efficiency
system mainly of refers
cold andto heat sources, transmission
the improvement and distribution
of the efficiency of
system
cold andand
heatterminal
sources, equipment.
transmissionIt is necessary to improve
and distribution the energy
system utilization
and terminal rate of this It
equipment. part
is and
reduce the waste of re-sources.
necessary to improve the energy utilization rate of this part and reduce the waste of re-
sources.

CONCLUSIONS
7 CONCLUSIONS
Japan’s Ministry of Land, Land and Transport will launch a new energy efficiency standard for build-
Japan's
ings, theMinistry of Land, Monday.
Nikkei reported Land andThe Transport will launch
new standards a new
require the energy efficiencyand
use of insulation standard
other ma-
for buildings,
terials the Nikkei
to control reported
the electricity Monday.
used The new standards
for air conditioning require
and lighting to athe use of
certain insulation
level. After 2020,
and other materials
applications to control
for buildings that the electricity
do not used efficiency
meet energy for air conditioning
standards and lighting
will not to a cer- This
be approved.
tain level. After 2020, applications for buildings that do not meet energy efficiency standards
is a contrast between the different attitudes of The two countries, Japan and China, towards rules.
will not be approved.
In building This is a contrast
energy conservation between
technology the different
research attitudes
at the same of The
time, the needtwo countries, the
to strength-en
Japan and China,
application towards
of building rules.saving technology, often installed in time, at the same time, the gov-
energy
ernment should increase the intensity of support, considering the development of energy-saving
In building energy conservation technology research at the same time, the need to strength-
technology, from several aspects to building energy conservation mecha-nism and energy saving
en the application of building energy saving technology, often installed in time, at the same
to strengthen and implement the standards, at the same time estab-lish a system of heating and
cooling metering charge, rely on laws and regulations for the development of energy saving tech-
nology for driving, in addition to establish rewards and punishment mechanism, high rewards for
energy-saving building design, improve the speed of building energy conservation transformation
and construction.

REFERENCES

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__ David Bryde.The project benefits of Building information Modelling(BIM) [J]. International Journal of
Project Management,2013:1-10
__ Roger Atkinson.Project management: cost, time and quality, two best guesses and a phenomenon,
its time to accept other success criteria[J].International Journal of Project Management,2015(6):214-236
__ Bonsang Koo,Martin Fischer.Feasibility Study of 4D CAD in Commercial Construction[J] .Journal of
Construction Engineering and Management ,2016(4):145-166
__ Chen Fang,Briggs Robert.Project progress tracking template-Using a repeatable GSS pro-cess to fa-

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cilitate project process management[J].Proceedings of the Annual Hawaii Inter-national　Conference On

System Sciences,2006,1:1-9
__ Li Juan Chen,Hanbin Luo.A BIM-based construction quality management model and itsapplications[J].
Automation in Construction ,2014(46):64-73
__ Chen Jun. Review of Strategies and Approaches of Teacher Education Reform in Remote and poor
Areas of Japan [J]. Teaching Research, 2008, 41(1) : 42-48.
__ Hokkaido Education Committee. Practical Cases of School-Family-District Joint Educational Support
Activities [EB/OL].[2018-06-
__ Journal article:
__ C.H. Hansen, O. Gudmundsson, N. Detlefsen, Journal of Cost efficiency of district heating for low energy
buildings of the future, Energy, Volume 177, 2019, 77-86.
__ Kyriaki Foteinaki, Rongling Li, Alfred Heller, Carsten Rode, Heating system energy flexibility of low-en-
ergy residential buildings, Journal of Energy and Buildings, Volume 180, 2018, 95-108.
__ Francesco Reda, Zarrin Fatima, Journal of Northern European nearly zero energy building concepts for
apartment buildings using integrated solar technologies and dynamic occupancy profile: Focus on Finland
and other Northern European countries, Applied Energy, Volume 237, 2019, 598-617.

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 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

RAISING CLIMATE RESILIENCE IN BUILDINGS ON THE

WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN COAST—MERGING PASSIVE AND
ACTIVE NATURAL VENTILATIVE COOLING TECHNIQUES
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch23

_ Nikola Pesic
PhD student, Barcelona School of Architecture (ETSAB); Avinguda
Diagonal, 649; 08028 Barcelona, Spain; nikola.pesic@upc.edu

_ Adrian Muros Alcojor

Professor, Barcelona School of Architecture (ETSAB), Technology department (TA);
Avinguda Diagonal, 649; 08028 Barcelona, Spain; adrian.muros@upc.edu

_ Jaime Roset Calzada

Professor, Barcelona School of Architecture (ETSAB), Physics department (FIS);
Avinguda Diagonal, 649; 08028 Barcelona, Spain; jaime.roset@upc.edu

ABSTRACT

This paper presents the considered capabilities to improve space cooling energy efficiency in the
Mediterranean climate ambience by merging and optimizing selected natural ventilative techniques.
The first part of this analysis defines a set of control strategies based on specific configurations of
cross ventilation and fan-assisted advanced natural ventilation. The objective is to take advantage
of principally lower nocturnal temperature ranges, due to being less affected by the current climate
change effects, and to reflect such a potential in the reduction of day-time cooling energy loads.
The second part of the study examines the integration of defined control strategies into a climate
responsive building form of a mid-rise office-type building positioned in three different geograph-
ical locations along the Catalonian coastline—the cities of Barcelona, Terrassa and Tarragona. In
order to provide a comparative overview of energy efficiency for each applied control strategy, the
building model is exposed parallel to present and future estimated climate change effects in the
building performance simulation environment while the general control and adjustments of estab-
lished indoor airflow patterns are done by computational fluid dynamics analyses. The generated
output demonstrates that under the present-day climate conditions the achieved reduction of cool-
ing energy demands is in the range between 53% and 65%. Looking further at the horizon of 2050, it
accounts between 58% and 62%, while in 2080 the overall cut in cooling energy demands is between
54% and 57%. The comparative overview indicates that despite the rise of day-time temperatures
due to climate change effects, the proposed bioclimatic responsive building form based on lower
nocturnal temperatures displays considered capabilities in cutting cooling energy demands in the
Mediterranean climate ambiance in mid- and long-term periods in the future.

KEYWORDS _ natural ventilation, passive and active space cooling,

system optimization, climate responsive building, the Mediterranean climate

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INTRODUCTION

At the level of Catalonia, current average yearly air temperature is +1.6 °C higher than the average
regional air temperature throughout 20th century, which can be observed as the average decennial
increase of +0.25 °C. In addition, 2018 was the seventh consecutive year with the highest air tem-
peratures from 1950, reflected as the rise of +0.83 °C. The same period of recordings (1950–2018)
indicates that the current rise of regional day-time air temperatures is higher than the rise of noc-
turnal temperature ranges, summarized as +0.31°C versus +0.19°C per decade—or the ratio 1.6 : 1.
This aspect forms the research hypothesis that regional nocturnal natural ventilation (NV) cooling
capacities in buildings will be more efficient in the future, proportionally to these ranges.

BUILDING MODEL DESIGN PROCEDURE

Control strategies setup

This study considers that advanced natural ventilation (ANV) centre-in, edge-out (C-E) form, defined
by Lomas (2007), is aimed for the day-time operation and that is fan-supported, that is to say, its
airflow is forced by the negative pressure difference effect produced by exhaust fans. On the other
side, the use of cross ventilation (CV) is aimed for the night-purge or the night flushing process of
building’s high-thermal mass.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

_ Figure 1: Schematic presentation of design concept of building model—merging natural ventilation (NV)
strategies: (a) advanced natural ventilation (ANV) principle, centre-in, edge-out (C-E) form; (b) cross-ven-
tilation (CV) principle; (c) combination of ANV and CV strategies with different operative times: 7–17 h
and (d) 21–7 h (source: by author, 2020).

Summarizing the chosen ventilative strategies for this analysis, fan-assisted ANV C-E system runs
during day-time 7–17h as the hybrid or mixed-mode approach, with the support of air-conditioning
(AC) equipment and is considered as a closed system, more resilient to climate effects—the airflow
pattern is based on the air-shaft-to-chimney direction (Figure 1a). On the other side, CV operates
as a nocturnal and completely passive cooling system 21–7h, considered as an open system with
window-to-window airflow direction—directly exposed to weather conditions (Figure 1b). These two
ventilative principles are merged into a single building model, regarded as a climate responsive
building form with applied multilevel NV cooling approach (Figures 1c,d).

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_ Table
Table 1: Space 1: Space
cooling cooling
control control
strategies strategies
(CS): (CS):
overview foroverview for a 24 period.
a 24 h operation h operation period.

[hour] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 [hour]
occup. occup.
CS-1 CS-1
CS-2 CS-2
CS-3 CS-3

occupancy AC (active) CV (passive) ANV (hybrid)

Table 2: Structure of presented section planes for Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) analyses.
For the
Office spacecomparative analysis of Office
achieved levels
space and of energy efficiency,
plenum Plenumthe same building form is pro-
grammed
floor plan with three different space cooling control strategies (CS-1,
cross-sections CS-2 and CS-3) (Table 1). The
floor plan
complete
1.a cooling system
ANV operation (Figure 7a) is programmed
2.a ANV operationas a 20 (Figure
h continuous
8a) ventilation
3.a ANV operationperiod, (Figure
21–17 10a)h (next
1.b CV operation (Figure 7b) 2.b CV operation (Figure 8b) 3.b CV operation (Figure 10b)
day), including Sunday night function 21–7
2.c ANV operation h. The occupancy
(Figure 9) schedule is defined 8–17 h, while all
mechanical ventilative systems operate 7–17h.
_ Control
Table 3: Building strategy
model exposed“1” to (CS-1)—AC
weather conditions(air-conditioning): fully equipped
in Barcelona, Terrassa AC system
and Tarragona; outputplanned
for 2009, for
2050 and reference
2080: HVACcooling
start-upenergy
time, loads,
chiller operates 7–17loads
sizing, cooling h, i.e.,
andstarting
thermalthe cooling
comfort process(source:
deviations one hour
output generated by Excel
before the software,established
occupancy image editedschedule
by author,8–17
2020).h;
_ Control strategy “2” (CS-2)—AC + CV (air-conditioning and cross ventilation): AC sys-
tem operates 7–17 h, while CV covers the night-time and the early morning period 21–7 h
(next day) and is aimed for the nocturnal and early morning flushing process of building’s
high-thermal mass;
_ Control strategy “3” (CS-3)—CV + ANV (cross ventilation and advanced natural ventilation):
7–17 h ANV and AC are programmed as a hybrid or mixed-mode ventilation type, with an
applied change-over function—both systems are operating in same space, different times.
On the other side, CV keeps running 21–7 h, as the night-time passive cooling operation.

Layout and orientation

The defined building model for DesignBuilder’s simulations represents an isolated typical floor of a
mid-rise office-type building.

Table 4: Air-conditioning system optimum start-up and chiller sizing, by each city and by year.

2009 2050 2080

Optimum start-up Optimum start-up Optimum start-up
Chiller sizing Chiller sizing Chiller sizing
[h] [h] [h]
Barcelona 07:00 1.0 05:00 1.2 04:00 1.5
Terrassa 07:00 1.0 05:00 1.6 02:30 1.7
Tarragona 07:00 1.1 04:30 1.7 02:00 1.7

(a) (b)

_ Figure 2: Model of a mid-rise office-type building—the design concept: (a) building cross-section; (b)
isolated typical floor with the ground floor plenum: floor plan (bellow), cross-sections (above) (source:
by author, 2020).

The rectangular building footprint represents a common office narrow-plan shape, 30.0 m × 15.0 m
(Figure 2). The floor design is considered as an open-plan or office landscape, that is to say, without
partitions.

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(a) (b)

_ Figure 3: Axonometric view of building model design based on natural ventilation (NV) airflow patterns:
(a) day-time fan-assisted advanced natural ventilation (ANV) operation 7–17 h; (b) night-time and early
morning cross ventilation (CV) operation 21–7 h.

A light-well or an air-shaft 4.0 m × 2.0 m is positioned in the centre with a primary function to deliver
vertically the fresh air from the ground floor plenum, as a part of an established ANV airflow pattern
(Figures 2 and 3a). The floor-to-ceiling height is h = 3.0 m.

(a) (b)

_ Figure 4: Considered wind aspects in building design: (a) wind wheel—average wind parameters in
Barcelona, for the selected period May–October, 21–7 h; data image generated by ClimateConsultant
software; (b) building model orientation perpendicular to dominant night-time north winds (source: by
author, 2020).

From weather data are filtered parameters for local winds for the specific period May–October, 21–7
h (Figure 4a). The building is oriented perpendicularly to dominant regional north winds in order to
fully exploit the potential of wind-generated CV for the night-time and early morning flushing pro-
cess of building’s high-thermal mass. The central light-well is oriented perpendicularly to the longer
east-west axis in order that a transversal direction of CV is less obstructed (Figures 3b and 4b). The
opposite north and south facades are with provided continuous ribbon or linear windows with the
aim to maximize the efficiency of CV. The building envelope is insulated according to Passivhaus
recommendations for the warm temperate climate zone: the maximum considered value for the heat
transfer coefficient (U) for the building envelope is 0.3 W/(m²K) and for the vertical glazing is 1.05 W/
(m²K). All building zones are with a constant 24 h infiltration rate of 0.3 ac/h. In order to minimize the

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solar radiation, window panes are additionally improved with an exterior layer of coated glass with
the high solar reflectance level. Along the south facade are applied exterior louvres, while in the inte-
rior are mounted high-reflective window blinds. For the building’s high-thermal mass is considered
concrete with volumetric mass density (ρ) = 2.000 kg/m³, as fully exposed material positioned in the
key-locations along the natural ventilative airflow lines: in the plenum (the ceiling and the ground
floor slab, the interior layer of façade walls) and in the office space (the ceiling slab).
Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) design
The heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) system is designed in DesignBuilder software
with activated functions: calculated natural ventilation and detailed HVAC.

_ Figure 5: Schematic presentation of DesignBuilder’s detailed HVAC developed system: advanced natu-
ral ventilation (ANV) airflow direction and interconnected building zones (source: by author, 2020).

The office zone is equipped with the fan coil unit (FCU) system supplied by air cooled chillers (Figure
5). The chillers’ coefficient of performance (CoP) is set at 3.5 and the mechanical ventilation delivers
constantly 7–17 h the minimum rate of fresh air at 10 l/person. AC cooling temperature is set at
+24.0 °C, while NV cooling temperature that controls ANV day-time operation and CV night purge
process is set at +20.5 °C. The control of minimum outside temperatures is set at +14.0 °C, below
which one all windows and vents are closed, as the prevention against an overcooling effect during
night CV operation. Each of four exhaust fans is defined with the flow rate of 0.3 m³/s, the power
supply of 45 W, the efficiency is 0.75 and the fan pressure is 125 Pa. The office zone equipment is
considered with a high-level of energy efficiency—heat gains are set at 10 W/m².
Table 1: Space cooling control strategies (CS): overview for a 24 h operation period.
[hour] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
[hour] 19 20 21 22 23 24
occup.
COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS (CFD) ANALYSES—BARCELONA, PRESENT-TIME occup.
CS-1 CS-1
CS-2 CS-2
CFD
CS-3analyses visualise the airflow patterns generated by natural ventilative means and are present-
CS-3
ed through selected section planes (Table 2 and Figure 6).
occupancy AC (active) CV (passive) ANV (hybrid)

_ Table 2: Structure of presented section planes for Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) analyses.
Table 2: Structure of presented section planes for Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) analyses.
Office space Office space and plenum Plenum
floor plan cross-sections floor plan
1.a ANV operation (Figure 7a) 2.a ANV operation (Figure 8a) 3.a ANV operation (Figure 10a)
1.b CV operation (Figure 7b) 2.b CV operation (Figure 8b) 3.b CV operation (Figure 10b)
2.c ANV operation (Figure 9)

Table 3: Building model exposed to weather conditions in Barcelona, Terrassa and Tarragona; output for 2009,
2050 and 2080: HVAC start-up time, chiller sizing, cooling loads and thermal comfort deviations (source:
output generated by Excel software, image edited by author, 2020).

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_ Figure 6: Schematic presentation of building model with marked plans and cross-sections for visualisa-
tion of computational fluid dynamics (CDF) analyses (source: by author, 2020).

_ Figure 7a (left): Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analyses of applied natural ventilative space cool-
ing techniques in summer period; axonometric view: advanced natural ventilation (ANV) operation, 12th
June at 14 h (image dataset generated by DesignBuilder software)
_ Figure 7b (right): Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analyses of applied natural ventilative space
cooling techniques in summer period; axonometric view: cross ventilation (CV) operation, 8th July at 5 h
(image dataset generated by DesignBuilder software).

_ Figure 8a (left): Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analyses of applied natural ventilative space cool-
ing techniques in summer period; cross-section: advanced natural ventilation (ANV) operation, 12th June
at 14 h (image dataset generated by DesignBuilder software).
_ Figure 8b (right): Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analyses of applied natural ventilative space
cooling techniques in summer period; cross-section: cross ventilation (CV) operation, 8th July at 5 h
(image dataset generated by DesignBuilder software).

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_ Figure 9: Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis of applied natural ventilative space cooling tech-
nique; longitudinal cross-section; advanced natural ventilation (ANV) operation, summer period; 12th
June at 15 h (source: image dataset generated by DesignBuilder software).

(a) (b)

_ Figure 10: Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analyses of applied natural ventilative space cooling
techniques in summer period; plenum floor plan: (a) advanced natural ventilation (ANV) operation, 12th
June at 14 h; (b) cross ventilation (CV) operation, 8th July at 5 h (image dataset generated by Design-
Builder software).

INITIAL RUNNING OF REFERENCE AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEM

In the first step, the building model with sized initial AC equipment for the present-day weather con-
ditions is exposed parallel to projected climate change scenarios for 2050 and 2080. The Climate
Change World Weather File Generator (CCWorldWeatherGen) software is aimed for output of weather
data that are modified according to the applied scenarios for CC effects for a specific geographical
location. CCWorldWeatherGen is developed on a platform of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) Third Assessment Report model summary data of the HadCM3 A2 experiment en-
semble which is available from the IPCC Data Distribution Centre (IPCC DDC). Its main function is
that uses present-day EPW weather data files in order to modify reference parameters according to
applied scenario of climate change effects, in this case, for the horizons of 2050 and 2080.

_ Table 3: Building model exposed to weather conditions in Barcelona, Terrassa and Tarragona; output
for 2009, 2050 and 2080: HVAC start-up time, chiller sizing, cooling loads and thermal comfort deviations
(source: output generated by Excel software, image edited by author, 2020).

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_ Figure 11: Graphical representation of data as temperature and heat balance overview; Barcelona, 2050;
overheating effect, control strategy CS-1, office space: air-condition (AC) operation 7–17 h, May–October
(source: image dataset generated by DesignBuilder software, post-processed image by author 2020).

All building models show the high level of space overheating effects in 2050 and 2080, which is
reflected in high interior air temperatures (Table 3, columns B, C, E–I). These determined effects
indicate a general inefficiency of present-day sized AC equipment for this region regarding future
climate condition. As an example of this effect, the AC operation in 2050 for the building model
positioned in Barcelona is presented in Figure 11. The indoor overheating level is consequently re-
flected in the high degree of deviations considering the adaptive model of 80% acceptability limits
(ASHRAE Standard 55-2017) applied in this case with the purpose only as references scale for an
overheating effect.

OPTIMIZATION OF REFERENCE AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEM

Regarding DesignBuilder’s modelling environment, using the basic sizing of HVAC equipment and
preliminary level of evaluations for the purpose of this research, the HVAC system is not structurally
changed to meet the climate conditions in the future, in 2050 and 2080, but it is rather optimized in
following aspects:
_ Chiller sizing factor: a series of experiments displayed that sizing HVAC equipment more
than +80% prove to be energy inefficient, that is to say although the sizing of capacity is
raised, however, the construction and the interior of building was still overheated regarding
the start-up time of AC at 07:00 h and it function up to occupancy schedule start at 08:00
h, that is to say, 1 h is insufficient time to cool down the building structure and interior ele-
ments under future climate conditions.
_ Additional time for HVAC start-up: Optimum start control in modern HVAC design is prin-
cipally based on an algorithm that is developed to start heating or cooling operations at the
latest possible time the purpose of establishing the indoor zone to desired occupied tem-
perature levels immediately before scheduled occupancy. It was taken into consideration
that adding maximum 5 h prove to be an optimum for this climate conditions and according
to previously additionally sized chillers.

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Summarizing these two aspects the optimization of existing building model HVAC equipment is
guided in two directions: sizing chillers up to 1.8 capacity (+80%) while adding the maximum of 5
additional hours for the start-up of AC, regarding the effect of the overheated space, that is to say,
from current 07:00 h to 02:00 h, as a maximum considered time.
This design approach is defined in the following procedures: for the present-time weather data time
schedule is the same for all AC operations 7:00–17:00 h; for 2050 the considered time of AC cooling
schedule is 5:00–17:00 h or 4:30–17:00h and for the year 2080, as the climate conditions are with
the highest considered temperature ranges in this research, the start time, depending on the geo-
graphical location, is in range of 2 to 4 h, that is to say, AC operates 2:00–17:00 h, 2:30–17:00 h and
4:00–17:00 h, in Tarragona, Terrassa and Barcelona, respectively (Table 4).

_ Table 4: Air-conditioning system optimum start-up and chiller sizing, by each city and by year.
Table 4: Air-conditioning system optimum start-up and chiller sizing, by each city and by year.

2009 2050 2080
Optimum start-up Optimum start-up Optimum start-up
Chiller sizing Chiller sizing Chiller sizing
[h] [h] [h]
Barcelona 07:00 1.0 05:00 1.2 04:00 1.5
Terrassa 07:00 1.0 05:00 1.6 02:30 1.7
Tarragona 07:00 1.1 04:30 1.7 02:00 1.7

The building model located in Barcelona in 2050 is displayed as an example of optimization pro-
cess—a comparative overview is displayed with marked differences between initial and optimized
performance of HVAC system (Figure 12).

_ Figure 12: Graphical representation of data as temperature and heat balance overview; Barcelona, 2050,
optimization; control strategy CS-1, office space: air-condition (AC) operation 7–17 h, May–October
(source: image dataset generated by DesignBuilder software, post-processed image by author 2020).

_ Figure 13: Graphical representation of data for optimization of AC systems: additional operational hours
and/or additional sizing of equipment (source: output generated by Excel software, by author, 2020).

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The initial series of optimized BPS can be graphically outlined in the Figure 13, as the correlation
between cities, years, total cooling energy demands, chiller sizing factor and optimum start-up, that
is to say, the additional time for AC operation in order to cool down the building structure.

FINAL BUILDING PERFORMANCE SIMULATION AND COMPARISON

The overall output of BPS is displayed as comparative charts (Table 5 and Figure 15). The perfor-
mance of building model located in Barcelona in 2050 is displayed bellow as an example from a
series of nine performed analyses (Figure 14):

_ Figure 14: Graphical representation of data as temperature and heat balance overview; Barcelona, 2050;
control strategy CS-3, office space: air-condition (AC) operation 7–17 h and advanced natural ventilation
(ANV) 7–17 h, cross ventilation (CV) 21–7 h, May–October (source: image dataset generated by Design-
Builder).

_ Table 5: Overview of output from building performance simulations (BPS) for cities of Barcelona, Ter-
rassa and Tarragona, for 2009, 2050 and 2080: HVAC start time, chiller sizing coefficient, indoor tempera-
tures, adaptive thermal comfort deviations, cooling loads and energy efficiency (source: output generated
by Excel software, edited by author, 2020).

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_ Figure 15: Graphical representation of data—comparative overview of total energy efficiency [%] of ad-
vanced natural ventilation (ANV) system in Barcelona, Terrassa and Tarragona, for 2009, 2050 and 2080
(source: output generated by Excel software, edited by author, 2020).

The applied exhaust fans have variable activation periods during the ANV airflow support operation.
It is assumed that the total energy consumption of four installed exhaust fans during 6 months of
cooling period, May–October, is 125 kWh or 305 Wh/m². However, this parameter in praxis largely
depends on a type of installed fans, specific position in the building and variable outdoor conditions
impacting the steady airflow of stack-driven ANV—in that way continuously activating and deacti-
vating the fan-support system.

CONCLUSIONS

The conducted experimental building performance simulations, with three different space cooling
control strategies, display that by interrelating cross-ventilation and advanced natural ventilation is
possible to reduce cooling energy demands under present-time weather conditions between 53.1%
and 65.3%, in 2050 between 58.9% and 62.6%, while in 2080 the overall cut in cooling energy de-
mands is estimated to be in the range of 54.5% and 57.2%. The defined climate responsive building
model demonstrates that cross ventilation is functional for the night flushing process of building’s
high-thermal mass as a complete passive cooling method that relies on a configuration of local
variable wind velocities and a lower range of outside nocturnal and early morning temperatures,
when the office zone is unoccupied. On the other side, advanced natural ventilation as a more com-
plex hybrid system can be applied as the diurnal cooling approach with a more resilient level of both

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ventilation and cooling operations, regarded through a more stable airflow patterns, maintaining in
that manner a controllable level of thermal comfort during an occupancy schedule. However, as it
is a fan-supported system, around 1/4 of its energy efficiency is reduced regarding the power con-
sumption of dedicated exhaust fans.
The applied adaptive model of thermal comfort for 80% occupant acceptability establishes the limits
for nocturnal cross ventilation application in case when interior thermal mass could be overcooled,
which afterwards, by a radiation effect could reduce interior air temperatures during critical morning
hours in these terms, 8–9 h. However these sorts of thermal comfort anomalies could be corrected
with a more detailed programing and optimization of cooling operations, or simply by activating
heating system in early April and late October, which would be reflected in additional building energy
consumption.
Performed analyses demonstrate the compatibility of both applied techniques covering in contin-
uous cycles and without operational collisions the same space but in different parts of the day—
viewed as the diurnal and nocturnal NV type, also considered as the open and closed ventilative
concept, and as well as the passive and hybrid system approach.
 

REFERENCES

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__ DesignBuilder Software Ltd. DesignBuilder [Internet]. Stroud, Gloucs, UK: DesignBuilder Software Ltd;
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__ Lomas KJ. Architectural design of an advanced naturally ventilated building form. Energy Build. 2007;
__ Milne M, Benson A, Bhattacharya Y. Climate Consultant [Internet]. UCLA. Los Angeles, USA: UCLA;
2019. Available from: http://www.energy-design-tools.aud.ucla.edu/climate-consultant/request-cli-
mate-consultant.php
__ Passive House Institute. Criteria for the Passive House, EnerPHit and PHI Low Energy Building Stan-
dard. Passiv House Inst. 2016;
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__ Pesic N, Calzada JR, Alcojor AM. Assessment of advanced natural ventilation space cooling potential
across Southern European coastal region. Sustain. 2018;10(9).
__ Pesic N, Calzada JR, Alcojor AM. Natural ventilation potential of the Mediterranean coastal region of
Catalonia. Energy Build. 2018;169.
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degree-days in Europe from 1981 to 2100. Int J Climatol. 2018;

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DIGITAL PLANNING, CONSTRUCTION SUBMISSION

AND APPROVAL PROCESSES IN AUSTRIA
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch24

_ Kurt Battisti
A-NULL Development GmbH

_ Markus Dörn
A-NULL Development GmbH

_ Christoph Eichler
tbw solutions ZT GesmbH & Flughafen Wien AG

_ Jacqueline Scherret
A-NULL Development GmbH

_ Torsten Ullrich
Fraunhofer Austria Research GmbH & Graz
University of Technology, torsten.ullrich@fraunhofer.at

ABSTRACT

In Austria, standard A6241-2 created the normative basis for the exchange of model-based data
in building construction and civil engineering in 2015. This technology – known internationally as
Building Information Modelling (BIM) – is an essential building block for the digitization of the con-
struction industry and has an impact on all those involved in the initiation, planning, construction
and operation of buildings. This article describes the state-of-the-art in official approval processes
in Austria. It examines the digital process path, i.e. the provision of cadastral data, the usability of
provided GIS data, the existence of automated preliminary inspection, and accelerated processing
by means of e-government. Representative examples are used to illustrate the current state of offi-
cial approval processes in Austria.

The focus here is on the possibility of condensing the various public and semi-public basic planning
data (location and environment) to prepare a consolidated requirements model, which can be used
in BIM planning in the design and approval phase. It is shown where there are supplementary and
overlapping data to identify conflict situations. In the future, a building applicant will be given the
opportunity to complete the process online. This creates a clear time saving in relation to the pro-
cessing time. This in turn accelerates the processing of projects and makes it easier for all parties
involved.

KEYWORDS _ approval processes, digital planning, e-government,

building information modeling (BIM), geographic information system (GIS)

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INTRODUCTION

In the current international as well as national development of BIM technology, there has been a
significant change from so-called closedBIM to openBIM in the last few years. While closedBIM
only allows data exchange between software products of one manufacturer or a selected product
range, openBIM offers the potential to exchange data between software products of many different
manufacturers due to a freely available, open, fully documented interface. The interface is subject to
strict specifications – defined in Austria by ON A6241-2 – and thus guarantees (at least in theory)
loss-free data exchange between all parties involved in the construction industry.
This development is particularly important for the development of BIM with regard to the legal
framework conditions, with its requirements and warranty specifications under public procurement
law, which do not allow a restriction of the possible software products in the planning and establish-
ment of the planning team or the execution. openBIM guarantees above all small and medium-sized
enterprises (SMEs) their access to all projects which would have been accessible only to large struc-
tures under closedBIM, and also allows the uncomplicated combination of several SMEs to form
joint ventures for large projects. In general, the SME sector offers a more diverse range of software,
which makes the use of a uniform data interface indispensable.

TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

According to Laakso and Kiviniemi (2012) advances in data exchange from the early days of Cpm-
puter-Aided Design (CAD) can be divided into three distinct generations of data exchange methods:
During the first generation of exchange methods (1950—1970), closed and proprietary solutions
were used exclusively, due to the limited needs; computers were mainly used to perform specific
calculation tasks.
The second generation of exchange standards emerged in the late 1970s and endured to the mid
1980s. In this time open formats for the representation of basic geometry began to emerge, of which
perhaps the most notable is IGES (Initial Graphics Exchange Specification), a neutral exchange stan-
dard for CAD models. Open exchange standards were a new concept at the time and were initially
considered a threatening proposition for CAD vendors.
The third generation of exchange formats started in 1984 when the TC184/SC4 subcommittee of
ISO declared that none of the existing formats could on their own be extended to serve the needs
of an open computer modeling standard for multiple industrial and manufacturing industries. That
point marks the beginning of the development of STEP. In December 1994, the initial release of STEP
became an international standard: ISO10303:1994, Industrial Automation Systems and Integration
– Product data representation and exchange.
Using existing parts from the ISO STEP standard, most notably incorporating concepts from the
Building Construction Core Model (BCCM) and the definitions for geometric representation, techni-
cal development did not begin from scratch: about half of the objects and types present in the first
IFC releases were adopted from the integrated resources of STEP.
Nevertheless, the task of composing a complete data model is no small task. IFC was always in-
tended to be a high-level data model, like STEP, which exists above software implementations to
remain truly neutral and future-proof. It provides a standardized data structure for the storage of
building information, but does not itself enforce, or even enable, any specific way of implementing
it into software.
With development formally launched in September 1995, IFC 1.0 was published in January 1997.
The release, having a very limited scope, focused primarily on the architectural part of the build-
ing model, incorporating five processes for architecture, two for HVAC design, two for construction
management, and one for facilities management. The scope of IFC 2.0 was primarily to incorporate
schemas for building services, cost estimation, and construction planning; the final release was
delivered in April 1999. Afterwards, the standardization focus shifted from to enable software in-

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teroperability in the AEC/FM industry to Improving communication, productivity, delivery time, cost,
and quality throughout the whole building life cycle. Consequently, the following versions introduced
among others the IFC Model View Definition Format (MVD) and the concept of the useful minimum:
“The minimum scope for data exchange, which makes IFC based exchange a better solution than
any other available format.” As illustrated in Figure 1, the current version is IFC 4. More details on
the history of IFC can be found in the article “The IFC Standard – A Review of History, Development,
and Standardization” by Mikael Laakso and Arto Kiviniemi (2012).

_ Figure 1: The IFC timeline. (image source: “The IFC Standard – A Review of History, Development, and
Standardization” by Laakso and Kiviniemi, 2012)

POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT

Because of its focus on ease of interoperability between software platforms, On January 17th 2008,
AEC/FM sector government client organizations from the US, Denmark, Finland, Norway, and the
Netherlands issued a commonly signed “Statement of Intention to Support Building Information
Modeling with Open Standards” on January 17th 2008 making the commitment to facilitate the use
of the IFC standard very explicit.
This starting signal was used to address the problems caused by legal, social and technical barriers.
Due to the different legal frameworks in different countries, the comparison at international level is
relatively difficult. Paulsson and Paasch (2013) have published a comparison on “3D property re-
search from a legal perspective” for the English-speaking world. With digitization, the processes that
have arisen due to the requirements of analog conditions are usually also adapted (Ponnewitz, 2017;
Choi and Kim, 2017). In addition to the “classic” advantages of a 3D cadastre, which result from au-
tomation, new business areas are also opening up, which drive the digital transformation (Isikdag et
al., 2014; Köhler and Schnitzer, 2014). These digital transformations involve the interaction of many
institutions and bodies and are not always supported by all of them. In the state-of-the-art article
“Legal barriers to 3D cadaster implementation: What is the issue?” the authors (Ho et al., 2013)
phrase it as follows:
“In conclusion, it is highly likely that the main barrier to cadastral innovation lies not in technolog-
ical or legal issues, but more fundamental social and cultural issues that make up the institutional
framework underpinning cadastral systems and its inherent processes.”

 
SITUATION IN EUROPE AND WORLD-WIDE

From a technological point of view, merging Building Information Modeling (BIM) and Geographic In-
formation System (GIS) data bases and consolidating data is often the first step. Since BIM and GIS
were originally developed for different purposes, numerous challenges are being encountered for
the integration. (Liu et al., 2017) present a state-of-the-art overview on the technological challenges
enriched by a wide range of applications via integration of BIM and GIS and its potential. The main
problems are usually semantic differences and the inability to represent the facts of one system in
the other system (El-Mekawy and Östman, 2012). It is important that the mapping is unambigu-
ous. The possibility of being able to map something somehow does more harm than good in data
exchange if the data recipient has too much room for interpretation. In this context, the following
problems are noteworthy:
There is currently no capacity in BIM for recording and representing information about ownership

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and boundaries of properties, which is core land administration information (Atazadeh et al., 2017).
The extension of the IFC concepts of virtual spaces and zones could be a future way for virtual ca-
dastral legal spaces to be defined within BIMs (Boyes et al., 2015; Oldfield et al., 2016).
Differences in geometry representations in GIS and BIM include the use of a global coordinate ref-
erence system (Onstein and Tognoni, 2017). One main principle in all GIS data, is refer to the earth.
Horizontal and vertical positions need separate global coordinate reference systems (CRS), with
different mappings from CRS-distances to real-world distances. Due to the earths shape and the
wish to have homogeneous CRSs over as wide area as possible, all horizontal global CRSs imply a
distortion. This distortion must be taken into account when calculating real world distances and
directions from representations. In BIM data it is essential to have positions that give real world
distances in all three dimensions direct from Euclidean coordinate calculations. IFC4 still misses the
complete support of horizontal and vertical CRS.
Another difference between GIS and BIM is the access to data: Data is accessed with different ob-
jectives and subsequent requirements. (Atazadeh et al., 2019) conclude in their article on “Querying
3D Cadastral Information from BIM Models”:
“The rich data environment of BIM could capture complex relationships between legal
boundaries, ownership arrangements and their counterpart physical elements. However,
effective management of 3D cadastral information in a BIM environment is predicated on
good data query mechanisms to deliver untapped knowledge about ownership arrange-
ments and legal boundaries in spatially complex situations.”
Furthermore, due to the longer periods of cadastral systems in comparison to BIM life cycles, earth
changes, from plate tectonics, erosion, human intervention, etc. have to be taken into account
(Navratil and Unger, 2013).
Due to the diverse challenges that can be addressed in different ways, the picture of the digital
transformation varies from country to country. Most countries adopt a bottom-up strategy that
starts in individual model regions or with individual use-cases:
Australia Several case studies in Australia are currently being carried out to identify the key issues of
future requirements (Atazadeh et al., 2017; Atazadeh et al., 2019; Kitsakis et al., 2019).
China In China too, the requirements for a future BIM/GIS system are collected in “bottom-up”
use-cases (Kaiwen and Minhua, 2009; Guo et al., 2011; Guo et al., 2013).
Egypt The building and construction industry in Egypt is mainly paper-based. First tests evaluate
the legislative environment to introduce BIM-based code checking using bounding volumes (Nour,
2016).
Malaysia A research project in Malaysia takes up the special challenge of island groups and devel-
ops a GIS system for marine parcels (Abdul Rahman et al., 2012).
Singapore Singapore has always been a pioneer in the areas of BIM and e-government since 1995
(see www.corenet.gov.sg; Kaneta et al., 2016).
In Europe, a role comparable to Singapore is that of Norway (Onstein and Tognoni, 2017).
Norway Singapore and Norway rely on incentives and goodwill (Hjelseth, 2015):
“[…] has identified that it is the balance between the three perspectives; Integrated process,
Collaborating people and Interoperable technology, which have contributed to the success
of these two solutions. Lessons learned are that increased understanding of the balance
between these perspectives is the much more important criteria for success, than initiatives
to copy the “best” solution, or component for another country.”
In technological terms, many contributions come from the Netherlands (Stoter et al, 2012; Van Berlo
et al., 2013; Stoter et al., 2013) and Sweden (El-Mekawy et al., 2014). Other European projects are
ongoing amongst others in:
France (Pouliot et al., 2013), Germany (Gruber et al., 2014),
Poland (Siejka et al., 2014), Slovenia (Drobež et al., 2017)
Spain (Valls Dalmau et al., 2014).
In addition to these national initiatives, the Czech government initiative is noteworthy in terms of
legal certainty, accessibility and accuracy (Janecka and Soucek, 2017):

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“[…] the Strategy for the Development of the Infrastructure for Spatial Information in the
Czech Republic to 2020 was recently approved. This represents a government initiative that
emphasizes the creation of a National Set of Spatial Objects, which is defined as the source
of both guaranteed and reference 3D geographic data at the highest possible level of detail
for selected objects covering the entire territory of the Czech Republic.”

SITUATION IN AUSTRIA

Digitisation of the cadastral data is an essential prerequisite for being able to carry out approval
processes completely digitally on the basis of BIM. The digital transformation of cadastral data
currently includes the scanning of analogue paper plans and their conversion into PDF – a process
which is expected to continue until 2024 (Hoffmann et al., 2017).
Parallel to this development, GIS systems are being set up at the federal level:
Burgenland https://gis.bgld.gv.at Carinthia https://kagis.ktn.gv.at
Lower Austria https://atlas.noe.gv.at Salzburg https://www.salzburg.gv.at
Styria https://gis.stmk.gv.at Tirol https://www.tirol.gv.at
Upper Austria https://www.doris.at Vienna https://www.wien.gv.at
Vorarlberg http://vogis.cnv.at
The pioneer of digitization in Austria has been Vienna. Numerous geodata are already available in
Vienna. Therefore, the implementation of a 3D cadaster in connection with the GIS system would
be a possibility to link all geodata. The existing data base in Vienna comprehends (without legal
warranties):
- about 200.000 buildings with more than 650.000 structures;
- roof models especially for shadow simulation and visibility analysis;
- area-multipurpose-cards and multipurpose-cards;
- terrain model to digital represent the height of Vienna;
- a surface modell of airborne laser scans including orthophotos.
But the other federal states are also continuing to digitize. The cadastral plans can already be viewed
online in each of the nine federal states and they can at least be downloaded as PDF.

DIGITAL BUILDING SUBMISSION FOR THE CITY OF VIENNA

The City of Vienna hosts a virtual municipal office on its website: www.wien.gv.at. Among other
things, a digital building submission is offered there. The focus is on the systematic processing of
legal obligations. In a guided process, the various data and documents necessary for the implemen-
tation of the procedure are collected. This service provides a clear overview of the different official
requirements for specific projects.
The file formats PDF, JPEG or PNG are available/supported for the following topics
- General plans (overviews) - Structural analysis with expertise
- Consent of the landowners - Site plans
- Floor plans - Views
- Sections
Other documents may also be sent, as required. Additional documents are:
- Proof of the building site - Neighbors’ agreement
- Various authorizations - Fire protection concept
- Necessary confirmations from civil engineers
- Descriptions of the technical installations
- Confirmations of accompanying requirements (energy efficiency, etc.)
Due to the current legal requirements, it is still necessary to transmit the data in a paper-based
drawings and written form. Overall, this is an important first step in digitization. Through the in-

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teraction of the digital procedure with other administrative databases (address register, company
register, ...), errors in assembling a closed data set for the building application can be minimized. The
City of Vienna has taken an important first step with the online submission of building applications.
In 2020, the research projects “BRISE - Building Regulations Information for Submission Envolve-
ment” and “AMAzE – Automatische Einteichung” were launched. A broad project consortium with
participants from science and research, as well as users from the construction industry, will increase
efficiency of the processes in the near future.

CONCLUSION

The literature research indicates that the holistic view on 3D data faces major hurdles due to the
different, historical developments of geographic data and building models. In personal conversa-
tions with Austrian stakeholders, we received confirmations that the technical challenge is not the
biggest problem, but rather the mixed situation of different involved institutions, with different legal
frameworks and political interests at municipal, state or national level. As a consequence, future
research projects should not focus on technical problems, but rather address new, political ways to
achieve a cooperation of all stakeholders towards a consistent, publicly available, geographic and
building information system.

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INTEGRATION OF ARCHITECTURAL AND

STRUCTURAL ASPECTS THROUGH THE DESIGN
PROCESS: INDIVIDUAL RESIDENTIAL BUILDING
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch25

_ Dimitar Papasterevski
PhD, Assistant Professor, Faculty of Architecture, Ss Cyril
and Methodius University, bul. Partizanski odredi 24, Skopje,
R. of Macedonia, papasterevski.dimitar@arh.ukim.edu.mk

_ Toni Arangjelovski
PhD, Associated Professor, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Ss Cyril
and Methodius University, bul. Partizanski odredi 24, Skopje,
R. of Macedonia, arangelovskitoni@gf.ukim.edu.mk

ABSTRACT

Louis Sullivan’s aesthetic credo “form follows function”, has become fundamental to the modernist
architectural movement. From today’s point of view, the relations between form and function have
changed so that sometimes structure can follow form, which at the same time implies the estab-
lished of a new fundamental principle that would sound like “structure ever follows form”.

The paper tends to develop a framework for integrating architectural and structural design in or-
der to achieve a harmonious coexistence between architectural technology and arts. Traditionally,
through the process of developing the architectural idea in the preliminary design phase, architects
are more concerned with form, composition, function and aesthetics; however, the structural prop-
erties of the distribution of the load-bearing elements are not taken into consideration at this stage.
Our collaborative experience as an architect and civil engineer suggests a new approach to devel-
oping architectural projects by integrating the structural layout of elements at the earliest stage in
conceptual design development.

Through an example of our author project of a realised individual residential building, we will illus-
trate the exploration of these aspects. The load-bearing structure is a reinforced concrete skeletal
system that defines space that we can call “generic space”. The frame itself is specific and has qual-
ities that determine the architecture for a long time. Finally, we proposed a framework for achiev-
ing a successful integration to evolve an architecturally pleasing and structurally efficient building.
Architecture, as a successful creative product, can only be delivered within this process developed
through the balance and harmony of all elements and actors as a whole.

KEYWORDS _ Integration, frame, structural, generic space

INTRODUCTION

In the work of real architecture, the idea that architecture and structure should create a homoge-
neous unit is the crucial research in this paper, where the aesthetic is often an outcome in the pro-
cess of integration of function, structure and other architectural aspects (scale, volume, space, de-
tail, etc.). The harmonious coexistence between technology and art can be achieved if the structural

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system is not an obstacle to perceive the work and the architectonic shape create a logical structur-
al solution. The paper opens the question of the different forms of relationship between architects
and structural engineers through historical periods, which as such re-emerges even today. Unfor-
tunately, the evolution of master-builder in the modern sense of the word split that overall creative
responsibility to different specialists, namely, the architect, to see to the planning and aesthetics and
the engineers to see to the strength, stiffness and functioning of the building. This unnatural sep-
aration of roles is responsible for any discrepancies between the form and aesthetics on one hand
and the function and technology on the other, which can be explained through various architectural
theories. The choice of the optimal structure for the building is the essential mind creation of the
structural engineer for a given architectural form of a building, considering contemporary principles
through the process of the integrated structural design.
The concept of integration of structural function with the architectural form, with all portions mu-
tually interacting to achieve the full expression of architectural elements, will be considered on the
example of an author’s architectural project for an individual residential building. Orthogonal rein-
forced concrete simple flat slab structural system integrates well within the prismatic architectural
form, which defines space that we can call “generic space”. The frame itself is specific and has
qualities that determine the house for a long time, the concept of dwellings that would enable the
modification of the interior space for the functional requirements of the next generations, without
disturbing the aesthetic value and quality of the architectural form. Our collaborative experience
as an architect and civil engineer suggests a new approach to developing architectural projects by
integrating the structural layout of elements at the earliest stage in conceptual design development.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ARCHITECTS AND STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS

The question of form and structure is an essential part of architectural history. From the “tectonic
unity” of the physical environment in the given local socio-economic contexts to the growing differ-
entiation and specialization of the modern age, we see a dramatic change both in the generating of
architecture and in the role of participants and actors in architectural production (Frampton, 1995;
Rapoport, 1969).
Amos Rapoport in his anthological work “House Form and Culture” singles out the sequences of
the way the constructed form is produced in the pre-modern and modern age (Rapoport, 1969):
in “primitive” communities when knowledge is diffused to all and everyone is responsible for the
built form which consists of several construction types; in vernacular communities, the experience
is detailed into certain groups but in the context of shared values and accepted hierarchical order
in a more significant but still a limited number of constructed types; the modern age is marked by
growing complexity and differentiation, the built environment consists of original creations that are
shaped and constructed by an increasingly branched team of specialists.
In the pre-industrial age, the architecture was created by satisfying the structural requirements of
the building, and the relationship between the architect and the engineer was very close, it was
practically the same individual, the master-builder, with their aesthetic creativity on the one hand
and their technical and management excellence on the other. The traditional role of master-builder
began to change with the increased sophistication of technologies in the nineteenth century, espe-
cially in its second half, from the discovery of reinforced concrete was a “new” structural material,
capable of producing durable and fire-resistant skeletal frames, and thus buildings with a “free plan”
interior without structural walls. This required specialisation and those who specialised in these ar-
eas of technology were to become the Civil Engineers, later to be even more specialised as Structural
Engineers. The buildings, on the other hand, required better and more sophisticated control of the
internal environment, services and facilities. From that moment, the relationship between architects
and engineers will range from confrontation during the nineteenth century to closer collaboration
in the mid-twentieth century and today. In early modernism, architecture became more dependent
on the new structural technologies of the twentieth century, as well as on the skills and expertise of

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engineers. The master-builder, as a single person, could no longer master all these specialised fields
of technology. So he was gradually forced to take a new role and a new name - the contemporary
“architect” who takes the lead in coordinating all aspects of planning and technology while being
primarily responsible for the aesthetic quality of a building project. Architects who supported early
modernism were interested in the tectonics of architectural buildings, which meant the inevitable
close collaboration with engineers, often treating their contribution to the design process as less
crucial. Collaboration between architects and engineers are closer, although, moreover, architects
remain to be regarded as masters in the design process, treating the remaining designers involved
as mere technicians. The emergence of individual engineers in whose works can recognise high
architectural qualities is also a feature of this period as a new concept of engineer/architect. The
complexity of architectural projects nowadays has led to certain groups of engineers and architects
establishing a completely different way of working, working in the design teams, something that
requires the joint orchestrated work of all participants, establishing highly cooperative relationships
and standards. The building profession as a group is beginning to recognise the need to correct this
strange architect-engineer dichotomy through a fresh re-evaluation of the essence of the design
itself. Aesthetics and technology need to be reunited again by replacing the single person mas-
ter-builder with the team of specialists working together in a complementary spirit to create the
right solution, sociologically, aesthetically and technologically.

STRUCTURAL FUNCTION AND ARCHITECTURAL FORM

The harmonious coexistence between technology and art can be achieved in creating the architec-
tural form while respecting the laws of statics, which means active cooperation between architects
and civil engineers. Various architectural theories have been developed dealing with the aesthetics
of architectural form and related directly to the expression of structural function. One of the most
important is Schopenhauer’s Theory of Statics, based on the axiom that the single and continuously
recurring theme of architecture; the issues of form, symmetry and proportion can be explored solely
in terms of the aspect of structure: loads and support. The form must express the struggle of forces
to achieve equilibrium; every architectural element must carry its load (Korab-Karpowicz, 2011).
Christian Norberg Schulz, in his work Intentions in Architecture, divides forms into two categories
deriving from the two interconnected systems of construction: the mass system and the skeleton
system (Norberg Schulz, 1968). He maintains that all regular-shaped forms consisting of a rep-
etition of elements fall into these two categories of systems, the mass system and the skeleton
system, while all others that do not have these properties are “amorphous.” Norberg Schulz, the
forms of skeletal systems characterise as “architectural” which provide ample opportunities of ar-
ticulation, as well as repetitive properties and hierarchy, in opposed to the forms of the mass system
which he terms as “sculptural”. As a result, we should expect from the beautiful architecture that it
attains its end most simply and naturally, avoids everything purposeless, and, following structural
requirements, obtains the most remarkable regularity of its constituent forms and corresponding
rationality in their proportions.
The relationship between form and architecture has provoked different contradictory approaches
to modern architecture, from a return to historical models in postmodern discourse (Krier, 1988),
to a rethinking of new situations within the radical pragmatism of contemporary architecture (BIG,
2009). In consideration of structural function and architectural form, Krier emphasises the need for
their integration: ‘Construction is closely related to function (Krier, 1988). A clearly defined concept
of spatial organisation demands an appropriate structural solution. The more harmonious this unity,
the closer one comes to the architectonic end product’. Schopenhauer’s emphasis on structure,
“of the necessary support to the given load” that depends on the building material, has anticipated
modern thinking about construction.
On the opposite side are modern architectural practices such as BIG or MVRDV. Contrary to the clas-
sical avant-garde established by denying the existing, these new practices attempt to coexist with

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contradictions (BIG, 2009). “Rather than a revolution, we are interested in evolution,” says Bjarke
Ingels. And, instead of the slogan of classical modernism “less is better,” he will say “yes is better”.
In this way the role of the architect is repositioned; from the pillar of the creation of the architectural
form, he becomes a kind of “facilitator” or “manager” in the “negotiation” between very conflicting
interests (MVRDV, 1998).
On the other hand, Frampton’s rethinking of the modern architectural tradition points to the culti-
vation of the tectonic tradition as an essential element of the architectural form (Frampton, 1995).
For Frampton redefining tectonics is a crucial question of how architecture is generated in the cor-
relation of form, structure, function. In that sense, to establish this new position of production of the
built environment, we should not necessarily return to the pre-industrial model, nor deviate from the
poetic tectonics of architecture, but redefine the way of looking at architecture and structure through
the dialogue of the architect and structural engineer.

INTEGRATED STRUCTURAL DESIGN

In the integrated design process, structural engineering design can be divided into three main stag-
es: conceptual design, preliminary analysis and detailed analysis. For a given architectural form of a
building, the choice of the optimal structure for the building is the most important mind creation of
the structural engineer. The structural engineer should make recommendation and choice about the
structural system, material criteria, identification of load path in the structure, vertical load resist-
ing system, horizontal load restraining system, durability and safety of the structure, construction
and maintenance and cost. Toady’s approach in structural engineering is also related to the basic
requirements related to the design of earthquake-resistant structures where a structural engineer
should make decisions on:
- Basic principles of conceptual design: structural simplicity, uniformity, symmetry and re-
dundancy, bi-directional resistance and stiffness, torsional resistance and stiffness, dia-
phragmatic behaviour at storey level and adequate foundation;
- Primary and secondary seismic members;
- Criteria for structural regularity in plane and elevation;
- Structural analysis;
- Safety verifications.
This contemporary approach for the structure by the structural engineer is nevertheless similar to
the “philosophy of structures” proposed by the Torroja and Nervi (1957, 1956) nearly 65 years ago,
which formulated a timeless set of design principles. These principles can be summarised as [1]
Structure and architecture by Angus J. Macdonald:
- that a building or structure should perform its intended function well in every respect;
- that the structural form adopted for a building should be appropriate for the span and load
involved;
- that the form should be appropriate for the material used;
- that the building or structure should be as simple to construct as possible;
- that the finished building or structure should be durable.

CASE STUDY – INDIVIDUAL RESIDENTIAL BUILDING

One of the most responsible and challenging design tasks for architects is designing a house for
a particular household. The architect should possess excellent skills and knowledge to make hab-
itats that should suit the needs of the users and future change of the structure of the same, given
the extended life span of the houses. He should offer a concept of dwelling that would enable the
modification of the interior space for the functional requirements of the next generations, without
disturbing the aesthetic value and quality of the architectural form.

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The concept of integration of structural function with the architectural form, with all portions mu-
tually interacting to achieve the full expression of architectural elements, will be considered on the
example of an author’s architectural project for an individual residential building.
Methodology / Structure and design process
Structure influences the design process through the selection of materials and a structural system
suitable to the subdivision of the interior spaces. Flexibility and changeability on internal space are
imperative in the approach of design for the structure. The first step in selecting structural system
lies in the critical examination of the building’s functions, the areas of its main subdivisions, the pat-
tern of loading, and the vertical and horizontal functional connections required between the various
parts of the building. The structure customises on subdividing the interior space; first, where the
subdivided areas accommodate similar functions and are perceiving as being part of a larger space,
and second, where structure separates different building functions, like circulation (stair and porch),
from each other.
Based on a background of knowledge for structural theories, coupled with experience and intuition,
leads the way for the selection of a structural system for the given example of an individual resi-
dential building. The initial structure of the plan consists of an orthogonal system of two-part and
three-part intervals in the transverse and longitudinal direction (2 X 3). In the transverse direction, it
is divided into two modules a + a. In the longitudinal direction, it is divided into three modules a + b +
a, with the last module consisting of two sub-modules a = a1 + a2, so that the constructive line is in
module a1. This conceptual framework regarding the circulation and distribution of the program is
modified locally. The vertical structural elements consist of reinforced concrete columns and walls,
with cross-sections that are reduced depending on the height of the plan. Horizontal structural ele-
ments include reinforced concrete peripheral beams and reinforced concrete slabs with integrated
internal beams. Flat slab is a reinforced concrete slab supported directly by concrete columns with-
out the use of beams. Flat slab is defined as one sided or two-sided support system with sheer load
of the slab being concentrated on the supporting columns and a square slab called drop panels.
Orthogonal reinforced concrete simple flat slab structural system integrates well within the prismat-
ic architectural form, under its permanence both defines and limits the activities within a structure,
which represents space that we can call “generic space”. The simple flat slab structural system is
a particular case of a reinforced concrete frame (skeletal) structural system where columns directly
support slabs. This structural system is generally susceptible to resistance to lateral loads. For that
purpose, to improve the behaviour of the structural system, perimeter beams were designed com-
bining the flat slab system with reinforced concrete shear walls making the closed core of reinforced
concrete.
The extent of the physical presence of the structure, both in plans and cross-sections affects the
degree of subtlety and clarity achieved in the interior space. The geometry, size and orientation of
reinforced columns and shear walls, are designed to interpolate into the perimeter walls following
the architectural form. This assimilation of the structural load-bearing elements with the fulfilled
walls between them results in obtaining purity of interior spaces, which is difficult to achieve with
this type of structural systems (figure 1). The floor plans are divided into two functional zones with
the row of rectangular posts placed perpendicular to the longitudinal outer walls. This row of col-
umns at the same time forms a narrow space, which we call the sub-functional, displaced between
the other ones.
The access to the dwellings is a combination of the porch, stair and gallery, articulated in a semi-out-
door space exposing the program on the façade. The aesthetics of the mass relationship has been
brought about by mightily cantilevering of the upper storey from the ground floor. The whole form
is made from reinforced concrete merged with the load-bearing structure expressing the nature of
the material on the façade. At the same time, the access entered into a new, structural alliance. The
impact of concrete can be heightened by making it visible or perceptible. Architectural expression
gives the permanent its own character.

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_ Figure 1: Floor plans to the individual residential house – synthesis of structural and architectural form

The integration of the structural function and the architectural form is analysing through a diagram
of exploded views. Two different layers, Structure and Envelope, together form a framework as a
“generic space” in which spatial arrangement takes place as a third layer called Scenery (figure 2).

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_ Figure 2: Decomposition, Exploded view of different layers of dwelling units

This example shows how architecture and structure create a homogeneous unit if the structural
system is not an obstacle to perceive the work and the architectonic shape creates a logical struc-
tural solution.

CONCLUSIONS

The exploration of the relationship between architects and engineers can lead to a conclusion that
three types are currently in play: architects who supported early modernism were interested in the
tectonics of architectural buildings, which meant the inevitable close collaboration with engineers,
and the engineer acted principally as the technician who ensured that it performed adequately in a

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technical sense (1); the emergence of individual engineers in whose works one can recognise high
architectural qualities is also a feature of this period as a new concept of engineer/architect. Rela-
tionship occurs where the architect and the engineer is the same person (2); the third type of rela-
tionship between architects and engineers that of a genuinely collaborative partnership working in
the design teams, establishing highly cooperative relationships and standard, re-emerged towards
the end of the twentieth century. It has involved engineers and architects cooperating fully over the
design process of a building. (3).
In this paper, we propose a framework for achieving a successful integration of architectural and
structural design, to evolve an architecturally pleasing and structurally efficient building. In this con-
text, the architect has a unique integrative role among and in the relations to conception and cre-
ation on physical wholes. Experience shows that as architects, we must possess a vast knowledge
about the limitations and possibilities of concepts of structures related to their materiality. In other
words, the skill of an innovative and creative approach in determining the structural performance of
architectural forms, using the tectonic logic that reflects structures and materials. Finally, architects
and structural engineers should take a more positive cooperative attitude during the design process
from the beginning at the preliminary stage of conceptual design, where the conceptual idea as a
more abstract in the next phases of development of the project documentation becomes more real.
Architecture, as a successful creative product, can only be delivered within this process developed
through the balance and harmony of all elements and actors as a whole.

REFERENCES

__ Frampton, Kenneth. 1995. Studies in Tectonic Culture: The Poetics of construction in Nineteenth and
Twentieh Centry Architecture. Cambridge MA: The MIT Press
__ Ingels, Bjarke (BIG). 2009. Yes is More, An Archicomic on Architectural Evolution. Koln: EVERGRIN GmbH.
__ Korab-Karpowicz, W. 2011. Schopenhauer’s Theory of Architecture. DO-10.1002/9781444347579.ch12
__ Krier, Rob. 1988. Architectural Composition. Academy Editions, Rizzoli, p. 27.
__ Leupen, Bernard. 2006. Frame and Generic Space. Rotterdam: 010 Publishers.
__ Macdonald, Angus. 1997. Structural Design for Architecture. Oxford: Architectural Press.
__ Macdonald, Angus. 2001. Structure and Architecture. 2st ed. Oxford: Architectural Press.
__ MVRDV, 1998. FARMAX, Excursions on Density. Rotterdam: 010 publishers.
__ Norberg -Schulz, Christian. 1968. Intentions in Architecture. The MIT Press.
__ Rappoport, Amos.1969. House Form and Culture. Englowood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

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SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVELOPMENT BY MEANS

OF GREEN WALLS
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch26

_ Budimir Sudimac
University in Belgrade – Faculty of Architecture, 73/2 Bulevar kralja Aleksandra St,
Belgrade, Serbia, sudimac@arh.bg.ac.rs

_ Aleksandra Ugrinović
University in Belgrade – Faculty of Architecture, 73/2 Bulevar kralja Aleksandra St,
Belgrade, Serbia, aleksandra.ugrinovic@arh.bg.ac.rs

_ Radojko Obradović
University in Belgrade – Faculty of Architecture, 73/2 Bulevar kralja Aleksandra St,
Belgrade, Serbia, robradović@hotmail.com

ABSTRACT

The use of green walls (also commonly referred to as living walls or vertical gardens) is not a new
concept in building envelopes. Integrating vegetation in architectural structures may be a sustainable
approach to the construction of façades of the new and existing structures. Green walls belong to
the highly innovative and the fastest developing concepts of green building technology. This fact is
supported by the examples of structures originally built with green walls which greatly add to the total
visual appeal of buildings and are an important factor in the improvement of their thermal characteris-
tics. Green walls have their own aesthetic values which are in direct correlation with human interaction
aimed at creating visual diversity within urban spaces. Artistic perception of green walls of the recent
era has radically changed, along with the new technological possibilities, their further development
and application in the designing effort to formulate shape and materialization as a spatial structure
with the already known aspects of traditional modelling. Green walls appear in space as elements car-
rying artistic application and sculptural creation in spatial architectural form of structures. Greening
and preserving urban spaces have become important issues in considering conditions for designing
architectural structures and redefining the relation between technology, energy and shaping, with the
possibility of applying green walls in the architectural transformation process of the urban space.
Green walls have raised new aesthetic issues, which are in direct correlation with technical solutions.

KEYWORDS _ Green wall, Integration, Technology

INTRODUCTION

The observation and analysis of building envelopes in different architectural structures through the
history of architecture reveals the historical, economic, as well as cultural pattern of the society in
which they arose.
Green walls are part of a growing conception of the new creative expression of building envelopes,
dedicated to overcoming the challenges brought by global climate changes and natural resource de-
pletion, and aiming at developing sustainable solutions for ensuring energy efficiency. At the same

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time, attaining the form-related norms allows these solutions to be accepted in the society at large,
providing a new feature of form to modern buildings. Green walls open up an entire field of building
envelope research, treating architectural structures as potential locales for artistic creation and im-
plementation, and using technology as the basis of its expression. Vertical gardens are part of an
integrative architectural expression and a basis for identifying and resolving form-related architec-
tural tasks, as well as fulfilling the energy potentials of architectural structures.
Modern building envelopes aim for dynamism and an interactive relationship with the environment,
making the most of the technological potential. Green walls are used as shading elements and for
wind protection, especially in architectures adversely affected by the external factors (Figure1). In
European medieval architecture, the use of vegetation, vine, and ornamental plants as elements of
form was widespread in meeting aesthetic requirements, especially for open spaces. The mecha-
nisms that allow the use of green walls as passive energy-saving systems are varied: shade provid-
ed by vegetation; the insulating qualities of the supporting façade element vegetation; and evapo-
rative cooling.

a) b)

_ Figure 1. The impact of plant activity levels creating a green wall a) a green wall, b) a detail

Future buildings must implement a method of utilizing environmental conditions in resolving the is-
sues relating to user comfort. Green walls are an example of a direct interaction between nature and
physical structures. The vegetation envelope becomes a tool for resolving mounting environmental
problems in urban surroundings. They become a design element in solving specific performance
requirements and the shaping of building envelopes. Vegetation is an integral element of our ev-
eryday living. Green walls are classed as green façades with live wall systems. The need to develop
green walls stems primarily from the need for an increased contact of the user with the elements of
the environment. The need for contact is conditioned by the features of the location and the orien-
tation of the building with a green wall. Green walls are classed as sustainable architecture, as the
implementation of such concepts involves the application of modern materials and technologies,
alongside an adequate evaluation of the climate conditions and the urban environment.

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METHODOLOGY

Green walls which change the observer’s engagement with the building envelope from a static to
a dynamic one have a great potential in densely-populated urban areas for improving the environ-
mental sustainability factors. This primarily relates to big wall surfaces on which such advanced
technological systems can be applied (Figure 2). Green walls are aimed at giving architectural struc-
tures a new character with respect to the environment, creating a new form, recognisability, and an
interactive relationship with the environment. The positive effects of green walls depend on numer-
ous factors.

_ Figure 2. Green walls as elements of recognisability

The main factors in achieving these effects are as follows: the green wall design – relating first
and foremost to the total wall surface area; the density and size of leaves; the types of plants used;
green wall orientation; and the maintenance level. In the process of transforming the urban space
by means of a green wall, it is necessary to open a specific sort of communication between the user
and the environment. ‘The future of our communities, natural resources, and ecosystems depends
on how much we understand, appreciate, and protect the habitats and species which sustain our
world. We need to be proactive and provide our children and adults with the tools to identify the
effects of changeability.

VISUAL IDENTITY

Green walls acquire additional value through elements of form-related difference, giving a building
and its envelope an entirely new visual identity by using plants materials (Figure 64). Green walls
appear as integrated sustainable solutions in building envelopes, s well as a solution for small-scale
spatial interactions. Green walls become a symbol of green or eco-architecture, as they can be iden-
tified easily, being visible and having a direct impact on the total green area in urban environments.
Through its visual identity, vegetation contributes not only to the identification of the building itself,
but also has a significant role in the creation of the locale identity. One of the basic requirements

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in architecture is for a building to send an aesthetic message in a public space. Green walls allow
this, but in addition to this message, they also contribute to an increase in biodiversity in urban en-
vironments, urban agriculture, recycling sites, and health improvements. Green walls can alleviate
to an extent the lack of bio-equality in urban environments, as well as sustain specific plant species
and provide habitats and nesting grounds for insects and various types of birds. Green walls are a
natural extension of their environments. The research by a number of authors (Honeyman 1987) has
shown that buildings with green walls have positive effects on human health, and that the visual
contact with replanting stock and artistic creations results in increased satisfaction with being and
working in such spaces, and therefore in increased productivity as well (Kaplan 2001). An especially
important paper (Ulrich 1983) points to more successful postoperative recovery of patients in build-
ings providing a direct interaction with a green wall. Urban agriculture is an underexplored area of
green wall implementation. Researchers conclude that green walls have an indisputable potential
in developing urban agricultural replanting stock, with evident general utility (Figure 3a, b). In urban
environments and urban overcrowding locations, where land is expensive and scarce, green walls
can be used as a suitable site for the implementation of such ideas.

_ Figure 3. Urban agriculture

‘The basic characteristic of urban agriculture is local food production for local use - a closed system
of supply within the local community which offers many advantages: the recultivation of non-land-
scaped urban areas, employing the populace, more food and a healthier diet, increased economic
power of a city and its inhabitants, stronger ties among the populace.’

THE SPATIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL ASPECTS

The wish on the part of the designer to give an essentially different meaning to vegetation in build-
ings, on top of the simple logical functionality, is made possible by the complex technological devel-
opment of such systems. The initial reflections and the technological level of the time at which the
first green walls were made were limiting with regard to their realisation, compared to what is avail-
able to creative professionals today. At present, the technical aspects of the implementation, first
and foremost of green wall maintenance, are often overshadowed by the visual requirements and

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creative goals. Making use of all available technological means and designing new ones, green wall
designers build green walls as new assembly motifs, elements central to architectural works, utiliz-
ing the principles of symmetry or asymmetry, the elements of ordered disorder. Using vegetation as
a material which in the earlier architectural periods was not used for the construction and shaping
of architectural structures, creating a new structure, and defying the laws of nature, they expanded
the freedom of their own creative enterprise. In addition to their primary functional form, green walls
also appear in space as elements carrying the artistic implementation, as sculptural creations in the
spatial layout of architectural structures (Figure 3). Green walls take on the role of an artist’s canvas,
providing the authors with a new medium of expression, and space with a certain sculptural form.
Using vegetation in the finishes does not mean material wealth; rather, it is a meaningful, interesting,
yet complex sculptural character of the green wall. In some cases, green walls transform into the
dominant artistic expression in the space in which they are situated, owing to designing explora-
tions of the potential of the material that they are made of and new structural systems. It should be
added that the appearance of green walls in architecture partly arises from the human beings’ need
for contact, knowledge, and stimulation.

The formal aspect

Green walls have their form-related values which are directly correlated with human interaction
geared towards visual diversity in the urban space. Jan Gehl identifies a site always pleasant to the
eye as a ‘common characteristic of all optional activities – they occur only when the external con-
ditions for stopping and moving are good and when it is pleasant to be in an environment.’ A proper
view of vegetation is what largely defines the appearance of a green wall, due to seasonal changes
and the adaptation of vegetation to these cycles in temperate climate conditions. If we see a green
wall as an architectural element (Figure 4) which should attain the highest level of attraction through
its form and function, then vegetation must adapt to the temperature differences at different times
of the year. All these changes can have a significant impact on the perception of the green wall form.
Therefore, some urban spaces undergo constant transformation.

_ Figure 4. Green walls as architectural elements

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The functional aspect

The building envelope as a basic element in the identification of a structure dominates space pri-
marily through its constructional features. The implementation of the envelope is directly linked to
the construction of the façade, using the material that the main construction system is made of with
the aim of achieving the final visual identity of a structure. The functional requirements of public
buildings, the construction norms defined in normative documents, the architectural inclinations
of the designers, construction solutions, awareness of the static and form-related characteristics,
the spatial comfort, the interaction between specific architectural elements in the space where the
façade is located determine the form and design of the green wall. “Art provides form, and form
alone makes something a work of art. Form is not random, arbitrary or irrelevant (nor is it so with
crystals). The laws and conventionality of form are an embodiment of man’s power over matter; they
preserve experience and provide two achievements; they are the order that both art and life require.
Form is also conditioned by materials to a certain extent.”

_ Figure 5. Green walls as elements of urban space design

The technological aspect

The development of technology largely determines the dynamic of the development and use of green
walls as a tool of expression in implementing architectural structures. Urban spaces are undergoing
a significant transformation nowadays, owing to innovative designer solutions drawing inspiration
from the theoretical foundations characterizing the modern world. In terms of the typology of archi-
tectural structures, above all multi-storey car parks, urban streets (Figure 5) with repeating façades,
transit warehouses, and retail facilities all offer an opportunity to use green walls to improve spatial
form to an extent, as well to transform the urban space. Green walls allow the creation of certain
implementational patterns by using vegetation textures as the main elements of expression. Aban-
doned, dilapidated, or partially collapsed buildings are ideal sites for mounting green walls with the
aim of transforming and raising the identity level of urban spaces.

The energy-related aspects

Some research has pointed to the significant role of green walls in reducing winter heat loss and
summer heat gain in facilities or walls where implemented. Traditional building materials have a
high degree of thermal conductivity. The analyses show that green walls reduce the overheating of

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such walls during summer months, thus reducing the total amount of energy used for air condition-
ing of a structure. Green walls do not accumulate heat as much as walls made of conventional ma-
terials. Numerous factors affect the level of heat loss or heat gain reduction in buildings with green
walls, the most significant ones being the orientation of the green wall, the structure of greenery in
it, the size of leaf surface, thickness of the leafy part of plants, and soil humidity.
The energy potential of a certain building facing is determined by its structure, local weather con-
ditions, and the facility usage regime. Green facings add to the amount of vegetation in stuffy ur-
ban spaces, provide unique visual appeal, and increase the ambient values of their surrounding.
Integrating vegetation into structures can be a sustainable approach to building façades of both
new and existing buildings. At the same time, vertical landscape walls improve the energy-related
capacities of facilities, contribute to biodiversity, add the aesthetic values, and play a significant part
in reducing the air pollution caused by fine dust particles and carbon dioxide. In order to find the
new models of green walls that would have strong energy potential in our climate, it is necessary to
define the proper parameters for comfort first, by respecting the prescribed thermal characteristics
of facings.
There are three major phases in incorporating a green wall: programming it, designing, and finally
building it. The green wall design requirements are directly conditioned by the type of a building, the
position of the desired green wall within it, and the technology used. Each of these requirements af-
fect the other two, pointing to a very complex demand scheme in designing green walls. The choice
and the position of a green wall withing a facility primarily depend on the programming context and
are extremely dependable of the building’s economic aspect and the appearance. All types of green
walls can conveniently be incorporated in the desired goals of a building design, although the choice
is dictated by the specific conditions and the design itself.

CONCLUSION

Compared to other architectural elements, green walls dominate buildings architecturally, techno-
logically, and form-wise. Designing and constructing them requires following the technological de-
velopment in construction as well as in other areas, as over time new systems are developed for
their implementation, ensuring greater comfort in use. Form-wise, green walls can be seen in terms
of the following parameters: the visual identity of green walls; and the parameters for assessing
the form-related characteristics of green walls. Green wall architecture now makes use of a new
approach to form, a new functional interpretation, and new construction solutions, which cannot
always be classed as economically justified and cost-effective. Invention in design, with the help of
technology, is left without rules and constraints in all the aspects of the design and construction of
green walls.
The replanting stock as the carrier of the form-related characteristics of green wall architecture cre-
ates a certain visual relationship in space by means of its composition and inter-connections, both
in terms of positionality and the individual composition. The space where a green wall is located is
shaped primarily by means of mass, and is characterized by the interrelationships, the features of
the components, plant types, as well as by colour, texture, the full-empty interplay, and rhythmicality.
Green walls created by planting a large vegetation stock, placed in a specific layout, whose position
in the composition affects the visual presentation on the building envelope, provide a certain value
and visual character that persists in time. Visual appeal of the wall itself ‘lies in the striving for free-
dom from non-aesthetic content – their aesthetic function is not secondary, peripheral, or merely
external (as is the case in an array of more recent art disciplines whose aesthetic status is still being
constituted and defined, or still has an experimental character).’ The form of a green wall is also de-
fined by the positional characteristics of the wall in question with respect to the other architectural
elements, the viewing angle, and the distance of the observer. The composition of the wall is con-
ditioned first and foremost by integrativity, proportionality, balance, and harmony of elements, and
their rhythm and repetition frequency, symmetry, asymmetry, harmony, and modularity.

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The modern technology of green wall construction allows new green wall forms to be implemented,
giving green walls new aesthetic values in the process. Green walls will gain importance in archi-
tecture, as the decrease of the conventional energy carriers has resulted in the discovery of new
and renewable energy sources. The architecture of the future requires new means of expression
in formulating its own identity, and green walls are a provocative material for architectural expres-
sion. All this will depend on the users’ cultural awareness, social trends, architectural thought, and
technological development. The development of green walls in the future will probably tend towards
identifying new media of expression in implementing green walls, the development of energy-ef-
ficient modular systems, and a multidisciplinary approach in future research and impact of green
walls on architectural structures.

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__ Saelens,D.,Blocken, B., Roels,S., Hens,H.: Optimization of the energy performance of multiple-skin fa-
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__ Sudimac B., Anđelković A., Dubljević S.: Thermal extras of vegetation walls in Belgrade climatic condi-
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 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

IN-SITU MEASURING INDOOR ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY

IN PUBLIC KINDERGARTEN IN SLOVENIA. A CASE STUDY
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch27

_ Vesna Lovec
University of Maribor, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Transportation Engineering and
Architecture, Slovenia, Smetanova ulica 17, Maribor 2000, vesna.lovec@um.si

_ Miroslav Premrov
University of Maribor, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Transportation Engineering and
Architecture, Slovenia, Smetanova ulica 17, Maribor 2000, miroslav.premrov@um.si

_ Vesna Žegarac Leskovar

University of Maribor, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Transportation Engineering and
Architecture, Smetanova ulica 17, Maribor 2000, vesna.zegarac@um.si

ABSTRACT

The number of children in Slovenia, who are enrolled in kindergartens, is increasing, however, the in-
door environmental quality (IEQ) in kindergartens remains poorly investigated. Younger children are
a vulnerable population, so the IEQ is extremely important for their well-being and growth. Therefore,
it is essential to investigate and evaluate indoor conditions of kindergartens.

This study presents the results of the IEQ assessment based on objective evaluation by monitor-
ing crucial indoor conditions in the public kindergarten located within a residential area in the city
of Maribor, Slovenia. The research includes in-situ measurements in the kindergarten classroom
during the heating season. Selected comfort parameters were simultaneously measured and in-
vestigated: the concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2), air temperature and air humidity. Measure-
ments were taken continuously during a period of twelve days. Besides monitoring, other analyses
were conducted: the building thermal envelope, building construction, building site and environment,
heating, occupant`s behaviour, etc.

The purpose of this study is to investigate and analyse elements of IEQ in the chosen kindergarten.
Moreover, the aim is to investigate whether selected comfort parameters fulfil the requirements of
regulations and standards for the kindergartens. The goal is also to analyse the occupant’s be-
haviour and to study its relation to the IEQ pattern during the day and among working and non-work-
ing days. The results clearly indicate periods of high air temperature, dry air and high level of CO2,
therefore measures for improvement of IEQ elements are discussed.

KEYWORDS _ Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ), kindergarten, in-situ measurements

INTRODUCTION

The environment, where children live, grow and learn, plays an important role in their growth and de-
velopment. Most of the children in Slovenia spend their early childhood in kindergartens; statistical
data of the Republic of Slovenia show that 81.7% of all children aged between 1 and 5 are enrolled
in kindergartens [14].

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A kindergarten presents the child’s physical, biological and social environment. Children daily spend
approximately 9 hours in an educational institution, therefore it is important that this does not pres-
ent the health hazard for them. Poor quality of the indoor environment in the kindergartens can
negatively affect the comfort and health of the users – children as well as employees [6]. Numerous
studies of educational institutions in Slovenia and worldwide have exposed the problem of thermal
discomfort [3], light discomfort [5], poor quality of the indoor air [16], and acoustic discomfort [8].
However, the topic of pre-school buildings in Slovenia is poorly researched, there is a lack of studies
with continuous in situ measurements of the parameters of the indoor comfort in the rooms, where
children spend lots of their time.
This research aims to evaluate parameters of the Indoor Environment Quality (IEQ) in the playroom
of the chosen kindergarten in Maribor, Slovenia. The estimation includes the analysis of the single
parameters of the thermal comfort and the quality of the indoor air based on the results of the in situ
measurements in the kindergarten playroom. The goal is to determine each parameter of thermal
comfort and the quality of the indoor air in the playroom and to compare the results with applicable
legislation and standards. Potential deficiencies in the quality of the indoor living environment will
result in the definition of the problems and the suggestion for possible improvements.

IEQ PARAMETERS – APPLICABLE LEGISLATION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The appropriate Indoor Environment Quality (IEQ) is guaranteed by suitable thermal comfort, proper
air quality (IAQ), light and acoustic comfort. Thus, IEQ is very complex and depends on numerous
interdependent parameters and tremendously affects health and well-being of people, especially
children. Namely, children’s respiratory and immune system is much more sensitive than the adult
system, so children are very sensible to the environmental influences. Therefore, the IEQ is even
more important in pre-school buildings. This research includes determination of the optimal value
of each parameter of thermal comfort and air quality according to critical assessment of applicable
legislation, recommendations and previous studies considering the pre-school buildings. Compari-
son with the measured values would be also conducted.

Thermal comfort
The assessment of the thermal comfort includes continuous measurements of the indoor air tem-
perature Tai [°C] and relative air humidity RHai [%] in the playroom of the kindergarten. Previous
studies show that poor thermal conditions in the room negatively affect children’s health, well-being
and ability to learn [2]. In addition, children are more sensitive to high air temperatures than adults
and also to changes in thermal comfort which impact their metabolism [16].
Indoor air temperature Tai [°C] in the kindergartens is determined in Slovenia by Rules of standards
and minimal technical conditions for kindergarten premises and equipment which prescribe min-
imum air temperature 20 °C, but do not limit maximal air temperature [11]. Regulations about air
conditioning in building determine the parameter for the thermal comfort of the sitting person in
the living area which includes the air temperature in heating season between 19 °C and 24 °C, al-
though recommended temperature is 20 °C to 22 °C [12]. In addition, regulations define the surface
temperature of the floor between 17 °C and 26 °C. However, numerous studies recommend the air
temperature in kindergartens 21 °C and point out that children feel more comfortable at lower tem-
peratures.
Relative air humidity RHai [%] in pre-school buildings is also determined by Regulation of standards
and minimal technical conditions for kindergarten premises and equipment [11], which declares that
the area of ventilation and its parameters is determined by applicable technical standards, i.e. with
Rules on ventilation and air conditioning of buildings, which define that the air temperature between
20 °C and 26 °C requires relative humidity between 30 % in 70 % [12]. Moreover, the Rules define the
necessary additional mechanical ventilation in the changing rooms and toilets for kids. The ideal air
humidity in the rooms, where children stay during the day, is between 45 and 55 % at a suitable air

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temperature between 20 in 22 °C [10].

Air quality
One of the basic parameters which indicates the poor air quality is carbon dioxide concentration
(CO2) in the air. The most CO2 in the room is produced by the human breathing, therefore is the num-
ber of occupants and their activities a key factor for CO2 concentration. In proportion to their weight,
children breath larger air volume than adults; besides a playroom is occupied by higher concentra-
tion of occupants comparing to office for example, so the indoor air pollutants accumulate much
faster [9]. In addition to human factor (breathing), the factors which also impact the concentration
of CO2 in the scientific literature are: ventilation equipment, furniture and activities in a room (the
number of occupants and activities).
The Rules on ventilation and air conditioning of buildings of the Republic of Slovenia determines
value 1660 ppm as the maximal allowed CO2 indoor concentration [2]. According to the recommen-
dations of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE),
the acceptable CO2 concentration level depend on outdoor CO2 concentration [1]. The difference
between indoor and outdoor CO2 concentration should not exceed 700ppm. Assuming that the av-
erage CO2 concentration values in the outdoor air are 400 ppm, the indoor CO2 concentration values
should be under 1100 ppm. In this respect, the ASHRAE recommendations are much stricter than
Slovene Rules.

IEQ parameters – impact on human health and well-being

The inappropriate indoor air temperature and humidity is especially dangerous for the vulnerable
group such as small children. The indoor air temperature is analysed in the heating season and de-
pends on the heating regime, while the indoor air humidity is influenced by user activity, their living
habits and the frequency of room ventilation. The consequences of insufficient air humidity control
and high air humidity are good conditions for mould growth and development which negative health
influence is proved [17]. On the other hand, the consequences of the dry air can be dried mucous
membranes, lips, skin and scalp, increasing infections and respiratory illness, tension, tiredness and
lack of concentration.
The impact of CO2 on health and well-being of occupants is the subject of many international
studies. The exposure to higher concentrations of carbon dioxide could results in many different
symptoms such as cold, eye irritation, dry mucous membrane, headache, dry skin and lethargy (a
pathological state of sleepiness). The normal outdoor CO2 concentration is between 250–350 ppm,
whereas the indoor CO2 concentration with effective ventilation should be between 350–1000 ppm.
The indoor air CO2 concentration higher than 1000 ppm can result in potential complaints of sleep-
iness and poor air quality, while the indoor CO2 concentration above 2000 ppm indicates the used,
stuffy air. This can cause headaches, sleepiness, insufficient concentration, lack of focus, acceler-
ated heart rate and slight nausea [18]. In addition to acute health problems, the increased CO2 con-
centration can mean higher risk for different respiratory diseases. The studies show that children
in kindergartens are subjected to higher risk for asthma and allergy problems in comparison with
children who do not attend kindergartens [14].
In addition, high CO2 concentration can be an indicator of the presence of other pollutants in the
air such as carbon monoxide and formaldehyde which can negatively impact respiratory organs [1].
Occurrence of the most chemical and biological pollutants can hurt respiratory organs, especially
children’s, who are more sensitive due to undeveloped immune system [13]. The other air pollutants
are not the subject of this research; however, their presence is indicated if there is highly increased
measured CO2 concentration in the playroom of the kindergartens.

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A CASE STUDY

The building of the chosen kindergarten was constructed in 1981. It is located in a peaceful residen-
tial neighbourhood. In terms of design, architecture and structure, it composes a whole with a block
of flats, which was built at the same time. The kindergarten is built in a massive structural system;
the area of the kindergarten is 3217 m², it includes basement, ground floor and two floors. The
kindergarten homes 17 groups (playrooms). The service facilities (kitchen, storage, etc.) are in the
basement. The building has a remote heating, regulated according to the outdoor air temperature.
Two radiators are placed directly under the window in the playroom. During the heating season, the
heating is not turning off, the temperature in the system gets lower.
The measurements in this research were performed in the south oriented playroom on the ground
floor of the building. During the measuring period, a mixed group of children, aged 1 to 3, occupied
the playroom. The number of children enrolled in group is 14 and two educators (during the working
days among the holidays, the maximal number of children were exceeded due to a technical reason;
playroom was occupied by 15 children). The playroom is mostly in its original state from 1981, the
majority of the built-in furniture is also from 1981, with an exception of some pieces of movable fur-
niture. The original windows are replaced by the double-glazed PVC windows. The hard wood floor
is original. The playroom area is 47.3 m² without associated sanitary facilities, the playroom volume
is 104.06 m³, its orientation is south. The windows are shaded by exterior blinds and decorative cur-
tains inside. The playroom does not have air conditioners. The ventilation is only natural by opening
windows, without ventilations system (Figure 1).

_ Figure 1: The playroom

The1:chosen
Table Measuredplayroom
data presents a typical playroom in a Slovene kindergarten, built in the decade
between 1970 and 1980, when the majority of the pre-school buildings was erected. In terms of
No. of RH [%] Tai [°C] CO [ppm]
renovation, the onlyaiintervention was the windows
energyoccupa replacement, which is the 2most common
min max avg min max avg min max avg
intervention
nts on the most of the buildings from this period. Therefore, the case study can indicate the
Daycurrent
1 thermal comfort and indoor air quality state of the Slovene pre-school buildings in general.
7 31.2 39.3 35.1 21.7 23.2 22.7 499 1524 1027.7
Day 2 10 25.7 36.4 30.9 20.3 23.6 22.9 469 1807 1029.0
Day 3 /
Day 4 /
DayMEASUREMENTS
5 10 25.6 IN SITU
37.3 30.3 20.7 24.6 23.9 472 1687 1087.2
Day 6 /
DayThe
7 experimental
/ analysis of the IEQ included continuous in situ measurements of the chosen pa-
Day 8
rameters15of thermal
21.8 37.2
comfort 26.8
and indoor 20.9
air quality. 23.6
In terms 22.9
of thermal 461
comfort, 2452 1112.3
the measurements
Day 9 15 23.8 34.6 28.1 21.3 24.4 23.7 496 2035 1095.3
Dayof10the indoor
/ air temperature Tai [°C], relative indoor air humidity RHai [%] and surface temperature
Day 11 /
Day 12 14 20.2 27.4 25.9 20.5 24.83 24.2 457 2009 1112.0
Day235
13 /
Day 14 /
Day 15 15 16.9 27.4 23.6 18.2 24.2 22.7 410 1536 1008.0
 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

of the floor Tsurf [C°] were carried out. The measured parameter of the indoor air quality was the
carbon dioxide concentration CO2 [ppm]. The light and acoustic comfort in the playroom are not the
subject of this research.
The measurements in situ were performed continuously for 15 days. The chosen period included
working days, weekends and holidays during the heating season. The winter was chosen for the
measurements because of the increased indoor air pollution and high concentration of the harmful
substances in the air, due to the structure seal and low level of ventilation [7]. The number of present
children and their activities in the playroom were daily recorded as well as the ventilation intervals.
The playroom was occupied each working day from 5:00 am to 3:30 pm. During the day the average
ventilation lasted from 10 to 20 minutes three times a day, the dynamics and intensity of ventilation
was chosen by the educators. Namely, they noticed that the room was too warm. During the mea-
surements the daily range of outside air temperatures was from -8°C up to 15°C.
The location and height of the measurement devices were tailored according to the activities of the
playroom occupants. The obstacle in the measurement process was the fact that the playroom was
used by toddlers, so the devices should not present the potential dangerous and at the same time
the devices should be secured or hidden so that children could not jeopardize the measurement pro-
cedures. The main device was situated on the shelf above the educator’s desk at the height of 1.5m.
The devices recorded the data every fifteen minutes. The following measurement devices were used:
the data logger rotatronic CL 11 was used for Tai, RHai and CO2 measurements, the additional de-
vices volcraft were installed for Tai, RHai measurements and the belmet flir mr 77 was used for Tsurf
measurements. The aim of multi measurement devices was the comparison of result deviations
and monitoring of parameters of indoor comfort in different specific points in the playroom: room
for nursing, sleeping, staying, etc. The measurements were carried out in the frame of the research
project VRTEC+, which included measurements in pre-school buildings throughout Slovenia.

RESULS

Measurement results of the Tai, RHai and CO2 are shown in Table 1. Minimal, maximal and average
values of all measurement points are displayed for the period when occupants were in the playroom,
daily from 5.00 am to 3.30 pm. The recorded measurement points during the time when the play-
room was closed, was not considered (Day 3,4,6,7,10,11,13,14 in table). The register of the number
of present children and also two educators, who were present every day, was kept on a daily basis.

Table 1:_ Measured

Table 1: Measured
data data

No. of RHai [%] Tai [°C] CO2 [ppm]

occupa min max avg min max avg min max avg
nts
Day 1 7 31.2 39.3 35.1 21.7 23.2 22.7 499 1524 1027.7
Day 2 10 25.7 36.4 30.9 20.3 23.6 22.9 469 1807 1029.0
Day 3 /
Day 4 /
Day 5 10 25.6 37.3 30.3 20.7 24.6 23.9 472 1687 1087.2
Day 6 /
Day 7 /
Day 8 15 21.8 37.2 26.8 20.9 23.6 22.9 461 2452 1112.3
Day 9 15 23.8 34.6 28.1 21.3 24.4 23.7 496 2035 1095.3
Day 10 /
Day 11 /
Day 12 14 20.2 27.4 25.9 20.5 24.83 24.2 457 2009 1112.0
Day 13 /
Day 14 /
Day 15 15 16.9 27.4 23.6 18.2 24.2 22.7 410 1536 1008.0

[TECH] 236
 No. of RHai [%] Tai [°C] CO2 [ppm]
occupa min max avg min max avg min max avg
nts
Day 17TH INTERNATIONAL
7 31.2 ACADEMIC
39.3CONFERENCE
35.1 21.7 23.2 22.7 499 1524 1027.7
Day 2 10 25.7 36.4 30.9 20.3 23.6 22.9 469 1807 1029.0
Day 3 /
Day 4 /
Day 5The measured
10 results37.3
25.6 of the air30.3
humidity RHai [%]
20.7 24.6show rather
23.9 dry 472
air with the
1687average values be-
1087.2
Day 6tween /25.9 to 35.1%, although within the range of applicable legislation demands. Not even one
Day 7measurement
/ point reached recommended values from 45 to 55%. Therefore, the children stayed in
Day 8 15 21.8 37.2 26.8 20.9 23.6 22.9 461 2452 1112.3
Day 9considerably
15 dry rooms
23.8 (Figure28.1
34.6 1). 21.3 24.4 23.7 496 2035 1095.3
The average
Day 10 / measured air temperature Tai [°C] is between 22.7 to 23.9 ° C, which meets the recom-
Day 11
mended / values. Also all single measurement points are between 19° C and 24° C. Therefore, the in-
Day 12 14 20.2 27.4 25.9 20.5 24.83 24.2 457 2009 1112.0
door air
Day 13 /
temperature also meets the applicable legislation demands. Overall indoor air temperature
in playroom
Day 14 / is a bit higher compared to international standards, health recommendations and rec-
ommendations
Day 15 15 16.9of the 27.4
previous 23.6
studies which
18.2 consider
24.2 the22.7
optimal air
410temperature
1536 221008.0
°C (Figure 3).

_ Figure 2: Chart, relative air humidity

Figure 2: Chart, relative air humidity

_ Figure 3: Chart, air temperature

The average concentration of carbon dioxide CO2 [ppm] exceeds recommended value of maximum
1000ppm every day. Maximal measured values were over 2000ppm. On average, the children are
exposed to the carbon dioxide concentration over 1000ppm (Figure 4) more than half a time spent
in the kindergarten. Even though this concentration is in line with Slovene legislation, it exceeds
recommendations of health organizations, previous studies, etc. This analysis takes into consider-

237
 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

ation the time of the actual presence of children in the playroom. The days when the playroom was
occupied 50 to 70% (7 and 10 toddlers), the children were exposed to the CO2 concentration over
1000ppm more than 1/3 of the time spent in kindergarten. Moreover, the children spent almost 2/3
of their time in kindergarten exposed to the carbon dioxide concentration over 2000 ppm during the
days when the playroom was occupied 100 to 110% (14 and 15 toddlers).

_ Figure 4: Chart, carbon dioxide concentration in the air

The kept record of activities in the group show that the playroom is ventilated three times a day, ac-
cording to the activities in the kindergarten: before the children entered the playroom (at about 5:00
am), during the time when the children have outdoor activities and the playroom is empty (between
10:00 and 11:00 am) and after the lunch. The measurements show that natural ventilation in the
playroom reduce the CO2 concentration for short time, but it does not achieve the desired level of
CO2. The analysis of the measured parameters proves that the CO2 concentration in the air decreas-
es rapidly even with the lower number of the occupants in the playroom. The interaction between
different parameters of indoor comfort is hard to define, however, it can be concluded that the CO2
concentration in the air depends on the number of users and it is dramatically increased with the
higher number of children. Additionally, this study measures floor surface temperature Tsurf [°C].
The average measured value of the floor temperature is 24.1 C° which corresponds the provisions of
the Rules on ventilation and air conditioning of buildings which define the floor temperature between
17 °C and 26 °C.

CONCLUSIONS

This study analysed elements of IEQ in the chosen kindergarten. Particularly the research deals with
indoor air quality and thermal comfort parameters in the kindergarten, which in terms of quality of
the indoor living comfort fall into a rather unexplored area. Although studies include analysis of the
indoor comfort in kindergartens, they mostly discuss the temperature and the quality of the indoor
air in general, whereas continuous measurement for a longer period of time, such as those in this
research, can hardly be found.
The parameters of indoor air quality and thermal comfort in the chosen playroom of the kindergarten
in Maribor is evaluated according to the legislation and recommendations. The comparison of the
measured parameters with the demanded values of the Slovene legislation shows that the indoor air
temperature meets prescribed values, while the carbon dioxide concentration in periods during the
day exceeds prescribed value and relative air humidity mostly does not achieve the prescribed range
value. Moreover, the comparison of the measured parameters with recommendations of health or-

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ganisations, previous studies and international standards leads to the conclusion that the majority
of measured values do not meet the recommended values and the indoor environmental quality
can be evaluated as poor according to the measured parameters. It can be concluded that the leg-
islation of the Republic of Slovenia is quite insufficient in terms of thermal comfort and indoor air
quality in educational, nursery and preschool education. The parameters in the current legislations
are determined by general provisions which often do not consider problems of the rooms occupied
by children and are less strict than numerous international recommendations.
The results clearly indicate periods of high air temperature, dry air and high level of CO2. According
to the analyses in this case study, the biggest problem is dry air and increased CO2 concentration
for longer periods of time in the heating season. Based on measurements from this research, the
natural ventilation of the room is not sufficient to assure quality of the indoor environmental comfort
and should be improved. Improvement should be provided by intensive natural ventilation or with
providing additional mechanical systems for ventilation. However, natural room ventilation in winter
is aimed only for assuring fresh air, and it is not the way to increase the air humidity. The intensive
heating of the playroom results in dry air and overheated playroom, therefore also better control over
heating system is recommended.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The presented work was prepared in the frame of the research project “VRTEC + development of the
models for renovation of preschool education buildings in Slovenia” which is carried out in the frame
of Operational Programme for the Implementation of the EU Cohesion Policy 2014 – 2020. The
co-financing of the project was approved in the frame of the open call of the Ministry of Education,
Science and Sport of the Republic of Slovenia.

REFERENCES

__ American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). “INDOOR EN-
VIRONMENTAL QUALITY IN SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF STUDENTS: STUDIES FROM
2004 TO PRESENT. ” Accessed December 7, 2019. https://www.ashrae.org
__ EPA. 2003. Indoor air quality & student performance, Indoor Environment Division Office of Radi-
ation And Indoor Air. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Accessed December 10, 2019.
https://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyNET.exe/100045VK.TXT?ZyActionD=ZyDocument&Client=EPA&Index-
=2000+Thru+2005&Docs=&Query=&Time=&EndTime=&SearchMethod=1&TocRestrict=n&Toc=&To-
cEntry=&QField=&QFieldYear=&QFieldMonth=&QFieldDay=&IntQFieldOp=0&ExtQFieldOp=0&Xm-
lQuery=&File=D%3A%5Czyfiles%5CIndex%20Data%5C00thru05%5CTxt%5C00000006%5C100045VK.
txt&User=ANONYMOUS&Password=anonymous&SortMethod=h%7C&MaximumDocuments=1&-
FuzzyDegree=0&ImageQuality=r75g8/r75g8/x150y150g16/i425&Display=hpfr&DefSeek-
Page=x&SearchBack=ZyActionL&Back=ZyActionS&BackDesc=Results%20page&MaximumPag-
es=1&ZyEntry=1&SeekPage=x&ZyPURL
__ Fabbri, Kristian. 2013. Thermal comfort evaluation in kindergarten: PMV and PPD measurement
through datalogger and questionnaire. Building and Environment, no. 68: 202–214.
__ Hagerhed-Engman, Linda, et al. 2006. “Day-care attendance and increased risk for respiratory and
allergic symptoms in pre-school age.” Allergy 61, no. 4: 447–453.
__ Heschong Mahone Group. 1999. “Daylighting in Schools. An investigation into the relationship be-
tween daylighting and human performance.” Pacific Gas and Electric Company, pp. 29. Accessed Novem-
ber 21, 2019. http://h-m-g.com/downloads/Daylighting/schoolc.pdf
__ Kacjan Žgajnar, Katja, et al. 2013. “Analysis of sanitary-technical and hygienic conditions of Slovenian
kindergartens and proposed measures.” International Journal of Sanitary Engineering Research 7, no.1:

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4−20.
__ Missia, Daffni A., et al. 2010. “Indoor exposure from building materials: A field study.” Atmospheric
Environment, no.35: 4388−4395.
__ Municipality of Ljubljana. 2013. “Noise in kindergarten - raising the awareness of children, teachers
and parents. The project to preserve and promote the health of children, adolescents and young people”
Ljubljana, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Medicine.
__ Pardee, Mav. 2011. “Building an Infrastructure for Quality: An Inventory of Early Childhood Education
and Out-of-School Time Facilities in Massachusetts.” Boston, Children’s Investment Fund, pp. 43. Ac-
cessed November 28, 2019. https://cedac.org/Uploads/Files/CIFBldgInfrastructureReport.pdf
__ Pulmonary and Allergic Patients Association of Slovenia. Accessed December 1, 2019. http://www.
dpbs.si/
__ Regulation of standards and minimal technical conditions for kindergarten premises and equipment,
1996, Official Gazette of the republic of Slovenia, No. 12/96 and 44/00.
__ Regulations about ventilation and air conditioning in building, 2002, Uradni list RS, št. 42/02 in 105/02.
__ Salvi, S. 2007. “Health effects of ambient air pollution in children.” Paediatric Respiratory Reviews,
no.8: 275–280.
__ Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia SURS. (2019). Preschool education / Actual data. Ac-
cessed December 3, 2020. https://www.stat.si/StatWeb/Field/Index/9/83
__ St-Jean, Matthieu, et al. 2012. “Indoor air quality in Montréal area day-care centres, Canada.” Environ-
mental Research, no. 118: 1–7.
__ Teli, Despoina, et al. 2012. “Naturally ventilated classrooms: an assessment of existing comfort models
for predicting the thermal sensation and preference of primary school children.” Energy and Buildings,
no. 53: 166–82.
__ WHO Regional Office for Europe. 2007. Development of WHO guidelines for indoor air quality: report on
a working group meeting, Bonn, Germany, 17–18, October 2007.
__ Wisconsin department of health services. Accessed November 26, 2019.
__ https://www.dhs.wisconsin.gov/chemical/carbondioxide.htm

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MODELS FOR CONTEMPORARY EXPLOITATION OF

BALNEOLOGICAL POTENTIAL IN VOJVODINA
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch28

_ Nataša Ćuković Ignjatović

Associate Professor, University of Belgrade – Faculty of
Architecture, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, natasa@arh.bg.ac.rs

_ Dušan Ignjatović
Associate Professor, University of Belgrade – Faculty of Architecture,
Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, Ignjatovic.dusan@arh.bg.ac.rs

ABSTRACT

Due to its geological specificities, Vojvodina is abundant with various balneological resources.
During 2018, an extensive multidisciplinary research was conducted in order to investigate the cur-
rent condition on 50 sites, explore the quality and quantity of relevant resources and offer proposals
for developing contemporary balneology facilities. The architectural programs spanned from mod-
est drinking fountains to complex developments and resorts with variety of facilities. Throughout
the process, a series of model units were developed and tailored to match the medical and thera-
peutical requirements with the imperatives of environmentally conscious, sustainable and resilient
architecture.

Typological and modular approach was identified as the most efficient both for effective devel-
opment and construction in various circumstances as well as for promoting the balneology as a
rediscovered potential for healthcare tourism, well-being and revival of some local communities.
Site-specific architectural design is perceived as one of the key premises of green architecture;
however, the topology of Vojvodina planes has enabled the development of modular units that
are easily adjusted to the specific site. These units were developed aiming to achieve different
functional and esthetical variations using the same basic structure, building principles and com-
ponents. Furthermore, this approach enables seasonal variations and optimisations in facility’s
capacity, allowing the permanent, year-round operation avoiding unnecessary operation costs and
maintaining favourable ecological footprint. Finally, by using the optimised units for potential ex-
tensions, maintaining and improving of building performance is secured, while keeping recogniz-
able and uncompromised architectural language throughout facility’s life span. The use of passive
design features and on-site renewable energy resources (solar and geothermal) was also taken
into the consideration from the conceptual design phase. The paper systematically presents the
scope and achieved results of the research process with an overview of selected case study exam-
ples showing the application options in various conditions.

KEYWORDS _ balneology, green architecture, resilient architecture, healthcare, well-being

INTRODUCTION

The World Health Organisation defines health as “a state of complete physical, mental and social
well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity” (WHO, 1948) stating that “the enjoy-

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ment of the highest attainable standard of health is one of the fundamental rights of every human
being”. These points are often overcast by the daily challenges of fighting diseases and infirmities,
coupled with the weaknesses of the healthcare system. Regions rich in thermomineral waters have
a unique potential for achieving sustainable advancements in public health with various benefits for
the community and local economy (Toth et al, 2015), directly and indirectly addressing a series of UN
sustainability goals (UN 2015). The paper presents research in sustainable and resilient architec-
tural design models suitable for developments of various balneal facilities in Vojvodina, agricultural
region in northern Serbia.
Balneology, though known for its medical benefits from the ancient times, currently is going through
the transition both in terms of its place in formal medical science as well as in terms of being recog-
nized as a valuable asset in context of tourism, development of local and even state economies and
improvements of general well-being of the population. Contemporary definitions of medical tourism
encompass medical travel, recreational travel and traveling for other purposes (Schmerler 2018). All
of the stated aspects are highly relevant for balneo therapy, which, by its nature, can successfully
meet the variety of their needs if provided with adequate infrastructure. Serbia is particularly rich in
mineral, thermal and thermominaral waters with sites recognized and in use ever since the Roman
Empire (Protic, 1995). The same hydrogeological resources show great potential for use of hydro-
geothermal energy (Dokmanović et al, 2012), thus providing convenient energy source that could be
used for achieving high level of energy efficiency in all sorts of spa facilities.
Vojvodina is placed in Pannonian basin, which, due to its hydrogeological specificities, is abundant
with various balneological resources which has resulted in development of various facilities and
resorts throughout the region, and the current trends have also been a driver for recent research in
this area aiming to:
- assess the capacity and potential on already known sites,
- detect new sites, asses their medical and hydrological potential,
- propose contemporary and sustainable models for exploitation of balneological resources.

During 2018, an extensive multidisciplinary research was commissioned by the Provincial Secre-
tariat for Economy and Tourism of AP Vojvodina in order to investigate the current condition on
50 sites in Banat, Srem and Backa, explore the quality and quantity of relevant resources and offer
proposals for developing contemporary balneology facilities. The samples, collected as a part of
hydrogeological research, were analysed in specialised laboratory and the results were forwarded to
the specialist at the Faculty of Medicine in order to determine the medical potential (healing factor)
of each resource and propose the adequate balneo therapy options. The research was preceded
by the study of balneological potential of Vojvodina (Milenic et al. 2017) which involved extensive
geological research resulting in identification of numerous sites of interest and definition of zones
with significant potential.
The architectural programs, derived from the multidisciplinary research and conceived as illustrative
proposals for potential developments on the site, spanned from modest drinking fountains to com-
plex resorts with variety of facilities. Since the design proposals referred to on-site use of the balne-
ological resource, the character of the sights also varied greatly, from facilities placed within urban
or rural settlements, to, sometimes rather remote sites with poor or no infrastructure. Throughout
the process, a series of model units were developed and tailored to match the medical and thera-
peutical requirements with the imperatives of environmentally conscious, sustainable and resilient
architecture. The paper presents design premises and methods as well as design strategies devel-
oped for the balneo facilities in Vojvodina and applied on a number of selected cases.

DESIGN PREMISES AND METHODS

Design premises were based in line with the UN sustainability goals, where sustainable and resilient
architecture for healthcare and spa facilities was conceived as the driver for circular economy and

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improved well-being of local population. Design approach was tailored in regard with several fac-
tors, as shown in Table 1.

_ Table 1 An overview of balneo facilities included in the study

The core design principles were applied in all cases but the focus of this paper will remain on well-
ness & spa facilities since they show most diversity in terms of urban context, status, offer of (or
need for) an accommodation and seasonal sensitivity. The design strategies were defined for sites
placed within the settlements and on the remote locations, new (greenfield) projects or providing ad-
ditional facilities for existing ones, with or without accommodation and other hospitality functions,
and with high, medium or low seasonal dependence.
The issues of sustainability and resilience were addressed on several levels:
_ program – defined to be sensitive to local needs and capacities, conceived for gradual
development (reflected on various design aspects);
_ adaptive capacities – aimed to enable year-round functioning having in mind seasonal
changes, as well as prospective changes (anticipated and unexpected) throughout the fa-
cility’s lifespan;
_ infrastructural independence – aiming for off-grid functionality, especially for the remote
sites;
_ carbon footprint - aiming for carbon-neutral developments;
_ local production – supported by the choice of proposed building technology and materials.
While resource efficiency in terms of material use and reference to 3R (reduce, reuse, recycle) con-
cepts remained as general design goals, specific design strategies were proposed in the domain of
energy efficiency, stressing the impact of architectural design on minimizing energy demand, thus
enabling to aim the coverage from on-site (renewable) energy sources. Program-specific energy ef-
ficiency design strategies were defined focusing on a wide range of passive design measures while
integrating the technology related to necessary active systems from the conceptual design phase.
Water management in these facilities is very dependent on the water composition, flows and tem-
peratures and yet needs to be dealt with extreme delicacy in order to preserve unique hydrogeolog-
ical characteristics so it needs to be treated on case-by-case basis. All proposals were designed
with extreme caution to maximising porous surfaces, minimising the potential contamination of
surface water and recommendations for rainwater collection and use where appropriate.

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DESIGN STRATEGIES – RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Design goals were addressed through a variety of design strategies, which were applied on 20 sites
with wellness & spa facilities sized from small mobile units for balneal treatments to complex mul-
tifunctional developments. The main design strategies included:
_ modularity
_ sizing and positioning of open-air and indoor features
_ passive design
_ use of on-site renewable energy sources.

Modularity
Structuring the program into modular units has proven to be a very powerful and effective design
tool for accomplishing several of design goals set for this study. While easily enabling programmatic
diversification and flexibility, the modular approach could also open the door for local production of
prefabricated elements, technologically manageable by small and medium enterprises.
Carefully planned and positioned modules allow phase execution, significantly reducing the initial
construction costs. This is even more important when local community is financing or co-funding
the facility since the median value of overall costs for 20 proposals included in the study (excluding
the land, which is already publicly owned) is estimated to be approximately EUR 1,500,000. Only two
of them were designed as single multifunctional buildings (total area 300m2 and 1000m2) due to the
specific site and programmatic conditions.
Interconnected modules, which can individually be included to or excluded from the facility’s cur-
rent operation, allow very economic operation in reduced capacity as well, which is very important,
having in mind that 15 out 20 facilities were characterised as significantly dependant on the season,
meaning that with this concept they all may remain open for public all year round with optimised
operational costs.
Modular approach, sequencing visually and functionally almost isolated open-door and enclosed
spaces provides layout with high level of privacy, minimizing the contacts between the users of
different treatments while allowing optimal hygiene and maintenance intervals during the operating
hours.
Modular design also allows for expansion of the capacities beyond the initial plans whilst retaining
the original design features, or remaining at the reduced number of constructed modules for long
period in case of unfavourable economic, social or climate conditions. Figure 1 shows the example
of rather modest initial development (3 modular units with proper common and utility spaces). Re-
garding the site conditions – area, topology and overall feasibility, the expansions can be anticipated
mainly along East-West axes in two basic scenarios:
1) Planning the phases (anticipated capacities during the development period), where the
majority of auxiliary/technical spaces are planned according to the final capacity and mod-
ular units and adjacent programs (medical and/or hospitality) are executed in stages.
2) Open development, where the majority of auxiliary/technical spaces are planned accord-
ing to the initial capacity with the main layout features are designed to support additional
extensions until reaching the full capacity of a given site.

Simple layout and structure of individual modules makes them very flexible, allowing for partial ad-
aptations, changes of use or even regaining the functionality after extreme catastrophic events and
severe material damages.
The general concept allows optional additions of adjacent hospitality and/or medical facilities (Fig-
ure 1). However, such facilities might be planned with different, program-specific design strategies
and they are not further discussed at this stage of research.

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_ Figure 1: Model for modular wellness facilities

Sizing and positioning of open-air and indoor features

General placement and interconnections of open-air features and built structures was proposed
through holistic design approach, taking into consideration functional demands, passive design
principles, and advantages of modular approach described in the previous section. The presented
design strategies were developed having in mind the specific nature and demands of wellness and
spa features that incorporate balneo therapy as well as the hydrogeological potential of those sites.
Open-air and indoor features were purposely sized and organized in a way that allows shared use of
auxiliary spaces, i.e. reception, changing rooms, lockers, service rooms etc. (Figure 1). The therapy
functions are distributed throughout the open-air and enclosed spaces in a way that allows their
compatibility and provides a continuity of various treatments in different weather scenarios. This
enables extended operation time, mitigating the sensitivity to seasonal/annual variations in climate
while optimizing running costs.
The most of open-air features are rather small in size, following the general concept of modularity
and phase execution and operation. The width i of intermediate open-air spaces O may vary in re-
gard to the height of the neighbouring modules M (Figure 1), functional and privacy requirements.
Additional screens may be added for enhanced privacy and additional sun protection of intermediate
open spaces.
The modest capacities of both enclosed and open-air spaces allow local production for less specific
types and less demanding maintenance which may be one of the actual preconditions for sustain-
ability of such features in small communities.
Passive design strategies
Striving for high level of energy efficiency and climate-responsive design, a series of passive design
strategies were proposed to support the overall design goals.
Placement and orientation: Placement of all open-air features and enclosed spaces was done in
way that provide optimal daylighting, solar exposure and shading (Figure 1, Figure 2). North-facing
sections are used for technical rooms, storages, sanitary spaces etc. Circulation corridors connect-
ing the modules are also placed on the Northern side, leaving the South-facing open-air spaces
between the modules, sheltered and functionally supported by the side volumes. Longitudinal cir-
culation space can be open or enclosed with glazed south-facing walls, serving as buffer space for
modules.
Massing, solar gains and shading: Modules are compact in shape in order to provide good shape
factor for each unit. The same principles were applied to all public and utility spaces except for the
longitudinal circulation corridor. Modular units and corridor are mainly opaque on the North façade
for improved thermal performance and almost fully glazed on the South façade for maximising solar
gains. Adequate shading was provided by various design features (Figure 2) tailored to provide un-
obstructed views in various weather conditions and additionally supported with adequate choice of
glazing and flexible interior shading.

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Natural ventilation and cooling: Glazed surfaces are designed with the intention to maximise the
share of operable elements with cross-ventilation provided for all spaces. The basic layout, as de-
scribed previously in this chapter, provides very good preconditions for natural ventilation and effec-
tive application of night cooling, further enhanced by the green areas and water features. In favour-
able weather conditions, the glazed façade of the long corridor can be open along the intermediate
semi-atrium spaces.

_ Figure 2 Solar exposure and shading: all glazed surfaces of wellness modules and circulation volume
are fully shaded during summer to prevent overheating and almost completely exposed during winter to
enable direct passive solar gains

Thermal mass and materials: The modules are designed as lightweight structures where low ther-
mal mass is used for optimising the comfort and energy efficiency in intermittently used spaces.
Enhanced thermal insulation and high-performance glazed element could significantly contribute
to further mitigation of energy demands for cooling and heating. The façade and roof finishing also
affect the energy efficiency but they should be considered in case-by-case basis. In exposed sites,
with the peak occupancy in summer season, reflective surfaces or green roofs should be prioritized.
In more secluded sites, structures surrounded by deciduous trees (naturally shaded in summer and
exposed in winter), reflectiveness is not so much of an advantage.
Use of on-site renewable energy sources (RES)
Striving for high level of energy efficiency and self-sustainability, two main on-site RES were consid-
ered: geothermal (hydrogeothermal) and solar (PV).
The largest number of wells that capture mineral waters in the area of Vojvodina has an outlet
temperature in the range of 40-600C (Milenic et al. 2017) which enables direct use of geothermal
energy for space heating and sanitary hot water. Abundance of hydrogeothermal resource on these
sites might allow instalment of completely independent system, providing a reliable off-grid energy
source for the entire facility in most occupancy regimes.
Solar potential is rather constant on the territory of Vojvodina, with total annual solar irradiation
averaging around 1400 kWh/m2/an, and monthly values of over 100 kWh/m2/mo for March through
October (as calculated using PVGIS software). This indicates that significant amounts of electric
energy can be generated on-site, supporting the water filtration and other technical systems in their
full capacity (during the main tourist season), thus complete energy independence could be targeted
on the sites where such approach might be necessary or feasible in given circumstances.

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CONCLUSIONS

Balneological resources are recognized for their tourist potential and may be used as drivers for
development, especially as is the case in some municipalities in Vojvodina. The presented model for
wellness&spa facilities for the sites with identified thermomineral resources is based on modular
approach, designed primarily for initial steps for contemporary exploitation, often to be financed
or strongly supported by the local authorities, with limited financial resources and capability for
long-term strategies. Design strategies presented in the paper (modularity, sizing and positioning of
open-air and indoor features, passive design features), combined with the use of on-site renewable
energy sources enable high level of sustainability, resilience, energy independence, offering extend-
ed operational options, adaptable to seasonal, weakly and even daily changes in use. The flexibility
is allowed for construction phases as well, adapting to predicted and unpredicted needs and devel-
opment conditions, use of local manufacturers which is of great importance in less developed areas,
facing constant depopulation.

REFERENCES

__ Dokmanović, Petar B., Krunić, Olivera Ž., Martinović, Mića K., and Magazinović, Sava M. 2012. “Hy-
drogeothermal Resources in Spa Areas of Serbia: Main Properties and Possible Improvement of Use”.
Thermal Science Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 21-30
__ Milenić, D., Krunić, O., Vranješ, A., 2017. Balneological Potential of the Territory of AP Vojvodina - Re-
source Research, Multiparameter Valorisation and Directions of Development (in Serbian), Scientific
study. Belgrade: University of Belgrade - Faculty of Mining and Geology
__ Protić, D., 1995. Mineral and Thermal Waters of Serbia (in Serbian), Geoinstitut, Special editions, vol.
17, Belgrade, Serbia, p.35
__ Schmerler, Klaus. 2018. Medical Tourism in Germany: Determinants of International Patients’ Destina-
tion Choice. Cham: Springer
__ Szokolay, Steven. 2004. Introduction to architectural science: the basis of sustainable design. Oxford:
Architectural Press
__ Toth, Aniko N., Sztermen, Aniko, Fenerty, David K. 2015. “Social Acceptance of Geothermal Energy
Through Tourism and Balneology” in Proceedings World Geothermal Congress 2015 Melbourne
__ ***United Nations. 2015. Transforming our world: the 2030 agenda for sustainable development. A/
RES/70/1
__ ***World Health Organization. 1948. Constitution of the World Health Organization

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NEARLY ZERO ENERGY BUILDING CO2 EMISSIONS

DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch29

_ Marin Binički
Lecturer, Faculty of Architecture, University of
Zagreb, Croatia, marin.binicki@arhitekt.hr

_ Zoran Veršić
Associate Professor, PhD, Faculty of Architecture,
University of Zagreb, Croatia, zoran.versic@arhitekt.hr

_ Iva Muraj
Associate Professor, PhD, Faculty of Architecture,
University of Zagreb, Croatia, iva.muraj@arhitekt.hr

ABSTRACT

Nearly zero energy standard is an obligation for all new buildings in the European Union since the
beginning of the year 2020. Improved energy efficiency and the transition from fossil fuels to renew-
able sources are expected to significantly reduce CO2 emissions from buildings. Operational energy
(for heating, domestic hot water, cooling etc.) represents a large share of the energy use in buildings,
but it is still only a segment in overall energy use during the life cycle of a building. Another major
share is construction and production of building materials. For the buildings with the poor energy
performance and fossil fuels as the main energy source, overall operational energy CO2 emissions
exceed embodied energy emissions by several times. As energy sources shift from fossil fuels to
renewable energy, operational and embodied energy ratio is changing.

This article compares operational energy CO2 emissions for buildings that meet the nearly zero en-
ergy standards with those that do not, as well as embodied energy CO2 emissions for the different
types of load bearing construction. Analysis is performed on a single-family house in Zagreb, Cro-
atia, that meets the current national standards. Operational energy CO2 emissions comparison is
made for: standard natural gas boiler, condensing natural gas boiler combined with photovoltaic
solar panels, air to water heat pump and wood pellets boiler. Embodied energy CO2 emissions com-
parison is made for: reinforced concrete walls and slabs, perforated brick walls with semi-prefabri-
cated ceiling and timber frame construction.

KEYWORDS _ nearly zero energy building, CO2 emissions,

operational energy, embodied energy, single-family house

INTRODUCTION

Major changes are occurring in the building sector. From 2020, the Nearly Zero Energy Building
(nZEB) Standard will be required for all new buildings. Improved energy efficiency and the transition
from fossil fuels to renewable sources are expected to reduce significantly CO2 emissions from
buildings.
Directive 2010/31/EU on the energy performance of buildings (EPBD II) lays down the obligation that

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after 31 December 2019, all new buildings should be nearly zero-energy buildings, meaning they
should be highly energy efficient, and their energy demand should largely be met from renewable en-
ergy sources. As an EU member state, Croatia has honoured its obligation of establishing the nearly
zero-energy building standard and has laid down requirements in the document titled Technical
regulation on energy economy and heat retention in buildings (Official Gazette 128/2015) which has
been in effect since 1 January 20161. The Technical Regulation sets the same deadline for design of
nearly zero-energy buildings, which is 31 December 2019. After that date, all new buildings need to
be nearly zero-energy.
In December 2019, there were 850 building permits issued. By types of constructions, 83,2% of per-
mits were issued on buildings (80% residential buildings, 20% non-residential buildings) and 16,6%
on civil engineering works. By types of construction works, 75,3% of permits were issued on new
construction and 24,7% on reconstruction2. Considering these statistics, the residential building
sector dominates construction activity in Croatia, so many studies on the future building standards
have primarily been focused on residential buildings.
The paper is the results of a research and development project on “Sustainable construction in Cro-
atia”3 . It also refers to a students’ research “CO2 footprint of nearly-zero energy buildings” under-
taking for the course Architecture & Technology 1 (2018/2019) within the master degree programme
at the Department of Architectural Technology and Building Science, Faculty of Architecture, Uni-
versity of Zagreb4.

ANALYSED MODEL OF A SINGLE-FAMILY HOUSE

For the purpose of this paper, the model of the family house is a single-family house in Zagreb
(continental part of Croatia). It is a 172 m2 two-storey building with perforated brick walls, semi-pre-
fabricated ceiling and timber roof construction. Outer walls are thermally insulated with 15 cm poly-
styrene, floor to the earth with 12 cm polystyrene and pitched timber roof with 21 cm mineral wool.
Openings are double glazed with plastic frames. The house is ventilated naturally (by windows).

_ Figure 1. Plans and view of a model of a single-family house

In such a building the calculated results are: the specific annual energy need for heating is Q”H,nd
= 38 kWh/m2a, the annual energy need for heating is QH,nd = 6.553 kWh/a, and the QW,nd 2.150
kWh/a for domestic hot water. The analysis was done in line with the current Technical Regulation
and with the use of EnCert-HR v.2.42 software.

1 *** 2015.
2 Croatian Bureau of Statistics. 2020.
3 Veršić, Z. et. al. 2019.
4 Muraj, I., Veršić, Z., & Binički, M. 2020.

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 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

OPERATIONAL ENERGY CO2 EMISSIONS

In continental parts of Croatia, as well as in most of Europe, energy use for space and domestic hot
water heating is the most important end-use in the residential sector. According to Technical reg-
ulation annual primary energy and CO2 emission calculation for residential buildings includes only
the energy for heating, domestic hot water and auxiliary energy for ventilation system (if installed)
. In this analysis only CO2 emissions for heating and domestic hot water (in further text DHW) are
calculated, while the energy for lighting and household appliances is estimated. CO2 emissions will
evenly depend on the energy need, type of fuel and system efficiency. 1 kWh of heat from biomass
will produce more CO2 than 1 kWh of heat from natural gas6, as well as 1 kWh of produced electrical
energy. But on the global scale, growing biomass will absorb CO2 from the atmosphere and use of
highly efficient electrical heat-pump heating will result in less CO2 emissions.7 Fuel CO2 emissions
are calculated as a global warming potential (in further text GWP), as a factor of carbon dioxide, or
CO2 equivalent (in further text CO2 eq).
This analysis will include heating systems that meet the nearly zero energy standards (obligation
since the beginning of the year 2020) and those that do not (before year 2020) for a building with the
same energy need (QH,nd = 6.553 kWh/a). For a nearly zero energy single-family house in continen-
tal Croatia, annual specific primary energy need Eprim/Ak for heating and DHW should not exceed
45 kWh/m2a, and renewable energy ratio γren should be greater than 30%. For the analysed cases,
the same system is used both for heating and DHW.

_ Table
Table 1: Basic 1: Basic
heating heating
and DHW and information
system DHW system information
and and fuel CO2 emissions
fuel CO2 emissions
Heating and DHW system Overall system Fuel Primary energy GWPfuel/kWh**
efficiency* factor** (kg CO2 eq/kWh)
ηsystem (-) fdel (-)
Standard boiler 0,72 Natural gas 1,095 0,220
Condensing boiler 0,81 Natural gas 1,095 0,220
Photovoltaic panels 0,15 Electricity -1,614 -0,235
Air-water heat pump 2,55 Electricity 1,614 0,235
Wood pellets boiler 0,81 Wood pellets 0,123 0,034
* average values for a type of a heating system
** national fuel primary energy factors and CO2 emissions per kWh of energy

Annual primary energy consumption of a system is calculated from delivered energy and primary
energy
Table factor:zero energy building criteria and results for different heating and DHW systems in the analysed
2: Nearly
Edel =ofEneed
model a 172 m/ ηsystem
2
single-family house and CO2 emissions from annual energy use
Eprim
Heating,= DHW
Edel system
. fdel Fuel Eprim/Ak Renewable nZEB GWPheating,DHW GWPtotal
Where (kWh/m a)
2
energy share (kg CO2 eq/a) (kg CO2
Edel is the delivered energy to a system (kWh); γren (%) eq/a)
1. Standard gas boiler Natural gas 76,60 0% No 2.659 3.451
Eneed is the energyNatural
2. Condensing gas
need gasof a system (kWh);
Eprim is panels
boiler & PV the primary energy of a system
Electricity 34,31 (kWh); 30% Yes 1.536 2.328
ηsystem
3. Air-wateris thepump
heat system efficiency (-); 32,03
Electricity 67% Yes 785 1.577
Yes 370
4. Wood pellets boiler
fdel is the nationallyWood pellets
defined primary7,68 100%
energy factor of a delivered energy carrier1.162
(-)
Table 3: Global warming potential GWPtotal,material (kg CO2 eq) of the materials and layers used in the example
Renewable energy share is calculated by the formula: 8
2
Material (function) GWPtotal,material Density Thickness in CO2 emission/m
γren = 100 . (Eren + Eren1) / (Eren + Edel,total) 3 2
(kg CO2 eq/kg) ρ (kg/m ) construction (kg CO2 eq/m )
Where d (cm)
Eren is the renewable energy produced
Cement screed 0,120 on site (solar
2000 and environment
6 energy)
14,4(kWh);
Clay roof tiles 0,258 2000 2 10,3
Concrete (foundation) 0,095 2000 100 190,0
Concrete5(slab)
*** 2015. 0,095 2000 10 19,0
EPS 150 6 Sterman,
(ground floorJ. D., Siegel, L., & Rooney-Varga,
insulation) 4,170 J. N. 2018.
27,5 10 11,5
EPS f (wall
7 insulation)
*** 2020. 4,170 15,8 15 9,9
EPS t (soundproofing) 4,170 11 2 0,9
8 Kurnitski, J. (Ed.). 2013.
Gypsum board 0,226 900 2,5 5,1
Laminated timber (walls/slabs) -1,100 475 16 -83,6
Mineral wool (roof
2,450 15 21 7,7
insulation/soundproofing)
[TECH] 250
OSB board -1,150 650 1,8 -13,5
Perforated brick (wall) 0,182 1000 25 45,5
 efficiency* factor** (kg CO2 eq/kWh)
ηsystem (-) fdel (-)
Standard boiler 0,72 Natural gas 1,095 0,220
7TH INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC CONFERENCE
Condensing boiler 0,81 Natural gas 1,095 0,220
Photovoltaic panels 0,15 Electricity -1,614 -0,235
Air-water heat pump 2,55 Electricity 1,614 0,235
Wood pellets boiler 0,81 Wood pellets 0,123 0,034
Eren1 is the renewable energy delivered to the building (biofuel, biomass…) (kWh);
* average values for a type of a heating system
Edel,total is the
** national fuel totalenergy
primary energy delivered
factors and CO2 to the building
emissions per kWh(kWh);
of energy
γren is the renewable energy share in the delivered energy (%)

_ Table 2: Nearly zero energy building criteria and results for different heating and DHW systems in the
Table 2: Nearly zero model
analysed energyof
building criteria
a 172 m2 and resultshouse
single-family for different heating
and CO2 and DHW
emissions systems
from annualinenergy
the analysed
use
model of a 172 m2 single-family house and CO2 emissions from annual energy use
Heating, DHW system Fuel Eprim/Ak Renewable nZEB GWPheating,DHW GWPtotal
2
(kWh/m a) energy share (kg CO2 eq/a) (kg CO2
γren (%) eq/a)
1. Standard gas boiler Natural gas 76,60 0% No 2.659 3.451
2. Condensing gas Natural gas
boiler & PV panels Electricity 34,31 30% Yes 1.536 2.328
3. Air-water heat pump Electricity 32,03 67% Yes 785 1.577
4. Wood pellets boiler Wood pellets 7,68 100% Yes 370 1.162

Table 3: Global warming potential GWPtotal,material (kg CO2 eq) of the materials and layers used in the example
With the(function)
Material transfer from fossil to renewable
GWPtotal,materialenergyDensity
sources, reduction in CO2
Thickness in CO2emissions
emission/m for heating
2

and DHW of a single-family house (kgrange from 42%ρ (kg/m

CO2 eq/kg) to 86%.
3
) If energy consumption
construction for other
(kg CO2 eq/m
2
) systems
and appliances is included, then emissions savings ratio is dsmaller. (cm) Annual use of electricity for
Cement screed 0,120 2000 6 9 14,4
lighting and other household appliances
Clay roof tiles 0,258
is estimated2000 to 3.600 kWh/a 2
, which will 10,3
result in additional
CO2 emissions
Concrete of 792 kg CO2. When 0,095
(foundation) electricity use2000 for lighting and 100 other household
190,0 appliances is
accounted,
Concrete (slab)transfer to nearly zero energy
0,095standard reduces
2000 operational
10 energy CO219,0emissions from
EPS 150
33% to (ground
66% floor insulation)
annually. 4,170 27,5 10 11,5
Table 1: Basic heating and DHW system information and fuel CO emissions
EPS f (wall insulation) 4,170 15,8
2 15 9,9
EPS t (soundproofing)
Heating and DHW system Overall system4,170 Fuel 11 Primary 2energy GWP0,9 fuel/kWh**
Gypsum board efficiency* 0,226 900 factor**2,5 (kg CO5,12 eq/kWh)
EMBODIED
Laminated timber ENERGY CO2ηEMISSIONS
(walls/slabs) system (-)
-1,100 475 fdel (-) 16 -83,6
Mineral wool
Standard boiler(roof 0,72 2,450 Natural gas 1,095
15 21 7,7 0,220
insulation/soundproofing)
Condensing boiler 0,81 Natural gas 1,095 0,220
Overall weight of materials in the analysed single-family house equals 1,8 290 tons. -13,5 Production of such
OSB board
Photovoltaic panels 0,15 -1,150 Electricity650 -1,614 -0,235
great amount
Perforatedheat
Air-water brick of materials
(wall)
pump requires energy
2,55 0,182 and therefore
Electricity1000 releases CO2.
25
1,614 Depending on
45,50,235 the material,
Perforated
production
Wood pelletsbrick (semi-prefabricated
emissions
boiler can vary from negative
0,81 0,193 values
Wood pelletsto notable amounts
0,123 in worldwide 0,034 emissions.
1125 15 32,6
*ceiling)
Wood average values for
products a type
store of a heating
more carbonsystemthan it is released from their manufacture10, resulting in negative
Plastering
** fuel primary energy factors and CO20,155
national mortar emissions per kWh 1800of energy 1,5 4,2
CO2 emissions.
Polyethylene (vaporOn the other hand, in 2,630
brake) the last 20 years, 650 global cement 0,02 production0,3 has doubled, and
emissions
Polyethylenefrom cement production reached
(roof underlay) 3,300 1,5 Gt CO2 980 in 201411 , or 4% of emissions
0,02 0,6 from fossil
Polyethylene
fuels, and 8% (sealing
of total CO2 emissions. 2,100
sheeting) 980 0,02 0,4
Polymer bitumen (waterproofing) 0,819 1100 1 9,0
The impact
Table 2: Nearly of theenergy
zero material production
building criteria and on the for
results environment
different can be measured
DHW systemsas in athe
GWP in the same
Reinforced concrete (walls/slabs) 0,161 2400 heating and16 61,8analysed
way
model as aa 172
GWP
of plaster
Silicate
2
for greenhouse
single-family
m(rendering) house gasses. 2 Material
and CO0,651emissions total GWP (GWPtotal)
from annual
1800 energy use 0,5 includes both 5,9contributions of
greenhouse
GWPtotal,material
Heating, DHW(kg gasses to Fuel
CO2 eq/kg)
system the
dataatmosphere
from baubook Eprimas
/Akwell as
eco2soft carbon
–Renewable
life stored
cycle assessment
nZEB in the material.
of the
GWP buildings
heating,DHW
Since
software.
GWP the
Theproduction
total
calculation
process of material
differs GWPtotal
for each according to (kWh/m
manufacturer ÖNORM EN
a) 15804.
and 2countryenergy (type
shareof fuel used,(kgnational
CO2 eq/a)electricity
(kg CO2 production
γren (%) also differ. Materials CO2 eq/a)
emissions etc.), CO2 emissions for the same product emissions in this
GWP value
1. Standard
analysis
of boiler
gas each
weregas
layer must
Natural
obtainedNatural
fromgas
gasbe compared
76,60 in combination
0% with
No density and thickness,
2.659 3.451and
baubook eco2soft – life cycle assessment of the buildings software.
2. Condensing
therefore mass. Production of thermal insulation materials emits most of CO2 per kg of
Theboiler
calculation of material
& PV panels GWPtotal is34,31
Electricity according to30%ÖNORM ENYes15804.1.536 2.328
material, while the lowest
3. Air-water heat pump
emissions are
Electricity
per kg of concrete.
32,03 67%
However,
Yes
the
785
concrete1.577
wall is
4. Wood pellets boiler Yes 370 1.162
_ Table 3: GlobalWood pellets
warming potential7,68 100%
GWPtotal,material (kg CO2 eq) of the materials and layers used in
the example
Table 3: Global warming potential GWPtotal,material (kg CO2 eq) of the materials and layers used in the example
2
Material (function) GWPtotal,material Density Thickness in CO2 emission/m
3 2
(kg CO2 eq/kg) ρ (kg/m ) construction (kg CO2 eq/m )
d (cm)
Cement screed 0,120 2000 6 14,4
Clay roof tiles 0,258 2000 2 10,3
Concrete (foundation) 0,095 2000 100 190,0
Concrete (slab) 0,095 2000 10 19,0
EPS 150 9 Brounen,
(ground floorD., Kok, N., & Quigley, J.
insulation) M. 2012.
4,170 27,5 10 11,5
EPS f (wall Lippke, B., Wilson, J., Meil, J., &4,170
10insulation) Taylor, A. 2010. 15,8 15 9,9
EPS t (soundproofing)
11 Andrew, R. M. 2018. 4,170 11 2 0,9
Gypsum board 0,226 900 2,5 5,1
Laminated timber (walls/slabs) -1,100 475 16 -83,6
Mineral wool (roof
2,450 15 21 7,7
insulation/soundproofing)
251
OSB board -1,150 650 1,8 -13,5
Perforated brick (wall) 0,182 1000 25 45,5
Table 3: Global warming potential GWPtotal,material (kg CO2 eq) of the materials and layers used in the example
2
Material (function) GWPtotal,material Density Thickness in CO2 emission/m
3 2
(kg CO2 eq/kg) ρ (kg/m ) construction PLACES
(kg COAND
2 eq/m )
TECHNOLOGIES 2020
d (cm)
Cement screed 0,120 2000 6 14,4
Clay roof tiles 0,258 2000 2 10,3
Concrete (foundation) 0,095 2000 100 190,0
Concrete (slab) 0,095 2000 10 19,0
EPS 150 (ground floor insulation) 4,170 27,5 10 11,5
EPS f (wall insulation) 4,170 15,8 15 9,9
EPS t (soundproofing) 4,170 11 2 0,9
Gypsum board 0,226 900 2,5 5,1
Laminated timber (walls/slabs) -1,100 475 16 -83,6
Mineral wool (roof
2,450 15 21 7,7
insulation/soundproofing)
OSB board -1,150 650 1,8 -13,5
Perforated brick (wall) 0,182 1000 25 45,5
Perforated brick (semi-prefabricated
0,193 1125 15 32,6
ceiling)
Plastering mortar 0,155 1800 1,5 4,2
Polyethylene (vapor brake) 2,630 650 0,02 0,3
Polyethylene (roof underlay) 3,300 980 0,02 0,6
Polyethylene (sealing sheeting) 2,100 980 0,02 0,4
Polymer bitumen (waterproofing) 0,819 1100 1 9,0
Reinforced concrete (walls/slabs) 0,161 2400 16 61,8
Silicate plaster (rendering) 0,651 1800 0,5 5,9
GWPtotal,material (kg CO2 eq/kg) data from baubook eco2soft – life cycle assessment of the buildings software. The
calculation of material GWPtotal according to ÖNORM EN 15804.

GWP value of each layer must be compared in combination with density and thickness, and
GWPtotal,material (kg CO2 eq/kg) data from baubook eco2soft – life cycle assessment of the build-
therefore mass. Production of thermal insulation materials emits most of CO2 per kg of
ings software. The calculation of material GWPtotal according to ÖNORM EN 15804.
material, while the lowest emissions are per kg of concrete. However, the concrete wall is
GWP value of each layer must be compared in combination with density and thickness, and therefore
mass. Production of thermal insulation materials emits most of CO2 per kg of material, while the
lowest emissions are per kg of concrete. However, the concrete wall is hundreds of times heavier
than the thermal insulation in construction, and therefore the final greatest emissions are from load
bearing construction, and the lowest from thermal insulation and other linings.
Further analysis will compare operational energy emissions with those of embodied energy. Three
types of load bearing construction with accompanying linings will be calculated: masonry, rein-
forced concrete and laminated timber. Thermal insulation thickness remains the same in all the
cases. Due to the changes in thermal conductivity of load bearing construction, the changes in
operational energy are less than ±1%, and they are neglected in further analysis.

[TECH] 252
7TH INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC CONFERENCE

_ Figure 2: Construction elements embodied energy CO2 emissions for a model of a single-family house

RESULTS

Expected lifetime of a building is 50 years (for the load bearing construction). That is the time frame
inside which embodied and operational energy will be compared. Building elements refurbishment
as well as decline in heating and DHW system efficiency are neglected in the calculation. Due to the
changes in thermal conductivity of load bearing construction, the changes in operational energy are
less than ±1%, and they are also neglected in further analysis.
For fossil fuel heating systems, building lifetime CO2 emissions (for heating, DHW and electricity)
are several times greater than those of embodied energy. In case of old buildings (with poor energy
efficiency) that ratio is much greater. Nearly zero energy standard and transfer to renewable energy
sources reduces operational energy CO2 emissions (for heating, DHW and electricity use) from 33%
to 67% for the analysed single-family house. With such reduction in building heating and DHW emis-
sions, operational energy is reduced to a scale of embodied energy.

_ Figure 3: 50-year building life cycle operational and embodied energy CO2 emissions (t CO2 eq)

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 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

CONCLUSIONS

Results show that nearly zero energy standard significantly reduces operational energy CO2 emis-
sions and that further potential for reducing carbon dioxide emissions lies in the choice of building
materials. The emphasis is on a load bearing construction since it is the source of most embodied
energy CO2 emissions. Since the timber sequesters large amounts of carbon, it has a negative CO2
footprint, and the reinforced concrete structure the highest due to cement production emissions. Al-
though wooden constructions products impact environment the least, flammability and load bearing
capacity are the limiting factor in their use. The same characteristics of reinforced concrete are the
reason for its’ widespread use.
Single family houses are the least challenging type of buildings regarding load bearing construction
and fire protection, the choice of negative or low CO2 footprint materials is possible for most of the
building layers and elements. For other, more demanding types of buildings, such choice may not
be possible for all elements, but if it is considered timely, the reduction in embodied CO2 emissions
can also be achieved.

 
REFERENCES

__ Andrew, R. M. 2018. “Global CO2 emissions from cement production”. Earth System Science Data 10,
no. 1 (January): 195.
__ Brounen, D., Kok, N., & Quigley, J. M. 2012. “Residential energy use and conservation: Economics and
demographics”. European Economic Review 56, no. 5 (January): 931-945.
__ Croatian Bureau of Statistics. 2019. “Building Permits Issued, December 2019, First release”. Accessed
February 12, 2020. https://www.dzs.hr/.
__ Kurnitski, J. (Ed.). 2013. Cost optimal and nearly zero-energy buildings (nZEB): definitions, calculation
principles and case studies. Springer-Verlag London.
__ Lippke, B., Wilson, J., Meil, J., & Taylor, A. 2010. “Characterizing the importance of carbon stored in
wood products”. Wood and Fiber Science 42 (March): 5-14.
__ Muraj, I., Veršić, Z., Binicki, M. 2020. “Sustainability, Environmental Performance and Energy Efficiency
in Higher Education: Faculty of Architecture, University of Zagreb”. In IOP Conference Series: Earth and
Environmental Science (Vol. 410, No. 1, p. 012088). IOP Publishing.
__ Sterman, J. D., Siegel, L., & Rooney-Varga, J. N. 2018. “Does replacing coal with wood lower CO2 emis-
sions? Dynamic lifecycle analysis of wood bioenergy”. Environmental Research Letters 13, no. 1 (Janu-
ary): 015007
__ Veršić, Z. et al. 2019. “Determining a model of reference public buildings from different periods of con-
struction in Croatia for the purpose of energy analysis refurbishment into nearly zero-energy buildings
(nZEB)”. Scientific project, Faculty of Architecture, Zagreb, 2017-2019.
__ *** Republic of Croatia, Ministry of Construction and Physical planning. 2020. “Primary energy factors”.
Accessed March 5, 2020. https://mgipu.gov.hr/.
__ *** Technical regulation on energy economy and heat retention in buildings (OG 128/2015)

SOURCES OF ILLUSTRATIONS
__ Figures 1 – 3 Authors

SOURCES OF TABLES
__ Tables 1 – 3 Authors

254
7TH INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC CONFERENCE

OPEN BIM FOR CITIZEN ENGAGEMENT IN

SUSTAINABLE RENOVATION PROJECTS
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch30

_ Coline Senior
Research assistant, Norwegian University of Science and Technology,
Høgskoleringen 7A, Trondheim, Norway, coline.senior@ntnu.no

ABSTRACT

The main goal of this paper is to discuss the development of a digital tool based on an open build-
ing information model (BIM) for better citizens’ engagement in sustainable renovation projects of
residential buildings. The ambition is linked with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), sup-
ported by the Norwegian government, municipalities and housing cooperatives’ Federation NBBL-
Norske Boligbyggelags Landsforbund (representing of 25% of residential buildings). The housing
sector in Norway represents 67% of the building stock, which reinforces the importance of address-
ing sustainability in this sector. The research aims to open the BIM circle to residents, increasing
transparency and building trust in decision-making processes, facilitating easier communication,
creating a new cultural identity and opportunities for inter-generational relations, visualizing com-
plex technical solutions and ultimately influencing better project outcomes. The methodology used
both quantitative and qualitative research methods that were organized through summer-schools
and semester courses. In the paper, the analysis of the social/individual barriers to sustainable re-
furbishment and co-creation of a new interactive tool to achieve citizen engagement, are given. The
methods also include the review of the past refurbishment projects, in which we identify successes
and failures in the decision-making processes. Those bottom-up approaches are developed to bet-
ter meet residents’ needs by gathering their feedback, leading to improved communication of the
benefits of a high standard refurbishment project. A substantial part of gathering information was
to listen and not teach to understand people needs and voices ultimately creating a visual survey.
Thereby enabling a gamification of the data collection process. The concept for a citizen engage-
ment platform integrating BIM is developed and tested for the purposes of modelling the case site,
collecting data and communicating with residents.

KEYWORDS _ citizen engagement, co-creation, gamification, SDG, BIM

INTRODUCTION

The UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) frame ambitious actions for achieving energy and
carbon neutrality in the building sector until 2030.1 As a signatory of the Paris Agreement, Norway
has committed to a 50% and towards 55% reduction of greenhouse gas emissions compared to the
1990 level by 2030.2 The biggest potential for improving energy efficiency lies within the existing
stock of buildings, as 97,5% of it in Europe does not fall in energy class A. In Norway, housing rep-
resents 67% of the building stock, which reinforces the importance of addressing sustainability in
this sector.
The problem posed to the residential building sector, presented by NBBL, the largest housing coop-
eration in Norway (25% of residential building), is how to communicate the benefits of sustainable
refurbishments and gain the support of individual private owners in order to achieve ambitious sus-

255
 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

tainability goals.
Preliminary reporting from NBBL and SINTEF3 pointed to the following main social barriers and chal-
lenges in sustainable renovation of residential buildings with multiple private owners: Coordination
of the different stakeholders and their interests; Motivation to take action and participate in the proj-
ect; Communication of the expanded benefits and added value of sustainable building renovation,
such as energy and economic savings in comparison to direct initial costs.
This paper is investigating refurbishment activities in relation to the local urban community (i.e.
residents) of Karolinerveien Borettslag in Trondheim, Norway. It is seen as an opportunity to trace
SDGs down to local processes in a major segment of the building sector that has a high impact on
energy use and efficiency among other environmental impacts.
The initiative is shaped by the opposing triggering factors of residents to buy into needed refurbish-
ments set against wider policy initiatives and sustainability targets to be achieved in the building
sector. This research is geared towards the groups which are crucial for achieving the SDGs within
the building sector: facility managers, co-operative housing federations and associations (specifi-
cally NBBL), the construction industry, citizens and other actors (public institutions, energy provid-
ers and academia).
The purpose of this case study is to present the development of an interactive tool for residents’
involvement in sustainable building renovation of their residential blocks in the Karolinerveien Hous-
ing Cooperative. At this stage in the research, the involvement of users will be generally defined as
the participation of residents to the development of a sustainable refurbishment project.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Challenges in the building sector and the BIM opportunities

Cities represent only 3% of the total surface of the Earth but are responsible for 60 to 80 percent of
the total energy consumption and nearly 70 percent of CO2 emissions. The building sector accounts
for 36% of the global energy use and close to 40% of CO2 emissions. The current trends regarding
the increasing amount of built square meters indicate that 65% of the expected building stock by
2060 is already built. This stresses the importance to address the existing stock of buildings in
order to mitigate the effects of climate change. It also means that in order to better achieve the
overall goal of lowering the sector’s impact, it is crucial to set ambitious requirements, going be-
yond today’s regulation. In the residential sector, the individual private owners must take action and
invest in the most efficient solutions when engaging into a renovation project. Although two thirds
of the global population consider climate change as a “major threat”4, it is nonetheless a challenge
to motivate people to act on it, and barriers remain when addressing their individual property and
engaging into sustainable renovation. Social strategies focusing on engaging citizens in formal and
informal groups are important to achieve social behavioral changes for climate mitigation and adap-
tation (Temeljotov-Salaj et al., 2018). Hauge et al. (2013) points social mechanisms that efficiently
influence human attitudes and actions, such as: social norms, competition, praise and acknowl-
edgement, social-identity theory, pilot examples, social learning, attention from others, face-to-face
stronger together and consensus. In the residential sector, Lindkvist et al. (2014) explains that the
adoption of new solutions to improve energy efficiency for example, is usually tied up by the insti-
tutional barriers (policy, installation and procurement), financial constraints and social obstacles
(resistance to changing the current ways of doing in a society). The ZenN5 research project focusing
on the development of nearly zero emission neighborhoods has revealed challenges in engaging

1 https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals.html
2 https://lovdata.no/dokument/LTI/lov/2017-06-16-60
3 Stiftelsen for industriell og teknisk forskning, Norwegian Independent research Organization.
4 PEW Research Center. Spring 2018 Global Attitutes Suvey. Q22d
5 ZenN Nearly Zero energy Neighborhoods project

[TECH] 256
7TH INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC CONFERENCE

all stakeholders to make well-informed choices and influencing user behavior in their indoor envi-
ronment. A joint report from NBBL and SINTEF on decision making in housing cooperatives refer to
similar challenges, namely in:

_ Coordination: A challenge when working with multiple actors and stakeholders with di-
verse interests in a residential building, to gather and sort data for decision-making.
_ Motivation: A challenge to motivate residents to engage in traditionally top-down project
planning processes such as building refurbishments.
_ Communication: A challenge to communicate the expanded benefits and added value of
sustainable building renovation, such as energy and economic savings in comparison to
direct initial costs.

The Building Information Model technology as defined by Eastman et al. (2011) is “a modelling tech-
nology and associated set of processes to produce, communicate, and analyse building models”6. It
has facilitated knowledge-sharing and collaboration between professionals of the building sector.
This technology has solved a number of existing issues related to data exchange between different
professions by integrating all technical parameters into one common model. The model stores all
project information in a standardized manner, making it suitable for interoperability between dif-
ferent software used by every party involved in the project. Although the adoption of BIM is rapidly
increasing in the new construction projects, the implementation of BIM for existing buildings’ retrofit
faces some challenges and is still developing. Gholami et al. (2015) points out the need to provide
better and more accessible information to residents in the renovation process as essential. They
insist on the potential that lies within the BIM to fulfil that need. Indeed, this technology allows a
complete understanding of the project and its consequences on various parameters (energy con-
sumption, GHG emissions, costs, etc.). The authors also found that the accuracy of the information
provided via the model and the simulation processes, tend to reassure all stakeholders involved in
the project from the design team and the facility/property manager to the homeowners.
As can be seen, improvements in the building sector can have a significant impact on the overall
achievement of the sustainability goals as defined by the United Nations. The residential sector
however faces a number of challenges, in particular in private owners’ involvement and adhesion.
The potential for BIM to serve as a facilitator in communicating the benefits of sustainable reno-
vation is still developing and the rest of this paper will be demonstrating the design process of a
web-based interactive tool for improved communication in the renovation project of a Norwegian
housing cooperative.

CONTEXTUAL ELEMENTS

NBBL, the largest co-operative Housing Federation of Norway can be seen in our case as the Stra-
tegic level of Facility Management. They have decided to take actions towards mitigation of climate
change. The tactical level is represented by their local team, TOBB who responsible for the man-
agement and maintenance the Karolinerveien Housing Cooperative located in Trondheim, Norway.
This urban community consists of seven apartment buildings from 1967 with large outdoor areas.
NBBL saw the need of refurbishment as an opportunity to take a step towards a sustainable regen-
eration of the neighborhood together with an upgrade of the buildings’ performances.
The Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NTNU, through their Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering contributed to the development of a research project by organizing sum-
mer schools as well as semester courses and guidance of Master thesis related to the theme “citizen
engagement in sustainable refurbishment projects”.

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25% of Norway’s
residential buildings

1.020.000 members

Figure 1 Organization of the Facility Management company made by the ESITC students, 2019.
_ Figure 1 Organization of the Facility Management company made by the ESITC students, 2019

AN INTERACTIVE TOOL TO IMPROVE COMMUNICATION

Primary data collection

This section describes the initial data collection and design process of the platform and its evolution
towards a co-creation approach in which students actively involved residents of the Karolinerveien.
During the first Summer School organized at NTNU in collaboration with ESITC, the Caen institute of
civil engineering, the students and educators sent 4 weeks developing the concept of an interactive
platform to better communicate the benefits of sustainable refurbishment to the private owners
of the flats. The goals of the summer school were jointly defined as part of an agreement between
NTNU and NBBL. A survey previously conducted by TOBB gave approximately 100 responses (out of
350 apartments total). The results of the survey were used to get a first impression of what needed
to be done regarding the refurbishment. The indoor comfort was identified as the main problem.
People were experiencing high humidity level, bad ventilation, cold drafts from untight windows and
doors resulting also in acoustic disturbance. 62.5% of the respondents said they had to open the
windows in order to get sufficient ventilation in their apartment. This clashed with one of the issues
experienced by the respondents, namely the acoustic nuisance from seagulls in the summer. Indoor
temperature also revealed itself to be problematic with respectively 779% and 58,1% of the partici-
pants reporting overall or partial excessive warmth in the summer and excessive cold in the winter.
Information were also collected from real estate agencies in charge of the sale of some apartments.
They provided information about the area, proximity to facilities and transport, average age in the
neighborhood, energy marking but also pictures of inside the apartments and recommendations
for energy efficiency improvements at the building level. One observation, being familiar with the
Norwegian culture is that people tend to « renovate » their home quite regularly which often results
in hiding signs of deterioration for a short period of time until the paint cracks again. This could also
explain why people would be more reluctant to take actions towards refurbishment as they don’t
physically see the problem and therefore the need for it.
This first phase of data collection revealed challenges that lead the team to start thinking about
solutions for possible upgrades such as an improved ventilation system, replacing windows, add
an extra layer of insulation. These suggestions were brought up through a brainstorming session
organized between the students and educators. The session’s facilitators encouraged the students
to step out of their engineer role and try to think of solutions that could contribute to the well-being
of the residents as well. Once the problems and solutions had been identified, the team was left with
the challenge of how to communicate them to the residents.

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Figure 1 Energy marking and recommendations for improvement issued by ENOVA included in the sale folder
_ Figure 2 Energy marking and recommendations for improvement issued by ENOVA included in the sale
of a 2 bedrooms apartment in Karolinerveien 3B. Source: Eiendomsmegler 1
folder of a 2 bedrooms apartment in Karolinerveien 3B. Source: Eiendomsmegler 1

Developing digital content and re-thinking the design process

The students thought that, due to the average young age in the community, a digital platform with a
playful interface could be a good communication medium and they started developing the concept
for a website that could host a visualization tool rather than having the tool on its own. That way, the
tool would be hosted on a platform that could be accessed from the comfort of the residents’ home
and would not require any special equipment or skills.
At this stage, the team started building 3D models for visualization purposes and started listing all
potential upgrade interventions in a separate document. Following the next step of the traditional
design process, the concept of the web-based tool was presented to new researchers in the team.
The main outcome of this meeting being that so far, despite trying to develop a tool to interact
with people, the team had not been interacting with their intended audience during the development
phase. The problem was therefore redefined to make room for feedback collection on both the de-
velopment of the tool and the issues experienced by the residents in their built environment. While
a part of the team continued to develop content for the tool, the others went on field trips to interact
with residents directly and start a dialogue with them.

Traditional Design Students initial New process using co-

process process creation. Putting people
at the centre of the
process and actions.
_ Figure 3 Traditional design process and evolution of the team’s design process towards co-creation.
Source: Adapted from Chicago Architecture Foundation.

Following this, it was decided to divide it into two “mini-games” one collecting feedback and one
disseminating information about the potential benefits of sustainable renovation. If the goal is for
people to receive tailor-made information, then they should be offered the possibility to give input
as well.

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Collecting feedback and communicating on benefits of sustainable refurbishment

The platform is constantly evolving and can be accessed at www.blimedoss.com. The next section
is describing the two main games available on this web-based tool.
The first game was called “pick your picto” and consisted in collecting feedback on previously iden-
tified issues in a more visual and playful way, hoping thereby to obtain more responses. The team
built 3D models of all five types of apartments identified in the blocks, so people would be able to
choose the one they actually live in, and place pictograms representing different issues they might
experience at home (noise, humidity, cold drafts, cold temperature, ventilation). The user composes
its own “experience picture” and can send the result of that composition and additional comments
to the administrators of the site (i.e. the research team) anonymously.

_ Figure 4 Landing page of the “pick your picto” game and interface for the “top floor studio”
Source : https://www.blimedoss.com/feedback

The second game, called “click and tip” was developed to provide tailor-made information on the
benefits of sustainable renovation of the block and its surroundings. The user can click on different
magnifying glasses placed on strategic elements of the building and its environment (façade, win-
dows, ventilation, playground) to find out how the situation could be improved. There is also a field
to send suggestions or questions anonymously.

Figure 1 Landing page and interface of the Click and Tip game. Source : https://www.blimedoss.com/benefits
_ Figure 5 Landing page and interface of the Click and Tip game. Source : https://www.blimedoss.com/
benefits

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This game is currently being improved to include more interactivity and a real tailor-made commu-
nication at the user level. The ambition is ultimately to create a virtual user interface where residents
could see the effects of their decisions in the refurbishment project on their different “levels” such as
their environmental impact, well-being, economic, etc. Indeed, work conducted by students through
an analysis of “successes and failures” in sustainable renovation of housing cooperatives revealed
that communication and transparency in the process were high on the list of users’ priorities. Breach
of communication and intervention of third parties during the pre-project phase were identified as
substantial factors of failures alongside the financial aspect and the lack of options for external
funding.

CONCLUSION

The development of the platform has opened new ways of approaching sustainable building ren-
ovation projects in the private residential sector. Putting users at the genesis of the project and
providing them with participatory tools that do not require any special skill or physical attendance to
workshops. The platform is currently being further developed and a beta version with true 3D models
and interaction is available as a test. The goal is to embed the BIM models on the online platform
and take advantage of the instant response time enabled by the simulations to give residents an
accurate information based on their priorities and experience. Through semester course and master
thesis work, the research team is aiming to enrich the tool with more user data and tailor-made
information to tackle the identified challenges in coordination, motivation and communication be-
tween the housing cooperative organization and its members (i.e. residents). This work is part of
a larger collaborative project between NTNU (Academia) and NBBL (Industry), where the main goal
is to develop a sustainable accounting strategy for their local branches in order to contribute to
the overall sustainability goals. The Norwegian public building sector, through their Directorate of
Public Construction and Property (Statsbygg) has been very proactive in implementing BIM in the
construction industry. Statsbygg has developed a national strategy and a handbook for the imple-
mentation of BIM in all public building projects. However, the private sector and more specifically
the residential Facility Management sector is still lagging behind. The fruitful collaboration between
Academia and Industry has acted as an enabler of discussions regarding the potential use of BIM
beyond expert collaboration, namely in collecting users needs and implementing co-creation pro-
cesses in sustainable refurbishment projects.
While the primary purpose of the study and the development of the tool was to develop a new way
of communicating between end-users and facility managers, it also revealed to have a big potential
to implement new features in the BIM technology that could complement highly technical data with
some users’ input. The ambition for further development is to create a two-way communication be-
tween the BIM and the end-users of the space via an interactive web-based platform. The feedback
collected and the user-generated renovation scenario would then provide information about which
combinations turn out to be the most popular among end users. The concept for a “SIMS”-like in-
terface is currently under development to offer users the possibility to spend their Social, economic
and environmental “points” on certain components of the renovation project and see the immediate
effects on their personal “levels” (health, finances, CO2 footprint, real estate value).

REFERENCES

__ C. Eastman, C. M. Eastman, P. Teicholz, and R. Sacks. 2011. “BIM handbook: A guide to building
information modelling for owners, managers, designers, engineers and contractors”: Chapter 1, p. 16
John Wiley & Sons.
__ Gholami, Elaheh, Kiviniemi, Arto, Kocaturk, Tuba and Sharples, Steve. 2015. “Exploiting BIM in energy

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efficient domestic retrofit: evaluation of benefits and barriers”. In: 2nd International Conference on Civil
and Building Engineering Informatics ICCBEI, 2015-04-22 - 2015-04-24, Tokyo.
__ Klima- og Miljødepartementet. 2017. “Climate Law”. Norwegian State Law. Accessed December 13,
2019. https://lovdata.no/dokument/LTI/lov/2017-06-16-60
__ Lindkvist Carmel, Karlsson Anja, Sørnes Kari, Wyckmans Annemie, “Barriers and Challenges in nZEB
Projects in Sweden and Norway”, Energy Procedia, Volume 58, 2014, p. 199-206.
__ Norges Boligbyggelags Landsforening og SINTEF Byggforsk,.2011. “Få oppslutning om oppgradering!
Veileder for styrer i borettslag/sameier” https://www.nbbl.no/Portals/1/NBBLs%20filarkiv/PDF%27er/
Rapporter/Fagrapporter/2015-11-13%20Oppslutning%20om%20oppgradering.pdf
__ PEW Research Center. Spring 2018 “Global Attitutes Suvey”. Q22d
__ UN Environment and International Energy Agency. 2017.” Towards a zero-emission, efficient, and resil-
ient buildings and construction sector”. Global Status Report.
__ UN Development Programme. 2015. “Goal 11 : Sustainable cities and communities” Accessed February
28, 2020. https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-11-sus-
tainable-cities-and-communities.html
__ Buildings Performance Institute Europe. 2017. “97% of buildings in the EU need to be upgraded” Ac-
cessed December 12, 2019. http://bpie.eu/publication/97-of-buildings-in-the-eu-need-to-be-upgrad-
ed/
__ Temeljotov Salaj, Alenka; Hjelmbrekke, Hallgrim; Bjørberg, Svein; Hauge, Åshild Lappegard; Lohne,
Jardar. 2018. “Value sharing model for urban development.” Conference of Interdisciplinary Research of
Real Estate, Groningen, September 20-21, 2018. Book of proceedings p. 11-19.
__ UN Development Programme. 2015. “UN Sustainable Development Goals”, Accessed December 12,
2019. https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals.html

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NEW TECHNOLOGIES OF CONSTRUCTION ON SERBIAN WATERS

DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch31

_ Tijana Jacovic Maksimovic

Architectural Engineer at Mašinoprojekt Kopring JSC,
PhD student, Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade,
Mileve Maric Ajnstajn 84-33, jacovict@gmail.com

_ Aleksandra Krstić-Furundžić
Full professor, PhD, Faculty of Architecture, University
of Belgrade, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, 11000
Belgrade, Serbia, akrstic@arh.bg.ac.rs

ABSTRACT

As the general concept of living on water in Serbia has not moved far from raft-type floating struc-
tures, the idea about urban development and activation of river courses, changing spatial-physical,
economic, technological and modern sociological needs of living has to be changed and incorpo-
rated in the tendencies of modern architectural designing. Floating buildings, as architectural struc-
tures, are based on the principle of floatability, with flexible installations i.e. the system cannot sink
as it can move with the fluctuation of water levels. Development and use of floating structures in
large European cities as a new tendency in architecture could be the basis for defining the principle
and technologies for construction of floating buildings in architectural designing and mapping of
attractive locations for the referent model in Serbia. This research deals with the possibilities of de-
veloping the practice of designing floating structures in Serbia in terms of construction technology
and energy performances.

The objective of this paper is to explain the principles and technologies in construction of floating
buildings as the key parameters in architectural designing of such structures on water areas in
Serbia. This paper offers a concept of floating buildings on river courses and other water areas that
could be applied in Serbia and which would be based on systematisation of data about already con-
structed floating buildings in Europe.

KEYWORDS _ floating buildings, urban regeneration, mobility, multi-case study approach activate
rivers

INTRODUCTION

Floating buildings, as a new dwelling concept in architecture of large cities, are becoming more
necessary as a part in shaping of modern urban landscape. The term “floating” in architectural
designing implies the following structural system: floating foundation and pontoon structure, where
mobility, energy efficiency and sustainability are the priorities and the tendencies. (Koekoek, 2010;
Olthuis and Keuning, 2010). Floating buildings compete with traditional houses on building land in
terms of comfort, quality and price. The image of urban development should be altered by activating
river courses in accordance with modern social demands of living on water and it should be inte-
grated in the tendencies of the modern architectural design.
Floating buildings as architectural structures are based on the principle of navigability with unsink-

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able floating structure which can move as the water level fluctuates. The objective of this paper is to
explain the new concept of technologies of construction for floating buildings. The paper is based
on the analysis of theoretical aspects of applicable technologies of construction of floating build-
ings and their integrity in a complex urban context of Serbia.
Floating buildings as architectural structures are based on navigability principles with flexible in-
stallations. Floating building involves a floating foundation which can be reinforced concrete shell
or steel pontoon, or combination of wood and foam and wooden or steel superstructure build on
the pontoon. Floating structures can be applied on all water surfaces, if they fulfil the following two
conditions: they must not endanger the river fairway and the depth of the concrete/steel part of the
floating structure has to fulfil the conditions stipulated in the rulebook on the relevant river or water
area. A large advantage of floating structures is that they can be transported or moved to other lo-
cation if necessary. (Koekoek, 2010; Olthuis and Keuning, 2010).

METHODOLOGY

This paper is based on multi-case study approach. The case study method refers to the research
of the selected case studies of floating buildings in Europe, which includes the analysis of design
concepts and technology of construction on water. The basic analytical method is comparative
analysis and is conducted on two levels: by comparing architectural concepts and comparing them
with reference theoretical concepts. In addition to the analytical method, this procedure includes the
classification and systematization of formed knowledge.
The research includes insight into the properties and characteristics of river flows and lakes in Ser-
bia and consideration of the conditions for the application of the concept of a floating building based
on the systematization of formed knowledge. In this phase, research techniques are used: data col-
lection, observation, analysis of photo documentation and mapping in order to select the location.
Research results would be presented as a commonly applicable typology in accordance with the
concept, energy efficiency and construction technology of floating buildings, as a basis for con-
struction of floating buildings on water areas in Serbia and as a basis for further research in the field
of urban regeneration in Serbian cities and worldwide.
The paper refers to the theoretical concept of floating buildings and defines framework for their
application in Serbia. It is a part of research that would add to development of a critical attitude
towards floating buildings in Serbia as a new technological idea.

SELECTION OF REPRESENTATIVE PARAMETERS FOR FLOATING HOUSES IN THE NETHER-

LANDS, UNITED KINGDOM AND PORTUGAL

The objective of this paper is to research the design concepts and technologies of already con-
structed floating buildings in Europe by analysing selected case studies. A comparative analysis of
representative cases was made and analogies were derived for the purpose of enabling generalisa-
tion and definition of floating building principles in further research. Complex requirements of their
users, spatial-physical, social, technical and technological, economic and environmental impacts
are causatively related to designs of floating buildings. This chapter analyses the extent of these
impacts on the development of floating buildings in selected case studies, which will be used for
definition of designing principles for floating buildings.

_ Table 1: Case Studies

Table 1: Case Studies
Case Name of floating building Method of investigation Location Date
Waterbuurt-West, Ijburg,
1 “Floating House Ijburg” Site visit 2017
Amsterdam
2 “Exbury Egg” Floating Home Internet research Hampshire, UK 2019
3 “FLOATWING” Floating House -
Internet research Alqueva, Portugal 2019
Boat
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Table 2: Comparison of Technologies of Construction
Case Floating system Technology of Construction Energy efficiency Public
 Table 1: Case Studies
7TH INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC CONFERENCE
Case Name of floating building Method of investigation Location Date
Waterbuurt-West, Ijburg,
1 “Floating House Ijburg” Site visit 2017
Amsterdam
2 “Exbury Egg” Floating Home Internet research Hampshire, UK 2019
3 “FLOATWING” Floating House -
Internet research Alqueva, Portugal 2019
Boat

Table 2: Comparison of Technologies of Construction

Case Study: “Floating House Ijburg”
Case Floating system Technology of Construction Energy efficiency Public
utilities
Project: “Floating House Ijburg”
System of
ConsumeArchitects:
15% less energy
Marlies Rohmer Architects &
concrete tanks Prefabricated modular architecture On central
1 than housing units on the
(concrete box- with a large number of units Urbanists platform
ground
type platform) Location: Waterbuurt-West, Ijburg,
System with Self-sustainable space,the Netherlands
Amsterdam,
recycled tanks Made of recycled wood and egg heated with solar energy and Self-
2 Completed: 2011
filled with water outside, lined with wooden boards cooled exclusively by sustainable
Gross area: 10625 m2
ventilation
Panoramah Modular design of the house It can generate 100% of its
system Floating including equipment and furniture, energy demands in hottest
Self-
3 House - Boat can be easily packed in two six-month period. Self-
sustainable
standard containers and shipped to sustainable for at least
almost any location seven days

CONCLUSIONS
_ Figure 1. Prefabricated Floating House in Netherlands, Source: photo by the Author

The scientific
Construction justification
technology: of this
floating systempaper is based tanks
of concrete on insufficient research platform)
(concrete box-type of the floating
The float-
buildings phenomenon and possibilities of its application in Serbia.
ing building concept has been recently accepted in the Netherlands as an important solution for
modern housing requirements. In the past years the number of residential buildings on the water
Floating buildings advantages can be grouped into 4 categories: flood resistant, energy
increased as they have several advantages over living on the ground. Floating buildings are a part
efficient, environmentally friendly, and socially acceptable. Different floating system can be
of Dutch urban design in the process of planning and shaping of cities lying close to water. Water
applied for different construction technologies applicable in Serbia. Advantages of such
areas reserved for floating buildings have been classified as immovable resources competitive to
building system is unsinkability and movability.
land in the central city zones, both in terms of finances and comfort level. Living and working on the
water enables multiple uses of undeveloped areas, by adapting obsolete harbour ends or submerged
Advantages of prefabrication technology and use of diverse renewable energy sources and
quarries and their natural surroundings.
nearly self-sufficient energy efficiency in floating houses make them energy friendly. House
CONCEPT – The team of architects tried to achieve the appearance of apparently separated, in-
movability, long term usage, water cycle system, prefabrication and modular construction
formal
make arrangement of water apartments,
them environmentally by a designing
friendly. Water houses are a triangular
peaceful andgeometrical structure
comfortable due into the
water
directarea. Differentto
connection spacing
nature.between floating buildings and their orientation create a simple play of
continuously variable sights. The objectives included pleasant water ambience, fluidity, movement,
feeling
Basedof individuality
on the and a vessel moored
comparison next to the
between the house. Such a concept
explained case gives the feeling
studies and of
scatter and individuality,
the general picture of which is opposite
the concept to the block approach
of water-dwelling in Serbiain construction.
the referent Communication
model of a
and access
floating to the floating
building with a buildings
concrete in thethis quarter platform
box-type were provided by means
is selected of the
as the so-called
most suitablefloating
for
footways, which also enable access to vessels and contact with water. Floating
utilization on the water surfaces in Serbia. Defining of the suitable locations for construction buildings in Ijburg
are
of asuch
functional
floatingsolution consisting
settlements with aoflarge
threenumber
storeys.ofThe lowestunits
modular storey is partly
could be thesubmerged
next step and
in it
can
theaccommodate
development several bedrooms,
of the new the second
technologies storey is an
of construction onelevated
Serbianground
waters.floor that offers pri-
vacy from the harbour and waterway and provides access to the terrace and upper storey. The upper
storey leads to the
Considering the terrace
above used for sunbathing
conclusions floatingand socialising.
houses can provide possibilities for larger
CONSTRUCTION
population density TECHNOLOGY – Technologically,
in the urban core as well as theflexibility.
floating buildings
Flexibilityconsist of concrete
of floating “tubs”
buildings
floating
manifestsunder in waterline
their easytoremoval
the depthifofthey
one are
halfnotof the storeyany
needed and longer
steel load-bearing
but they can structures
also have filled
with a combination
extended lifetime of
at glass
some and
otherpanels. This model of a floating building allows transformation of
location.
its shell i.e. outer structure of the building. This transformation is achieved by altering the layout of
façade panels, which enables the user to change the view or ensure privacy. Apart from that, this
model offers a possibility of transforming the interior base plan by physical alteration of the building
inside structure and layout. This transformation is achieved by altering the layout or structure of
indoor partitions, adjusting multipurpose elements or altering the shell. It also allows extensions by
adding previously designed extension modules for floating buildings. Floating terraces and cano-
pies can be easily fixed to this skeleton frame. Floating buildings in Ijburg can be also considered a

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modular architecture because they allow interconnection into a large number of units in accordance
with the users’ requirements. The system used in Ijburg offers a possibility of water treatment before
its discharge, which involves surface water infiltration in the ground through special drains that treat
water before it channelled out of the water area. All public utilities (gas, electricity, drinking water,
sewerage, telephone, cables) are supplied to a central platform specially designed for that purpose.
For the purpose of ensure smooth operation of all public utility connections, pipelines are heated in
winter order to prevent freezing of drinking water pipes and they are cooled in summer in order to
prevent development of bacteria in drinking water. This platform rests on piles, which gives it a fixed
level and connections between the platform and floating buildings are flexible since the buildings
move with the fluctuation of water levels. The owners of these floating buildings are responsible for
flexible connections between their house and meters installed on the platform and responsibility
of public utility companies ends at the meters. Floating buildings in Ijburg were designed to con-
sume 15% less energy than housing units on the ground. They are heated with natural gas supplied
through the pipes that run below the footway of the units.

Case Study: “EXBURY EGG” Floating House

Project: “Exbury Egg” Floating House

Author: Stephen Turner, “PAD”
architect studio
Location: the Beaulieu River,
Hampshire, UK
Completed: 2013
Gross area: 22 m2
Construction technology: floating sys-
tem with recycled tanks filled with water

_ Figure 2. “Exbury Egg” Floating House, Source: http://exburyeggtour.com/about.html

Stephen Turner was commissioned by the Space Placemaking and Urban Design to design together
with “PAD” architect studio an original artful space on the Beaulieu River in the UK. The “Exbury Egg”
is a floating wooden dwelling and working space constructed for the purpose of studying the ripar-
ian area, life on the river and fluctuation of water levels.
CONCEPT – Inspired by the nests of birds that lay eggs along the river, in high grass, and manually
constructed by applying technics used in shipbuilding, the Egg was intended for Stephen Turner to
dwell all 12 months in its. The floating house concept, egg, symbolises life. The egg, as aesthetically
perfect structure, contains embryo that represents new life. From primates to planktons, it embod-
ies the idea of rebirth and renewal, protection and fragility. In accordance with the artist’s needs,
the space was designed to have all life necessities: bathroom, kitchenette, small desk and sleeping
area. The structure is 6 m long with the diameter of 3.6 m, its construction lasted six months and
cost 46,690.00 EUR.
CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY – The inside of the egg was made of recycled wood and egg outside
was lined with red cedar boards intentionally left untreated with chemical – the objective was to
enable the wood to weather under external impacts. All measures were taken from the central line
and temporary frame made of chipboard as a skeleton for the “egg shell”. There are actually two
“shells” with a layer in between, which ensures water-tightness of the egg. Narrow wood moulding
adds to its elasticity, enabling the wood to wind smoothly around the frame. Fir wood was used
for shall bracing and inside shaping of the floating house, which continued the old tradition of us-
ing wood material for water structures that could be traced back many centuries on the Beaulieu

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River. The floating house – egg is moored like a ship that moves with fluctuation of water levels.
Light touch and basic nature of Exbury Egg were intended to enable reassessment of the life we are
living and proper consideration of sustainable and future use of nature resources. Stephen Turner
is interested in researching the empathic connection with the nature that reveals the precious and
transcendent in everyday life. Changes of the “Exbury Egg” resulted from Stephen’s occupation of
the house, which reflected on the interior and art pieces created through direct experience of local
nature cycles and processes and relation between the nature and narratives of human activities. The
“Exbury Egg” floating house was made of natural, local materials and as such it is an energy efficient
and self-sustainable space. It is heated with solar energy and cooled exclusively by ventilation and
it is equipped with water recycling system. The project objective was to research effects on life and
work in a floating structure, by using materials with low energy consumption and available in the ra-
dius of 32 km for its construction. Photovoltaic panels generate electric power by using solar energy
to start up small LED lights and charge a laptop, maintaining communication with the outside world.

Case Study: “FLOATWING” Floating House – Boat

Project: “FLOATWING” Floating House

- Boat
Author: “Friday SA” architect studio
Location: Alqueva, Portugal
Completed: 2015
Gross area: from 28 m2 to 52 m2
Construction technology: “Panoramah”
system

_ Figure 3. “FLOATWING” Floating House – Boat, Source: http://www.gofriday.eu/

“FLOATWING” floating house-boat is an energy autonomous, environmentally sustainable Medi-

terranean floating house-boat, an which was designed by Portuguese architect studio “Friday SA”.
CONCEPT – “FLOATWING” floating house is of multipurpose nature because it can be used as a
floating oasis for relaxation and living on water or as a vessel-boat for a large number of activities
in open air (sailing, rowing, water skiing and fishing). The concept of this floating house appeals to
environment sustainability and at the same time offers comfort of a home. Modular nature of the
floating house manifests in the following: 1. selection of platform size, 2. interior typology, 3. number
of bathrooms, 4. equipment level and 5. dimensions of the outer platform. All types of this floating
house were functionally conceived to consist of two levels, with a lower spacious deck and upper
unit with a terrace. The first level contains a living room enclosed in glass, fully equipped kitchen,
sleeping area, wine cellar, thermal pump, outboard motor and AC generating unit. The second level
contains a sunbathing area, countertop with grilling equipment and thermal and photovoltaic solar
panels. The floating house has a fixed width of 6.0 me but its length is adjustable from 10.0 m to
18.0 m, with 0.80 m draught. It has two longitudinal metal pontoons, which ensure excellent stability
on water and up to 1 m high waves.
CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY – “FLOATWING” floating house can be constructed in only four
months. Manufacture is followed by packing. Modular design of the house means that all its com-
ponents, including equipment and furniture, can be easily packed in two standard containers and
shipped to almost any location on the planet. It was designed with environment-friendly materials
and technologies that reduce emission of carbon dioxide and energy requirements of the house. The
floating house has a galvanised steel structure resistant to corrosion. The structure is lined with a
combination of “Planitherm” double glazing and “Tricapa” sandwich panels, which consist of 19 mm

267
 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

thick outer metal sheet and 10 mm thick infilling of black agglomerated expanded cork. The inside
walls are made of 13 mm thick “Tricapa” hardwood or 10 mm thick sandwich panels. The floor is
made of 20 mm thick “Riga” hardwood emplaced over agglomerated expanded cork insulation with
the thickness of 10 cm. Terrace floors are made of hard Scottish pine with the thickness of 25 mm
and with
Table special
1: Case “ThermoWood” finishing resistant to weather impacts. The ceiling is lined with
Studies
10Case
cm thick black agglomerated expanded
Name of floating building
cork insulation and Location
Method of investigation
8 mm thick TRICAPA wood Date
lining.
FLOATWING floating house is a solar house focused on energy efficiency and environmental
Waterbuurt-West, Ijburg, protec-
1 “Floating House Ijburg” Site visit
tion. From the ecological aspect, this floating house does not only exert minimal adverse2017
Amsterdam impact on
environment
2 “Exburybut it can
Egg” generate
Floating Home 100%Internet
of its energy
research demands in only six hottest-month
Hampshire, UK period.
2019 It is
3 “FLOATWING”
self-sustainable for Floating
at leastHouse - days.
seven Internet research Alqueva, Portugal 2019
Boat

_ Table 2: Comparison of Technologies of Construction

Table 2: Comparison of Technologies of Construction
Case Floating system Technology of Construction Energy efficiency Public
utilities
System of
Consume 15% less energy
concrete tanks Prefabricated modular architecture On central
1 than housing units on the
(concrete box- with a large number of units platform
ground
type platform)
System with Self-sustainable space,
recycled tanks Made of recycled wood and egg heated with solar energy and Self-
2
filled with water outside, lined with wooden boards cooled exclusively by sustainable
ventilation
Panoramah Modular design of the house It can generate 100% of its
system Floating including equipment and furniture, energy demands in hottest
Self-
3 House - Boat can be easily packed in two six-month period. Self-
sustainable
standard containers and shipped to sustainable for at least
almost any location seven days

CONCLUSIONS
CONCLUSIONS
The scientific justification of this paper is based on insufficient research of the floating
buildings phenomenon and possibilities of its application in Serbia.
The scientific justification of this paper is based on insufficient research of the floating buildings
phenomenon and possibilities of its application in Serbia.
Floating buildings advantages can be grouped into 4 categories: flood resistant, energy
Floating buildings advantages can be grouped into 4 categories: flood resistant, energy efficient,
efficient, environmentally friendly, and socially acceptable. Different floating system can be
environmentally friendly, and socially acceptable. Different floating system can be applied for dif-
applied for different construction technologies applicable in Serbia. Advantages of such
ferent construction technologies applicable in Serbia. Advantages of such building system is un-
building system is unsinkability and movability.
sinkability and movability.
Advantages
Advantagesofofprefabrication
prefabrication technology
technology and
anduseuseof of
diverse
diverserenewable
renewable energy sources
energy andand
sources nearly
self-sufficient energy efficiency in floating houses make them energy friendly.
nearly self-sufficient energy efficiency in floating houses make them energy friendly. House House movability,
long term usage,
movability, longwater
termcycle system,
usage, waterprefabrication
cycle system,and modular construction
prefabrication and modular make them environ-
construction
mentally
make them friendly. Water houses friendly.
environmentally are peacefulWaterandhouses
comfortable due to direct
are peaceful connection todue
and comfortable nature.
to
Based on the comparison
direct connection to nature. between the explained case studies and
the general picture of the concept of water-dwelling in Serbia the referent model of a floating build-
ing with a on
Based concretethe thecomparison
box-type platform is selected
between the as the most suitable
explained case forstudies
utilization and
on the
water surfacespicture
the general in Serbia.
of Defining
the conceptof theof suitable locations for
water-dwelling construction
in Serbia of such model
the referent floatingofsettle-
a
ments with
floating a large with
building number of modular
a concrete theunits couldplatform
box-type be the next step in the
is selected development
as the most suitableof thefornew
technologies
utilization onofthe construction on Serbian
water surfaces waters.
in Serbia. Defining of the suitable locations for construction
Considering the above
of such floating conclusions
settlements with afloating houses of
large number can provideunits
modular possibilities
could beforthelarger
next population
step in
density in the urbanof
the development core
theas
newwell as flexibility.ofFlexibility
technologies of floating
construction buildings
on Serbian manifests in their easy
waters.
removal if they are not needed any longer but they can also have extended lifetime at some other
Considering the above conclusions floating houses can provide possibilities for larger
location.
population
Financial densityofin
feasibility the urban of
construction core as well
floating as flexibility.
buildings manifests Flexibility of floating
in the savings buildings
of costs of earth-
manifests
works, in their easy
infrastructure, removal
public if they
utilities are not land.
and building needed any justification
Social longer but they can also
manifests have
in develop-
extended lifetime at some other location.

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7TH INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC CONFERENCE

ment of a concept that can be used by all social strata, from social dwelling to dwelling preferred
by the wealthy.

 
REFERENCES

__ Baker, L. (2014) Built on Water. Braun Publishing, Salenstein.

__ Flesche, F., Burchard, C. (2005) Water House. Prestel Publishing, London.
__ Halkyard, J. (2006) Design of Floating Structures. National University of Singapore, Singapore.
__ Hooimeijer, F., Van der Toom Vrijthoof, W.(2007) More Urban Water: Design and Management of Dutch
water cities. CRC Press
__ Olthuis, K., Keuning, D. (2010)Float!: Building on Water to Combat Urban Congestion and Climate
Change. Frame Publishers, Amsterdam.
__ Ryan, Z. (2010) Building with Water: Concepts Typology Design.Birkhäuser, Basel.
__ Rayman, N. (2014) The Floating Homes.Kobson
__ Wang,C.M., Wang B.T. (2015) Large Floating Structures. Springer, Singapore.
__ Коекоек, М. 2010. Connecting Modular Floating Structures: A General Survey and Structural Design of
a Modular Floating Pavilion. (http://repository.tudelft.nl/islandora/object/uuid:33b59201-1718-4dda-98
f8-ee16d5b7c023?collection=education)(2017).

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 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

EVOLUTION OF TECHNOLOGIES FOR CONSTRUCTION OF

APARTMENT BUILDINGS – A TEMPORAL PERSPECTIVE
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch32

_ Ivana Brkanić Mihić

Assistant professor, PhD, M.Arch, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek,
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Vladimira Preloga 3, 31000 Osijek,
Croatia, ibrkanic@gfos.hr

_ Matej Mihić
PhD, M.C.Eng, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Civil Engineering,
Kačićeva 26, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia, matej.mihic@grad.unizg.hr

_ Zvonko Sigmund
Assistant professor, PhD, M.C.Eng, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Civil
Engineering, Kačićeva 26, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia, zvonko.sigmund@grad.unizg.hr

ABSTRACT

Designing apartment buildings is one of the most responsible tasks since it has the largest effect
on the users and is their closest interaction with the built environment. People spend the most
time in their homes and therefore it is imperative to explore all aspects of housing with the goal of
understanding and subsequently improving the living conditions. Architectural research in housing
is mostly focused on urban planning and on spatial characteristics of the apartments but there are
other areas which need to be considered, such as the structural aspect.

The structural elements of the buildings are primarily important for the building stability, but also
for the living comfort. Additionally, the choice of the structural elements influences both the building
cost and the time needed for construction. Development of new materials and technologies has
enabled faster and cheaper construction of apartment buildings of higher quality and has opened
up new architectural design possibilities. The goal of this paper is to identify the time periods of
predominant use of certain materials and structural systems in apartment buildings and to show
the evolution of construction technologies through the prism of residential architecture. The sample
used in this research consists of apartment buildings in Osijek, Croatia constructed from 1930 to
2015.

KEYWORDS _ apartment buildings, housing, construction

technologies, structural elements, residential architecture

INTRODUCTION

Housing is one of the most important components of social and economic development of a society,
organization and arrangement of space and a big factor in raising the living standards of the popula-
tion (MGIPU, 2013). Designing apartment buildings is one of the architects’ most responsible tasks
since it has the largest effect on the users and is their closest interaction with the built environment.
People spend the most time in their homes and therefore it is imperative to explore all aspects of
housing with the goal of understanding and subsequently improving the living conditions. Architec-

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tural research in housing is mainly focused on housing quality (HQI; Ren et al. 2018; Bennet et al,
2016), user satisfaction (Borgoni et al.2018; Milic & Zhou, 2017), apartment characteristics (Tibe-
sigwa et al, 2017; Mridha, 2015; Sima, 2015), apartment building characteristics (Nahtigal and Grum,
2015; Choi and Cho, 2014; Arce and Wyckmansa, 2014), and neighbourhood characteristics (Lea et
al, 2016; Shin et al. 2016) which affect housing, as well as with social and economic (Streimikiene,
2015; Hadad et al, 2011) aspects of living. There are however, other areas which need to be consid-
ered, such as the structural aspect. The structural elements of the buildings are primarily important
for the building stability, but also for the living comfort. Additionally, the choice of the structural
elements influences both the building cost and the time needed for construction. Development of
new materials and technologies has enabled faster and cheaper construction of apartment build-
ings of higher quality and has opened up new architectural design possibilities. In this paper, we will
address the aspect of technologies and materials used in the construction of residential buildings in
the City of Osijek built in the last 90 years.
City of Osijek is located in the eastern part of the Republic of Croatia with a population of about
80,000 and with more than 40,000 of housing units. In first half of the 20th century, it was a large
industrial centre. Today, the city is in deep economic crisis that has triggered the emigration trend of
its population. The history of residential housing in the city of Osijek can be traced back to the be-
ginning of the 20th century when industrial companies started to build apartment buildings for their
workers (Radović - Mahečić, D. 2006) but most of the Osijek apartment buildings were constructed
in socialist time period, from 1945 to 1991 (Brkanić, I. and Atanacković – Jeličić, J., 2018).
The construction technologies that were used throughout the history in the city of Osijek were
changing as the needs, possibilities and building policies of the times changed. Due to econom-
ic crisis and political decisions at the end of 1920s Osijek was left with a large number of empty
homes which virtually stopped the construction industry. During 1930’s fewer residential buildings
were built (DAOS) but this situation changes after 1945 when the city gains an industrial as well as
regional importance which boosted the construction industry. After the WW2, Osijek experienced the
greatest socio-economic development triggered by the process of industrialization and urbaniza-
tion and attracted people from the wider Slavonia and Baranja region. The whole socialist period is
characterized by mass housing construction which sought to reduce the constant housing shortage
since the population between 1948 and 1971 almost doubled. In the city of Osijek, more than 20
new residential areas were constructed between 1945 and 1991 (Brkanić et al., 2018). After a hous-
ing construction stagnation at the beginning of the 1990s private entrepreneurs started to build
low-quality apartment buildings often situated in inappropriate locations (Bobovec et al., 2016).
The goal of this paper is to identify the time periods of predominant use of certain materials and
structural systems in apartment buildings and to show the evolution of construction technologies
through the prism of residential architecture. The sample used in this research consists of apart-
ment buildings in Osijek, Croatia constructed from 1930 to 2015.

METHODOLOGY

After an extensive search of existing work which would describe the construction technologies in
the observed time frame, and after consultations with colleagues who focus in the refurbishment of
designated as cultural heritage, the Authors found that there does not exist a complete and com-
prehensive literature source which would present the evolution of construction technologies that
appeared and were used in continental Croatia in the time frame of last 90 years.
Most of the research focuses on buildings constructed up to the first half of the 20th century. This is
not surprising since these types of buildings are under some sort of protection as cultural heritage
and their refurbishment requires special consideration, while the post-war architecture is relatively
new and the original construction methods are not important in case of their refurbishment. Never-
theless, an overview of the development of new construction technologies, materials, and structural
elements is important not just for encyclopaedic purposes, but as a base for further research, which

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intends to compare these developments with other socio-economic factors and to identify the con-
nections and causal links.
To determine what construction technologies, materials, and structural elements appeared and
when it was decided that the most effective way would be to study the design documentation of
buildings constructed in that time period. Design documentation for buildings constructed up until
1991 was available at the city archives, while the documentation for more recent buildings was ac-
quired through contacts with the designers and owners of those buildings. Design documentation
consisted of various design drawings and descriptions of the building structure.
In parallel to acquiring design documents and before the analysis of the documentation, a database
in the form of a table was created in which the data was to be entered. It was, of course, needed to
define what characteristics are of interest to the research so that they can be read or inferred from
the design documents.
The city of Osijek was chosen because its’ buildings are representative of all the construction tech-
nologies in continental Croatia and the sample size is sufficient and yet manageable. Zagreb, as the
national capital, has around eight times larger building stock, while other cities are much smaller than
both Zagreb and Osijek, and the sample probably would not contain all building and technology types.
Due to this research being a pilot study, the sample contained only 58 buildings. The idea was to fill
the database with information from a representative sample to draw preliminary conclusions and
to see whether some information regarding the buildings is missing and/or is not important for the
research.

STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE OBSERVED RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS

Previous section introduced the database in which the data from design documents will be stored.
The database was created in the form of an MS Excel table, in which the rows contain relevant data
on each specific building, as defined in the columns of the table. The Authors chose which data to
include in the table based on similar previous research and based on requirements of future planned
research. Due to a large number of rows and columns in the database (60 and 38 respectively), it
is not practical to be shown in the paper in its entirety, so it will be shown in excerpts and for a few
buildings out of the total sample. An excerpt of the database, showing the first section with general
information on buildings, is shown in Figure 1. The database is divided into 5 following sections,
each of which will be described in detail in their respective subsections:
_ General information
_ Basement
_ Ground and upper floors
_ Staircase
_ Roof structure

_ Figure 1: Excerpt from the database (1/5)

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General information
This section of the database contains the basic information on the building, such as the address, the
year in which the building started construction, how many stories it has above and below ground,
outer dimensions, and whether the building is structurally dilated. This information is essential to
be able to compare the structural elements based on the building’s general characteristics and time
when it was constructed.

Basement
The second section (presented in Figure 2) starts with the information on the structural systems.
First two columns present the type and material of the foundations, followed by material and width
of the basement walls and ceiling slabs. The final column contain information on the structural
system of the basement.

_ Figure 2: Excerpt from the database (2/5)

Ground floor and upper floors

The third section of the database contains information on structural elements of ground floors. Ma-
terials and width of load-bearing walls, partition walls and ceiling slabs are presented. Additionally,
the database contains information on whether the building has tie beams and tie columns, does the
slab transfer loads in one or in two directions and the material of the topmost slab, if it differs from
the slabs on lower levels. An excerpt of the database containing this information is shown in Figure 3.

_ Figure 3: Excerpt from the database (3/5)

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 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

STAIRCASE AND ROOF STRUCTURE

The final two sections show the information on the buildings’ roof structures and staircases. For
the roof structures it is important to know the type of the roof, structural type, material and slant,
while for the staircases information on structural type, materials, number of flights and anchoring
methods are of importance to this paper. Due to a relatively small number of information required,
sections 4 and 5 are presented together in Figure 4.

_ Figure 4: Excerpts from the database (4/5) and (5/5)

DISCUSSION

After all the data for the buildings in the sample were entered in the database, the following step was
the primary goal of the research, to see and compare how did the construction technology and ma-
terials change through time. For easier manipulation with the data and because of already suspect-
ed differences between the construction technologies, the buildings in the sample were divided into
5 groups based on the predominant housing policies during that time (Tsenkova, S. 2009; Brkanić et
al. 2018). Those 5 groups are:
1. before 1945 – 9 buildings in the sample (Pre-socialist Period)
2. 1945-1959 – 11 buildings in the sample (Socialist Period - a period of establishment of
the socialist housing system)
3. 1960-1975 – 17 buildings in the sample (Socialist Period - a period of revolutionary re-
forms)
4 1976-1991 – 13 buildings in the sample (Socialist Period - a period of marketization)
5. after 1991 – 8 buildings in the sample (Post-Socialist Period)
To textually compare all building characteristics of different time periods would be the most detailed
method. However, it might be more difficult for the reader to interconnect all the information and it
would take too much space in the paper. Table format, on the other hand, would be most suitable to
succinctly show the developments, but it has its own limitations. When presenting data in a table
format, some nuances may be lost, and correlations cannot be explicitly stated. Therefore, the most
significant consequence of construction technology development is described in most detail in the
next subsection, while other characteristics will be presented in the table below.

Comparison of advances in technology related to building height

When comparing the buildings’ general characteristics, the most significant fluctuation throughout
the time period is building height. In the first time period, the buildings are relatively low, with only
two or three stories aboveground. In the second period, we can see that the average height rises to
around four to six stories. There are two likely reasons for this scenario. The first is the larger need
for housing in the urban centre and the other is the development of new construction materials and

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technologies. During the second time period, concrete foundations phased out the masonry foun-
dations and prefabricated reinforced concrete (RC) slabs replaced wooden beams, among others.
The third time period further accentuates the growth in height with many residential buildings with
10 or more stories being built. This is also because a large number of people moved to the urban
centres, but still, it would not be possible to house them in such buildings without further improve-
ment in construction technologies. Most notable improvements include the increased use of rein-
forced concrete for the load-bearing elements, primarily slabs, walls, beams and columns. Addi-
tionally, the appearance of new structural elements and systems such as RC frame structures and
foundation piles, and using RC instead of brick masonry for load-bearing walls have enabled higher
buildings to be built. This, of course, does not mean that it was impossible to build higher buildings
before, but that these advancements made higher structures more affordable to build.
Buildings in the fourth time period remain for the most part the same height, but in the last time
period, even though more and more structural developments become evident, the height of the con-
structed buildings is at most 6 stories. This may be due to zoning regulations, due to decreased
influx of people to the urban areas, but also due to the fact that higher structures are more expensive
to construct per square meter and developers (which are now private, not mostly public) have no
financial incentives to construct higher buildings. From that rather simple example of how one build-
ing characteristic had changed through time, we can see not just how the need and development
of technologies influence each other, but also how many outside factors influence how and why
residential buildings are constructed. Therefore, it is of relative importance to have a comprehensive
overview of how construction technologies have changed over time and what has influenced the
change.

Comparison of most frequent structural elements for each of the time periods
As it was mentioned earlier in the paper, to enable easier comparison of the structural elements
prevalent in each of the time periods, the data was structured in a table form. Due to constraints
of the table, only the most distinct materials, elements, sizes, etc. could be shown. An additional
disadvantage is that new developments and unique occurrences cannot be shown in the table itself.
Therefore, this section will provide not only the commentary of the data presented in Table 1, but
also all the data that could not be shown in the table.
Some general conclusions from the data in the table can be gathered. First and foremost, the height
of the buildings has risen dramatically due to rising demand but facilitated by the improvements in
construction technology. Foundation type changed from strip foundations to piles for higher struc-
tures and to foundation slabs for newer buildings. Strip foundations were made from brick masonry
and were gradually phased out first by concrete and then concrete by reinforced concrete (RC).
A similar situation happened with the basement walls and also with all load-bearing walls in gen-
eral. They gradually transformed from masonry, through concrete to RC. Their width also reduced
with new materials being introduced and with more detailed structural analysis available. Basement
walls have reduced their initial width from 60 cm for masonry walls to 20 cm for RC walls and
load-bearing walls from 45 cm to around 20 cm. Partition walls have also reduced their width from
15 cm in the first period to 7 cm in the fourth period. Curiously, the width increased in the last period,
most likely because of sound insulation. As for materials, a vast majority is made of brick masonry
but however, the third period features aerated concrete blocks and fifth period drywall panels.

_ Table 1. Comparison of prevalent structural elements throughout the observed time periods
Table 1. Comparison of prevalent structural elements throughout the observed time periods

Building element
Before 1945 1945 to 1959 1960 to 1975 1976 to 1991 After 1991
or characteristic
Building height
General information

Mostly 5 or 6, with Mostly 5 or 6,

(number of
2 or 3 4 or 5 10 to 12 also with 10 to 12 4 or 5
aboveground
present also present
stories)
Underground
1 1 1 1 1, some 0
stories
Seldom Seldom Seldom
Structural dilations None Seldom occurring
occurring occurring occurring
Strip
Strip Strip Strip
Foundation Strip foundations; foundations and
foundations; foundations; foundations;
type/material Concrete and RC foundation
brick masonry Concrete Concrete and RC
slabs; RC
erground floors

275 Longitudinal
Longitudinal and
Structural system Longitudinal and Perpendicular Combined
perpendicular
perpendicular
Basement wall Brick Concrete and
Masonry; 38 and
 or characteristic
Building height

General information
Mostly 5 or 6, with Mostly 5 or 6,
(number of
2 or 3 4 or 5 10 to 12 also with 10 to 12 4 or 5
aboveground
present also present
stories) PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020
Underground
1 1 1 1 1, some 0
stories
Seldom Seldom Seldom
Structural dilations None Seldom occurring
occurring occurring occurring
Strip
Strip Strip Strip
Foundation Strip foundations; foundations and
foundations; foundations; foundations;
type/material Concrete and RC foundation
brick masonry Concrete Concrete and RC
slabs; RC
Underground floors Longitudinal
Longitudinal and
Structural system Longitudinal and Perpendicular Combined
perpendicular
perpendicular
Basement wall Brick Concrete and
Masonry; 38 and
type/ material / masonry; 51 brick masonry; 25 RC, 20 cm RC; 20 to 25 cm
51 cm
width or 60 cm cm
Basement ceiling Semi- Semi- Semi-
Monolithic RC; 30 Monolithic RC;
slab type / prefabricated prefabricated prefabricated
cm 20 cm
material / height RC; 40 cm RC; 20 to 40 cm RC; 20 cm
Longitudinal
Longitudinal and
Structural system Longitudinal and Perpendicular Combined
perpendicular
perpendicular
Brick RC and brick
Load bearing walls Brick masonry; RC and brick RC and brick
masonry; 45 masonry; 20 to
material / width 25 and 38 cm masonry; 25 cm masonry; 20 cm
cm 30 cm
Tie beams and tie
None Tie beams only Both Both Both
columns
Aboveground floors

Brick Brick masonry

Partition wall Brick masonry; Brick masonry and Brick masonry;
masonry; 10 and drywall
material / width 10 cm siporex; 7cm 7 cm
or 15 cm panels; 12 cm
Semi-
Semi- Semi-
Ceiling slab type / Wooden Monolithic RC; 20 prefabricated
prefabricated prefabricated
material / height beams; 45 cm cm and monolithic
RC; 20 to 40 cm RC; 25 cm
RC; 30 cm
4 to 5 m; load 4 to 5 m; load 3 to 4 m; load 4 m; load 4 to 7 m; load
Span and load
transfer in 1 transfer in 1 transfer in 1 and 2 transfer in 1 and transfer in 1 and
distribution type
direction direction directions 2 directions 2 directions
Topmost slab
different from the Sometimes No No No No
rest?
RC stairs on RC stairs on
Structural type Cantilevered RC slab RC slab
steel tendons tendons
RC and
RC and
Staircases

Material RC RC slab prefabricated RC

prefabricated RC
RC
Nubmer of flights 2 2 2 1 and 2 2
Method of
RC slab on RC beam and
anchoring the RC slab RC slab RC slab
steel tendons slab
landing
Double queen
Double queen
Structural type post and Flat roof Raftered Flat and rafted
post
raftered
Roof

Material Wood Wood RC Wood and RC RC

Double piched
Double pitched Flat and double Flat and double
Slant and multi- Flat roof
and flat roof pitched roof pitched roof
pitched

In the first two periods, the structural system contained only load-bearing walls and slabs (parallel
to the street façade, perpendicular to it, or a combination of the two). The following periods also have
load-bearing walls as prevalent structural systems, but however first RC frame appeared in 1963.
The first tie beam appeared in 1953 and tie column in 1966. It could be interesting to see whether
their first appearance and subsequent use relates to perhaps new seismic regulations.
Ceiling slabs have also seen similar improvement over the years. Only the first period features wood-
en beams, while the following periods predominantly use either semi-prefabricated RC systems or
monolithic cast in place RC slabs. Their average height has also reduced from 40 cm in the 1940s to
20 cm in the third period. From the table we can see that the height increased in fourth and fifth peri-
ods. This can be explained by an increased span of the slabs and increased prevalence of semi-pre-
fabricated slabs in favour of cast in place slabs, later of which can be more expensive and take more
time to build. In most cases, slabs transfer loads in only one direction. This is expected because of
the structural system and because larger spans are rarely needed in residential construction. Pre-
stressed concrete slabs are also quite rare, appearing in only three buildings in the sample as a type
of a semi-prefabricated slab.
Structural systems of stairways are quite different to each other, not just through the time periods,
but within the periods themselves. It would be necessary to study a larger sample to see whether
one type would stand out as the most frequent. Some conclusions can, however, be drawn, such as
that RC is the overwhelmingly most common material. The first period has predominant RC stairs
and landings on steel tendons, the second period has cantilevered RC stairs and landings. Prefabri-

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cated stairways first appear in the second time period and become most widespread in the third and
fourth periods. In the last period, monolithic RC slabs become the norm.
Roof structures have also seen improvements through the observed periods. The first period fea-
tures exclusively wooden traditional structures and double and multi-pitched roofs. Prefabricated
RC roof slabs begin appearing in the second period and in the third period all but one roofs are flat
roofs with either monolithic or prefabricated RC slabs. The fourth period features the reappearance
of wooden roof structures, modernised in structural design to use less material per roof area. The
last period is similar to the third, with mostly prefabricated and monolithic RC slabs. Some roofs,
however, are slanted and one of them has a steel truss for the roof’s bearing structure.

CONCLUSION

The goal of the paper was to present the evolution of construction technologies of apartment build-
ings. Through the review of previous research, the Authors concluded that no similar research had
studied and comprehensively presented construction technologies of buildings built from the 1930s
until today. This paper presented the most common structural elements, types and materials as well
as other structural characteristics of buildings constructed in Osijek from 1930 to 2015. While the
sample was chosen due to the availability of design documents in city archives and the overall city
size, the Authors consider that it is representative of construction technologies in continental Croa-
tia and even across borders in countries with similar socioeconomic backgrounds.
This research has successfully identified the evolution of construction technologies through time.
The results were collected in a database and presented in the table format, accompanied by textual
clarifications. It was expected that most of the changes in the building stock would be connected to
housing policies, therefore for better readability and manageability of the data, the buildings were
divided into five time periods based on the predominant housing policies during that time.
Table 1 in the previous section contains information most common structural element types, mate-
rials, dimensions, etc. for each of the periods and the change in structural elements and evolution
of construction technologies can clearly be seen. These results can serve not just as encyclopaedic
knowledge but also as a starting point for more focused research into how and why have the con-
struction technologies evolved through time.
However, after analysing the buildings in the sample, it became evident that additional information
could be included in the database and that the sample size is too small for drawing conclusions with
a high degree of certainty. Therefore, the study should be repeated with a larger sample and with,
for example, information on building façades. Future research should also study the connections
of changes in prevalent construction types and materials with new technological advancements,
regulatory requirements and socioeconomic aspects, to name a few.

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ORIGIN OF CITIZENS AND IMPACT ON CITY

DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch33

_ Nikola Z. Furundžić
Dentist, Dental practice “Furundzic ordinacija”,
Belgrade, Serbia, stomordinacija227@gmail.com

_ Dijana P. Furundžić
Dentist, Dental practice “Furundzic ordinacija”,
Belgrade, Serbia, stomordinacija227@gmail.com

_ Aleksandra Krstić-Furundžić
Full professor, PhD, Faculty of Architecture,
University of Belgrade, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II,
11000 Belgrade, Serbia, akrstic@arh.bg.ac.rs

ABSTRACT

Cities represent the most populous places. They represent dynamic environments that are subject
to constant changes, which in terms of physical manifestation take place in the vertical and hori-
zontal directions. This is especially related to the desire to live in cities, which has dominated the
population throughout the history of civilization. The development of cities is generally proportional
to the flow of new residents looking for a place to live in a city. The process of urban growth in both
vertical and horizontal directions is considered to be accompanied by a constant increase in urban
population. This trend that cities will have in the future is indicated by worldwide predictions. Pop-
ulation growth in cities can happen in two ways, the first being natural growth and the second is
migration of people. Migration can be further classified and therefore split into two groups: internal
rural-to-urban migration and international urban migration. The immigrants bring with them differ-
ent cultural characteristics (clothing, customs and behavior), habits and beliefs in the cities in which
they will continue to live and strive to maintain them. Also, the characteristics of their architectural
heritage tend to incorporate in these areas. Migrations can lead to anthropological modifications,
introduce new cultural rules, and change the shape of the city with the introduction of new patterns
of cultural and building heritage. However, migrants need to adapt to new conditions and rules of
life and business, changing the way of daily activities and diet, which can lead to psychological and
health problems. This paper aims to discuss, systematize and review some of these influences and
processes and to view them in the context of responsible behavior in an urban environment.

KEYWORDS _ population growth, migration of people, responsible behaviour

INTRODUCTION

The desire to live in cities dominates over the population in the entire history of civilization, espe-
cially in recent times in the last century. Cities represent the most populous places for living on the
planet. They represent dynamic environments that undergo constant changes, including changes in
physical characteristics. The process of urban growth in spatial terms takes place in a vertical and
horizontal direction and is mainly the result of a permanent increase in the urban population. This

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is a trend that cities will have in the future, as indicated by worldwide predictions. According to the
United Nations Population Fund, 2008 marked the year when more than 50 percent of all people, 3.3
billion, lived in urban areas, a figure expected to rise to 70 percent by 2050 (UN, 2008). In Europe, 75
percent of the population already lives in urban areas and the number is expected to reach 80 per-
cent by 2020. This continuous trend of urbanization, one that has been consistent since the 1950s,
means an additional 2.5 billion people (more than a third of our current global population) will be
living in cities by 2050 (UN, 2014). The Graph 1 illustrates this global trend.

_ Graph 1: Urban and rural population of the world, 1950-2050 (UN, 2014, pp. 7)

Urban population growth can happen in two ways, the first being natural growth and the second is
a migration of people involving different processes, as presented in Figure 1. Migrations can be fur-
ther classified depending on the type of process represented and therefore divided into two groups
based on the origin of the migrants. If occurring in the territory of one state it is called internal
migration, mostly rural-to-urban migration. The movement from one country to another is called
international urban migration.

_ Figure 1: The ways/processes of urban population growth

„Migration of people, both legal and illegal, will account for more than two thirds of urban growth in
high-income countries. Without immigration, the urban population in these countries would proba-
bly decline or remain the same in the coming decades“ (WHO, 2010, pp. 5). Migrants opt for coun-
tries with a high standard of living and cities that have a large population. Over 50% of the population
of Dubai and Brussels is foreign-born due to their highly mobile workforces (Kerr, 2019, pp. 107; WEF,
2017, pp. 26). It is estimated that roughly 20 countries attract more than two-thirds of all potential
migrants worldwide (Esipova et al., 2017). Migrants from other parts of the country or around the

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world have contributed to the growth and development of most cities, and now they are part of the
history and fabric of the city, and all residents should be aware of this and should acknowledge their
existence. Sociologist Saskia Sassen points out that the role that cities have historically taken in
empowering migrants should also be taken seriously (Stott, 2016). Migrants are attracted by the
possibilities that cities can offer. The direction of movement of people from rural areas to urban ar-
eas has shown the same direction for centuries that are likely to persist in the future, also contribut-
ing to the rapid expansion of cities. Migration as a continuous process is expected only to increase,
from an estimated 244 million international migrants in 2015, while internal migration is three times
that of international migration (763 million according to the latest official estimates), affecting the
lives of far more people, although it is given much less attention in political debates and planning
processes (WEF, 2017, pp. 10).
In urban population growth mostly all the above mentioned processes are represented, but usually
do not have an equal impact. There are many factors that affect the process of urban growth, and
determine which of these processes will dominate. This indicates that people living in cities are of
different origin and genetic diversity, and variations depend on the dominance of the aforemen-
tioned processes. The diversity is more pronounced when it comes to international migration. The
composition of the population structure living in urban areas is based not only on origin but also on
financial status, level of education, employment-unemployment status, etc.
Migrants have different cultural backgrounds that they want to integrate into the places they have
immigrated to, and some impacts of this process are discussed from an architectural point of view
in this paper. However, migrants need to adapt to new conditions and rules of life and business,
changing the way of daily activities and diet, which can lead to psychological and health problems.
By associating and exchanging genetic material between the society of natives and newcomers,
both societies transmit anthropological characteristics. This paper aims to discuss, systematize
and review some of these impacts and processes and to view them in the context of responsible
behavior in an urban environment. The methodological approach includes original analyses of sci-
entific publications that consider this issue and the selection and analysis of selected case studies.

CONSIDERATIONS FROM THE ARCHITECTURAL POINT

The immigrants possess and bring a variety of cultural characteristics (clothing, customs and be-
havior), habits and beliefs to the cities in which they will continue to live and tend to incorporate
them in different ways, in order to preserve them. Also, the properties of their architectural heritage
they would like to be integrated into these areas. Migrations can lead to anthropological modifica-
tions, introduce new cultural rules, and change the shape of the city with the introduction of new
patterns of cultural and building heritage.
The impact of migration on urbanism and architecture is recognized by many researchers, archi-
tects and practitioners as a real situation and as a major challenge. Considering the introductory
lectures at the reSITE conference “Cities in Migration” held in Prague in 2016, in his article entitled
Migration Will Define the Future of Urbanism and Architecture, Rory Stott (2016) noted that migra-
tion is a topic that architects must understand and respond to. At that conference sociologist Saskia
Sassen pointed to three types of migrants: the political refugee, those fleeing political turmoil in their
homes, the economic migrant, who seeks a better life in a new country, and the “economic refugee,”
a class of people who are fleeing the “massive loss of habitat” catalysed by economic activities such
as corporate land-grabs and mining, or by encroaching environmental disasters, while critic Michael
Kimmelman added migrants fleeing environmental disasters and made the threat of climate-driven
migration (Stott, 2016). At the end of this article, Stott concludes: „With such a range of different
causes of migration, one thing that was clear from the conference’s opening was that at the level of
cities, the key question of migration is how diversity is acknowledged, respected and accommodat-
ed by the built environment.“
The fact is that many large cities, which migrants mostly gravitate to, are characterized by high

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housing prices, which is one of the key problems for immigrants and their integration and survival.
For this reason, as well as the lack of cheap affordable housing, a large number of immigrants live in
slums and informal settlements. The absolute number of slum dwellers continues to increase. (UN
HABITAT, 2016, pp. 57). All this speaks in favor of the undeniable importance of reconsidering the
options of reusing vacant buildings, as existing physical structures in the city, redeveloping built-up
areas within the city, and using empty, often abandoned urban spaces to build safe and affordable
housing for migrants.
Using the existing building stock can provide the asylum seekers and refugees with a proper shelter
in one hand and also can contribute to revitalization of decaying locations with the newcomers’ par-
ticipation, on the other hand which consequently enhances socio-spatial sustainability (Razavivand
Fard and Mehan, 2018). Two examples of temporarily housed refugees in abandoned buildings in
Berlin and Turin are worth mentioning. The first is Germany’s largest refugee shelter inside Berlin’s
Tempelhof Airport (Figure 2, left) and the second is occupying abandoned Olympic Village by refu-
gees in Turin (Figure 2, right), now called Ex-Moi, discussed by Razavivand Fard and Mehan (2018).
More than a million refugees from Syria are estimated to have arrived in Germany by the end of 2015
in hopes of a better life (Lupieri, UNESCO MGIEP). Some 85 percent of asylum seekers in Berlin are
housed in mass shelters and only 15 percent in private flats (Conrad, 2016). Since 2015, Tempelhof
Airport has become Germany’s largest temporary refugee shelter for refugees from countries like
Iraq and Syria (Shead, 2017). The disadvantage turned out to be that refugees live in cubicle-type
structures with little privacy.

_ Figure 2: Refugee shelters inside Berlin’s Tempelhof Airport (left, ©Gordon Welters for the New York
Times) and Olympic Village in Turin, Italy (right, Photograph: Claire Provost)

Olympic Village in Turin, Italy, abandoned after the Games for almost 7 years till it got occupied
in 2013 by the North African refugees (Belloni and Pallotta, 2016) from almost 30 different ethnic
groups. This case well manifests the social and spatial segregation of these squatting people where
they live in a modern ghetto-like settlement, surrounded by the railways (Razavivand Fard and Me-
han, 2018). The debates about this informal settlement are still ongoing; some political parties are
opposing and many social activists are on the refugees’ side to compensate the insufficiency of the
local supporting polices.
The importance of building experimental housing and settlements or camps for affordable housing
is undeniable, both because of the accommodation of immigrants and because of gaining expe-
rience based on the lessons learned. During the reSITE 2016 Conference, Carl Weisbrod, director
of NYC’s City Planning Commission, discussed the city’s commitment to low-income housing by
presenting New York City’s experiment with micro-apartments on Carmel Place, conceived as a way
of providing cheap, single-occupancy apartments in the very center of a city that has an overabun-
dance of homes designed for families or the super-rich, indicating a commitment to preserving and
encouraging diversity (Stott, 2016). According to Eric Bunge, a member of the nArchitects team, the
aim was to provide a new social framework for small households that emphasizes nested scales

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of community rather than individual residents (Bernard, 2018). Forty percent (22 unites) of the 55
rental units in Carmel Place are dedicated to affordable housing (http://narchitects.com/work/car-
mel-place/). By incorporating setbacks in the design of the stepping “micro-towers”, Carmel Place’s
urban form could in principle be adapted to different sites, at a range of heights and floor area ra-
tios, and at nearly any location in a block (World-Architects, 2016). In the publication Carmel Place
Innovative Practices for Healthier Homes (2019), it is explained that the construction of Carmel
Place (Figure 3) consisted of fabrication, transportation and stacking of 65 individual steel framed
modules, ready for installation of appliances and interior finishes, which enabled the reduction in
on-site construction, and also brought some reduction in the cost of the building itself. The same
publication points to implemented innovations such as reduced apartment size, with the addition of
a variety of communal spaces to support living in a small space, and a focus on health in terms of
light and air by installing high ceilings with large operable windows.

_ Figure 3: Fabrication and stacking of the steel framed modules of the Carmel Place building. (Source:
Carmel Place Innovative Practices for Healthier Homes, A Case Study, 2019)

Carmel Place building is an example of a massive, solid building that has the character of a long-
term structure located in the urban fabric, a type that for a wider application requires a rethinking of
the existing approaches from political, social, urban design, legislative, health and other aspects re-
lated to migration. Cities are under pressure to build affordable and social housing that is financially
viable, complies with design and safety standards, and can be delivered in a short amount of time;
the option is to explore avenues to repurpose vacant space, apartments or underutilized buildings in
the city for temporary or long-term housing of migrants.
When it comes to affordable housing and accommodation of migrants, Joana Dabaj, a participant
in the reSITE 2016 conference, said: “When dealing with the crisis and urgent situations there’s
also this requisite that you need temporary structures … it can be disassembled and assembled”
(Stott, 2016). Refugee shelters are structures ranging from the most temporary tent accommodation
through the transitional shelter to building temporary pics and settlements and include the most
basic kind of ad hoc structure (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refugee_shelter). A unique collabora-
tion between the IKEA Foundation and the UNHCR has resulted in a new, innovative, safer and more
durable shelter for refugee families around the world named the Better Shelter (Figure 4, left), which
is a flat-pack temporary shelter designed with special attention to transport volume, weight, price,
safety as well as health and comfort, and can be assembled on site without additional tools and
equipment, and is fitted with a solar panel (IKEA Foundation, 2015). A solar panel installed on the
roof adds precious value to the little house by allowing it to generate its own electricity and charge
a LED light for up to four hours (Garofalo, 2016). The expected lifespan of this temporary shelter is
three years, which is a very short-term.

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_ Figure 4: Better Shelter in the Karatepe transit camp in Mytilini on the island of Lesbos, Greece (left,
Source: Greece © Better Shelter, Frederica Garofalo, 2016), refugee camp in Krnjača (middle, Source:
https://www.lobi-info.rs/zatvara-se-izbeglicki-kamp-u-krnjaci/) and Obrenovac reception center, (right,
Source: http://www.rtvmag.co.rs/24_sata_o_obrenovcu_objava.php?o=10521), Serbia

A survey conducted by Lažetić and Jovanović (2018, pp. 14) shows that after the closure of the Bal-
kan Route, most of the migrants and refugees who remain “stuck” in Serbia are of lower economic
status, mostly single men from Afghanistan, Pakistan, Algeria, Morocco, Somalia, Syria, and Tunisia,
while arrivals in September 2017 show a demographic shift to families from Afghanistan, Iraq, and
Syria (Praxis, 2017). They note that migrants who can afford to rent their own rooms and apartments
often live in hostels or apartments around the main train and bus station. Informal conversations
with migrants and refugees showed that they still do not see their future in Serbia (Lažetić and
Jovanović, 2018, pp. 18). Local communities are supported to build or renew shelter space for
refugees. One such renovation is the old military quarter in Obrenovac which is now turned into a
reception center hosting migrants who previously lived in informal settlements in Belgrade’s city
center. In 2020, the capacities for accommodating migrants were expanded with the construction of
light prefabricated facilities (Figure 4, right). In Krnjača, in a settlement originally made for workers
of the Ivan Milutinovic Company (PIM), two barracks were allocated to accommodate migrants. The
barracks were built as temporary buildings, of wooden prefabricated construction (Figure 4, middle).
Migration was the central theme of the 2019 Venice Art Biennale in Venice. From the standpoint of
this paper, the following comment is interesting: “ ‘We, Elsewhere’ juxtaposes the memories people
have of where they come from with the memories people made when they went elsewhere”, and Inci
Eviner introduced the need and hopes to “evoke the sense of a search for the missing, the erased,
and that which is ‘elsewhere” (Sanderson, 2019).
In cities, immigrants are more likely to integrate by joining large numbers of fellow immigrants in
communities where they find a familiar language and support networks (McKinsey Global Institute,
2016, pp. 3). Migrants especially need to be gathered in big cities. For example, of the 6.8 million
foreign-born people living in Canada, 46% reside in Toronto (IOM, 2015, pp.38). The high proportion
of migrants in cities enhances their global character in terms of culture and social customs (WEF,
2017, pp. 26). In many large cities, there are districts inhabited by foreign-born people, which gives
them a sense of belonging, facilitates communication in their mother tongue, maintaining customs
and habits of nutrition, such as Italian, Turkish, Chinese, Arabic and other neighborhoods. Some of
these neighborhoods in European cities have a long history, while others are still a relatively new
development. Such areas are recognized by certain typical architectural features, shops, restau-
rants, bakeries, pastry shops, etc. (Figure 5). Migrants need to go to their temples and want them to
have the architectural characteristics of the original ones, which is usually available in the case of
neighborhoods with many migrants of the same religious affiliation, but this is generally not easily
achievable. Buildings for some other purposes can, due to their shape characteristics, sometimes
resemble such objects and thus create a visual illusion and a sense of pleasure and calm. It is
noticeable that the original types of decorations, language symbols, elements of equipment and
furniture give a visual character and colors to the streets of such neighborhoods.

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_ Figure 5: Certain typical architectural features, shops, and restaurants represent different cultural mi-
lieus of migrants (left-Antwerpen, middle-Amsterdam and right-Cambridge).

CONSIDERATIONS FROM THE MEDICAL POINT

We are aware of the fact that migrants need to adapt to new conditions and rules of life and busi-
ness. This may require a change in the previous usual, original way of daily activities and diet, which
can lead to psychological and health problems.
Large slums of over one million residents can be found in many of the world’s megacities. Around
a quarter of the world’s urban population lives in slums due to poverty in conditions that can lead
to poor health resulting from overcrowdedness and a lack of potable water and proper sanitation
(WEF, 2017, pp. 32).
Urban population is composite form of society and it is compound from origin people, internal immi-
grants and international immigrants. Also for immigrants it is important how long they are present in
that urban area. So it can be from 0-5 years, or 5 to 10 years or more than 10 years or short, medium
or long term stay in that city. It is important to know the age of the settlers, so that the possibility
of their adaptation to the new environment of the city or urban area can be foreseen. Also, this in-
formation is important for building an appropriate way of communication and is important for the
service industry such as medicine, police, social services and job creation. The effect of the adap-
tation process on mental health in particular depends on e.g. social network, gender, age, language
skills, educational level, religious beliefs, the reasons for migration and the reception upon arrival
in the recipient country (Kristiansen, Mygind, and Krasnik, 2007). The conditions in which migrants
were born, lived and worked originally affected their health. Furthermore, health was affected by
conditions during their migration. Mental and physical health are equally important for the process
of adapting to new conditions. Migrants living in slums have unfavorable living conditions, which
leads to worsening physical, mental and social risks. Staying in refugee camps is also an existential-
ly insecure option and can have a negative impact on the well-being of migrants. These situations
can cause high levels of anxiety, resulting in, for instance, higher blood pressure, or can manifest
indirectly through unsafe practices (drug abuse), inadequate resources to prioritize the prevention
of diseases or to seek access to healthcare when required, or poorer adherence to medical counsel
(WEF, 2017, pp. 33). The problem of being able to adapt mainly extends through the first and second
generations of migrants.
Migrations involve the relocation of the population from one territory to another. Moving from one
area to another and staying in it, migrant groups leave their mark on a certain territory. Not only are
the customs exchanged and adopted between the society of natives and newcomers, but by associ-
ating and exchanging genetic material, both societies also transmit anthropological characteristics.
With the development of humane, i.e. medical genetics, it has become possible to understand the
essence of the biochemical basis of heredity. Thanks to Mendel’s research, the basic unit for the
transmission of traits, the Gene, and the ways of their exchange that contribute to the development

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of various traits, was established (Marković and Trišović, 1986, pp. 98, 99). In this paper, given the
professional orientation of some authors of this article, attention will be focused on dentofacial
complex, especially jaw orthopedics.
From the aspect of jaw orthopedics, genetic characteristics are important for monitoring the oc-
currence of irregularities of the jaw complex, as well as their appearance through the generations.
The presence of irregularities of the dental arches and the entire dentofacial complex affects the
development of generations and their proper functioning, which is one of the important conditions
for the formation of a healthy society.
Thanks to the mixing of genes from different populations, conditions are obtained for the inter-
pretation of certain phenomena, in the sense of whether they should be viewed as an irregularity
or a normal characteristic of a climate. In the classification of jaw irregularities, there is the term
Bimaxillary protrusion, which describes the specific appearance of the face and jaw, followed by
the protrusion of the front upper and lower teeth in combination with full and protruding lips. While
bimaxillary protrusion is considered an irregularity in members of the white era, in members of the
black race it is an ethnic characteristic, which fits the specific architecture of the skeletal skull and
face. (Marković et al., 1986, p. 221).
The assessment of jaw irregularities is done by appropriate analyzes of study gypsum models and
X-rays. This is an analysis of the space of the dental arches, which is of an international character
and is necessary in the proper diagnosis and planning of therapy for malocclusions. A.M. Schwartz
based his analysis on a study of the mixed Viennese population (Tanić et al., 2002, p. 60). Thanks to
the reference values that were formed on the population of a certain type of mixing, this analysis is
today widely used in orthodontic diagnostics in a number of ethnic groups. In addition to Schwartz,
there is also Pont’s analysis whose reference values are based on studies of the population of
Southern France, while Hart’s analysis corresponds to the population of Northern Germany (Lapter
and Ozerović, 1986, p. 171), and as such, they are usable mainly in these climates.
Based on this, it can be concluded that there are difficulties in determining standard values for
evaluating whether something should be viewed as an irregularity or anthropological characteristic,
and that mixing of different populations requires finding new parameters that could standardize the
dentofacial condition and declare it normal for a number of ethnic groups.
There are numerous epidemiological studies that show the prevalence of health problems and cov-
er various branches of medicine and dentistry. Given that this work examines human migration, it
is necessary to point out that such changes in society are highly influential and that it is difficult
to define them as positive or negative. Migrations are so specific that the positive influences of
newcomers can be easily diminished by some of their negative characteristics. It is difficult to say
whether migration has the same impact in all climates given that some populations in their habitat
are more tolerant of changes than others.

CONCLUSIONS

Cities are definitely popular human habitats and as such are constantly exposed to change. Society
is a component of the city that initiates the greatest number of changes, wanting to create the most
comfortable living conditions for itself. In addition to migrations, people are exposed to frequent
travel, and now it is easy to get to the most remote areas. These are all conditions in which the trans-
fer of the influence of one society to another is enabled. These influences should be mutual. The
exchanges of experiences and customs in various industries contribute to the end product being of
better quality, but also cheaper.
In this paper, through the conducted considerations, it was noticed that immigrants bring with them
different cultural characteristics, habits and beliefs and try to keep them in the cities where they will
continue to live. It has been shown that they tend to incorporate the characteristics of their architec-
tural heritage into these areas. This needs to be taken into account when considering suitable forms
of affordable housing, which is a remarkable challenge, as pointed out in this paper.

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The mixing of cultural customs and genetic material among individuals can produce a considerable
number of positive changes and the emergence of new trends. Thus we get that certain irregularities
of the orofacial region are interpreted as desirable traits, and certain customs lead to a balance in
the behaviour, especially of the young.
Migration is extremely present nowadays, and the fact is that the issues of adaptation and integra-
tion of migrants into the new environment, as well as the issue of coexistence of different cultures,
represent current challenges for various professions involved in urban development and well-being
of inhabitants, and some of these challenges are highlighted in this article.

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com/en/architecture-news/reviews/carmel-place-1

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CONVENTIONAL VS PREFABRICATED BUILDINGS:

PURSUING THE GOAL OF SUSTAINABILITY
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch34

_ Katerina Tsikaloudaki
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Civil Engineering
Dep., Thessaloniki, Greece, katgt@civil.auth.gr

_ Theodore Theodosiou
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Civil Engineering
Dep., Thessaloniki, Greece, katgt@civil.auth.gr

_ Stella Tsoka
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Civil Engineering
Dep., Thessaloniki, Greece, katgt@civil.auth.gr

_ Panagiotis Chastas
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Civil Engineering
Dep., Thessaloniki, Greece, katgt@civil.auth.gr

ABSTRACT

In Greece, and many other European countries, the majority of buildings are made of a reinforced
concrete bearing structure, erected in situ, and brick masonry. On the other hand, prefabricated
buildings consist of factory-made components that are transported and assembled on-site to form
the complete structure. Both building construction types have advantages and disadvantages, and
both can be optimised in order to reach advanced performance levels. This paper attempts to high-
light the main differences that are found between conventional and prefabricated buildings mainly
in the field of sustainability. More specifically, a model of a small single family house is used in order
to study the energy and environmental performance, when the two construction types are employed:
the conventional one, composing of reinforced concrete and brickwork, and the prefabricated one,
using the building module that was developed within the research project SU.PR.I.M. For both con-
struction types, the heating and cooling energy needs are calculated for different thermal insulation
thicknesses and climate contexts, in order to show which construction is more energy efficient. Fur-
thermore, the environmental impact of both constructions is estimated, with the aim to highlight the
overall performance of each building not only during its use, but throughout their lifetime. Through
this analysis the potential of both construction types to form a sustainable building is explored,
showing interesting results and new insights for the building industry and the prospective users.

KEYWORDS _ prefabricated buildings, energy and environmental performance, sustainability

INTRODUCTION

The building sector contributes significantly to the final energy consumption both at a European
and at a national level. In 2019 this share was approximately equal to 41% for the EU-28 and Greece,
taking into account both the residential and the services sectors (EU, 2019). When only residential

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buildings are concerned, the share of consumed energy is equal to 27.2% for EU-28 and concerns
mainly gas (36%) and electricity (24%). In Greece the residential buildings are responsible for the
27.5% of the final energy consumption, with electricity (40%) and oil (30%) being the principal fuels
(CRES, 2018). In general, the total GHG per capita is 9.2 t CO2 eq/cap for Greece, while the average
for the EU-28 is 8.8 t CO2 eq/cap (EU, 2019).
The vast majority of buildings in Greece are dwellings (79%) and most of them have been built before
1980, when no provisions for energy performance were established. The dominant material for the
buildings’ bearing structure is reinforced concrete; and for the walls the brick masonry. Prefabricat-
ed buildings, the basic forms of which are made of wood, steel or concrete, account for only 2% of
the total building stock in Greece, while the average share in Europe is 15% and the rate is growing.
The low penetration of prefabricated buildings in the building industry is not only met in Greece but it
is common to the Mediterranean countries (Apaydin,2011). For many years, prefabricated buildings
were regarded as of inferior quality or designated for temporary constructions. But today, things
have changed; prefabricated buildings compete the conventional ones in every aspect of perfor-
mance, i.e. structural, energy, hygrothermal, acoustic, fire, environmental, etc.
Within this framework, the research project SU.PR.I.M. (SUstainable PReconstructed Innovative
Module) aims at the development of an innovative building module with advanced properties that
will act as a vertical wall element in prefabricated residential buildings. This new building module will
satisfy high requirements for its operation and performance. Specifically, it will be able to bear and
deliver safely all the imposed building loads; display advanced energy performance; demonstrate
excellent hygrothermal behavior; provide acoustic insulation protection and resistance against fire
actions; minimize its environmental footprint during its life cycle.
In this paper, the energy and the environmental performance of a small one-family building, con-
structed with the new SU.PR.I.M. module, is analyzed and compared with the one derived for the
conventional building construction form.

METHODOLOGY

The study concerns a small one-family building, presented in Figure 1. It has one storey and covers
an area of 47.32 m². The plan is rectangular, expanded along the south-north axis, with openings
only on the south and north walls. The roof is inclined and is covered with clay tiles. Below the
inclined roof of the building, there is a horizontal slab, made of reinforced concrete, above which a
thick layer of 10.0 cm of thermal insulation (XPS) is positioned. The floor of the house, in contact
with the ground, is constructed with reinforced concrete and is insulated with a 10 cm thick XPS lay-
er. The windows comprise of PVC frame with a double, low-e glazing. The U-value of the transparent
elements is equal to 2 W/(m² K).
The building is examined for two different configurations of the vertical elements:
a) a conventional wall, composed of bearing masonry made of hollow clay bricks, as a rep-
resentative of the conventional construction, and
b) the new module developed through the SU.PR.I.M. project, as a representative of the pre-
fabricated building alternative.
The prefabricated building element has the form of a composite panel. It consists of two lightly
reinforced concrete plates, 5cm thick each, which are positioned on either side of vertical (and occa-
sionally diagonal) metal hollow elements. The distance between the vertical hollow metal elements
is about 0.70 m – 1.00 m and the gap is filled in with a thermal insulation material, usually expanded
or extruded polystyrene. The prefabricated panels are connected to each other and to the metal col-
umns/beams of the structural organization with anchors, especially designed for this construction.
The energy performance of both building alternatives was assessed with EnergyPlus, a dynamic
simulation software, that is commonly used for such purposes. The energy analysis concerned the
annual heating and cooling needs of the buildings for different scenarios, which involved:
a) the thickness of external thermal insulation, which was assumed to be the same in the

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two wall alternatives and equal to 5 cm, 10 cm, 15 cm and 20 cm of XPS

b) the climate conditions. It was assumed that the two examined building types are located
at 4 different cities in Greece with respect to the four climatic zones defined in the coun-
try: Heraklion (Lat. 35o19’N; Long. 25o08’E) for zone A -the warmest-, Athens (Lat. 37o58’N;
Long. 23o42’E) for zone B, Thessaloniki (Lat. 3740o38’N; Long. 22o56’E) for zone C and Grev-
ena (Lat. 40o05’N; Long. 21o25’E) for zone D -the coldest-.

_ Figure 1: External 3D view and

plot of the examined house.

In terms of the operational schedules of the house, involving occupancy, lighting, equipment, heating
and cooling setpoints and infiltration rates, they have been set according to the respective values
provided by the Technical Guides of the recast of the Hellenic Building Energy Performance Regula-
tion. Furthermore, in order to simulate in a more realistic way the performance of the building during
summer, it has been considered that the occupants will naturally ventilate the building during the
cooling period, provided that the outdoor air temperature is lower than the indoor one by at least
1.0°C. The simulations were conducted on an annual basis and the ideal load HVAC system has
been employed in the model. The Domestic Hot Water (DHW) needs were also calculated, for all
climatic zones of Greece, according to the Hellenic Regulation for Building Energy Performance, EN
15316-3.2 and EN 15316-3.3.
The environmental assessment follows the energy performance analysis and examines the two
building types for the four different scenarios of external thermal insulation thicknesses (XPS: 5cm,
10cm, 15cm and 20cm) and the four climate zones of Greece (A, B, C and D).
Life cycle assessment follows the principles of ISO 14040, ISO 14044, EN 15804 and EN 15978; and
calculates the environmental impact for the whole building life cycle, for all processes within the
system boundaries (Figure 2). The LCI data derive from the Ecoinvent database while every other
necessary information and input data (quantities and properties of material/components, transpor-
tation distances) come from the building construction plans, the Greek market and from personal
communication with the module manufacturer; and when combined they provide the environmental
impact for all the upstream (A1, A2, A3, Figure 2) and core (A4, A5, Figure 2) processes of the two
analysed buildings.
The replacement phase (B4, Figure 2) relates to the reference service life considered for each ma-
terial/component that comes from the international literature, ISO 15686-8 and EN 15459. For the
quantification of the operating impact (energy use phase, B6, Figure 2), the life cycle assessment
transforms the results of the energy performance analysis (heating, cooling and domestic hot water
needs) of the two building configurations into consumptions, by considering the use of a gas boiler

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for heating and domestic hot water; and an air-to-air heat pump for cooling. The end-of-life scenar-
io relates to the demolition/deconstruction (C1, Figure 2) of the building with a hydraulic digger and
the transportation (C2, Figure 2) of the C&D waste to the nearest management facility (50 km from
the construction site); and takes no further consideration of the waste management procedures
due to the lack of available or reliable data for the Greek region. Finally, the environmental impact is
calculated per square meter of reference/heated building area, for 50 years building lifespan and for
the impact indicators of methods CML-IA Baseline and Cumulative Energy Demand; following the
principles of Product Category Rule (PCR) 2014:02 for buildings through the Environmental Product
Declaration (EPD) system.

_ Figure 2: System boundaries and life cycle processes for the two building configurations. Bill of materi-
als for the analysed prefabricated building (SU.PR.I.M.).

THE ENERGY PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS

In Figures 3-4 the annual heating and cooling needs are plotted for every climatic zone separately.
The total energy needs range from ca. 20 kWh/m2 to ca. 60 kWh/m2 with respect to the climate
context. In the warmest climate zone, Zone A, the energy required for covering the heating and the
cooling needs are always higher for the conventional construction (Figure 3.a). The difference rang-
es between 2% and 15% with respect to the thermal insulation thickness; it is interesting to notice
that as the thickness of the thermal insulation increases, the difference in energy needs between the
two wall configurations becomes lower. In Zone A, the cooling needs are significantly higher than the
heating ones. In fact, the cooling needs can be even 4 times higher than the heating ones. The gap
becomes larger as the thermal insulation thickness increases. This can be attributed to the fact that
the maximization of thermal resistance of the walls leads to the minimization of heat losses during
winter, but it does not cause an equivalent decrease of the cooling needs, as the solar heat gains,
its major component, stem mainly from the transparent building elements. For the same reason,
maximum differences between the cooling needs for the two construction types hardly exceeds
6%, while for the heating loads the maximum difference reaches 29%. Again, the difference on the
heating needs between the two examined construction types is not the same for every thickness of
thermal insulation. As the thermal insulation thickness increases, its impact on heating load reduc-
tion weakens.
Similar trends are observed when the buildings are located in Zone B (Figure 3.b). Again, the energy

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needs are lower for the building that integrates the SUPRIM element, but the differences range in
lower levels, i.e. between 2% and 12%. The higher differences are observed for the heating loads
(4.5% to 24% with regard to the thermal insulation thickness), while the difference in cooling needs
are low (1.3% to 4.7%), although the cooling needs are almost doubled.
The energy needs profile changes drastically when the buildings are located in a colder location,
such as Thessaloniki in zone C (Figure 4.a). The amount of energy needs increases significantly,
and the heating needs prevail, as they are almost double with respect to the cooling ones. Again, the
building constructed with the SU.PR.I.M. wall elements perform better than the conventional one, as
its energy needs are always lower. The difference on total energy needs ranges between 3% and 15%,
with the heating loads being reduced by 3% to 17.5% with respect to the thickness of thermal insu-
lation. In zone D, the coldest of Greece, the energy needs reach their highest levels, with the cooling
loads accounting for only 1/3 of the heating ones (Figure 4.b). The performance of the SU.PR.I.M.
wall elements is better in the colder climate of zone D, as the decrease on the energy needs ranges
from 3% to 14%. Again, the heating reduction is more substantial, reaching 16%.

a. b.
_ Figure 3: The heating, cooling and total energy needs for the two wall configurations and different thick-
nesses of thermal insulation, under the climatic conditions of the warmest climate zones, zone A and
zone B.

a. b.
_ Figure 4: The heating, cooling and total energy needs for the two wall configurations and different thick-
nesses of thermal insulation, under the climatic conditions of the coldest climate zones, zone C
and zone D.

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Considering the domestic hot water and the calculational approach, the respective needs for both
building configurations are 34.67 kWh/m2•year, 36.98 kWh/m2•year, 39.85 kWh/m2•year and 42.52
kWh/m2•year for zones A, B, C and D respectively.

THE ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS

The contribution of each life cycle process to the total life cycle impact of the analysed buildings
varies between the impact categories (Figure 5). For the prefabricated building and the base case
scenario (XPS insulation thickness 10cm, climate zone C), the average impact contribution (includ-
ing all indicators) for the upstream processes (A1-A3) is calculated at 36.6%, while the core pro-
cesses (A4-A5) contribute with an average of 0.5% to its total life cycle impact. The replacement
process (B4) of materials/components correlates with an important average share of 28.5%, while
the operating phase (B6) with a total of 33.9% (heating 9.5%, cooling 10.1%, DHW 14.3%). Finally, the
downstream processes (end-of-life, C1 and C2, Figure 2) relate only to 0.5% share of the life cycle
impact, which correlates with the exclusion of the waste management processes (C3, C4) from the
system boundaries due to the lack of available/reliable data for the Greek region. The conventional
building analysis relates to 34.8% average share for the upstream processes, 34.7% for the operating
phase (B6: heating 10.2%, cooling 10.7%, DHW 13.8%), 28.5% for the replacement process and 0.5%
for the end-of-life processes. It must be noted that for the core processes (A4-A5) the contribution
increases by +0.5% (1.0%) in reference to the prefabricated building and reflects the increased share
of the in-situ building construction processes.

_ Figure 5: Life cycle impact of the prefabricated building (SU.PR.I.M.) per impact category and life cycle
process within the system boundaries (base case scenario: XPS 10cm scenario and climate zone C of
Greece).

Considering only the embodied impact (Figure 6.a), the results for both the prefabricated and the
conventional building highlight the increased average contribution for the PVC windows (12.04%
and 12.43% respectively), the heating/DHW system (8.81% and 9.18% respectively), the XPS insula-
tion (7.78% and 7.93% respectively) and the cooling system (7.29% and 7.21% respectively). Besides
those, the main contributors in terms of embodied impact are the steel sections (11.63%) for the
prefabricated building and the bricks (10.50%) for the conventional one. The impact indicators glob-

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al warming potential, abiotic depletion (fossil fuels), ozone layer depletion, non-renewable fossil,
renewable biomass, NRE total and CED Total, indicate lower embodied impact for the prefabricated
building in reference to the conventional one, for the base case scenario (Figure 6.b). The remaining
indicators reflect the higher embodied impact of the prefabricated building which relates mostly to
the use of steel sections and primer for their protection from oxidation during their useful service
life; and secondly to the use of an additional layer of expanded polystyrene (EPS) in the prefabricated
walls’ core.

_ Figure 6:
a. Percentage contribution of each material/component/process to the embodied impact of the pre-
fabricated building (SU.PR.I.M.) per impact category (base case scenario: XPS 10cm, climate zone C of
Greece).
b. Comparative analysis of the two buildings. All Climate Zones (CLZ: A, B, C, D of Greece; base case sce-
nario: XPS 10cm, climate zone C of Greece, red coloured hatch pattern in diagram b).

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Finally, the life cycle impact follows the climate dependency of results, as indicated by the energy
performance analysis for both building configurations. If we consider the two most common envi-
ronmental indicators for buildings, emissions and energy, that same dependency correlates with an
average increase in the life cycle emissions for the prefabricated building of 12.1% for zone B, 27.6%
for zone C and 33.6% for zone D; and in its life cycle energy of 12.3% for zone B, 27.5% for zone C and
31.9% for zone D, in reference to zone A, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The analysis showed that the building configured with the new, preconstructed element performed
better than the conventional one. The reduction in energy needs reached 15% in most climate zones,
but the decrease in heating demand is much more substantial, as in some cases it exceeded 25%.
Life cycle assessment reflects the climate dependency of the results that the energy performance
analysis highlights and indicates increase in the life cycle emissions and energy of about 12.1%-
12.3%, 27.5%-27.6% and 31.9%-33.6%, from climate zone A, to zones B, C and D of Greece respec-
tively. Considering the life cycle balance, the upstream processes (A1-A3), the energy use phase (B6)
and the replacement process (B4), contribute with about 1/3 each in the share of the life cycle ener-
gy and emissions of the two analysed buildings. The windows, the heating and cooling system and
the XPS insulation contribute with important shares in the embodied impact of both building config-
urations, while the steel sections and the bricks dominate in the prefabricated and the conventional
building, respectively. Finally, even though the prefabricated building presents better environmental
performance when compared to the conventional one -among others- in terms of emissions and
energy, the results indicate the potential of further improvement in impact indicators such as Eutro-
phication, where the use of steel sections dominates the building’s environmental burden.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research has been co-financed by the European Regional Development Fund of the European
Union and Greek national funds through the Operational Program Competitiveness, Entrepreneur-
ship and Innovation, under the call RESEARCH – CREATE – INNOVATE (project code:T1EDK-03042).

REFERENCES

__ Apaydin, Fahri. 2011. “Effectiveness of prefabricated house industry’s marketing activities and Turkish
consumers’ buying intentions towards prefabricated house”. Asian Social Science 7: 267-276.
__ CRES-Centre for Renewable Energy Sources. 2018. “Energy efficiency trends and policies in Greece”.
__ European Commission. 2019. “EU energy in figures. Statistical pocketbook”.

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ON THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A COMPUTATIONAL METHOD

TO ASSESS THE IMPACT OF URBAN CLIMATE ON THE
BUILDINGS’ ENERGY PERFORMANCE SIMULATIONS
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch35

_ Stella Tsoka
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Civil Engineering
Dep., Thessaloniki, Greece, stsoka@civil.auth.gr

_ Katerina Tsikaloudaki
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Civil Engineering
Dep., Thessaloniki, Greece, katgt@civil.auth.gr

_ Konstantia Tolika
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Meteorology and
Climatology Dep., Thessaloniki, Greece, diatol@geo.auth.gr

ABSTRACT

With the aim of increasing the accuracy of buildings’ energy performance simulations, this study
presents a novel computational procedure to create typical weather datasets that consider the in-
fluence of local surroundings and the respective microclimatic conditions to which the examined
building is subjected. The proposed methodology, here applied for the energy performance analysis
of 2 building units in Thessaloniki, Greece, is based on the use of the ENVI-met microclimate model
and the Meteonorm weather generator. Microclimate simulations, evaluating the outdoor thermal
environment of the case study areas are initially performed with the ENVI-met model for 12 rep-
resentative days (one for each month); the obtained microclimatic results are then extracted and
introduced in Meteonorm weather generator to create the site-specific, annual climatic datasets.
The created hourly weather files, henceforward entitled ‘Urban Specific Weather Datasets’ (USWDs),
will be only representative of the microclimatic conditions of the analysed study area in which the
examined building units are located. The climatic parameters of the generated USWD involving air
temperature, wind speed and relative humidity are then compared with the respective parameters
of a TWD for the city of Thessaloniki and the observed differences and evaluated and discussed.

KEYWORDS _ typical weather datasets, buildings’ energy performance, coupling, microclimate

INTRODUCTION

Considering the high share of residential sector on the overall energy demand in the European
Union, the European Commission strongly encourages all members of the EU to adopt measures
to respond to the growing energy demand of the building sector (E.E. Commission 2003). Given the
growing concerns about energy waste and its negative impact on the environment due to excessive
CO2 emissions, there is an increasing interest towards accurate building energy simulation. The
corresponding simulation tools are currently widely used by architects, engineers and designers
in order to estimate building energy needs but also to investigate the potential of energy savings
through measures that involve equipment, operational schedules or control strategies. The use of

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advanced Building Energy Performance Simulation (BEPS) models may generally provide reliable
estimates of building energy demand with simulation results fitting quite accurately with actual
measurements (Yezioro et al.2008). When configuring the dynamic energy performance simula-
tions, special attention should be given on the accuracy of the climatic dataset, used as input for the
calculation since it will strongly influence heating and cooling loads calculations (Crawley 1998).
Given that long term real weather data, measured at a close distance from the study area are not
always available, most of the corresponding BEPS models, adopt the so called ‘typical weather files’
that are usually statistically processed and mainly derived from multiyear observations, issued by
weather stations outside the urban areas; complex interactions between solar radiation, wind speed
and the increased urban densities along the higher ambient Tair values as a result of the urban
heat island effect cannot be taken into consideration (Kolokotsa et al. 2016). In other words, when
it comes to the energy performance simulation of an urban building, the assumption that the cli-
matic conditions at a reference location of a meteo station (i.e. the airport area) are the same for a
densely built up area can lead to inaccurate predictions of heating and cooling loads. In this context,
the aim of this study is to present a computational method to create typical weather datasets that
take into consideration the effect of local surroundings and the respective microclimatic conditions.
The generated files, henceforward entitled ‘Urban Specific Weather Datasets (USWDs), will be only
site-specific, reflecting the microclimatic conditions of the analysed case study area; they can be
then used as an input parameter in dynamic BEPS, increasing the accuracy of the obtained results.
In order to account of the local microclimate, the ENVI-met non hydrostatic microclimate model is
used (Huttner et al. 2012). The proposed computational method for the creation of the USWD is here
applied for two generic building units, located in two different urban areas in the city of Thessaloniki,
Greece and presenting different morphological and microclimatic characteristics. At the next step,
the air temperature values of the two created datasets, a parameter that strongly influences the
buildings’ energy performance, are compared with the respective values of a reference TWD for the
city of Thessaloniki that could be theoretically used for every study area inside the city.

METHODOLOGY

As previously mentioned, the current study aims to present a computational method for the gen-
eration of typical weather files for dynamic BEP simulations that account for the influence of local
surroundings and the respective microclimatic conditions. To date, the existing techniques for the
generation of TWDs require the statistical analysis of several years of climatic records (Crawley
1998). On the other hand, microclimatic simulations are vastly time consuming and as a result in
the present study, it would have been extremely inefficient to simulate all diurnal cycles of several
previous years to obtain the corresponding long-term microclimatic results. A different approach
has thus to be followed: instead of simulating several years, 12 representative days, one of each
month, are simulated and the USWD is then generated from the obtained microclimate results. For
this reason, Meteonorm, a synthetic year generation model that uses stochastic methodologies to
create time series of hourly data, is applied. When creating a synthetic weather year in Meteonorm,
monthly averages of the most important weather variables (i.e. dry bulb temperature, relative hu-
midity, global radiation and wind speed) can be introduced by the user; daily and hourly values are
then stochastically generated with intermediate data having the same statistical properties as the
monthly imported data, i.e. average value, variance and characteristic sequence (Meteotest 2015).
In the present study the averages that are required for the stochastic generation of the 2 urban spe-
cific weather dataset (USWDs), are provided by the simulated ENVI-met microclimatic data for the 2
examined sites, for the 12 representative days. The different steps of the implemented methodology
is presented in Fig.1.

Selecting the representative days

A representative day could be defined as a set of 24 hours data, measured at a meteo station, that

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has the least differences from all the 24 hours long-term observations of the meteo station (Ti-
rabassi 1999). In this study, in order to define the representative days for the city of Thessaloniki,
a long-term climatic dataset of daily average Tair values for the period 1958-2000, issued by the
meteorological station of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki has been used. The procedure that
is carried out for the determination of representative days for microclimate simulation is based on
three steps: (a) for every day of each month, the mean value of the daily average of air temperature
is calculated, over the multi-year period, (b) for every month, the median of the previously estimated
mean values is calculated and (c) For every day of the period September 2015-August 2016 (i.e.
period during which onsite Tair records of the 2 case study areas are available), the deviation of the
average day Tair from the corresponding median value is estimated. In order to determine whether
a day is representative or not, the deviation from the median of the multi-year period should be the
lowest possible with maximum accepted deviation set to 20%. In case where more than one day
fulfilled this criterion, we restricted the selection by simultaneously choosing the day with the small-
er deviation. The detailed procedure for defining the representative days is described in a previous
paper of Tsoka et al. (Tsoka et al. 2018)

Case study areas and monitoring campaign

The 2 examined case study areas, extending to 40 000 m2, are located at a close distance from the
centre of Thessaloniki, a city situated in the northern part of Greece. Climatic conditions in the city
are temperate with rather mild winters and hot, humid summers. In both sites, buildings are mainly
of residential use, while open spaces are only limited to street canyons and courtyards of irregular
shape between building volumes. Roofs are mostly covered by concrete pavement tiles; ground
surface is shielded by asphalt and concrete paving materials whereas only a small part is covered
by loamy soil and other permeable materials.

_ Figure 1: Diagram of the implemented methodology

Regarding vegetation, the first site (i.e. Pittakou case study area) has a surface density of 33% and
it presents slightly more green areas in comparison to the second one; yet, it mainly comprises of
low trees, and grass placed on both sides along the main streets of the study area. In the second
site, (i.e. Mitoudi case study area) where the buildings cover 45% of the total ground surface, planted
areas mainly involving bushes and scarcely foliated trees, are present in the courtyards between
building volumes but also inside some of the study area canyons. Fig.2. a.i and 2.b.i depicts the goo-
gle earth images of the case study areas; the building units for which the USWDs will be created, are
located inside the two highlighted, east-west orientated canyons (i.e. Pittakou and Mitoudi streets).
The aspect ratio and sky view factor of Pittakou canyon is 1.1 and 35% respectively, whereas the

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corresponding values in Mitoudi canyon are 2.4 and 10%. An onsite monitoring campaign, measur-
ing hourly Tair and RH values inside Pittakou and Mitoudi canyon has been established during the
period July 2015-September 2016. The obtained records. From one hand, the acquired observations
would serve towards the identification of potential differences between the atmospheric conditions
occurring in the 2 densely built-up urban zones and on the other hand, to the acquisition of the
necessary data for the ENVI-met microclimate model’s evaluation. The implemented high accuracy
weatherproof Hobo-data loggers, suitable for the outdoor environment, have been placed into suit-
able radiation shields and where then positioned in 1st floor balconies of Pittakou (Fig.2. a. iv) and
Mitoudi street (Fig.2. b. iv)

_ Figure 2: (i) google earth images, (ii), (iii) ENVI-met area input files and (iv) radiation shields of the Hobo
data loggers for the 2 examined case study areas

ENVI-met microclimate simulations and model evaluation

The ENVI-met v.4 three-dimensional microclimate simulation tool (Huttner 2012) is applied for the
estimation of the microclimatic variables. The model is based on the fundamental laws of fluid dy-
namics and thermodynamics and can simulate complex surface-vegetation-air interactions in the
urban environment. In this study, a total number of 24 microclimate simulations is conducted (i.e. 12
simulations for each case study area, one for every representative day). All necessary meteorolog-
ical input boundary conditions such as air temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and direction
and soil temperature have been provided by the meteorological station of the Aristotle University
of Thessaloniki, located inside the University Campus. The area input files of the 2 examined case
study areas where the building layout, vegetation, soil type and project location parameters are de-
fined, are shown in Fig.2. For the generation of the 2 models’ geometry, a set of 134 x 134 grids has
been adopted for the x and y axis with a resolution of 1.5 m, while in the z axis, the number of cells
was set to 20 with a 3.0 m resolution. Finally, in order to obtain the necessary microclimatic param-
eters that will be then introduced in Meteonorm stochastic weather generator, 5 receptor points have
been placed in front of the façades of the building in which the investigated building units are locat-
ed. The ‘receptors’ function in the ENVI-met model offers the possibility to acquire all major micro-
climatic variables at different heights, from the ground level till the top of the model domain. For both
study areas, numerical simulations have been initially performed for 24 hours diurnal cycles for the
representative days in March, July, October and February to assure model accuracy for all seasons

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which the investigated building units are located. The ‘receptors’ function in the ENVI-met
model offers the possibility to acquire all major microclimatic variables at different heights,
from the ground level till the top of the model domain. For both study areas, numerical
7TH INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC CONFERENCE
simulations have been initially performed for 24 hours diurnal cycles for the representative
days in March, July, October and February to assure model accuracy for all seasons of the
year.ofThe acquired Tair simulation results have been then compared with the respective
the year. The acquired Tair simulation results have been then compared with the respective onsite
onsite Tair measurements and a set of statistical indices, suitable for the model’s evaluation
Tair measurements and a set of statistical indices, suitable for the model’s evaluation has been
has estimated.
been estimated. The acquired
The acquired values of values of Root
Root Mean Mean
Square Error Square
(RMSE) Error (RMSE)
and Mean and Error
Absolute Mean(MAE),
Absolute Errorfor
estimated (MAE),
the 4 estimated for the
representative days4ofrepresentative days
each season are of each
shown season
in Table are shown
1. Based in
on statistical
Tableindices’
1. Based on already
values statistical indices’invalues
accepted already
previous accepted
evaluation studiesin (Tsoka
previous evaluation
et al.2018) studiescan be
ENVI-met
(Tsoka et al.2018)
considered as aENVI-met canfor
reliable tool bemicroclimate
considered as a reliableunder
simulation tool different
for microclimate simulation
meteorological conditions
under different meteorological conditions and microclimate simulations for the
and microclimate simulations for the rest of the representative days are then carried out.rest of the
representative days are then carried out.
_ Table 1: Estimated RMSE/MAE for both case study areas and for the 4 representative days
Table 1: Estimated RMSE/MAE for both case study areas and for the 4 representative days
Pittakou study area Mitoudi study area
o o o o
March 1.14 C / 0.95 C 1.19 C / 1.05 C
o o o o
July 1.02 C / 0.82 C 1.35 C / 1.19 C
o o o o
October 1.55 C / 1.5 C 1.15 C / 1.11 C
o o o o
January 0.85 C / 0.78 C 1.35 C / 1.28 C

Extraction of the
Extraction of microclimate datadata
the microclimate
As previously mentioned, the proposed computational method is applied at two, 1st floor building
As previously mentioned,
units in Pittakou the proposed
and Mitoudi computational
street canyons. The hourlymethod
weatherisfiles
applied at two,
are created in 1st
orderfloor
to repre-
building
sent units in Pittakou
the immediate and Mitoudi
climatic street
conditions canyons.
in front of theThe hourlybuilding
specific weather filesOnly
units. are the
created
mainin façade
order
of to represent
each building the
unit immediate
is exposed to climatic conditions
the exterior in front
conditions, ofthe
while theground
specific building
surface, units.
ceiling and the
Onlyrest
theofmain façade facades
the vertical of each are building unit isasexposed
considered to The
adiabatic. the ground
exteriorfloor
conditions, while the
of the analysed building
ground
has surface, ceiling and
a 4.5 m height andthethetypical
rest ofbuilding
the vertical
floorsfacades
are of 3are considered
m height. Thus,as foradiabatic.
a 1st floorThe building
ground
unit,floor of the analysed
microclimatic buildingfor
data necessary hasBEPS
a 4.5 m heightare
modelling and the typical
extracted buildingbetween
for heights floors are of and
4.50 m
3 m7.50 m.
height.Based
Thus,onforthearecommendations
1st floor building unit, et
of Yang microclimatic data necessary
al. (Yang et al.2012) for points
five receptor BEPS pro-
viding microclimatic
modelling are extracted valuesforof heights
air temperature,
between relative humidity,
4.50 m and wind speed,Based
7.50 m. shortwave
on radiation,
the
mean radiant temperature
recommendations of Yang etc. et have been placed
al. (Yang at 0.75 mfive
et al.2012) awayreceptor
from the façade.
points The obtained mi-
providing
croclimatevalues
microclimatic valuesoffrom
air the five receptors
temperature, are then
relative averaged
humidity, and speed,
wind the estimated
shortwave values are then used
radiation,
as the monthly input data for the Meteonorm weather generator
mean radiant temperature etc. have been placed at 0.75 m away from the façade. Theto create the 2 USWDs.
obtained microclimate values from the five receptors are then averaged and the estimated
values are then used as the monthly input data for the Meteonorm weather generator to
RESULTS
create – COMPARISON OF THE GENERATED ANNUAL WEATHER DATASETS
the 2 USWDs.

Two site specific, hourly weather datasets, reflecting the microclimatic conditions in front of the 2
RESULTS – COMPARISON
examined OF THE
building units in GENERATED ANNUAL
Pittakou and WEATHER
Mitoudi canyons,DATASETS
have been stochastically generated. At
the next step, the obtained Tair data are compared between them and with the respective values of
the TWD for the city of Thessaloniki, a reference hourly weather dataset (RWD) that could be theo-
retically used for every site in the city. It must be emphasized that the latter weather file is issued
from the default database of Meteonorm, while its creation is based on long-term climatic records
of a weather station in the peripheral zone of the city, outside the dense urban tissue. The calculated
hourly Tair values for the 2 USWDs and the RWD have been further processed and the estimated av-
erage monthly Tair values along with the respective deviations between the USWDs and the RWD are
shown in Fig. 3.a and 3.b correspondingly. The analysis of the Tair on a monthly basis throughout
the year suggests a similar profile for all three datasets with the RWD scenario generally presenting
lower Tair values. This is attributed to the significant effect of the different microclimatic conditions
inside the densely built-up areas, which are sufficiently reproduced by the ENVI-met model. For both
case study areas, the smaller differences are found in January, when the 2 street canyons and the
exterior building units ‘facades are practically kept in shadow during all day and the solar radiation’s
influence is significantly low. On the other hand, during the cooling period, the Tair differences be-
tween the USWDs and the RWD range between 0.65 oC – 1.52 oC and 0.53 oC - 1.37 oC for Pittakou
and Mitoudi street canyons respectively.
Comparing now the results of 2 USWDs, the deviations on the estimated monthly Tair values in front

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of the building units of the 2 case study areas are due to their different morphological and geomet-
rical characteristics, affecting the exposure on solar radiation, the wind speed and the convective
heat losses etc. During the winter period (i.e. December-February), marginal differences that do not
exceed 0.15°C, are found between the 2 areas which is mainly due to the low solar altitude and the
low solar radiation intensity of this period. On the other hand, the Tair in front of the 1st floor building
unit in Pittakou canyon is 0.4 °C higher than the corresponding value in Mitoudi canyon, both in July
and August. This is attributed to the significantly lower contribution of the direct solar radiation,
reaching the buildings and ground surfaces of Mitoudi canyon, since they are practically kept in
shadow throughout the day by the adjacent building volumes and the consequent high aspect ratio
of the street. The part of solar radiation, absorbed by the façade of the 1st floor building unit is thus
low, compared to the building unit in Pittakou canyon, prohibiting the warming of the adjacent air
layer through convection phenomena.

_ Figure 3: (a) Mean monthly values of Tair for the 2 USWDs and the RWD and (b) the estimated percent
differences of the monthly Tair values

_ Figure 4: Inter- daily air temperature variation for each month of the year for the 2 Urban Specific Weath-
er Datasets and the Reference Weather Dataset

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On a final step, the performance of the method was investigated on an hourly basis. More precisely,
for both USWD and RWD datasets and for each month, the mean hourly values of the Tair values are
calculated and compared (see Fig. 4). It is observed that all 3 datasets follow the expected inter-dai-
ly temperature variability with the lowest values early in the morning and the maximum ones two or
three hours after mid-day. The Tair values of the 2 USWDs are generally higher than the RWD ones,
with the largest differences detected during the month of September. The reported discrepancies
between the 2 urban areas and the reference location of the meteo station are the result of complex
microclimatic conditions, reproduced by ENVI-met model and mainly attributed to the increased
building densities of the study areas, contributing to lower longwave radiation losses, to the thermal
properties of the construction materials, enhancing the storage of emittance of sensible heat to the
air and also to the reduced green areas leading to lower amounts of latent heat.

MAIN CONCLUSIONS

This paper presents a computational method to assess the urban climate’s effect during the cre-
ation of typical weather years for dynamic building energy calculations. ENVI-met microclimate
simulations are performed for 12 representative days and the obtained output are used as input in
Meteonorm stochastic weather generator so as to create urban specific weather datasets (USWD)
for two urban districts in Thessaloniki, Greece. The generated USWDs and the modeled Tair values
occurring in front of the analyzed building units are finally compared with the respective values of
reference weather dataset (RWD). The computational method and the analysis of the simulation
results initially revealed that the ENVI-met model can sufficiently reproduce special microclimatic
conditions of an urban area. Furthermore, for all 12 months of the year, air temperatures of the RWD
file are inferior to the corresponding USWDs values, indicating the effect of dissimilar climatic con-
ditions inside the dense urban district compared to the meteo station. The proposed methodological
approach can be easily applied to every urban area, regardless of the prevailing climatic conditions.
Further research involves from the one hand, the application of the procedure in urban areas of cities
in the warmer climatic zones and the consideration of climate change for the creation of site-spe-
cific weather datasets, on the other hand.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research / work was co-financed by Greece and the European Union under the program “Hu-
man Resource Development, Education and Lifelong Learning”, in the context of the “Support of
young post-doc researchers / cycle n.2 “ (MIS 5033021) implemented by the Greek State Scholar-
ship Foundation (IKY)

REFERENCES

__ Crawley, D.B., 1998. “Which weather data should you use for energy simulations of commercial build-
ings?”. Transactions-American society of heating refrigerating and air conditioning engineers, 104, 498-
515.
__ E.E.Commission, Directive 2002/91/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16th Decem-
ber 2002 on the energy performance of buildings, Official journal of the European Communities, L1/65–
L1/71, 04/01/2003, (2003).
__ Huttner, Sebastian 2012. “Further development and application of the 3D microclimate simulation EN-
VI-met”, PhD Thesis, Mainz University, Germany

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__ Kolokotsa, D., Gobakis, K., Papantoniou, S., Georgatou, C., Kampelis, N., Kalaitzakis, K., Vasilakopoulou,
K. and Santamouris, M., 2016. “Development of a web based energy management system for University
Campuses: The CAMP-IT platform”. Energy and Buildings, 123. 119-135.
__ Meteotest, 2015. Meteonorm, Global Meteorological Database, Version 7.1, Handbook Part I
__ Tirabassi, T. and Nassetti, S., 1999. “The representative day”. Atmospheric Environment, 33(15). 2427-
2434.
__ Tsoka, S., Tolika, K., Theodosiou, T., Tsikaloudaki, K. and Bikas, D., 2018. “A method to account for the
urban microclimate on the creation of ‘typical weather year’ datasets for building energy simulation, us-
ing stochastically generated data”. Energy and Buildings, 165, 270-283.
__ Yang, X., Zhao, L., Bruse, M. and Meng, Q., 2012. “An integrated simulation method for building energy
performance assessment in urban environments “. Energy and buildings, 54. 243-251.
__ Yezioro, A., Dong, B. and Leite, F., 2008. “An applied artificial intelligence approach towards assessing
building performance simulation tools “. Energy and Buildings, 40(4), 612-6

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ALGORITHM-BASED BIM MODEL ANALYSIS

METHODOLOGY AT URBAN LEVEL
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch36

_ Olivér Rák
Breuer Marcell Doctoral School of Architecture, Department of Engineering Studies,
Institute of Smart Technology and Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology,
University of Pécs, Office: B223, Boszorkány st. 2., 7624 Pécs, Hungary, oliver.rak@mik.pte.hu

_ Ágnes Borsos
Associate Professor, Interim Head of Department of Interior, Applied and Creative Design
Institute of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of
Pécs, Office: B327, Boszorkány st. 2., 7624 Pécs, Hungary, agnesborsos@mik.pte.hu

_ Péter Iványi
Full Professor, Interim Head of Department of Systems and Software Technologies,
Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of Pécs, Office: B140
Boszorkány st. 2., 7624 Pécs, Hungary, ivanyi.peter@mik.pte.hu

ABSTRACT

In this paper, we described the use of Building Information Modeling methods for urban analysis.
This purpose has been usually established by Geographic Information Systems however the devel-
opment of Computer-Aided Design software made it possible to analyse large areas or parts of cit-
ies with the help of BIM models. This study focuses on the assessment of prefabricated large-panel
buildings in the garden city of Pécs, in Hungary. The goal was to determine a building selection
method according to the integrity of the area. We took into consideration infrastructural facilities,
spatial position of shops, bus stations, and educational institutions compared to the locations of
selected buildings. This approach supported the determination of potential inherent in renovations.
The research consisted of three main stages: BIM model production methods and procedures, use
of algorithm-based workflows during data import and spatial analysis, and quantification and eval-
uation of generated information. Due to the high complexity of Architectural, Engineering, and Con-
struction projects and new digitalized methods, the use of algorithms and BIM models has been
the fastest growing part of the industry in the past few years. This combination can support logical
examinations and calculations between 3D and 2D information. The generated final results derived
from locations made it possible to evaluate prospective renovations. The presented methodologies
can be used in the case of other types of buildings and can support the decisions during the delivery
of assets.

KEYWORDS _ building information modelling, algorithms, urban analysis, location value, renovation

INTRODUCTION

Hungarian prime minister has made a pronouncement in 2017 containing that 10 storey large-panel
buildings’ top floor could be demolished to solve overheating issues (HVG 2017). The news has
brought the dilemma of these buildings into public awareness. In Hungary, there about 510.000
apartments that were built between 1961 and 1992 by manufactured technologies (Dési 1996).

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 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

The lifetime of the large-panel buildings is close to reach their estimated operating time (Dr. Bir-
ghoffer and Hikisch 1994; Orbán 1978). There are examples of refurbishments (Ghazi Wakili et al.
2018; Ligęza 2015; Osztroluczky and Csoknyai 2005) but those were just pilot projects and nobody
has made an urban level analysis of these buildings yet. The presented methods take into account
the location of buildings compared to infrastructure, educational institutions, grocery stores, and
restaurants. The main thesis of this research is that the location of the buildings affects their reno-
vation value so it makes sense to calculate.
Development of Information Technology (IT) and Building Information Modelling (BIM) made it pos-
sible to analyse spatial information of a city. A few articles present economy based location value
calculations (Akogun 2013; Kolbe et al. n.d.) but our research uses non-statistical methodologies
finding impact value. BIM models are usually used in building level which allows supporting oper-
ations during the lifecycle (Ham Namhyuk et al. 2018; Heaton et al. 2019; Lee et al. 2012) and the
previous studies were focused on the Return on Investment (ROI) of using BIM technologies (Kim et
al. 2017; Walasek and Barszcz 2017). The purpose of this paper is to give urban design and man-
agement support due to the values of the examined buildings.
Urban models are commonly prepared in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) due to a huge
amount of stored data. These models contain information about the location and spatial position
but not in the geometry rather than as attributes. In this study, we examined what advantages can be
obtained using 3D BIM models. There are researches applying algorithms but those were focused on
the efficiency of energy consumption and possibilities of better living area development (Natanian
et al. 2019; Vartholomaios 2017).
Garden city of Pécs (Figure 1.) has been chosen for the study because we knew this area well and
had a great amount of data available. Large-panel buildings of the garden city were modelled to de-
velop methodologies. (The “large-panel building” nomination is used for this type of asset. German
nomination is “Plattenbau” but some articles using “prefabricated buildings”.)

igure 1. Photo of the examined area

_ Figure of Pécs,
1. Photo Hungary
of the examined area of Pécs, Hungary

able 1: List of type and number of elements

MATERIALS AND METHODS
Playgrounds

Restaurants
Large-panel

Green areas

The BIM model was produced in Autodesk Revit 2020 platform because it can manage huge areas,
Bus stops

Shopping
buildings

Schools

lots of model elements, and has an algorithm module. The manual modelling method was used for
Shops

malls

the buildings’ geometry and location. Data can be found in Google maps or Open Street Map were
inaccurate to adopt automated workflow for modelling. Information on these websites were handled
840 28 7 64 31 59 2 17
to position the elements but with corrections. Extra data were added into model elements from a
study of Pécs garden city (Sipos 2015) such as building type and year of built parameters. Table 1
presents an element type list which contains the elements that were built in the virtual space. The

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number of elements is also shown in Table 1 to see how many geometries were utilized for the anal-
igure 1. Photo ofysis. The examined
the examined area
area of was
Pécs, about 6,8 km2 where all these model elements were placed.
Hungary

_ Table 1:
able 1: List of type and number ofList of type and number of elements
elements

Playgrounds

Restaurants
Large-panel

Green areas
Bus stops

Shopping
buildings

Schools
Shops

malls
840 28 7 64 31 59 2 17

The main focus was on location analysis with the help of algorithms. There are studies about algo-
rithm-based model examinations (Caetano and Leitão 2019; Feist et al. n.d.; Márk Máder et al. 2018)
and solutions are connecting GIS and BIM models (Diakite and Zlatanova 2020; Wang et al. 2019;
Zhang et al. 2020). However, algorithm-based BIM model analysis fields are not covered yet by the
Figure 1. Photo of the examined area of Pécs, Hungary
Architectural, Engineering, and Construction (AEC) industry.
Dynamo
Table 1: Listadd-on wasnumber
of type and selected to carry out the analysis which enables application of logical con-
of elements
nections for data examination. Due to the comparison of thousands element and accurate data
requirement algorithms were necessary to be applied. Model elements were collated by the XYZ
Playgrounds

Restaurants
Large-panel

Green areas

igure 2. Screenshot of the developed algorithm fromwhich

Autodesk
wereDynamo in the
by case of bus stopsInand
the4 case
storeyof larger
Bus stops

Shopping
coordination of the center points calculated the algorithms.
buildings

Schools

arge-panel buildings analysis

Shops

areas such as green areas, all edges of virtual elements were examined in the calculation to find the

malls
closest points. Figure 2. presents the algorithm that was developed for the analysis. Different parts
840 28 7 64 31 59 2 17
of the algorithm were used for different purposes as the colours highlight in Figure 2.

gure 1. Photo of the examined area of Pécs, Hungary

able 1: List of type and number of elements

Playgrounds

Restaurants
Large-panel

Green areas

igure 3. Screenshot of the developed algorithm from Autodesk Dynamo in the case of green areas and 4
Bus stops

Shopping
buildings

torey large-panel buildings analysis

Schools
Shops

malls

840 2. Screenshot
Figure 28 of7 the developed
64 31
algorithm 59 2
from Autodesk 17
Dynamo in the case of bus
_ Figure 2. Screenshot of the developed algorithm from Autodesk Dynamo in the casestops and
of bus 4 storey
stops and 4
large-panel buildings analysis
storey large-panel buildings analysis

“Selection of elements” group contained nodes for finding large-panel buildings (in this case “4 sto-
rey”) and “bus stop” elements. As it is shown in Figure 2. the point location definition was difficult
because of the floor type elements. These elements geometry could have more than four points and
circles were used to define them center points. Distance calculations were made by coordinates.
There were two parts of the algorithm (one part for the large-panel buildings and one for the bus
stops)3.which
Figure were compared
Screenshot to each
of the developed other in from
algorithm the “Distance
Autodesk analysis”
Dynamo ingroup. Theofresults
the case were sorted
green areas and 4
storey
by large-panel
the buildings buildings
and only analysis
the minimum values of the list were added to specific parameters of model
gure 2. Screenshot of the developed algorithm from Autodesk Dynamo in the case of bus stops and 4 storey
rge-panel buildingselements.
analysis This process was adopted for all criteria except for green areas.

gure 3. Screenshot of the _developed algorithm of

Figure 3. Screenshot from
the Autodesk
developedDynamo
algorithminfrom
the Autodesk
case of green areas
Dynamo andcase
in the 4 of green areas and
orey large-panel buildings analysis
4 storey large-panel buildings analysis

307
 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

As it is shown in Figure 3. the algorithm was modified to compare the locations of every point of
elements to find the smallest distance between them.
A quantitative survey was also developed to define the relation and importance of criteria that were
used in the research. It was filled by 320 respondents on an online form. It contained questions
about apartment purchase preferences. Table 2 represents the questions and answer possibilities
of the survey.

_ Table 2: Quantitative survey questions and answer possibilities

Table 2: Quantitative survey questions and answer possibilities
Questions Possibilities of answers
What is your age? Number
Where do you live? “I live in Pécs”, “I don't live in Pécs”
When have you bought last an asset? Number
“For investment”, “For private purposes”, “I didn't buy
What was the purpose of the purchase?
yet”
How important is it for you? – The distance of shops
Linear scale from 1 to 10
from the chosen asset:
How important is it for you? – The distance of
Linear scale from 1 to 10
education institutions from the chosen asset:
How important is it for you? – The distance of bus
Linear scale from 1 to 10
stops from the chosen asset:
How important is it for you? – The distance of green
Linear scale from 1 to 10
areas from the chosen asset:
How important is it for you? – The distance of
Linear scale from 1 to 10
playgrounds from the chosen asset:
How important is it for you? – The distance of
Table 2: Quantitative survey questions and answer possibilities Linear scale from 1 to 10
shopping malls from the chosen asset:
Questions How important is it for you? – The distance of Possibilities of answers
Linear scale from 1 to 10
What is your age? restaurants from the chosen asset: Number
Where do you live? If you have any other additional preference please
“I live in Pécs”, “I don't live in Pécs”Text
describe it:
When have you bought last an asset? Number
“For investment”, “For private purposes”, “I didn't buy
What was the purpose of the purchase?
yet”
How important is it forThis
you? survey was developed
– The distance of shops to find weightings for the relevant factors in the calculation of the lo-
Linear scale from 1 to 10
from the chosen asset:cation values. Evaluation of the survey was made to calculate average numbers for the importance
How important is it for you? – The distance of
of distances from the selected asset. Analytical Hierarchy
Linear scale Process (AHP) (Saaty 1987, 1988, 1990)
from 1 to 10
education institutions from the chosen asset:
was applied to compare
How important is it for you? – The distance of bus
the importance of criteria. During the process, a comparison matrix was
stops from the chosen established
asset: where the differentiation wasLinear made scale from 1 to 10
by the survey results. There was a study where AHP
How important is it forwas
you?used
– The for GIS data
distance of greencomparison (Al-shabeeb 2016) but not for building location analysis.
Linear scale from 1 to 10
areas from the chosen asset:
How important is it for you? – The distance of
Linear scale from 1 to 10
playgrounds from the chosen asset:
RESULTS
How important is it forFigure
you? –4.The distanceofofthe parameters that were created in model elements in Autodesk Revit
Screenshot Linear scale from 1 to 10
shopping malls from the chosen asset:
How important is it forAsyou?
Table –
4: The distance
Normalized of
a result, the BIM model analysis wasLinear
Criteria Comparison Matrix [C] made byfrom
the1 to
examined processes in previous sections.
scale 10
restaurants from the chosen asset:
Distance parameters
If you have any other additional preference please
were calculated for all large-panel buildings (“4 storey” and “10 storey”) com-
Playground

Text
Restaurant
Green area

pared to every factor (Bus stop, Green area, Grocery store, Playground, Restaurant, School, Shopping
Shopping

describe it:
Bus stop
School

mall). As figure 4. presents there were parameters made for distances in Revit and algorithms filled
Shop

mall

Factors Criteria weights

inShop
the specific parameters
0,103
according
0,103 0,176
to the calculated
0,034 0,159
results.
0,171 0,176 0,131802568
School 0,103 0,103 0,176 0,034 0,159 0,171 0,176 0,131802568
Bus stop 0,205 0,205 0,352 0,688 0,212 0,214 0,206 0,297565169
Green area 0,513 0,513 0,088 0,172 0,372 0,3 0,235 0,31323602
Playground 0,034 0,034 0,088 0,025 0,053 0,086 0,088 0,05827826
Shopping mall 0,026 0,026 0,07 0,025 0,027 0,043 0,088 0,043408578
Restaurant 0,017 0,017 0,05 0,022 0,018 0,014 0,029 0,023906839

The use of criteria weights is presented in table 5. in the section of appendixes. There were
ten buildings randomly selected which distance parameter values were generated by the
algorithms. The list was made as a schedule in Revit but the following calculations were
established in Microsoft Excel. In the “calculated v.” raw the used distances reciprocal values
Figure 4. Screenshot of the parameters
_ Figurethat were created
4. Screenshot ofin model
the elementsthat
parameters in Autodesk Revit in model elements in Autodesk Revit 2020
were created

Table 4: Normalized Criteria Comparison Matrix [C]

[TECH] 308
ayground

staurant
een area

opping
s stop
hool
op

all
 playgrounds from the chosen asset:
How important is it for you? – The distance of
Linear scale from 1 to 10
shopping malls from the chosen asset:
How
7TH important is it for
INTERNATIONAL you? – The
ACADEMIC distance of
CONFERENCE Linear scale from 1 to 10
restaurants from the chosen asset:
If you have any other additional preference please
Text
describe it:

After completing the calculation of distances, the questionnaire results were examined to define the
weighting of the factors. AHP was used to establish it by pairwise comparison matrixes. As AHP
requires criteria weights were calculated by a normalization method as it is shown in Table 4. In the
case of the AHP application, a review is needed to control calculations. Review steps: 1st determine
the Weight sums vector (Ws): Ws=C*W; 2nd find the Consistency vector (C): C=Ws*1/W; 3rd deter-
mine the average (λ); 4th calculate the Consistency Index: CI=(λ-n)/(n-1), where “n” is the number
of criteria; 5th determine the Random Index (RI) – in the case of seven criteria the value is 1,32; 8th
determine the Consistency ratio (CR): CR=CI/RI (Saaty 1987). In this case, the calculated CR value
was 0,0946 which is less than 0,1 and it means the consistency of the calculation was correct.
Figure 4. Screenshot of the parameters that were created in model elements in Autodesk Revit
_ Table 4: Normalized Criteria Comparison Matrix [C]
Table 4: Normalized Criteria Comparison Matrix [C]

Playground

Restaurant
Green area

Shopping
Bus stop
School
Shop

mall
Factors Criteria weights
Shop 0,103 0,103 0,176 0,034 0,159 0,171 0,176 0,131802568
School 0,103 0,103 0,176 0,034 0,159 0,171 0,176 0,131802568
Bus stop 0,205 0,205 0,352 0,688 0,212 0,214 0,206 0,297565169
Green area 0,513 0,513 0,088 0,172 0,372 0,3 0,235 0,31323602
Playground 0,034 0,034 0,088 0,025 0,053 0,086 0,088 0,05827826
Shopping mall 0,026 0,026 0,07 0,025 0,027 0,043 0,088 0,043408578
Restaurant 0,017 0,017 0,05 0,022 0,018 0,014 0,029 0,023906839

The use of criteria weights is presented in table 5. in the section of appendixes. There were
The
ten use of criteria
buildings weights
randomly is presented
selected in table 5.
which distance in the section
parameter valuesofwere
appendixes.
generatedThere were ten build-
by the
algorithms.
ings Theselected
randomly list was which
made distance
as a schedule in Revit
parameter but the
values werefollowing calculations
generated were
by the algorithms. The list
established
was made as in aMicrosoft
scheduleExcel. In the
in Revit “calculated
but v.” raw
the following the used distances
calculations reciprocal in
were established values
Microsoft Excel.
In the “calculated v.” raw the used distances reciprocal values were calculated because of higher
distance means worst location. Inverse parameters were multiplied by the related criteria weight.
(E.g. Anikó street 2. – Bus stop: (1 / 203.4705)*0,2976=0,0015). The normalized values were com-
puted according to “Calculated v.” data. In the results column, the normalized values were assumed
and translated to percentage which resulted in relative location values for the selected assets. As an
example due to this method, the building at Aidinger János street 8. had the highest rate (16,44%)
and that means its location was the best of all selected large-panel buildings compared by criteria.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The results are well organized and stored in Revit model elements. Those could be more accurate
if the land characteristic can be taken into account but in Pécs Garden city the area was near-
ly horizontal and modelling process would not worth it. According to the questionnaire and algo-
rithm-based calculation results, the parameter comparison is well supported. But the requirements
can be more specific by costumers, therefore criteria weights and used factors can be changed in
the case of other circumstances. In general, the factors used in this research are relevant and as the
survey presents there were no more criteria suggestion to use by the respondents.
As a conclusion, BIM models were adaptable to establish location analysis in urban level. Automatic
calculations and imports of values were supported by algorithms that reduced the time it takes to
do. According to the study results the location values can be calculated and it provided relevant
information for a comprehensive refurbishment project. The applied and developed methodologies
can be used for analysis of other types of buildings or in the case of more specific criteria, too. This
development can be profitable for real estate or property managers to have relevant information on
the locations not only derived from the prices.

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 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

This study was the first step of a more comprehensive analysis. This research is going to be con-
tinued to determine data for refurbishment value in the case of Hungarian large-panel buildings
according to the locations, conditions and renovation possibilities.

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APPENDIXES

APPENDIXES
_ Table 5. Calculation and final results of the comparison of ten randomly selected buildings
Table 5. Calculation and final results of the comparison of ten randomly selected buildings
House number

Shopping mall
Grocery store
Street name

Playground

Restaurant
Green area

RESULTS
Bus stop

School

Criteria weights 0,2976 0,3132 0,1318 0,0434 0,0583 0,0239 0,1318

Anikó 2. 203,4705 216,0000 89,0000 760,0000 124,0000 185,0000 74,0000
Calculated v. 0,0015 0,0015 0,0015 0,0001 0,0005 0,0001 0,0018
Normalized v. 0,0694 0,0454 0,1718 0,1156 0,0536 0,0955 0,2631 11,64%
Dóra 8. 126,7471 154,0000 159,0000 642,0000 54,0000 197,0000 177,0000
Calculated v. 0,0023 0,0020 0,0008 0,0001 0,0011 0,0001 0,0007
Normalized v. 0,1114 0,0637 0,0961 0,1368 0,1232 0,0897 0,1100 10,44%
Enyezd 24. 108,5934 100,0000 90,0000 1061,0000 128,0000 140,0000 350,0000
Calculated v. 0,0027 0,0031 0,0015 0,0000 0,0005 0,0002 0,0004
Normalized v. 0,1301 0,0981 0,1699 0,0828 0,0520 0,1263 0,0556 10,21%
Aidinger János 8. 130,6471 26,0000 102,0000 922,0000 24,0000 210,0000 332,0000
Calculated v. 0,0023 0,0120 0,0013 0,0000 0,0024 0,0001 0,0004
Normalized v. 0,1081 0,3774 0,1499 0,0953 0,2772 0,0842 0,0586 16,44%
Enyezd 13. 138,9428 131,0000 246,0000 1106,0000 25,0000 300,0000 438,0000
Calculated v. 0,0021 0,0024 0,0005 0,0000 0,0023 0,0001 0,0003
Normalized v. 0,1017 0,0749 0,0621 0,0794 0,2661 0,0589 0,0444 9,82%
Aidinger János 39. 170,5001 53,0000 158,0000 579,0000 143,0000 147,0000 411,0000
Calculated v. 0,0017 0,0059 0,0008 0,0001 0,0004 0,0002 0,0003
Normalized v. 0,0828 0,1851 0,0968 0,1517 0,0465 0,1202 0,0474 10,44%
Csikor Kálmán 31. 259,2919 679,0000 567,0000 907,0000 198,0000 252,0000 1216,0000
Calculated v. 0,0011 0,0005 0,0002 0,0000 0,0003 0,0001 0,0001
Normalized v. 0,0545 0,0145 0,0270 0,0969 0,0336 0,0701 0,0160 4,46%
Berek 7. 178,4722 173,0000 97,0000 867,0000 124,0000 62,0000 56,0000
Calculated v. 0,0017 0,0018 0,0014 0,0001 0,0005 0,0004 0,0024
Normalized v. 0,0791 0,0567 0,1576 0,1013 0,0536 0,2851 0,3477 15,45%

311 Csipke 3. 95,4689 229,0000 1087,0000 1403,0000 136,0000 937,0000 882,0000

Calculated v. 0,0031 0,0014 0,0001 0,0000 0,0004 0,0000 0,0001
Normalized v. 0,1480 0,0429 0,0141 0,0626 0,0489 0,0189 0,0221 5,10%
Normalized v. 0,0828 0,1851 0,0968 0,1517 0,0465 0,1202 0,0474 10,44%
Csikor Kálmán 31. 259,2919 679,0000 567,0000 907,0000 198,0000 252,0000 1216,0000
PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020
Calculated v. 0,0011 0,0005 0,0002 0,0000 0,0003 0,0001 0,0001
Normalized v. 0,0545 0,0145 0,0270 0,0969 0,0336 0,0701 0,0160 4,46%
Berek 7. 178,4722 173,0000 97,0000 867,0000 124,0000 62,0000 56,0000
Calculated v. 0,0017 0,0018 0,0014 0,0001 0,0005 0,0004 0,0024
Normalized v. 0,0791 0,0567 0,1576 0,1013 0,0536 0,2851 0,3477 15,45%
Csipke 3. 95,4689 229,0000 1087,0000 1403,0000 136,0000 937,0000 882,0000
Calculated v. 0,0031 0,0014 0,0001 0,0000 0,0004 0,0000 0,0001
Normalized v. 0,1480 0,0429 0,0141 0,0626 0,0489 0,0189 0,0221 5,10%
Boros István 1. 122,9586 238,0000 279,0000 1134,0000 147,0000 346,0000 555,0000
Calculated v. 0,0024 0,0013 0,0005 0,0000 0,0004 0,0001 0,0002

Normalized v. 0,1149 0,0412 0,0548 0,0775 0,0453 0,0511 0,0351 6,00%

312
7TH INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC CONFERENCE

[HER]
RESPONSIVE HERITAGE PROTECTION

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 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

DIGITAL DESIGN TECHNIQUES TO ASSIST IN THE

COMPOSITION OF TRADITIONAL URBAN BUILDINGS
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch37

_ James Dougherty, AICP, CNU-A, ASAI

Principal / Director of Design; Dover, Kohl & Partners town planning;
1571 Sunset Drive, Coral Gables, FL 33143. USA; jdougherty@doverkohl.com

ABSTRACT

The design process of traditional urban fabric historically relied entirely on manual drawing tech-
niques. Recent advances in digital design technology, including 3D modelling and light ray tracing,
have unlocked several useful new techniques that can be harnessed to augment specific aspects
of the design process of traditional urban building types. The paper examines 3 primary methods:

1. Seamless movement between orthographic and perspective views. Traditional designs strive for
logical plan arrangements which, once built, are experienced in three-dimensions. Advances in dig-
ital modelling technology now allow designs to be quickly modelled and then easily viewed from a
variety of angles, for improved evaluation of proposed forms during the iterative development of
design ideas.

2. Accurate simulation of shadow shapes and light effects. Traditional urban architecture depends
on careful composition of shadow shapes to expressively subdivide and articulate building masses.
Digital 3D modelling and light ray tracing software allow building mouldings, projections and other
sculptural forms to be quickly and efficiently modelled and instantly tested accurately in a variety
of simulated lighting conditions, improving visual feedback in the design process to facilitate more
rapid and effective design iterations.

3. Visualization of design proposals at a variety of distances. Traditional urban buildings are specif-
ically designed to be viewed from a number of different distances. Smaller order compositions are
nested within larger order compositions. Larger order compositions are designed to be viewed from
greater distances, smaller order compositions from closer distances. Advances in digital 3D model-
ling and light ray tracing software allow views of designs to be accurately simulated at a variety of
distances, thus helping to facilitate well-composed nested compositions.

The paper then examines a variety of potential disadvantages of current digital design platforms in
the design of traditional urban buildings and concludes with suggestions for how they can be recti-
fied to improve future outcomes.

KEYWORDS _ digital design, traditional urban architecture

INTRODUCTION

The design process of traditional urban fabric historically relied entirely on manual drawing tech-
niques. While these methods have resulted in countless sublime built historic urban ensembles
throughout the world, recent advances in digital design technology have unlocked several useful
new techniques, including 3D modelling and light ray tracing, that can be harnessed to augment
specific aspects of the design process of traditional urban building types today.

[HER] 314
7TH INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC CONFERENCE

_ Figure 1: Historic urbanism such as Király utca in the historic center of Pécs, Hungary was designed
using manual drawing techniques. New digital design tools can be harnessed to assist this process.
(Dougherty 2020).

Three areas where new digital design tools are proving especially helpful in supplementing manual
drawing methods during the design of traditional buildings are: the seamless movement between
orthographic and perspective views, the accurate simulation of shadow shapes and light effects,
and the visualization of design proposals at a variety of distances.
Designers should be mindful that the evolution of digital design tools, in their current state, also
presents several potential disadvantages for the design of traditional urban buildings that must
be managed. These include: the difficulty of performing the technique of graphic indication, the
excessive ease of mechanical repetition, the predisposition for excessively flawless representation
of architectonic forms, reduction of the direct connection between designer and composition due to
the complexity of the interface, reduction of the constant critical attention of the human designer in-
herent to manual delineation, distractingly seductive photo-real entourage and lighting effects, and
the restrictive optimization of digital design platforms toward drawing particular families of shapes.
With a continued evolution of digital design platforms and the techniques for using them, these
disadvantages can be mitigated. Harnessing the powerful advantages of digital drawing platforms,
while reducing their current disadvantages, can result in enhanced capability for the design of tradi-
tional urban buildings in the future.

WHY IS IT USEFUL TO DESIGN TRADITIONAL URBAN BUILDINGS TODAY?

Traditional urbanism with its inherently compact, walkable format is useful to help manage numer-
ous pressing problems caused by the global proliferation of suburban sprawl, including: release of

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 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

excessive greenhouse gasses into the atmosphere through the burning of fossil fuels, accelerating
loss of natural habitats and farmland due to rapid urban expansion, and a variety of human health
problems resulting from the increasingly sedentary lifestyles of auto-centric land development pat-
terns. (UN-Habitat p.87).
To achieve the construction of effective new traditional walkable urbanism it is beneficial to inte-
grate the architectural traditions of a given region, as these usually embody evolved refinement
incorporating locally calibrated reactions to climate and cultural patterns. The Congress for the New
Urbanism, one of the world’s preeminent organizations focusing on strategies for the reconstitution
of walkable places, states in its Charter that “the development and redevelopment of towns and
cities should respect historical patterns, precedents, and boundaries” and that “architecture and
landscape design should grow from local climate, topography, history, and building practice”. (Con-
gress for the New Urbanism).
As traditional architecture can be useful in the design of new traditional walkable urbanism, it is
therefore constructive to examine how today’s new digital design tools can be harnessed to best
effect to aid rather than stymie the effective design of traditional architecture.

HISTORIC METHODS FOR DESIGNING TRADITIONAL BUILDINGS

Historic methods for designing traditional buildings, particularly as formalized by the academies
of Europe and America until the mid-twentieth century, are well-documented in the instructional
literature of the time, such as John Harbeson’s The Study of Architectural Design (1926). According
to Harbeson, design should progress via iterative loops where, multiple initial design versions are
explored in parallel and visually compared side-by-side. (Harbeson p.11). Positive design elements
are combined, and weaker attributes discarded until a truly strong final design solution is achieved.
As designs advance, they proceed from lower resolution to higher resolution in a series of nested
designs. (Harbeson p.15). Early design iterations focus on the fundamental parti while details are
communicated in an intentionally vague manner using a technique of graphic shorthand termed
“indication”. (Varon p.43). A direct physiological connection links the mind, eyes and hands of the
designer with the drawing tools and composition being developed. (Curtis p.174). The traditional
architectural design process is integral to the content of the architectural compositions produced,
and modifications are therefore most effectively introduced with awareness of the consequences.

WHAT ARE ADVANTAGES OF NEW DIGITAL TECHNIQUES IN THE DESIGN OF TRADITIONAL

URBAN BUILDINGS?

Seamless moevement between ortographic and perspective views

Architects express their designs through the orthographic views of plan, elevation, and section to
explore the composition of building elements and their relationship to one-another. (Curtis p.161).
Architects know that such orthographic drawings are conventions, and that built work will invari-
ably be experienced three-dimensionally within its urban context. (Curtis p.141). Whenever possible,
architects historically built physical models to aid three-dimensional visualization, but when this
was not possible they were left to only imagine what their designs might look like in the round and,
after construction, to save lessons learned for future efforts. (Varon p.19). Three-dimensional hand
drawing, while frequently performed, was invariably viewed with skepticism regarding its accuracy.
(Magonigle p.xv).
Today by contrast, user-friendly digital modelling tools have made quick and accurate three-dimen-
sional exploration and testing of forms during the architectural design process widely accessible to
designers.

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_ Figure 2 (left): A 1916 hand-drawn morphological study of the Paris Opera House, and its urban context,
in orthographic and perspective views. (Varon. Plate XI).

_ Figures 3, 4 and 5 (right): Design study of a new focal building, in orthographic and perspective views,
utilizing digital modelling software. (Dover, Kohl & Partners 2020)

It is now possible for a designer to view a composition not just in traditional orthographic views
but to effortlessly rotate it in virtual space to be viewed from any angle imaginable. Modern digital
modelling techniques can therefore be harnessed to produce traditional urban buildings that have
been accurately vetted from the three-dimensional view angles likely to be experienced by end us-
ers, an aid to the achievement of satisfying built results not available to historic architects. (Claypool
4. Early Digital Explorations). A notable vulnerability of this new capability requiring management,
however, is that designs can be advanced pictorially without adequate attention spent on develop-
ment of the composition of plan, elevation and section. (Magonigle p.133).

Accurate simulation of shadow and light effects

_ Figure 6 (left): 1905 drawing depicting a restored Temple of Hercules at Cori demonstrating Beaux-Arts
conventions for rendered shades and shadows. (d’Espouy, Plate C).
_ Figure 7 (right): Elevation study of a new focal building with shadows cast according to Beaux-Arts
conventions utilizing digital modelling and ray tracing software. (Dover, Kohl & Partners 2020).

Traditional urban architecture is designed to be seen in real world lighting conditions. Shapes of
shadows cast by direct sunlight falling across architectonic forms have evolved over many genera-
tions to enhance a building’s contribution to legibility of the urban environment while helping to form
a building’s particular visual identity. (Robinson p.27). The Beaux-Arts convention of casting shad-
ows from the upper left to lower right at an angle of 45 degrees made it possible to accurately gauge
three-dimensional depth of architectural elements within a two-dimensional drawing. (Harbeson
p.55). As this convention was adhered to by all practitioners, it also made very accurate side-by-side
comparisons of competing design proposals possible. (Curtis p.134). Traditionally, cast shadow
shapes were quickly estimated by eye in early freehand sketches and only later painstakingly man-
ually projected on orthographic drawings. They were then rendered in graded tones to represent the

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effects of direct, ambient, reflected, and occluded light as accurately as possible. (Curtis p.134). The
slow manual work required to project and render accurate shades and shadows, while providing
an important opportunity to apply the designer’s artistic judgement, limited the ability to draw and
accurately test multiple design iterations quickly. (Harbeson p.55). Today, with digital lighting soft-
ware, architectural forms and shadow shapes can easily be tested accurately throughout the entire
design process in realistically simulated lighting conditions. (Claypool 7. Computing Nature). This
capability, unavailable to historic designers, can improve and expedite the process of visually vetting
design iterations. A potential drawback of this automated casting of shadow shapes, however, can
be a reduction of the focused critical attention of the skilled human designer to this key composi-
tional element. (Curtis p.172).

VISUALIZATION OF DESIGN PROPOSALS AT A VARIETY OF DISTANCES

Traditional urban buildings were designed to enhance the viewer’s experience as they moved
through the city and were therefore designed to be viewed from a variety of distances. (Curtis p.119).
Traditionally, overall massing and silhouette, enhanced by major elements such as cornice shad-
ows, were meant to be legible from great distances. At closer distances, successively finer-grained
layers of composition reveal themselves. Upon approach, the rhythm of structural center lines and
the pattern of openings become visible. Closer still and the relative proportions of columns and
entablatures integrated into the façade become visible. The finest articulation of sculptural detail
is often not visible until directly in front of a building. This successive revealing of layers of nested
compositional articulation is a primary reason why movement through traditional urban sequences
comprised of such buildings is such a satisfying experience. (Varon pp. 22, 23, Plate XVII). Tradi-
tional architects therefore employed a design process that allowed them to focus on and refine
each nested layer of design sequentially. First, sketches are drawn at a very small scale, so that the
entire façade is visible on the drawing board before the designer at a glance, and only large order
compositional elements are drawn with precision. Smaller order elements, if shown at all, are merely
indicated with a quick graphic shorthand. (Curtis pp.174, 176) Once the large order composition
reaches a satisfying level of resolution, the designer proceeds to the next level of nested composi-
tional elements by manually redrawing at a larger scale successively until finally all nested layers are
developed and refined. (Curtis p.196).

_ Figure 8 (left): Layers of traditional nested composition. (Varon, Plate XXII).

_ Figures 9, 10 and 11 (right): Examination of a new focal building design in its urban context from multi-
ple distances and viewpoints utilizing digital modelling and ray tracing software. (Dover, Kohl & Partners
2020).

Today, digital drawing and modelling tools make viewing a draft composition at multiple scales
very easy to accomplish. It is often taken for granted that today one need only ‘zoom out’ to focus
on large order compositional elements and ‘zoom in’ as each successive layer of design is refined.
(Claypool 4. Early Digital Explorations). This quite common capability of today’s digital drawing plat-

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forms would have been unspeakably helpful to historic designers of traditional urban buildings. A
potential liability of this new digital capability, however, is the ease of prematurely proceeding to the
design of smaller order compositions before larger order compositions are adequately resolved.
(Varon p.43).

WHAT ARE DISADVANTAGES OF CURRENT DIGITAL DESIGN TECHNIQUES?

While today’s digital design tools offer the previous potential, though qualified, advantages; they can
also present several potential obstacles to the design of traditional urban buildings:

The difficulty of performing the technique of graphic indication

Digital design platforms are optimized for precise delineation of forms and suffer from an inability
to draw vaguely. (Claypool 4. Early Digital Explorations). The difficulty of utilizing the technique of
graphic indication when designing digitally is rooted in both hardware and software causes. Re-
garding hardware, the typical interface with digital design technology is the mouse and keyboard.
The mouse is optimized for small, precise movements of the hand and not for the large, gestur-
al movements of traditional freehand pencil drawing. The keyboard is an even further interruption
of the traditionally direct link from designer’s mind, to hand, to paper and it reduces the ability to
generate a seamless physiological connection between the designer and the work being produced.
(Varon p.19). Additionally, digital design software has focused on facilitating the drawing of precise,
vector-based shapes. (Claypool 7. Computing Nature). The very precision of these shapes is anti-
thetical to the vague and suggestive character of the indication so critical to quick and efficient early
visualization of the complex nested design ideas of traditional architecture. (Varon p.23).

The excessive ease of mechanical repetition

When all forms are drawn by hand, repetition beyond a certain point becomes physically and men-
tally fatiguing to the designer and increases the urge to incorporate variation within a design. (Varon
p.29). The ease of ‘copy / paste’ and ‘array’ functions of today’s digital design platforms allow me-
chanical repetition of elements far beyond what would have been tolerable to a traditional designer
employing hand drawing. (Claypool 4. Early Digital Explorations). This ease of repetition can result
in the skewing of the judgement of the designer, and adversely affect the character of the designs
produced (Varon p.29).

The predisposition for excessively flawless representation of architectonic forms

Traditional hand drawing techniques feature a degree of variability and imperfection even when
executed by a highly skilled practitioner. This natural variability is helpful in conveying the real nat-
ural imperfection of built architecture, particularly under the effects of weathering, gravity and time.
(Harbeson p.48). Digital drawing tools, by contrast, make possible the representation of lines, tones
and gradations with a level of superhuman precision that is not physically achievable in hand draw-
ing. (Claypool 4. Early Digital Explorations). This can result in a lack of simulation of the inevitable
variability of weathered and aged forms in the real world which can inadvertently cause designers to
select forms that embody a high level of platonic perfection but which can suffer inordinately when
exposed over time to the real world rigors of weathering and gravity. (Harbeson p.48).

Reduction of the constant critical attention of the human designer inherent to manual
delineation
A goal of evolving digital design platforms has been to insert automated computational tools into
the form-making decision process. (Claypool 8. Parametric Explosion). In contrast, traditional hand
drawing techniques require the engagement of the physiology and consciousness of the designer
with every millimeter of every line being drawn. (Varon p.19). This can lead to different design de-
cisions than when lines are instead generated by a computer. For instance, in BIM and parametric

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drawing systems a design can be produced via numerical inputs then a three-dimensional represen-
tation of the design is automatically generated by the computer software. This three-dimensional
representation is inherently subject to less precise scrutiny than if it were hand-drawn by a skilled
human practitioner and can result in unintended and potentially undesirable outcomes. (Claypool 7.
Computing Nature).

Distractingly seductive photo-real entourage and lighting effects

Digital modelling and rendering software have achieved an extraordinarily sophisticated level of rep-
resentation of trees, vehicles, people and other entourage items and simulation of various lighting
conditions. These advances have made it possible to place a proposed architectural composition
into a graphic setting that is so visually seductive, that objective judgment of the merits of the archi-
tectural design being represented can be hampered. (Harbeson p.129).

The resctrictive optimization of digital design platforms toward drawing particular

families of shapes
When a drawing platform makes representation of a certain family of forms easier or more difficult
to draw, this inevitably influences the design choices made by designers using these platforms. Tra-
ditional hand drawing techniques feature the ability to seamlessly transition between lines drawn
with mechanical instruments and lines drawn freehand. The effect of this flexibility can be seen in
the frequent combination of straight lines and organic, sculptural shapes within traditional architec-
tural compositions. (Harbeson p.48). By contrast for example, orthogonal and rectilinear forms have,
for example, long been easier to draw with digital design software than complex curvilinear forms.
(Claypool 4. Early Digital Explorations). While many advances have been made in recent years in the
ability to draw organic forms with digital software platforms, they still commonly lack the ability to
easily produce the nuanced and controlled contour lines commonly found in the representation of
traditional figurative architectural sculpture. (Harbeson p.48).

CONCLUSIONS

Advances in digital design technology, including 3D modelling and light ray tracing, can be har-
nessed to augment specific steps in the design of traditional urban building types. From the seam-
less movement between orthographic and perspective views, to the accurate simulation of shadow
shapes and light effects, to the visualization of design proposals at a variety of distances; the ca-
pabilities of digital design technology can be utilized to enhance and expedite traditional manual
design methods.
It is hoped that a careful and reasoned integration of new digital capabilities into time-tested man-
ual design workflows may continue to prove beneficial in the future service of those designing tra-
ditional urban building types. The following are proposals for ways that traditional and digital meth-
ods can be further integrated to better serve traditional design methods:

Integrate true manual drafting tools with digital platforms

A hardware and software evolution that would allow a designer to utilize true manual drafting in-
struments to interface with digital design software would be extremely helpful by allowing the digital
design process to mimic traditional techniques as closely as possible. Among the positive impacts
would be: improvement of the directness of connection between designer and design content during
the design process, reduction of excessive ease of mechanical repetition, and facilitation of seam-
less alternation between orthogonal and freeform line geometries. To achieve these benefits, digital
stylus technology should also continue to progress to achieve the true precision and responsive-
ness of a manual drafting pencil.

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More seamlessly integrate hand-drawn indication with digital workflows

The use of a digital stylus to replicate the soft pencil needed to hand draw the intentionally vague
lines critical for the technique of indication is already possible with recent advances in stylus tech-
nology. This could be further facilitated by pairing it with software advances that allow toggling
to pre-set standardized drawing scales, and which render intuitive the progression from vaguely
indicated lines to precisely defined vector graphics. This would function best if combined with a
tablet screen that is large enough to replicate the size of a traditional drawing sheet, so that a de-
sign drawn at a standardized scale could be seen and worked on in its entirety without the need for
constant zooming in and out.

Facilitate beaux-arts delineation conventions in software pre-sets

In order to counteract the tendency of overly-seductive entourage and lighting effects to reduce the
ability to critically assess a design on its own architectural merits, digital design platforms could
facilitate more easily presenting an architectural design utilizing the Beaux-Arts convention of line-
work plan, elevations and section drawn at a set conventional scale, and rendered in grayscale or
reduced chroma with shadows cast down and to the right at an angle of 45 degrees. Ready access
in a default setting to this conventional presentation graphic technique would make it possible to
view multiple designs in a graphically consistent way and would therefore facilitate more reliable
comparative evaluation of design content.

Evolve controlled imperfection in delineation pre-sets

To counteract the tendency of digital rendering software to present designs with an unrealistic de-
gree of perfection, additional evolution of digital design platforms should be undertaken to enhance
the ability to easily render designs with the simulated effects of time, gravity and weathering.

REFERENCES:

__ Claypool, Mollie. (2020). The Digital in Architecture: Then, Now and in the Future. Space 10.
__ Congress for the New Urbanism. (1996). The Charter of the New Urbanism. CNU, Washington DC.
__ Curtis, Nathaniel Cortland. (1923). Architectural Composition. J H Hansen, Cleveland Ohio.
__ d’Espouy, Hector. (1905). Greek and Roman Architecture in Classic Drawings. Classical America. Dover
Publications, New York.
__ Harbeson, John F. (1926). The Study of Architectural Design. W. W. Norton & Company, NY
__ Magonigle, H. Van Buren. (1926). Architectural Rendering in Wash. Charles Scribner’s Sons, NY
__ Robinson, John Beverley. (1908). Architectural Composition. D Von Nostrand Company / B T Batsford
/ 94 High Holborn, New York / London.
__ Varon, David J. (1916). Indication in Architectural Design. The William T Comstock Company, NY.
__ UN-Habitat. (2016). Urbanization and Development: Emerging Futures. United Nations Human Settle-
ments Programme.

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SYSTEMIC APPROACHES IN REVITALIZATION OF SEMARANG OLD CITY

HERITAGE SITE: FROM NEGLECTED AREA TO TOURISM DESTINATION
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch38

_ Bintang Noor Prabowo

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Norwegian
University of Science and Technology (NTNU), bintang.n.prabowo@ntnu.no

_ Alenka Temeljotov Salaj

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Norwegian
University of Science and Technology (NTNU), alenka.temeljotov-salaj@ntnu.no

ABSTRACT

Many heritage areas, with different typologies, problems, and existing levels of decays, in several
countries, were left abandoned and causing various economic, social, and urban complications.
Some typologies of urban heritage areas often found in previous studies are ex-colonial settlement,
industrial cultural-heritage, park, ancient cemetery, etc. The typical problems that repeatedly oc-
curred, such as decays, depreciation of land value, and safety/security issues, show that although
located in different places, urban heritage areas might face the same glitches. The existing con-
dition of those places are ranging from relatively well preserved, regular, medium severe, severely
damaged, and even totally damaged, thus needed to be taken care of using different conservation
approaches; preservation, reconstruction, restoration, and (or) adaptation.

Despite the current conditions, such sites are nowadays considered as an essential part of humans’
and cities’ history. Some of those heritage sites face challenges in gaining sustainable conserva-
tion in cultural, environmental, social, economic, and territorial aspects. They usually have been left
behind by their “enablers” that previously led the growth of these areas, not to mention the specific
and latent characteristics of the urban heritage area that could be very different from today’s urban
ecosystem.

One current case worth to be observed is Semarang Old City (Kota Lama Semarang), a previously
abandoned ex-Dutch colonial towns located in Java Island, Indonesia, that shows interesting trends
of ups and downs throughout this last century. This urban heritage area, being left abandoned for
decades, finally emerges as a new tourism destination in Central Java province within the last cou-
ple of years. The booming visits of tourists and enthusiasts is a remarkable phenomenon to be
studied since numbers of researches on the same cases in other countries show various impacts
regarding the sustainability of such urban heritage areas. This article aims to identify the strategic
approach in the revitalization of the Semarang Old City urban heritage area using six critical steps
from the Historic Urban Landscape Approach and principles of Urban Facility Management.

METHODOLOGY: This qualitative study uses literature research and observational technique to ob-
tain information and conduct a comprehensive analysis of the phenomenon; RESULTS: the matric-
ulation table resulted in this article is a useful resource to understand the strategic approach in the
management of urban heritage conservation, so that the stakeholders of any specific urban heritage
in general, and Kota Lama Semarang in specific, could benefit from the knowledge, and therefore
contribute more according to their individual and collective roles; TYPE OF PAPER: Viewpoint paper.

KEYWORDS _ urban heritage, conservation, revitalization,

urban facility management, historic urban landscape

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INTRODUCTION

After the national and local policy started to take a side on the conservation of Semarang Old City
(Kota Lama) area by the early 1990s, the district slowly gained attention from its stakeholders, after
being abandoned for decades due to several reasons. Besides lack of infrastructures and known as
a dangerous area to be visited, this area also often faced a periodic tidal flood, causing damages to
the heritage buildings. Some of the buildings even collapsed due to deterioration of their wooden
structures, or simply because intentionally left untreated properly by their owners (B. N. Prabowo
and Harsritanto 2018).
By the issuance of Mayor Decree No.646/50/1992, as an operational, legal document for National
Act. No 5 of 1992 on Heritage Artefact, the municipality of Semarang began to conduct a systemic
approach to preserve historical buildings in the city, including the Kota Lama area, by creating a
list of protected heritage buildings. On the national level, within the next two decades, the act was
renewed with a more comprehensive regulation with the ratification of National Act no. 11 of 2010
on Heritage.

A brief history of Kota Lama Semarang

The Dutch colony history in Central Java began with the relocation of the representative office of
the Vereenigde Oost-indische Compagnie (VOC), a large company formed by the government from
a merger of a couple of Dutch trading-companies, from Jepara to Semarang in 1708. As a reward
for defeating the Trunojoyo rebel in Madura, the kingdom of Mataram granted the VOC the right
to operate in the Semarang harbor region by the end of 1677, in compliance with the agreement
between VOC and Amangkurat II. Next to the resident’s house, on the side of the Kali Semarang, a
building permit for the settlement was issued. VOC was then subsequently given the monopoly on
duty-free trade in rice and sugar and the right to inhabit most of the territory of Semarang (B. N. et
al Prabowo 2019).
The earliest proof of Kota lama Semarang’s presence was seen on the map of PAAN van het Fort
en Omleggende Cituatie van Samarangh as a fortress, dating back to 1695 (Figure 1). The location
was situated on Kali Semarang’s east side. VOC had a large number of soldiers and staff, according
to Fransçois Valentijn, who was in charge of trade with the locals. In the shape of five edged stars,
the colony settlement was reinforced by a wood plank on each edge: Zeeland, Amsterdam, Utrecht,
Raamsdonk, and Bunschoten (Hendro 2017). The cluster eventually became known as De Vijfhoek
van Samarangh.

_ Figure 1: Evolution of Semarang Old City (Kota Lama) Maps (source: https://www.researchgate.net/
publication/339105098_Historic_urban_landscape_HUL_approach_in_Kota_Lama_Semarang_map-
ping_ the_layer_of_physical_development_through_the_chronological_history, and https://www.con-
nective-cities.net/fileStorage/Veranstaltungen/ Projektwerkstatt_Jakarta/Dokumenten/T1-2_Presenta-
si_Kota_Lama_UCLG_180717.pdf; access date: 05.05.2020)

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There were not many construction activities in this part of town after the Second World War. Follow-
ing the Republic of Indonesia’s Declaration of Independence in 1945, this region started to deterio-
rate gradually. In 1910, the old bridge named de Zuiderport burg or Gouvernementsburg was rebuilt
and added with a new identical bridge in the 1980s, following a new policy of one-way route circling
around de Heerenstraat.
Due to the local flood caused by the increase in water surface level during some periods, especially
during rainy seasons, the degradation of this area worsened every year. It used to be inconvenient
and dangerous to walk through this area at night before the year 2000, as this abandoned section
of the city was notorious for its criminal and homeless activities, after the commercial functions
progressively left the old town of Semarang to the new center of Semarang (B. N. Prabowo and
Harsritanto 2018). Despite those conditions, the Mayor of Semarang released policy of Mayor De-
cree No.646/50/1992 on conservation of heritage buildings in Semarang, including those which
scattered inside the Old City, as a manifestation of higher government regulation (UU No. 5, 1992 on
Heritage Artefact)
Between 1999-2000, to address the flood crisis, the Semarang government undertook the construc-
tion of Polder Tawang, a pond or water retention system fitted with pumps to control the flood if
needed. Used for different purposes earlier, the site of this Tawang polder used to be a 1.3-hectare
public space (Wicaksono 2016). The polder architecture was meant to replicate Kota Lama Sema-
rang ‘s environment as it is situated between Tawang Station and Noorderwalstraat. Many younger
generations regarded this Tawang Polder as an old artifact from the Nederlandsch Indische period,
after twenty years of its first operational; a misunderstanding with stakeholder mix-response.
UNESCO has already identified the Old City of Semarang in the Tentative List of emerging World Her-
itage by 2017, a big step towards the complete acceptance of being promoted as a World Heritage
by the WHC (B. N. Prabowo and Harsritanto 2018). Since that, a major renovation is being carried
out in Kota Lama Semarang, but many experts and scholars are concerned about the originality of
the Old City as the gentrification seems to be targeted solely for tourism purposes, with less heritage
conservation concern.
Some changing strategic approaches were taken in the effort of preservation, reconstruction, res-
toration, and adaptation during a relatively long period of time with different leadership. This article
aims to identify those strategies applied in the gentrification of the urban Heritage from the Historic
Urban Landscape approach and (urban) facility management point of view.

METHODOLOGY

Initially, the study began with a historical data collection to support the first step of the Historic
Urban Landscape approach through literature survey, secondary sources, archival study, interviews,
and field observation to obtain information and conduct a comprehensive analysis of the phenome-
non. A qualitative data analysis software is used to code, classify, and analyze the data descriptively
to understand better the strategic approach taken in Semarang Old City revitalization from the HUL
approach and (urban) FM perspectives.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The study shows that the strategic approaches taken in managing Semarang Old City heritage area
are taken intuitively without addressing the UNESCO Recommendation on the Historic Urban Land-
scape (HUL) approach. The Historic Urban Landscape assessment framework from the work of
Veldpaus and Roders (2013) was used in this study. The participation of people and civic society
was seemingly set to minimal, although all elements of (urban) Facility Management and values
assessment were already taken into consideration. It will be challenging for Kota Lama Semarang
to be promoted as a World Heritage site if the Historic Urban Landscape approach is not addressed

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properly (as shown in table 1). However, the dwellers gain benefits from the blooming of tourism
after major urban gentrification was taken.

_ Table 1: The Historic Urban Landscape Assessment in Kota Lama Semarang (inherited from the HUL
assessment framework by Veldpaus & Roders)

As an asset for the city, Kota Lama Semarang is already listed in the tentative list of World Heritage
by WHC and UNESCO. A strict requirement should be fulfilled in order to be promoted as a World
Heritage due to its uniqueness and outstanding universal value as one of the human civilization
traces during the colonial era. Strategic approaches have already been implemented in multiple
phases, and as the urban heritage area nourished with tourism, a systematic assessment was taken
by this study to identify the strategic approach from the Historic Urban Landscape (HUL) approach
and (urban) facility management perspectives.

Cultural Heritage Management of Semarang Old City

Cultural Heritage Management (CHM) is “a heritage protection mechanism that coordinates and in-
tegrates the function of a heritage site with the primary aim of preserving the importance of the site
as specified by designation requirements, government entities or other stakeholders, experts from
different shades and other people with valid interests in the site” (Mason et al., 2003 in Hasbollah,
(2015)). The essence of strategic planning in revitalizing Kota Lama Semarang is not a straightfor-
ward strategy, but more likely to include multiple facets and stakeholders in the area. In specific,
when dealing with cultural Heritage that has visible and intangible elements, a more cyclical pro-
cess ought to be undertaken, which opens up opportunities for input and appraisal from multiple
points of view. The key driver in tackling the ever-changing complexities of urban planning is the
establishment of a consistent long-term strategy as a roadmap to taking short-term action (Rafidee
Bin Hasbollah 2015). A top-down conservation approach that still governs the serial processes of
urban patrimony gentrification in Kota Lama Semarang, while some focus group discussions with
academics and specialists still take place in the creation of the master plan. Typical issues in Indo-
nesia are lack of popular interest and political activity. In some cases, the influential position of the
consultant as the messenger of the vision of authority was criticized as neglecting the expectations
of the dwellers of the Old City. After, such a consultant’s lack of conservation expertise resulted in
the “Disneyfication” and needless ornamentation across the heritage region.
The definition of Cultural Heritage Management has ramifications for site administrators and her-
itage practitioners, according to Altenburg (2010). Management initiatives that effectively include
site management, a multidisciplinary team with a variety of expertise, realistic and conceptual
thought, resilience, and the continued engagement and engagement of the local community are
required for successful execution. Through the Mayor Decree No.12 in 2007, a special body, namely
BPK2L (Badan Pengelola Kawasan Kota Lama/ Old City Area Management Body) was established
as a non-structural institution with responsibilities to manage, develop, and optimize the potential
of the Kota Lama Semarang area, including planning, monitoring, supervising, and controlling the
development of the protected urban heritage zone. BPK2L, with a multi sectors member, was sup-
posed to become an influential body for the conservation and revitalization conducted in the site, but

325
strategic approach in the management of urban heritage conservation, so that the
stakeholders of any specific urban heritage in general, and Kota Lama Semarang in specific,
could benefit from the knowledge, and therefore contribute more according to their
PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020
individual and collective roles.
Type of paper: Viewpoint paper
most decisions
Keywords: wereHeritage,
Urban made at the municipal level.
Conservation, Revitalization, Urban Facility Management,
Historic Urban Landscape
_ Table 2: Distribution of strategic approach in Kota Lama Semarang
Table 2: Distribution of strategic approach in Kota Lama Semarang

Element Values Strategy Approach FM

Level
People Social Improvement of Improve a clean and efficient government. S, T, O
Political human resources Friendly officers/ field operators O
within the Improve the security to increase comfort and O
bureaucratic system safety
and the dwellers Regulation of informal sectors T
Improvement of Civic engagement/ public participation S, T, O
Public-Private-People Transparent government/ policy S, T
Partnership Ease of permit obtaining S, T, O
Improve Public-Private Partnership (PPP) & S, T, O
Public-Private-People Partnership (PPPP)
Process Ecological Improvement of Flood Flood Prevention and Drainage Masterplan S, T
and Drainage Water retention polder T, O
Management Scheduled maintenance O
Economic Incentives and ease of Financial management S, T
investment Tax deduction and relieves S, T, O
Reduction of building permit cost T, O
Political Management of Internal stakeholder and bureaucracy S, T, O
historic city BPK2L S, T, O
Coordination with Provincial and National level S, T
Pro heritage policy S
World heritage promotion S, T, O
Monitoring and Evaluation S, T
Place Aestheti Urban Heritage Improve building regulation S
c Development Improve supervision O
Historic List of heritage buildings and places S, T, O
Age Masterplan of Kota Lama Semarang S
Scientifi Guideline of renovation & conservation S, T
c Urban infrastructure Urban utilities S, T
Street ornaments S, T, O
Improvement of existing parks T, O
Improvement of walkability S, T, O
Technolog Social Usage of technologies Official website T, O
y Scientifi Sensors and CCTV O
c Command center T, O
Ecological Application of smart city S, T, O
*S: Strategical, T: Tactical, O: Operational

Numbers of strategies and approaches were taken along the period of different leadership
Numbers of strategies
and a couple of trials and
andapproaches were takenconservation
errors in conducting along the period of different
of heritage leadership
buildings. The and a
couple
shiftingofparadigm
trials andinerrors
UrbaninHeritage
conducting conservation
conservation fromoftreating
heritage buildings.
the building The shifting paradigm
as monuments
in
toUrban Heritageinto
be preserved conservation from treating
a more holistic approachthewith
building as monuments
the latest to be preserved into
UNESCO recommendation on a more
holistic approach with the latest UNESCO recommendation on the HUL approach brings conse-
quences in minor and major adjustments within the conservation of Kota Lama Semarang.
Therefore, the importance of cultural value qualities and the role of heritage stakeholders in deci-
sion-making processes were included in CHM. However, as mentioned earlier, there is a shortfall in
the application of the Cultural Heritage Management process in the conservation of heritage build-
ings. Because of that, this issue needs to be addressed, and a new conservation paradigm is being
proposed. A facility management perspective will, therefore, be proposed due to its familiarity with
the practice of building maintenance.

Traditional Values
Assessment criteria towards traditional values (aesthetical, age, historical, scientific) significantly
showed that the age of heritage building reach the highest score due to the ease to obtain data

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regarding building age and clear guidance from the National Act on Heritage article 5, which stated
that one of the criteria to be listed as a heritage, the age of the building has to already reach a min-
imum 50 years of existence. There is no dispute on this matter amongst the stakeholders. Another
value that raised a high consensus, both on tangible and intangible, is the historic value embedded
in the buildings or other cultural heritages. It is interesting to find out that aesthetic value is not
becoming a leading factor in traditional values, while it is, at the same time, considered important to
determine action priority. One of the explanations is that the aesthetic factor could be very subjec-
tive from one to another person or group.
Generally, resource mapping, vulnerability assessment, and defining partnerships in the manage-
ment of Semarang Old City heritage area have not yet been conducted in a comprehensive manner.
Physical aspects as tangible attributes contributed to the bigger portion of the short-term develop-
ment plan. A more interesting Public-Private Partnership (PPP) or Public Private People Partnership
(PPPP) scheme, as shown by Salaj et al. (2018), could be applied as new alternative models in de-
fining partnerships inside the conservation area.
The integration of resource mapping, consensus reaching, and vulnerability assessment within a
larger urban context also mostly focused on the tangible aspect. Recently, the chief of BPK2L, who is
also the Vice Mayor of Semarang City, announced that the area of Old Semarang City had been stat-
ed as a National Heritage Site by the Ministry of Education and Culture of the Republic of Indonesia.
The usage of the term Old Semarang City (instead of Semarang Old City) indicated that another three
historical areas (Kauman, Kampung Melayu, and the China Town) are simultaneously set together
with Semarang Old City (Kota Lama) to form an entire Old Semarang City urban heritage site.

Community Values
Social and political values assessment in Kota Lama Semarang resulted in a very contrast output.
All assessment checkpoint on social values shows that a large portion of attention is given to both
tangible physical aspects and non-physical cultural aspects (intangible). On the contrary, the study
reveals that political aspects are not becoming the dominant factor of the community values.
From the interview with several local historians, it is evident that although the acceleration of urban
heritage gentrification in Semarang Old City is a political decision taken by the Mayor of Semarang
municipality and the President of the Republic of Indonesia (through the Ministry of Public Works),
the mapping of resources, consensus achievement, vulnerability assessment, and partnership de-
fining the process, have not been exploited politically. Only the action prioritization and integra-
tion of the first three-factor in urban management context being assessed as politic-related values,
especially the tangible ones. Political decisions such as tax benefits and incentives towards the
property owners on the urban heritage area also have strong relationships with economic values.

Process Values
Within urban facility management discipline, “process” is an important part, along with “people” and
“place,” to enhance an efficient and sustainable city. Table 1 indicates that economic values are an
important aspect in the development of urban heritage areas such as Kota Lama. Without econom-
ic activity, an urban heritage area will not be sustainable in the long run. After being stagnant for
decades, Semarang Old City gaining its momentum back toward economic balance, following the
successful revitalization of the area.
Ecological values seem to be still focusing on the two big issues on the area; flood controlling and
emission reduction. The plan of creating “slow traffic” inside the conservation area is often criticized
as an ambiguous decision. New parking management by creating multiple parking spots on the dis-
trict’s periphery is considered preferable for the convenience and the wellbeing of the dwellers and
tourists in the conservation site.

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_ Figure 2: Semarang Old City (Kota Lama) before and after urban heritage gentrification (source: https://
bambangpriantono.wordpress.com/2013/02/23/catatan-wisata-banjir-hari-ini/ and https://cjtb.or.id/
listing/semarang-old-town-charming-old-time-heritage-atmosphere/; access date: 05.05.2020)

CONCLUSIONS

The conservation of Kota Lama Semarang had a multiple-phase evolution with different approach-
es. It is evident that the planning and development of the urban heritage area were not entirely fol-
lowing UNESCO Recommendation on the Historic Urban Landscape, which is understandable since
the recommendation itself was issued in 2011 and still in its establishment phase. The conservation
movement in the Semarang Old City began in 1992, following the ratification of the National Act on
heritage protection. More than 50 percent of the heritage buildings in Semarang were listed and
clustered in the Kota Lama Semarang heritage area.
Critiques were addressed to the authority due to its exclusivity in the top-down model of decision
making, which resulted in a couple dispute and misunderstanding during the gentrification pro-
cess. A phenomenon of “Disneyfication” by adding too much (and unrelated) accessories was one
of clear signs that the authority in charge was not fully aware of the importance of preserving the
significance and originality of the heritage area. By not entirely following the guidance of the Historic
Urban Landscape Approach and the critical steps of HUL, the prospect of being listed as a World
Heritage by the UNESCO is going to be very limited.
However, the Semarang Old City has now gradually back to life and find its new direction, despite
the academic and technical debates on the rights or wrongs in the policymaking. It is the duty of
bureaucracy, academics, and other stakeholders to enhance and guide this spirit of betterment by
systematically involved in the conservation process in accordance with the vision of Kota Lama
Semarang to become one of the World Heritage sites in Indonesia.

REFERENCES

__ Altenburg, K. 2010. “Values-Based Management at Cultural Heritage Sites.” Amoeda, R. Lira, S. and
Pinheiro, C.(Eds.) Heritage.
__ Hendro, Eko Punto. 2017. “Study of the Outstanding Universal Values (OUV) to Achieve the Semarang
Old Town as the World Heritage City.” Advanced Science Letters 23(10): 10002–4.
__ Prabowo, Bintang Noor; et al. 2019. “Historic Urban Landscape (HUL) Approach in Kota Lama Sema-
rang: Mapping the Layer of Physical Development through the Chronological History.” In IOP Conf. Series:
Earth and Environmental Science; ICSADU 2019, Semarang: IOP Publishing.
__ Prabowo, Bintang Noor, and Bangun IR Harsritanto. 2018. “KOTA LAMA SEMARANG MENUJU STATUS
PUSAKA DUNIA UNESCO: APA ITU STATUS WORLD HERITAGE?” MODUL.

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__ Rafidee Bin Hasbollah, Hasif. 2015. “A Conceptual Framework for Conserving Heritage Buildings in Ma-
laysia from the Perspective of Facilities Management.” International Journal of Economics and Financial
Issues (5): 45–51. http:www.econjournals.com (September 1, 2020).
__ Salaj, Alenka Temeljotov, Athena Roumboutsos, Peter Verlič, and Bojan Grum. 2018. “Land Value Cap-
ture Strategies in PPP – What Can FM Learn from It?” Facilities.
__ Veldpaus, Loes, and Ana Pereira Roders. 2013. “Historic Urban Landscapes : An Assessment Frame-
work Part II.” In 29th Conference of Sustainable Architecture for a Renewable Future (PLEA 2013), Munich,
Germany, 1–5.
__ Wicaksono, Fajar B. 2016. “Urban Drainage and Options for Urban Polder Development for UNESCO
Heritage Kota Lama, Semarang, Central Java, Indonesia.”

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FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF
FORMER PULA NAVAL FORTRESS
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch39

_ Lea Petrović Krajnik

PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Architecture,
Kačićeva 26, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia, lea.petrovic@arhitekt.hr

_ Ivan Mlinar
PhD, Associate Professor, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Architecture,
Kačićeva 26, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia, ivan.mlinar@arhitekt.hr

_ Damir Krajnik
PhD, Full Professor, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Architecture,
Kačićeva 26, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia, damir.krajnik@arhitekt.hr

ABSTRACT

Pula is an Istrian town with a number of important historical sites, historical buildings and historical
architectural structures and systems which had been built since the prehistoric times. They testify
about the culture of living, the architectural heritage and the strategic importance of the Istrian pen-
insula. The former Austrian Navy had the main naval base in Pula, as the core of Pula’s fortification
system stretching from Rovinj to Labin. The Austrian naval fortress Pula is the system that embrac-
es the most significant and abandoned military buildings in the area of Pula built in the period from
1813 to 1918. The system of the former naval fortress Pula is part of the recent Pula architectural
heritage that needs to be properly integrated into the strategy of the future development of the city
and its region. The future of the former naval fortress Pula can be ensured by integral considering
and emphasising its potential, as well as its quality and appropriate functional conversion, with
the protection, restoration, preservation and presentation of all important urban and architectural
features. By highlighting the image, identity and quality of the Pula naval fortress its further decay
can be prevented, as well as encouraged its renewal, ensured maintenance and provided eventual
additional income.

KEYWORDS _ Pula, former naval fortress, built heritage, integration

INTRODUCTION

Pula is an Istrian town with a number of important historical sites, historical buildings and historical
architectural structures and systems which had been built since the prehistoric times. (Regan, Nadi-
lo: 285) Through the history, due to the strategic importance of the Pula area, the fortifications have
been built by the Histrians, the Romans, the Venetian Republic and Austria (Milić, 1994: 254; Milić,
1995: 62) as well as Italy, Germany and Yugoslavia.
The Pula area is extremely rich in architectural heritage, consisting of numerous examples of forti-
fications from the period of the Austrian Empire (1806 – 1867) and the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy
(1867 – 1918), which were built in system of the Austrian Maritime Fortress Pula in the 19th and
early 20th centuries. The intense development of the city and the construction of the Pula Maritime

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Fortress was stimulated by the official proclamation of Pula for the main naval base of the Austrian
Empire in 1853. (Marković, 2006: 219; Trogrlić, Stepanić, 2007: 19) The fortifications of the Naval
Fortress Pula, built up to 1918, have lost their defensive significance in the mid-20th century. Today
they are completely out of function, unmaintained and damaged by natural and human activities.
Despite the lack of maintenance and decline, the fortifications of the Naval Fortress Pula are, as
historical buildings, part of the layered architectural heritage of exceptional cultural significance.
Besides they bear witness to the periods of military technology development and defence strategy
and form an integral part of the image, identity and quality of the Pula area, Istria and Croatia.

_ Figure 1: Pula’s Harbor about 1918 (http://tehnika.lzmk.hr/vojna-brodogradnja-2/)

PULA NAVAL FORTRESS

Since the middle of the 19th century, Pula was the main naval base of the Austrian Navy and the core
of the coastal sector of the fortification system stretching from the Premantura to Rovinj and Labin,
within which the most significant and most numerous military buildings in the Pula area were built
from 1813 to 1918. (*** 2003: 9) The fortification system of the Pula Naval Fortress was divided into
three defensive rings and was built in three stages. In the first fortress system building stage, which
lasted approximately from 1823 to 1870, (*** 2011: 9), the separate circular forts were built, also
known as artillery towers. The second fortress system building stage, which lasted approximately
from 1872 to 1889, was marked by the expansion of construction outside the medieval city walls and
the construction of typical circular or segment forts with inner courtyard, artillery batteries, field for-
tifications and “Pula towers”. (Krizmanić, 2009: 42) The third stage, which lasted from 1892 to 1918,
was marked by technological progress after the invention of the brisant grenade in 1885, which
enable the change of the defence system. The circular forts have lost their importance, and new type
of the elongated polygonal forts buried in the ground have appeared. Along with the upgrading of
the existing ones, new fortifications were built, placed strategically at the most important points in
the distance of five to eight kilometres from Pula. The Pula Naval Fortress system is characterised
by rationality, economy and utilitarianism. The fortifications of the Pula Naval Fortress were built
in accordance with the logic and capabilities of the then war technology. They were adapted to the
terrain, exploiting the potentials and natural features of each site. Each fortification consists of a
built and “unbuilt” part. The construction of the fortification is complemented with the protective

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moats and camouflaged greenery, creating a unique architectural-landscape unit. In 1917, the forti-
fication system of the Pula Naval Fortress, with about 220 sites, occupied the area of approximately
700 square kilometres (mainland with islands), where around 42,500 officers and soldiers were sta-
tioned. The Pula Naval Fortress retained its defence function until the Second World War. From 1947
the fortifications was the property of the Yugoslav Army and since 1991 they belong to the Croatian
Army, although have been gradually abandoned. Today, most of the fortifications of the Pula Naval
Fortress are neglected or abandoned partly due to the demilitarization of the Pula Bay (Strenja,
Perčić, Mladinov, Jurcan, 2006: 2) and partly because of the lack of a long-term sustainable strategy
of their use and protection that would enable the development of affirmative programs, plans and
projects for adaptation and revitalization.

_ Figure 2: Pula Naval Fortress with 19 defensive sectors, 1917 (Krizmanić, 2009: 150-151)

PULA NAVAL FORTRESS IN THE SPATIAL PLANNING DOCUMENTS OF THE PULA AREA

Detection, valorisation and protection of fortifications of the Pula Naval Fortress has been gradu-
ally introduced into the spatial planning documents of the Pula and neighbouring areas where the
buildings, sets and systems of the Pula Naval Fortress are located. The 1966 General Urban Plan of
the City of Pula defined the military areas as special zones, but the fortifications of the Pula Naval
Fortress were not evaluated as cultural monuments. During the 1960s, the Yugoslav Army began
devastating the fortifications of the Pula Naval Fortress, which were used as warehouses or were
neglected and therefore ruined. The 1983 General Urban Plan of the City of Pula defines six cate-
gories of architectural heritage. Fortification and similar buildings were in the group “D”: important
strategic points in the Pula defence system – the main naval base of the Austro-Hungarian Empire,

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built in the period from the first half of the 19th century to the First World War. The 1992 Urban De-
velopment Plan “Old Town of Pula” defined an integral process of work on existing buildings of the
architectural heritage, including the development of documentation of the existing situation and the
study of spatial and historical development of buildings. In 2006 in the Spatial Planning of the City
of Pula with a view to the preservation and revitalization of abandoned and neglected Austrian for-
tifications and artillery battery in the wider city area, their purposes (with possible use for activities
primarily in the field of culture, education, representative use in the function of management, city
documentation archives or similar activities, fine crafts, trade and catering, tourism, recreation and
sports or other appropriate activities) are determined. (*** 2006: 620) In the General Urban Plan of
the City of Pula from 2008, the fortifications and artillery battery of the Pula Naval Fortress are main-
ly classified as category “1” among the buildings or structures of exceptional monumental values of
wider regional and state importance, which must be absolutely preserved and renewed by methods
of scientific processing and conservation principles, where the demolition of only inadequate con-
temporary construction additions is allowed. (*** 2008: 239) In the Spatial Plan of the National Park
“Brijuni”, the theme of conversion of Austrian fortifications was also discussed. For example, for the
Fort Tegetthoff the plan proposes museum-exhibition purposes, as well as the creation of a program
of tours and study of Austrian fortifications with accompanying manifestations. (*** 2001: 61)

CONVERSION OF FORTIFICATIONS OF PULA NAVAL FORTRESS

Today the fortifications of the Pula Naval Fortresses are not used and therefore constitute a facility
void system that need to be reallocated and affirmed as a new facility potential that suits local or
regional needs. In this sense, this “facility void network” can be viewed by quadrants, linear or dot-
ted, networking zones, connecting groups of buildings or concentrating on individual structures,
depending on conditions and needs. The process of introducing new facilities and networking for-
tifications of the Pula Naval Fortress would potentially encourage the inversion of the defensive
function of rejection into its opposite, in the function of visitor attraction. (Mlinar, Prižmić, 2013: 37-
38) In this process, the most appropriate method would be the adaptation and revitalization method,
which proved to be in practice one of the most effective ways of protecting, restoring, preserving and
presenting the architectural heritage. (Marasović, 1985: 128)
The process of conversion of the fortifications of the Pula Naval Fortress has begun with the reuse of
the coastal armored polygonal Fort Verudella. In the 1970’s the fort was used for catering purposes,
and in the 1980s it became a landfill and garbage dump. The 2002 fort was taken by Aquarium Pula.
Along with the aquarium, the fort becomes part of the cultural-tourist offer as a place for various
events, such as exhibitions, concerts and sports competitions. Since 2001 during the summer the
coastal armored polygonal Fort Brioni Minor has been used as a stage by the Ulysses Theater. Con-
version of the coastal Fort Punta Christo is an example of a civic initiative of youth that has volun-
tarily taken care of it since 2001 and has been organizing concerts and music festivals since 2003.
The circular-shape Fort San Giorgio type “Pula tower” was determined for the conversion into the
Croatian Restoration Workshop of the Restoration Institute – Department of Pula in 2007. (*** 2009)
In this case, it is questionable to place a demanding new facility into a protected building with limited
space. The complexity of the transformation of the Fort San Giorgio is evident in the conservative
aspiration to maintain the original structure of the fort, which almost prevents the technical require-
ments for restoration work such as the necessary room size, ventilation, lighting and other installa-
tions in the rooms. The mentioned examples of forts Verudella, Brioni Minor, Punta Christo and San
Giorgio have not been realized by integral consideration and planning conversion of fortifications of
the Pula Naval Fortress but are more or less successful exceptions that should not become a model
for partial conversions of individual fortifications of the Pula Naval Fortress. Despite the individual
examples of conversion and use of fortifications, only a comprehensively considered strategy as
well as the program, plan and projects will preserve and highlight the values and potentials of the
exceptional fortification system of the Pula Naval Fortress.

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_ Figure 3: Auditoriums and stages of Theatre Ulysses in the Fort Brioni Minor (http:// http://kamen-
most.viviss.si/brijuni/)

CONCLUSIONS

_ Figure 4: The Fort Bourguignon on Verudela (https://www.istria-culture.com/utvrda-punta-chris-

to-i143)

The system of the former Pula Naval Fortress is part of the recent Pula architectural heritage that
needs to be properly integrated into the strategy of the future development of the city and its region.
The future of the former Pula Naval Fortress can be ensured by integral considering and empha-
sising its potential, as well as its quality and appropriate functional conversion, with the protection,
restoration, preservation and presentation of all important urban and architectural features. By re-

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vitalizing the fortifications of the Pula Naval Fortress, their stratification and flexibility would be
emphasized so that the former defence function remains visible in the structure, while the imported
functions enable new dynamics of usage. Thereby fortifications should be observed throughout the
whole of the Pula Naval Fortress, taking into account the purpose and facilities in the environment,
as well as the natural and architectural particularities of each fortification with the aim of comple-
menting natural, historical and cultural values and tourist offerings. The prerequisite for conversion
of the fortifications of the Pula Naval Fortress is a detailed research work that results in a system
comprehensive study and expert basis for each individual fortification, taking into account its am-
bivalent, typological and architectural features as well as its immediate and wider environment. By
highlighting the image, identity and quality of the Pula Naval Fortress its further decay can be pre-
vented, as well as encouraged its renewal, ensured maintenance and provided eventual additional
income.

REFERENCES

__ Hrvatska tehnička enciklopedija. 2016. “Vojna brodogradnja.” Last modified December 3. Accessed
December 20, 2018. http://tehnika.lzmk.hr/vojna-brodogradnja-2/
__ Istra Culture. 2019. “Utvrad Punta Cristo.” Accessed February 28, 2019. https://www.istria-culture.
com/utvrda-punta-christo-i143
__ Kamen-Most. 2019. “Brijuni” Accessed February 28, 2019. http://kamen-most.viviss.si/brijuni/
__ Krizmanić, Attilio. 2009. Pulska kruna. Pula: Čakavski sabor.
__ Marasović, Tomislav. 1985. Aktivni pristup graditeljskom nasljeđu. Split: Sveučilište u Splitu – Filozof-
ski fakultet u Zadru – OOUR prirodoslovno-matematičkih znanosti i studija odgojnih područja u Splitu,
Društvo konzervatora Hrvatske – Zagreb, Arhitektonski fakultet Sveučilišta u Zagrebu – Postidplomski
studij graditeljskog nasljeđa u Splitu.
__ Marković, Jagoda. 2006. “Pula – K. u. K. slika grada.”Radovi Instituta za povijest umjetnosti, no. 30:
215–228.
__ Milić, Bruno. 1994. Razvoj grada kroz stoljeća I: Prapovijest – antika. Zagreb: Školska knjiga.
__ Milić, Bruno. 1995. Razvoj grada kroz stoljeća II: Srednji vijek. Zagreb: Školska knjiga.
__ Mlinar, Ivan, and Ela Prižmić 2013. “Afirmacija sustava austrijske Pomorske tvrđave Pula.” Korak u
prostor, no. 3/43: 36–39.
__ Regan, Krešimir, and Branko Nadilo. 20013. “Utvrde Pule i okolice (II. dio).” Građevinar, no. 3: 283–296.
__ Strenja, Edna, and Marko Perčić, Jerolim Mladinov, Emil Jurcan. 2006. Katarina 06, otvaranje pulske
obale. Zagreb: UPI-2M PLUS.
__ Trogrlić, Marko, and Željko Stepanić. 2007. “Pula kao Austu-Ugarska ratna luka.” Školski vjesnik, no.
1–2, 17–30.
__ *** 2001. “Prostorni plan Nacionalnog parka “Brijuni”.” Narodne novine, no. 45: 1284–1309.
__ *** 2003. Bilten međunarodne ljetne radionice arhitekture Mali Brijun 2001. i 2002. Zagreb: Republika
Hrvatska, Ministarstvo kulture, Uprava za zaštitu kulturne baštine.
__ *** 2006. “Prostorni plan uređenja grada Pule.” Službene novine Grada Pule, no. 12: 616–660.
__ *** 2008. “Generalnoi urbanistički plan grada Pule.” Službene novine Grada Pule, no. 5a: 193–256.
__ *** 2009. Utvrda Sv. Juraja u Puli – Studija rješenja. Zagreb: Hrvatski restauratorski zavod, Služba za
nepokretnu baštinu.
__ *** 2011. Bilten međunarodne ljetne radionice arhitekture Barbariga 2005. Zagreb: Republika Hrvatska,
Ministarstvo kulture, Uprava za zaštitu kulturne baštine.

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THE “ART FORTRESS” AS A RESPONSIBLE APPROACH

MODEL FOR REGENERATION OF SKOPJE’S SPATIAL IDENTITY
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch40

_ Meri Batakoja
Associate Professor, Faculty of Architecture, Ss. Cyril and
Methodius University - Skopje, meri.batakoja@gmail.com

_ Jovan Ivanovski
Associate Professor, Faculty of Architecture, Ss. Cyril and
Methodius University - Skopje, jovanivanovski@gmail.com

_ Goran Mickovski
Assistant Professor, Faculty of Architecture, Ss. Cyril and
Methodius University - Skopje, mickovskigoran@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT

The City of Skopje, repeatedly fragmented throughout its history, is in constant need for redefinition
and reconstruction of its spatial identity in relation to its cultural heritage. With recent developments
that have rendered the urban fabric’s historical and memory layers completely unrecognizable, the
question of Skopje’s spatial identity has reemerged in terms of responsible methodologies and ap-
proaches.

One of the activities within the ROCK (Regeneration and Optimization of Cultural Heritage in Cre-
ative and Knowledgeable Cities) Project was called “Art Fortress”. It treated the urban and archi-
tectural development of the Kale Hill in Skopje, with an aim to transform it into an attractive and
vibrant city part with all of its cultural, educational and recreational functions. Two important
cultural monuments dominate the Kale Hill: the medieval fortress - Kale and the Museum of Con-
temporary Art. The exceptional historical and contemporary significance of these two imposing
structures for the City of Skopje, their symbolic voltage juxtaposed to the natural morphology of
the terrain and cultural diversity of the surrounding, have been largely diminished due to many
years of neglect of the broader location of the Kale Hill.

This paper elaborates the activity “Art Fortress” in detail and summarizes the conclusions that have
the potential to create a responsible approach model for regeneration of Skopje’s spatial identity,
concerning inter-institutional collaboration, academic and professional inclusion, public awareness,
international competition and exhibition. Most of all, this paper elaborates the qualitative lessons
learnt of how we should treat a valuable city fragment in spatial terms, through the medium of public
space and a series of both “soft” and “hard” architectural procedures as a long term strategy and
management plan for treatment of this national cultural site, an approach that we can surely rely
upon confronted with our city’s spatial identity in crisis.

KEYWORDS _ Cultural heritage, responsible approach, Skopje, spatial identity, ROCK Project

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INTRODUCTION

“Urban life muddles through the pace of history. When this pace accelerates, cities and their
people become confused, spaces turn threatening, and meaning escapes from experience.
In such disconcerting yet magnificent times, knowledge becomes the only source to restore
meaning, and thus meaningful action.” (Castells, 1993: 559)
“Art Fortress” was one of several activities that took place within the ROCK Project. ROCK means
Regeneration and Optimization of Cultural Heritage in Creative and Knowledge Cities. The project in-
volved ten cities, of which some were called Role Model Cities that have already experienced a trans-
formation from Heritage cities to Creative and Knowledge-based cities, while the Replicators Cities,
among which Skopje, are currently initiating the process, developing transformation programmes,
finance and engaging key-players. (Rock/ About: 2020) The Role Model Cities have opened their
creativity and knowledge to the Replicator Cities in need. The “Art Fortress” activity focused on
part of the historical city centre of Skopje - the Kale Hill, in order to demonstrate how a responsible
approach, based primarily on knowledge, creativity and cooperation, can produce a long term plan
for regeneration of one urban fragment, that can further be used as a model for regeneration of the
spatial identity of Skopje.

RESPONSIBLE APPROACH MODEL

Although the term “responsible approach” may seem easily understandable at first, it is contextu-
ally dependent and differentiated, as well as philosophically broad. In architectural context, it steps
outside disciplinary boundaries, obligated to work as a mediating force in the societal conditions
in place. Architecture is understood as a process of responsible recognition of values and ethically
based decisions, bound to the idea of making a fundamental change in one particular place and time
and honestly committed to improve the existing conditions of (public) life.
Spatial identity, as a concept, is not relevant by itself, but by a series of implications it has on the
crossroad between architecture, people and their everyday activities. As vague as it might be, it is a
rather graspable concept through the discourse of architectural phenomenology. The philosophy of
phenomenology applied to architecture (of the city), spoken in simplest terms, represents the multi-
ple levels at which architecture enables and qualitatively refines one’s lived experience of space. At
the most basic level, architecture satisfies the most pragmatic biological needs of man, at the high-
er perceptual level it provokes the human sensory apparatus through which orientation is created
and managed, and at the most existential level the full potential of the human being is realized by
engaging in healthy and stable social and cultural relations with and within the spatial surrounding.
Exactly through the term “stable” in the context of space, spatial identity is unequivocally connoted
with yet another series of terms as “continuity”, “narrative continuity”, “durability”, “endurance”, “fa-
miliarity”. (Batakoja, 2019)
“To be is to last, at least to a certain extent. And this durability (or continuity) of our urban
(and public) experience depends less on its explicit theoretical or ideological representa-
tions than on its being embodied in everyday practices, in physical continuity, in the blunt
fact that we can, to a certain extent, identify ourselves with the environment we ‘use’ day in,
day out.” (Boomkens, 2008: 19)
Why is it important to underline that spatial identity is a relational category, placed in-between archi-
tecture, people and their everyday life and based upon the value of continuity?
Peoples’ identities are anchored in space. One of the deepest human needs - the sense of belonging,
is achieved precisely through these sensual and intellectual relations with and within one’s living
space on an everyday level. Without a sense of belonging to a common place and shared cultural
values, we cannot expect to have citizens who would be mobilized as a collective, motivated to
participate and vigilant for change towards progress. The citizens’ commitment to one city is in-
trinsically linked to this right to belong in one place, to live in one place, to breed, to remember and

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transmit, to narrate this value of collective memory to their offspring and in that way to provide cul-
tural ecology, sustainability of the idea of one city. Without providing a sense of belonging, the city
cannot proudly carry the category of citizenship, but a selfish enough and passive enough mass of
people for the city to continue to crumble under the transitional model of legalized thefts, dubious
location assignments, privatizations, bribing, mass emigration, that have been prevailing our Mace-
donian context for decades. Due to these negative processes academically treated under the name
of “post-socialist transition” (going mad), Skopje lost most of its historical fragments of the urban
fabric that had the potential to sustain the cultural memory of the city with the values of “stability”,
“continuity”, “narrative continuity”, “durability”, “endurance”, “familiarity”. (Batakoja, 2011)

_ Figure 1: Skopje in 2007 and 2015: The Accelerating Pace of Fracturing Spatial Identity (Personal Ar-
chive of Meri Batakoja; Above: Unidentified author; Below: Meri Batakoja: photo taken from
the same perspecitve)

That is why the action of “Art Fortress” chose to work with a fragment of the historical city centre
of Skopje - the Kale Hill that can still imply the idea of valuable endurance and therefore represents
rarity in the fractured image of the City of Skopje. Honestly believing that knowledge becomes the
only source for the restoration of meaning, this action was research-based and creatively-driven to
create a relevant database of theoretical, historical, institutional/statutory documents and to pro-
voke meaningful actions for the professional and general public, in order to shape our collective
thought about one place of great importance suited for the future.

_ Figure 2 and 3: Kale Hill as Rarity in the Fractured Image of the City of Skopje (Author: Maja Janevska
Ilieva for the project of Cultural Fortress curated by Jovan Ivanovski and Zoran Petrovski)

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KALE HILL: THEORETICAL DATABASE

Kale Hill unites at least five thematic layers important for the nurturing of the collective thought of
the City of Skopje and for understanding its unique potential to grow into an “Art Fortress” - a cul-
tural key point of Skopje.

The Endurance in the City Planning History as Continuity of Architectural Thought

Kale Hill persists in the urban plans from the beginning of the 20th century as a “conceptual cross-
road” between the traditional Balkan city on the left side of the River Vardar, and the strive towards
“europeanisation” on the right side of the River Vardar. As early as 1914, in the first urban plan of
Dimitrije Leko, it becomes a core in the appearance of the city - an acropolis with a royal palace, a
military chief-command and university buildings reached from the lower town through a grand flight
of stairs. The plan of Josif Mihajlovic from 1929 emphasizes the meaning of Kale Hill as an acropo-
lis of knowledge, where the university, student dormitories and the building of the scientific society
are located. In the late forties, the plan of Ludjek Kubes marks the area of Kale Hill for a museum
complex. (Korobar, 2016: 12-15) The competition entry by Kenzo Tange, following the disastrous
earthquake in 1963, proposes two megastructures for functional and symbolical uprising of Skopje,
one of which is named “City Wall” and based upon the idea of continuation of the Kale Hill - the
medieval citadel, towards a new, contemporary and metaphorical one, linked together with a raised
passageway, enclosing the “heart of the city”.

_ Figure 4: Kale Hill (the green area in the upper left quadrant) in the entry of Kenzo Tange for the Interna-
tional Competition for Reconstruction of Skopje’s Central Area in 1965 (In 1970. Skopje Resurgent. The
Story of a United Nations Special Fund Town Planning Project. United Nations: New York.)

The Natural Landscape as the Most Constant Impression in the Backdrop of City Architecture
Kale Hill is one of many hills and the tallest elevation on the north side of the city that shapes the
recognizable natural contour of the City of Skopje, whose sunkenness of the valley rises gradually
towards the Skopska Crna Gora Mountain. It follows the flow of the Vardar River on the north-south
axis and thus provides special visual qualities. Kale can be concurrently experienced as a vast de-
serted rocky island, the figure of which dramatically rises over the city skyline, but also as a mild pic-
turesque slope along which the houses of the oldest neighborhoods of Skopje are gently dispersed.
(Ivanovski, 2016: 20) The obstacle of representing a topographical and a physical barrier, proved to
be the single reason why we still have it as a recognizable city entity. Due to the rare aquatic fossils

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found under the sedimentary rocks, as well as of its role in maintaining local biodiversity, the site
of Kale Hill is designated as a protected area under the category of Natural Monument. (Ministry of
Environment and Physical Plannning, 2020)

The Aspect of Being an Important National Architectural Ensemble with Monuments of Cul-
ture and Archaeological Sites
Kale Hill is consisted of the partially reconstructed byzantine Kale Fortress wall (the oldest parts
dating back to the 6th century), the archaeological remnants in its immediate vicinity (the oldest
objects dating back to 3000 BC) and the Museum of Contemporary Art (1970). The Kale Fortress
area is the oldest material artifact present in our everyday lives in the city center of Skopje. The
Museum of Contemporary Art speaks of yet another very important momentum in Skopje’s history
- that of the post tragic earthquake reconstruction after 1963 that laid the foundations of the con-
temporary city based on the values of world solidarity. It was initiated as an institution in 1964 due
to the international art associations that called upon the artists of the world to assist in creating a
collection of artworks, by which they would support the vision of the city reconstruction. (Museum
of Contemporary Art, 2020) The building itself is a solidarity gift from Poland. In 1966, the work by
the group “Tigri”, including Wacław Kłyszewski, Jerzy Mokrzyński and Eugeniusz Wierzbicki, already
renowned Polish architects at the time, won the anonymous competition announced in Warsaw
and financed by the Polish Government. (Ivanovska Deskova, 2016: 16) The cultural significance of
the Museum of Contemporary Art building arises from this unique context it was initiated in, but it
is complemented by the excellence of its architecture. The image of the deserted hill above which
a lonely white building floats is an exceptionally powerful representation which in being completed
and final is so strongly imprinted in the visual imaginarium of Skopje’s citizens, that it renders the
space remarkably delicate for any architectural consideration. (Ivanovski, 2016: 21) The Museum of
Contemporary Art building is also significant through the lens of museum typology, representing a
recognizable echo of Le Corbusier-ian museums based upon the square as a figure. The square is
further divided into a central space and a circuit gallery immersed in quality diffuse daylight, coming
from the well-designed skylight.

_ Figure 5 and 6: Analytical Model of the Museum of Contemporary Art Building in Skopje (Authors: Elena
Andonova and Natalija Veselinova for the subject of Architectural Design 4 under mentorship of Aneta
Hristova Popovska and Meri Batakoja)

Everyday life specificity speaks of the culturally diverse surrounding, with the vibrant and popular
Old Bazaar dedicated to commercial and trading activities just underneath the Kale Hill and the
socially vulnerable population at its boundaries. The art enthusiasts circulating the Kale Fortress
and the Museum of Contemporary Art just add to the fact that Kale Hill is a sort of spontaneous
“social condenser”. In terms of accessibility of the area, there is an urgent necessity to improve the
connectivity of Kale Hill with the neighboring parts of the city in terms of infrastructure, both traffic
and pedestrian, thus contributing towards this unique cohabitation.

Jurisdictional organization
Several institutions have jurisdiction over the territory of the Kale Hill: the Museum of Contemporary

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Art, the local government of the City of Skopje, the Cultural Heritage Protection Office and Con-
servation Centre under the Ministry of Culture and the Department of Nature under the Ministry of
Environment and Physical Planning of Republic of North Macedonia. The local government and the
Museum of Contemporary Art are landowners, while the others are both creators and supervisors of
the legal framework for protection of the territory of Kale Hill. (Ministry of Culture, Cultural Heritage
Protection Office, 2020)

“ART FORTRESS”: POOL OF IDEAS FOR LONG TERM GOALS

In order to give voice to the confirmed meaning of Kale Hill for regeneration of Skopje’s spatial iden-
tity, to provoke inter-institutional collaboration and to gather multiple perspectives and ideas, an
International Competition was launched in April 2019.
Тhis architectural competition was innovatively designed around the criteria of canalizing the per-
ception of the designers through multiple scales. As an example, while the project location (L2)
was precisely defined, one of the design requirements was for the participants to also research
the city area in the immediate vicinity to the project location (L2), for the purpose of developing a
deeper concept for conceptual and infrastructural position of the Kale Hill in today’s city center. This
broader location (L1), in the outer area of the project location (L2), was expected to be defined inde-
pendently by the competition participants, depending on their scope of perception. The participants
were also asked to study the inner area of project location (L2) and to recognize and value specific
locations (L3) for developing concepts of “populating” the space with a few (optimally between 2
and 3) temporary constructions of the pavilion type. The pavilions should represent new points of
public interest and in addition to accepting “museum” contents, the pavilions should be open to
other possibilities, i.e. enriched or transformed into other temporary uses. By giving the task open
boundaries, it encouraged readings as diverse as possible.

_ Figure 7 and 8: Projects Awarded First Prize (Excerpts from the competition proposals; Left: “SO 162”,
project by Aleksandra Shulevska and Kristof Schlüβler, architects from Berlin; Right: “Modul”, project by
Ana Rafailovska, Marija Antic Nikolova, Lidija Ristovska, and Nevenka Mancheva Adzievska, architects
from Skopje.)

The architectural competition, as the most important institution of the architectural profession for
wide and fair competitiveness of ideas, was either completely abandoned in the last decade or gross-
ly abused through various centers of authority in a local context. The members of the Jury, because
of the above-mentioned reasons, were carefully selected and consisted of dominantly academic

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profiles from the fields of architectural design, architectural history and urbanism, with the partic-
ipation of the institutions of interest, the Museum of Contemporary Art and the Cultural Heritage
Protection Office. Seventeen teams participated in the competition for the design of a conceptual
architectural and urban solution for arrangement of the Kale Hill in Skopje until the deadline of 15
May 2019. Working in two separate sessions for evaluation of the received works, the jury decided to
award two equal first prizes to the works under the code “SO 162”, project by Aleksandra Shulevska
and Kristof Schlüβler, architects from Berlin and “Modul”, project by Ana Rafailovska, Marija Antic
Nikolova, Lidija Ristovska, and Nevenka Mancheva Adzievska, architects from Skopje. The public
exhibition entitled “Art Fortress: International Competition for Preliminary Urban and Architectural
Development Design for Arrangement of the Kale Hill in Skopje” showcased the resulting conceptual
proposals in all of the seventeen projects during October 2019. (Museum of Contemporary Art, 2020)
During the evaluation process of the seventeen projects, we discovered a pool of ideas from which
not only the criteria for the winning proposals were extracted, but also a list of long term goals that
should be followed by the institutions of interest:
1/ Bold and innovative, but at the same time simple and feasible ideas and concepts for
cultivating the Kale Hill into “Art Fortress” should be appreciated, with underlined public
interest, mostly delivered by a research-based and creatively-driven perception of the inner
and outer area of the project location.
2/ Clear landscape tendency should become the main priority while maintaining low urban
density, reducing traffic, emphasizing the pedestrian mobility;
An architectural solution of new programmatic zoning of the site and a system of paths and
movement that offers high quality connections with the surrounding area;
Adding a strong identity landscape theme to the whole hill by planting local, indigenous
vegetation that emphasizes the already existing character and aesthetics of the space, but
provide a new memorable image.
3/ A museum garden could be established with designs that do not confront the scale of the
Museum of Contemporary Art building in any way;
Designs that have а character of installations in space; on the boundary between archi-
tecture and art; with a strong reflection of the potentials and aesthetics of the Museum
surroundings.
4/ An institutional solution for removal of the substandard structures in the space between
the medieval Kale Fortress and the Museum of Contemporary Art building must be found.
5/ The current state of the Museum of Contemporary Art should be evaluated in comparison
to its original authentic state; an inventory of past alternations and decisions for restoration
of its original condition as a modern architectural heritage building should be prepared.
The comprehensive records of the building’s past and current condition should result in
the preparation of the first conservation management plan for modern architecture in the
country.
6/Jurisdictional ReOrganization
Theoretically, multiple national institutions with jurisdiction over a single territory could provide mul-
tiple shields of protection for a valuable city fragment. However, in reality, this phenomenon showed
only disadvantages, mostly due to missing substantial communication and committed collabo-
ration towards common goals and objectives. Even if inter-institutional collaboration is achieved
within the ROCK Project, a massive bureaucratic barrier is faced in the process of implementation
of the desired results. This condition alarms once again that a jurisdictional reorganization that will
observe the territory of Kale Hill as а totality of heritage, as a single common good, is necessary.
“We need to ask ourselves, in any given time, in whatever regime (state governance): who
takes care of the public, the common food? It could not be the Government, or any minis-
try, because they’re not experts for that. To understand the problem with the “public”, we
must understand that architectural design offices in Yugoslavia came from construction
companies. So, they designed in line with what the companies manufactured, and that is
how in time they got accustomed to only satisfy the conditions set. … At the same time, the

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City Institute for Urbanism was established, which was assigned with the task to take care
of general affairs. But, the poor thing flopped, the state no longer had the money to sustain
it and there were no orders. It speaks of the unconsciousness of the management, of the
state management, that the institution tasked with taking care of the common good must
remain.” (Guleski, 2018: 93)

CONCLUSIONS

The regeneration of Skopje’s fractured spatial identity will be a long process and partially impos-
sible, since the scope of the change is so big and radical that it almost completely squeezes the
historical and memory layers.
This paper aims to call for a responsibility-approach model for regeneration of important fragments
of Skopje, with the case study of Kale Hill based upon clear criteria for recognition of their collective
significance, such as:
-The endurance in the city planning history as continuity of architectural thought;
-The natural landscape as the most constant impression in the backdrop of city architec-
ture;
-The aspect of being an important national architectural ensemble with monuments of cul-
ture and archaeological sites;
-The everyday life specificity.
On the part of “Jurisdictional organization”, there is an evident ignorant, even mechanical distribu-
tion of authority over important fragments of the city that seeks urgent systemic change.
The significance of the phenomenon of Skopje requires international recognition, due to the need for
a fresh perspective and disciplinary experience, in order to start long-term processes, not one-time
design solutions.
As for turning the Kale Hill into a contemporary “Art Fortress”, architecture should be used as the
main tool for space cultivation with its focus on openness and accessibility, programmatic and in-
frastructural improvement, strengthening the landscape identity by maintaining local biodiversity,
establishing a museum garden and preparing a conservation management plan for the Museum of
Contemporary Art building that will finally recognize it as high-level modern architectural heritage.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT:

THIS PROJECT HAS RECEIVED FUNDING FROM THE EUROPEAN UNION’S HORIZON 2020 RESEARCH AND INNO-
VATION PROGRAMME UNDER GRANT AGREEMENT NO 730280

REFERENCES

Journal article :
__ Boomkens, René. 2008. “The Temporalities of the Public Sphere.” In OASE #77: 9-20. Rotterdam: Nai
Publishers.
Book chapter:
__ Castells, Manuel. 1996. “European Cities, the Informational Society and the Global Economy.” In The
city reader edited by Legates, Richard T. and Frederic Stout, 557-567. London: Routledge.
__ Guleski, Martin. 2018. “Interviews.” In Freeingspace: Macedonian Pavilion 16th International Architec-
ture Exhibition La Biennale di Venezia, 84-105. Skopje: Museum of Contemporary Art.
__ Ivanovska-Deskova, Ana. 2016. “On the Museum of Contemporary Art and Its Surroundings.” In Kale

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- Cultural Fortress, edited by Zoran Petrovski and Jovan Ivanovski, 16-19. Skopje: NI Museum of Con-
temporary Art.
__ Ivanovski, Jovan. 2016. “Realities and Conceptions of Kale.” In Kale - Cultural Fortress, edited by Zoran
Petrovski and Jovan Ivanovski, 20-26. Skopje: NI Museum of Contemporary Art.
__ Korobar P., Vlatko. 2016. “A City between Cities.” In Kale - Cultural Fortress, edited by Zoran Petrovski
and Jovan Ivanovski, 12-15. Skopje: NI Museum of Contemporary Art.
Internet source:
__ Rock/ About. “Vision and Ambition.” Accessed February 14th, 2020 https://rockproject.eu/about
__ “World Charter for the Right to the City.” Accessed February 24th, 2020. http://hicgs.org/document.
php?pid=2422
__ Museum of Contemporary Art/About Us. “History.” Accessed February 25th, 2020. https://msu.mk/
history/
__ Museum of Contemporary Art/Competitions. “International Competition Art Fortress.” Accessed May
26th, 2020. https://msu.mk/open-call/
__ Ministry of Environment and Physical Plannning / Ministry / Department of nature. Accessed March
8th, 2020 http://www.moepp.gov.mk/
__ Decision for Registration of Immovable Cultural Heritage Museum of Contemporary Art in Skopje,
by the Ministry of Culture, Cultural Heritage Protection Office. (A photocopy of the original document).
http://uzkn.gov.mk/Book:
__ Батакоја, Мери. 2011. Културолошките процеси во третирањето на јавниот простор во Скопје
по 1991 година. Скопје: Институт за македонска литература, Универзитет „Св. Кирил и Методиј.“
(Unpublished master theses).
__ 1970. Skopje Resurgent. The Story of a United Nations Special Fund Town Planning Project. United
Nations: New York.
Blog entry or comment:
__ Батакоја, Мери. 2019. „Мемориски пејзажи на градот.“ Блог на Здравје пред профит во Центар,
April 01. Accessed February 25th, 2020.
__ https://zdravjepredprofit.wordpress.com/

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HERITAGE PERCEPTIONS: AN APPROACH FOR

THE REVITALIZATION OF THE URBAN EXPERIENCES
AND THE FRENCH CHECKBOARD IMAGE
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch41

_ Barbara Hiba
University of Pécs, Faculty of Engineering and Information
Technology, Breuer Marcell Doctoral School, Boszorkányu. 2,
H-7624 Pécs, Hungary, e-mail:barbara.hiba6@gmail.com

_ Molnár Tamás
University of Pécs, Faculty of Engineering and Information
Technology, Department of Visual Studies, Boszorkányu. 2,
H-7624 Pécs, Hungary, e-mail: tmolnar@mik.pte.hu

ABSTRACT

Our human reality is the evidence for the historical and cultural transfers from our ancestor’s lega-
cies. Understanding authentic experiences in cities and architectural values carries the importance
of its inheritance and meanings to our identities. 

The urban scene conception and cultural landscapes in the city follow the identification of the
receptive interactions of the physical and the perceptual dimensions of a defined space. The se-
quencing of the historical memories forms the relatable images and the observable variations of the
built environment. People’s perceptions and appreciation of their architectural and urban heritage
become the indicator for generating a sense of place and symbolic character. The legacy of North
African cities is related to the colonial past, where the design qualities produced during that period
remain the focal interest of modern researches. By revisiting the urban scenery of the colonial times
in Algeria, the French historical center’s study in the city of Biskra aims to approach the potentials
of the French-built heritage according to the improvement of the urban ambiance in the site and
the patrimonial experiences of its users. The objective is to adapt the significant values and poten-
tial of the site, along with the requalification of its cultural landmarks and urban perspectives. The
research methodology consists of investigating the right strategies towards a comprehensive and
sustainable elaboration of the French models in Algeria.

KEYWORDS _ sustainable heritage, urban ambiance, cultural values, sense of place,

social perception

INTRODUCTION

Throughout the years, the transmission of patrimonial and cultural values from generation to an-
other was continuously connected to forming human experiences, therefore maintaining our ascen-
dant heritages, legacies, and identities. The urban space with its physical platforms represents the
container for the human events and historical memories, by producing multiple images and scenes
that eventually indicates people’s senses towards their cities and the qualities of their patrimony
(Miguel. J, Tomás. L, Jesús. C, Carol. J, 2019 ). This dual exchange of values, both from material
and immaterial dimensions of the urban space, is crucial to comprehending different design phe-

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nomena, from the primary architectural forms to the macro adaptations of the historical and urban
environment.
According to the Burra charter 1979, the cultural significance of historical monuments and sites is
defined according to different principles related to these past values and its various aspects, wheth-
er it is social, scientific, aesthetic, or even spiritual. ( The Burra charter 2013).
The Transition of cultural values was defined earlier in the Venice charter; the concept definition
of the historical monument and the interest of its conservation and restoration was the main focus
of the charter’s articles. As followed, the ensemble of monuments and sites become an essential
reflection of history, and only the preservation assures the respect of its authenticity. (The Venice
charter 1964). The conservation of cultural heritage, including urban areas and historical centers,
recommends the integration with the economic and social development planning in the cities. ( The
Washington charter 1987 ).
The importance of the landmarks and monuments of authentic values is essential to analyzing the
urban and the historical environment and assuring the understanding of cultural heritage percep-
tions. These landmarks; depending on its physical character, furthermore its archival qualities, be-
come a visual guide in the cities, reflecting three main elements to creating its perceptual images:
Identity, Structure, and signification ( Lynch.K, 1960). The different observable practices in the towns
define urban scenes’ production, followed by the appropriation of perceptual images and sensations
while discovering the space. This latter constructs an essential ax to defining its characterizing
features, according to particular perspectives, along with the conversion of various visual angles, re-
lated to the user’s directions and positions in the site. ( Panerai. P. Demorgon. M, Depaule. J, 2009 ).
The revaluation of the French heritage has been the subject of interest for many preservation proj-
ects that consider the safeguarding of the historical legacies regardless of the periods it reflects, but
rather to the impact it has on the city today. The preservation of the local Medina in North African
cities and the Grand Maghreb region has been lately complemented by actions of conserving the
recent heritage of the colonial period, completing the preservation of the whole image of the city. The
Agha khan award for the Tunis project of rehabilitation of the French façades near the old Medina
of Tunis (Figure1) is one more affirmation for the necessity of this period’s awareness. Most people,
as a result, recognized this architecture’s qualities by several rehabilitation actions on the urban
façades and the restoration of essential monuments, calling for explicit insights on both the local
and colonial cultural heritages. ( Agha Khan award for architecture 2008-2010 cycle ).

_ Figure 1: The Revitalisation of the Recent Heritage of Tunis, Tunisia. Source: The Agha Khan award for
architecture 2008-2010 cycle

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In Algeria; The endorsement of the contemporary identities; encounters stereotypes of acceptance

and appurtenance. For instance, the French heritage, although figures to be as one of the marking
traces in the country’s design features, is mainly held back by historical paradoxes, which essen-
tially prevent further advancement in heritage conservation and protection strategies. (Barbara. H,
Molnár. T.2019). In Biskra, the French influence resumes in the design of many constructions that
integrate into the local particularities of the region. However, it is the French checkboard planning
that seems to be one of the city’s outstanding structures.The historical center’s regular morphology
constructs a prominent checkboard organization, which creates a unique scenery when sighted with
the rest of the local city. The meeting of two images, bounded by oriental and occidental concepts
(Figure2), emphasizes the differences and supports the diversity and the cultural message of these
contradicted forms. (Barbara, H. Molnár, PT.2019). The French ambiance created in the times of the
Colonial period was characterized by specific values and urban qualities that reflect high interests in
the Algerian cities, From the architectural styles to the urban planning. Nevertheless, in the light of
urban development and the constant changing of modern life demands, The French historical center
is unfortunately underrated and suffers from neglecting and disregard.
This research’s main objectives are to create a comprehensive base to understand the impact of
urban morphology on social perception. These aspects could build-up together towards the in-
tegration and understanding of the French heritage in the city’s urban development and its local
patrimony. The purpose is to revisit the original ambiance of the colonial checkboard, which ap-
proaches the human experience, stimulated by the visibility of its landmarks, roads, public spaces,
etc. and their influence on the city’s overall look. The analyses of the monuments and constructions’
visual qualities are essential to approaching the aims of the study (Figure3). The appearance of the
buildings and their general harmony is a crucial element to interpret their effect on the surrounding
environment and vice versa and discloses a guideline towards the awareness on the historical site
and its importance and certainly captures the sensibility to the image of the city today (Aidatul. F,
Norhati. I, Sabarinah. S, Nurulhusna. Q. 2015).

_ Figure 2: Theoretical framework, The regeneration of the image of the French check board in Biskra.
Source: Author

THE FRENCH CHECK BOARD OF BISKRA : TOWARDS THE IMAGE OF AN INTEGRATED

HERITAGE

The Algerian city Biskra, located north to the Grand Sahara, is considered the gate of the desert and
characterized by its hot and dry climate. In French times, Biskra reflected the potential of strong
tourism and formed a dynamic connection between territories. The city of the Oasis witnessed a

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shift in architectural and urban methods. From the modest use of local materials and integration
with the typologies of the site; to the translation of a different French vocabulary that adapts regu-
larity and modern forms to the design of the city, which comes around to create the significance of
the site represented by architectural diversity and cultural engagement.
While first visiting the French center in Biskra( figure 3), a distinct regularity is introduced, visibly
different from the rest of the city. The spatial and functional organization, together with the regular
distribution of the equipment and its activities; facilitates the public use of the site. The colonial
checkboard reflects the traces of a European city, which occurred in a specific time of history. The
uncommon quarter’s existence relates to the importance of architectural thinking under challenging
conditions, considering the North Sahara region and its arid climate (Côte, M. 2005). The colonial
checkboard mirrors the qualities and the importance of the French period, regardless of all past
controversies, the urban and architectural components of the center comprise its significance and
its value. The purpose is to analyze imagery of the site’s landmarks, and the urban sensibility of
the checkboard, setting the light on each value according to the scene it reflects with relation to its
surrounding environment.

_ Figure 3: a. Biskra; the city of oasis. source: Côte, Marc. 1991, b. The colonial check board 1956.
Source: Guide vert michelin Edition 1956.

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE LANDMARKS :

The observation of the landmarks is an important aspect that contributes to creating the urban
scenery and the planning of its layouts, with the needs of its users. The French monuments in the
colonial checkboard, for instance, provide a variety of design styles and architectural concepts that
has a significant impact on the rest of the cityscape, concerning beauty, harmony, and attraction,
which makes it not only visible as landmarks, but also proportionally distinguishable on the macro
scale of the city.
According to Kevin Lynch ( Lynch, K.1960 ), the city’s good image equals a good sense of orientation.
It has a high impact on the legibility of the space and its visual signification, projecting this notion
from the historical to the site’s actual image. The construction of the original sequences of the co-
lonial checkboard in the urban and historical timeline of the Biskra’s old oasis undoubtedly contrib-
utes to forming the memories and nostalgias of this recent heritage and, as a result, the adaptation
of a unique patrimonial identity.
The series of monuments conceived in the checkboard during different periods of the French ex-

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istence contribute to the shaping of the site’s urban forms. With a variety of architectural styles,
from Neoclassical to Neo-Moorish decorations and many other examples, the impressive buildings
represent an affirmation to the importance of the oasis of the Ziban ( old name of Biskra ) and the
ambition to promote a touristic essence to its local users and European visitors. The creation of the
new European quarter was resumed by improving many buildings of different functions (Pizzaferri,
P. 2011) :

1.THE RAILWAY STATION:

The train station in the colonial checkboard is one of the orienting units in the site with a strategi-
cally positioned core, it serves as a historical landmark, but also as structuring. Located near the
old military fort Saint Germain, the station of Biskra had the importance of relating the economical
and the commercial roads between the north and the south of the country (Figure 5). The station’s
central position makes it a connection point while viewed from the principal boulevard of the site;
the observer can capture the monument from a distance and multiple serial visions.

_ Figure 5: The railway station of Biskra. Source : Pizzaferri, Paul. 2011

2.THE GRAND SAHARA HOTEL:

The Hotel Sahara is one of the first-ever hotels in Algeria conceived with local and earthen materials,
it is of the French neoclassical style and has a strong impact in the urban scene of the checkboard
(Figure7), where it is highly visible from the Grand Boulevard and facing the public garden, the Hotel
is a famous landmark and an essential entity which harmonizes perfectly with the composition of
the urban façades and the rest of the French buildings.

Figure 6: The Hotel of the Sahara. Source: https://www.judaicalgeria.com/; https://www.delcampe.net/;

Pizzaferri, Paul. 2011

3. THE EX CITY HALL:

Not far away from the Sahara hotel, the Ex city hall and the actual municipality are essential and
prestigious monuments in Biskra, which creates sharp images to the observant because of its out-
standing design style and the visible monumentality to its overall scale (Figure8). The construction
is strongly visible from various angles, presenting a strong singularity element and attraction that
guides the visitor while navigating the colonial checkboard.

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_ Figure 7: a. The city Hall, b. View on the water fountain facing the building. Source : https://www.gene-
anet.org/, Pizzaferri, Paul. 2011

4.THE RODARI VILLAS:

Private monument’s importance is no less than the public ones, with a particular Neo Moorish style
(Figure 8). The villas Rodari ( named after the French entrepreneur and architect Rodari) stand today
in the site as the testimonies of the French engineers’ creative achievements and surely stimulate
original urban scenes that characterize the checkboard. The two houses have similar and singular
design styles, making it easy to recognize in the site.

5.THE PUBLIC GARDEN:

The public garden in the colonial checkboard is probably the most fundamental structure when
urbanely analyzing the site, with its peculiar disposition; it covers an important greenery level com-
pared to the rest of the city, considering the arid conditions of the weather (Figure 8). As a public
space, the 5th of July garden previously known as the “ the Alleys garden,” is equally essential to the
built environment and monuments in the site, as it represents a familiar unit to most of the popula-
tion in the city, and constructs a definite sequence in the image of the site, which makes it another
punctual reference in the experience of the checkboard.

_ Figure 8: a. A Rodari villa of a neo Moorish style; b. The Grand Alley of the public garden. Source: Piz-
zaferri, Paul. 2011

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CONCLUSIONS

The requalification of these cultural landmarks is essential to evaluate the public image and the
significance of the French Algerian platforms’ urban scenery. Based on the patrimonial experiences,
the site’s potentials with its elements are emphasized upon the regeneration of its architectural and
urban forms. The evaluation of the French monuments in the colonial checkboard of Biskra sets the
foundation for recognizing each building’s potentials, to be considered a significant landmark, that
impacts the morphology and ambiance of the site. The qualities of the constructions are directly re-
lated to the different aspects and criteria that influence their appearance as referential points in the
city: The localization; the form; the aesthetics; the harmony; and the singularity of the monuments,
considered as the parameters that impact the visibility and the legibility of the landmarks and facil-
itates the construction and the perception of a unique image of the Recent heritage in the Algerian
cities. The colonial checkboard faces multiple problems of disorientation on different levels, which
are slowly affecting the quality of its landmarks and historical monuments. Mentioning the difficul-
ties of accessibility; pollution; lack of parking spots; noise and structural pathologies diagnosed in a
wide variety of buildings in the checkboard, as a consequence; the historical image is affected today
by many factors that are causing the dysfunction and the imbalance of urban structure. According
to its visual qualities, this analysis approach considers the French heritage, not necessarily to the
historical events of its creation. As a result, it guides the research towards the importance of this
legacy and the awareness of new heritage conservation methods and strategies to safeguarding
the French monuments and sites in Algeria. It creates further perspectives for the adaptation of
the social scale and the recognition of alterations and solutions for a sustainable integration with
modern city planning.

REFERENCES

__ Internet source: “Agha Khan award for architecture 2008-2010 cycle, “Revitalisation of the Recent
Heritage of Tunis”. Last Accessed March 25, 2020. https://www.akdn.org/architecture/project/revital-
isation-recent-heritage-tunis.
__ Journal article: Aidatul Fadzlin Bakri, Norhati Ibrahim, Sabarinah Sh Ahmad, Nurulhusna Qamaruz
Zaman. 2015. “Public Perception on the Cultural Significance of Heritage Buildings in Kuala Lumpur”.
Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 202 : 294 – 302
__ Journal article: Barbara Hiba, Molnár Tamás. 2019. “The French legacies in Algeria: The architecture
of a shared identity, the case of the Kasbah; Algiers and the colonial check board; Biskra”. Conference
proceedings, the 6th international academic conference on places and technologies. Hungary; Pécs: 244-
252.
__ Journal article Barbara Hiba, Molnár Tamás. 2019. “Towards understanding the colonial heritage in
Algeria: The case of the Sheridan Villa”. Pollack Periodica, April, Vol. 14, Issue 1, pp. 223-234.
__ Book: Côte, Marc. 2005. “The City and the desert : The Algerian low-Sahara”. (in French : La ville et le
désert: le bas-Sahara algérien). Karthala, Paris.
__ Internet source: ICOMOS international council on monuments and sites. “International charter for the
conservation and restoration of monuments and sites, the Venice charter 1964”. Last Accessed June
25,2020. https://www.icomos.org/charters/venice_e.pdf.
__ Internet source: ICOMOS international council on monuments and sites. “The Burra charter, the Aus-
tralia ICOMOS Charter of cultural significance, 2013”. Last Accessed June 25, 2020. https://australia.
icomos.org/wp-content/uploads/The-Burra-Charter-2013-Adopted-31.10.2013.pdf.
__ Internet source: ICOMOS international council on monuments and sites. “Charter for conservation of
historic towns and urban areas, Washington charter 1987”. Last Accessed June 25,2020. https://www.
icomos.org/charters/towns_e.pdf.
__ Book: Lynch, Kevin. 1960.”The image of the city”. Edited by Massachusetts Institute of Technology

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Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London, England. The M.I.T press.

__ Journal article: Miguel Jesús Medina-Viruela, Tomás López-Guzmána, Jesús Claudio Pérez Gálveza,
Carol Jara-Albab. 2019. “ Emotional perception and tourist satisfaction in world heritage cities: The Re-
naissance monumental site of úbeda and baeza, Spain”. Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism no
27 : 100226.
__ Book: Pizzaferri, Paul. 2011 “Biskra, Queen of the Ziban and the south of Constantine.(in French:Biskra,
reine des Ziban et du Sud constantinois).Vol. 2, Vol3, Jaques Gandinis Edition.
__ Book: Philippe Panerai, Marcelle Demorgon, Jean-Charles Depaule. 2009. “Urban Analysis’. In French:
“ Analyse urbaine”. Edition Parenthèse. Marseille.

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PRESERVING THE MATERIAL AUTHENTICITY:

A METHOD OF PRESERVING THE TRUTH
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch42

_ Jovana Tošić
PhD candidate at Faculty of Architecture University of Belgrade,
works at ITS - Information Technology School, Savski nasip 7,
jokica.in.wonderland@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

In heritage preservation projects, the main aim is to preserve the authenticity, and one of the most
interesting and important elements of heritage is its materiality. The materiality of heritage, as such,
combines its cultural, historical, artistic and architectural characteristics, and thus, materiality
preservation affects its many values, but most of all - on its authenticity. Preservation of materi-
al authenticity by following “truth to materials” concept is a complex process, and it depends on
many factors, such as conservation-science studies, interdisciplinary approach, architects ideology,
technical solutions, etc. This paper discusses methods, technical solutions, as well as architec-
tural approaches for different heritage preservation projects, intending to analyse preservation of
the material authenticity critically. Different methods of “revealing” the truth of heritage could lead
to different interpretations of “truth to materials” concept in preservation projects. For example,
these architectural-conservation approaches could be a traditional one, like bringing the original
appearance with the reconstruction of missing parts using original materials from authentic mate-
rial sources and application techniques, or different and experimental approaches of creating new
materials which will be incorporated in the (fragments of a) historical building. The hypothesis of
the paper considers that preserving the truth imply to preserve properties and qualities of a material
that are not primary, but its poetic, sensuous qualities, that could be felt by all senses. These quali-
ties embed only in specific architectural contexts generated in special conditions. This also leads to
proposal for new valorisation of materials, and it could be concluded that this is necessary for the
preservation project to be successful, and for authenticity to be preserved.

KEYWORDS _ materials, preservation, authenticity, method, truth, senses

INTRODUCTION

The preservation of authenticity always remains an open issue in the preservation of architectur-
al heritage, and one of the issues is preserving the material properties, qualities, appearance and
material applying techniques. The main aim of the paper is to research what kind of methods of
preserving material authenticity are the most compatible with international charters, documents,
and declarations, as well as with theoretical interpretations of authenticity and truth. In the first part
of the paper – “theoretical framework of research”, the concept of authenticity is elaborated, along
with the interpretations of truth in architecture and the concept of “truth to materials”. The second
part of the paper is dedicated to critical analysis of two opposite preservation projects: the first is
a traditional one, and the second is a sort of an experimental approach to heritage, which changed
preservation discourse to a certain extent. These approaches refer to the different practice of “truth
to materials” concept, and process of “reviving the truth”. The restoration project of Villa Tugendhat

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and its adaptation to a house-museum is an example of bringing the original appearance with the
reconstruction of authentic missing parts using original materials sources and application tech-
niques. This restoration was an attempt to bring back the reflection of the truth into the Villa, con-
tributing to the authenticity of material appearance through time. The second preservation project
analysed in this paper is the renovation project of the Kolumba Museum by architect Peter Zumthor.
This represents a different and experimental approach of preserving the authenticity by creating
new material which is incorporated into the existing fragments of a historical building. This new
material is in symbiosis with the remnants but, at the same time, it emphasises their appearance, by
making a visual contrast, and illuminates them with its contemplating properties. Properties of new
material are “poetic”, and it creates meanings in object and reveals inherent sensuous qualities of
new material as well as of the existing ones. These are two different examples of preserving the truth
of heritage and making it “visible” again.

THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF RESEARCH

In historic preservation theory and practice, the most significant concept which affects the choice
of preservation method and the way of developing the architectural approach is - the concept of
authenticity. In which way, different concepts of authenticity affect the selection and application of
materials in architectural preservation projects and how complex is the relationship between au-
thenticity and architectural material? This complexity brings another notion that contributes to the
creation of layered and profound connections among the concept of authenticity and architectural
material. That is - the notion of truth. In preservation projects, it all began with John Ruskin’s histor-
ical definition of truth, and it continues with contemporary charters and preservation doctrine, along
with interpretations of truth by architects and their application in architectural concepts.

Concept of authenticity in architectural preservation

There are numerous concepts of authenticity which are discussed in several international charters,
documents, and declarations, as well as through theoretical interpretations and applied in archi-
tectural approaches and practice. The term authenticity was first introduced in the preamble of
the Venice Charter (1964) in which it says about the preservation of historical monuments, that “It
is our duty to hand them on in the full richness of their authenticity” (Venice Charter, 1964). Thus,
reconstruction was not permissible, but only anastylosis (the reassembly of the fragments left over
from the original parts). According to Venice Charter, new interventions should happen only if it is
completely necessary, and in such case, the choice of new materials that are used in preservation
should be distinguishable from the original historic construction (Venice Charter, 1964). Later on,
the concept of authenticity in preservation was expanded, and it gradually became more flexible in
different contexts.
Although it is impossible to completely and finally determine the concept of authenticity, the largest
contribution for defining various aspects and interpretations of authenticity is the Nara Document
on Authenticity (1994). Nara has broadened the concept of authenticity within different cultural con-
texts and, at the same time, created a more flexible interpretation in terms of preservation practice.
David Lowenthal gives a definition for this flexibility of authenticity in Nara conference paper: “Au-
thenticity is never absolute, always relative.” (Lowenthal 1994: 123). In Article 13 of the Nara Doc-
ument on Authenticity it states that: “Depending on the nature of the cultural heritage, its cultural
context, and its evolution through time, authenticity judgements may be linked to the worth of a
great variety of sources of information. Aspects of the sources may include form and design, mate-
rials and substance, use and function, traditions and techniques, location and setting, and spirit and
feeling, and other internal and external factors. The use of these sources permits elaboration of the
specific artistic, historic, social, and scientific dimensions of the cultural heritage being examined.”
(Nara Document on Authenticity 1994: 47). From this statement, it could be concluded that material
is a significant aspect from which sources of information that are necessary for the evaluation of

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authenticity could be gathered. Unlike the Venice Charter, in which it states that reconstruction isn’t
permissible, at Nara Document on Authenticity (1994) the concept of “progressive authenticities”
was reaffirmed. It means that the layered character of authenticity is acknowledged, by evoking
successive adaptations of historical places which have happened over time. Another extension of
defining authenticity happened after a regional meeting in San Antonio (1996) encouraged by ICO-
MOS, in the Declaration of San Antonio (1996), where it is written that “authenticity is a concept
much larger than material integrity” (Declaration of San Antonio, 1996). Declaration of San Antonio
tried to add new sources for authenticity evaluation with the aim to reflect their real value, context,
identity, integrity, use, and function. However, it failed due to the lack of including the extension of
evidence of authenticity.

Concept of truth: “truth to materials”

The concept of authenticity and the term truth are inextricably linked. But, how can the truth in
architectural experience be revealed? Parallels can be made between the two opposite ways of dis-
covering the truth: through senses and by reason. As Parmenides (the early Greek philosopher, was
born in 520 BC) claimed, the real truth could be unveiled only to gods by pure reason (logos), and
never to humans through their senses. On the contrary, according to Martin Heidegger, the choice of
information sources for reaching the truth significantly affect the results, and that process requires
systematic and detailed research (Jokilehto 2008: 24). It could be concluded that these sources
of information also includes the ones that are perceived through senses. These sources could be
taken into consideration for reaching the truth and preserving the authenticity, because the fact is
that contemporary preservation doctrine does not exclude the role of the senses in the concept of
authenticity, although it isn’t explicitly included either. Perceiving through senses is a significant
part of the material authenticity evaluation process, which will be further discussed through analyse
of different material treatments in preservation projects.
The concept of truth in architectural preservation began with John Ruskin’s theory which he de-
veloped in The Seven Lamps of Architecture (1849). In his second Lamp – “Lamp of truth” his atti-
tude towards authenticity develops over “truth to materials” rule, which he claims to be achieved by
avoiding “direct falsity of assertion respecting the nature of material” (Ruskin 1849: 28). He named
these falsities “Architectural Deceits”, and proclaimed that there are three of them: “1. The sug-
gestion of a mode of structure or support other than the true one…; 2. The painting of surfaces
represents some other material than that which they actually consist…; and 3. The use of a cast or
machine-made ornaments of any kind.” (Ruskin 1849: 29). All of these three “Architectural Deceits”
refers to architectural material characteristics that could be perceived visually. But, what about the
material appearance aspects and “truth to materials” which has to be experienced and discovered
by senses? The fact is that the properties and qualities of materials affect the emotion of the spec-
tator at the moment of experience. Ruskin also notes that “Architectural Deceits” affects bodily and
emotional expectations (Ruskin, 1849).
Ruskin’s theory of truth in architecture has influenced the international preservation doctrines and
charters (the Venice Charter, the Nara Document on Authenticity). Thus, authenticity is defined
through the term truthful in Article 9 of Nara Document on Authenticity (1994): “Conservation of
cultural heritage in all its forms and historical periods is rooted in the values attributed to the her-
itage. Our ability to understand these values depends, in part, on the degree to which information
sources about these values may be understood as credible or truthful. Knowledge and understand-
ing of these sources of information, in relation to original and subsequent characteristics of the
cultural heritage, and their meaning is a requisite basis for assessing all aspects of authenticity.”
(Nara Document on Authenticity 1994: 46) As mentioned, one of these sources of information for
the evaluation of authenticity is architectural material with its properties, and its interpretation of
“truth to materials”.

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MATERIAL AUTHENTICITY: THEORY AND PRACTICE

Modern architects believed in “truth to materials” and developed their concepts and projects under
the persuasion that achieving this kind of truth would produce a more authentic architecture. Also,
for some contemporary architects, the most important architectural element is material, and they
assigned them qualities which are beyond physical and which other architectural elements do not
have. Critical analysis of the different architects’ approaches to heritage preservation projects, at
the same time, reveals various attitudes towards materials and perceptions about them. Conse-
quently, there are different ways of “revealing the truth” through authenticity preservation projects
and concepts of “truth to materials”. Based on these case studies, the contribution of the paper is
precisely in suggesting a new type of architectural material valorisation. New values lies in “poetic”
qualities of a material, in its “secondary” properties, which are not strictly visible, at first sight, but
which might be experienced by all senses.

Re-reflecting the truth: the restoration of Villa Tugendhat

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe once said about the materiality of a heritage: “Materiality incorporates
the historical, artistic and cultural characteristics assigned to (architectural) monument” (Tostões,
Hammer, & Ferreira 2017: 51), which was exactly the way in which he builds the authenticity of the
modern architectural monuments which remained after him. One of the finest examples of Mies van
der Rohe buildings, which embodies its authenticity through the material, is - Villa Tugendhat build
in 1928 as a family house in Brno. Mies van der Rohe in collaboration with German designer Lilly
Reich, made an innovative, original, modern, luxurious, and first of all, an authentic house which will
be filled with historically and culturally significant moments. Villa Tugendhat was recognised by UN-
ESCO as World Heritage in 2001, as “an outstanding example of the international style in the Modern
Movement of architecture” (Tostões, Hammer, & Ferreira 2017: 48). Among many other architectural
values and innovative solutions, the architectural value of Villa Tugendhat reflects in the application
of valuable and rare materials. Material as such, was chosen by the architect to be the medium of the
truth, and this was recognised by the owners of the house, Mies clients – Tugendhat family.

_ Figure 1: The onyx marble wall in the interior of Villa Tugendhat

Valuable materials which Mies used in Villa are: Italian travertine, onyx marble from Morocco, Ma-
cassar ebony wood, palisander, polished chrome, brass cladding with patina coating, etc. Besides

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the belief of Mies about characteristics of architectural material and that material assign a new set
of values to the architectural monument, one of the reasons why he chose these type of materials
for this Modern villa structure is because they are fine and noble and do not contain decorations
nor ornamentation. Italian travertine was employed in the interiors on the floors of the entrance hall
and the staircases, and in the exteriors on the parapet and the bases of the upper terrace and the
garden terrace (Tostões, Hammer, & Ferreira 2017: 46). Columns in the living room were clad with
polished chromed brass cladding which seems to contribute to its crystalline atmosphere, while,
on the contrary, the columns on the terraces have brass cladding with a patina coating to bronze
in copper colour, contributing to the authenticity of material appearance through time. Besides the
semi-circular wall consisting of Macassar ebony veneer of the dining area, the main light motif of
the interior is a massive onyx marble wall separating the library from the living room as in Figure
1. In this picture of the living room, the onyx wall is seen as a main element, with reflections of the
trees silhouettes, creating a unique ambience. Also, as part of the interior structure, the onyx wall
contributes to the dialogue between nature and architecture, which is mostly present in the concept
of this Villa. This onyx is honey-coloured, yellow rock with white veins, and it changes its appear-
ance during the sunny winter days, by showing how unique and special it is: the stone has certain
percent of transparency and lit up from the front by the sunset, certain veins on the back-side shone
red (Tugendhat, 2020). The onyx marble wall has its own modus of living and “reflecting the truth”.
After numerous changes of usage and, consequently, of the house form and appearance, the res-
toration project of Villa Tugendhat aims to bring the original appearance of the Villa and the recon-
struction of missing original parts. The restoration was based on the belief of Mies van der Rohe
that “heritage conservation as a societal practice only makes sense...if the material authenticity
is preserved” (Tostões, Hammer, & Ferreira 2017: 48). This preservation project was an attempt to
bring back the reflection of the truth into the Villa, and make it visible to the visitors. So, the main aim
was to create conditions in which the Villa will start re-reflecting the truth through its architectural
elements, most of all, through the material. Which was the method of the restoration of the material,
due to the fact that utilised materials have unique characteristics, appearance and behaviour under
different external conditions? How the whole process of “reviving the truth” went? Where the authen-
ticity of the Villa and material authenticity preserved through this process?
An interdisciplinary and careful conservation-science investigation which preceded the restoration
project of Villa Tugendhat, and the beginning of its adaptation to a house-museum, occurred be-
tween 2003 and 2010. The main aim was to discover all the details about the original appearance
of Villa, primarily through investigation and documentation of materials and surfaces by conserva-
tors/restorers (Tostões, Hammer, & Ferreira 2017: 48). In the purpose of making several appropriate
proposals for the restoration project, all categories of materials in Villa on its different time layers
were examined. Result of these studies was: identification of damage factors and development of
methods for conservation and restoration.
For the purpose of bringing back the original appearance of the Villa, and preserve its authenticity,
where necessary, the existing material was replaced for the original one. That was one of the most
challenging parts of this restoration project. For example, the pavement of the floor and stairs, which
in the 1980s’ renovation was made of Slovakian travertine, was replaced with the original Italian
Tivoli travertine (Tostões, Hammer, & Ferreira, 2017: 50). For the purpose of the restoration of all the
structural steel components and bringing back their original appearance, the original technology
of oil-based paints was applied to all metal coatings. Using almost identical material, the original
stucco lustro of the interior wall was newly coated with a thin layer of a limestone and marble dust,
linseed oil and cellulose-ether as the binding medium, and it was pigmented with fine silt size grains
of Bratčice sand was finely sanded creating the illusion of a polished marble surface. In the resto-
ration process of the interior, the restorers found a part of the original Macassar panels in the former
headquarters of the Gestapo at the University of Law in Brno in 2011 (Tostões, Hammer, & Ferreira,
2017: 51).
The owner of the house, Fritz Tugendhat, claimed about the experience of living in this house: “...
whenever I let these rooms and all they contain take their effect, I am overcome by the feeling that

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this is beauty, this is the truth” (Hammer-Tugendhat, Hammer, & Tegethoff 2015: 77). Will visitors of
the restored Villa Tugendhat into house-museum feel the same? Will they perceive the truth?

Fragments of truth: the renovation of Kolumba Museum

Through his ontological and phenomenological approach to architectural practice, Peter Zumthor
deals with material as such, researching the connection between material and sensuality. His proj-
ects explore the tactile and sensory experiences and qualities of architectural space and materials.
Similar as Mies van der Rohe position about the preservation of the material authenticity of archi-
tectural heritage, Peter Zumthor also believes that the most powerful memories can be found in
materials, not in recognisable building forms (Self, 2002). He explains the importance of materials in
the architectural expression: “I believe that they can assume a poetic quality in the context of an ar-
chitectural object, although only if the architect is able to generate a meaningful situation for them,
since material in themselves are not poetic. ...we must constantly ask ourselves what the use of a
particular material could mean in a specific architectural context. Good answers to these questions
can throw new light onto both the way in which the material is generally used and its own inherent
sensuous qualities” (Zumthor 1998: 11).

_ Figure 2: Ruins fragments integration in the exterior of the Kolumba museum

Peter Zumthor developed a profound and poetic connection with heritage, at first with years of ex-
perience as a conservation architect at the Institute for the Protection of Cultural Monuments in
Graubunden, Switzerland. For Zumthor, patina has its own value, and in some projects, he imple-
ments it. In the essay “A way of looking at things”, Zumthor expresses an emotional attitude toward
patina: “Naturally, in this context I think of the patina of age on materials, of innumerable small
scratches on surfaces, of varnish that has grown dull and brittle, and of edges polished by use. But
when I close my eyes and try to forget both these physical traces and my own first associations,
what remains is a different impression, a deeper feeling – a consciousness of time passing and an
awareness of the human lives that have been acted out in these places and rooms and charged them
with a special aura. At these moments, architecture’s aesthetic and practical values, stylistic and
historical significance are of secondary importance. What matters now is only this feeling of deep

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melancholy. Architecture is exposed to life” (Zumthor, 1998: 24). In this statement, there is implicit
Zumthor’s interpretation of “truth to materials”. It means that truth must be revealed through sens-
es, materials must reflect the time and life of the architectural object, and they must not be covered
and beautified. When it comes to heritage preservation projects, as prescribed in Venice Charter,
Zumthor makes a meaningful and visible difference between existed and new materials. He defines
his attitude towards the relation of the new and the old in conversion projects with awe: “The new
must develop a positive attitude towards the old, but it must not say that it is much better than the
old. There must be some respect ... The new allows us to see the old better” (Zumthor 2012: 26).
Zumthor’s preservation project in which material properties have a crucial role is the Kolumba Mu-
seum in Cologne, built between 2003 and 2007. This renovation project has a complex historical
and spatial context, which brings historical, cultural and architectural values in the focus of the
preservation process. Kolumba Museum arises on the ruins of the former late Gothic church St.
Kolumba, destroyed by bombing in 1943 in Second World War. In 1947, the architect Gottfried Böhm
was commissioned to build a chapel “Madonna in the Rubble”, which was consecrated in 1950, as
a war memorial. Ruins fragments of this chapel were integrated into Zumthor’s Kolumba museum
renovation, with contemporary continues on the historically, and by this, architectural continuum
was achieved. That is the main museum exterior characteristic as in Figure 2, and this continuum
is clearly visible. The preservation methods used in this renovation project were: the conservation
and complete retention of existing wall fragments and unique archaeological excavations, and the
addition of a contemporary layer to an existing, historical one.

_ Figure 3: Diffused light created by perforations

The remnants of the church facade are of a grey brick, damaged and altered, darkened, with metal
remains on the windows of the former Gothic church. As Zumthor believes that the new must allow
us to see the old better, the architect’s goal was to achieve the symbiosis of the old and the new,
and at the same time, to make the facade fragments of the Gothic church, as well as archaeological
excavations on the inside, most visible, to emphasise their appearance. Thus, Zumthor created a
new material, the “Kolumba brick”, which was handcrafted by Petersen Tegl (ArchDaily, 2010). The
bricks were fired with charcoal to imbue a warm hue, and to be in contrast with dark remnants of
the existing church facade. The unique light grey brick of the dimensions and perforations on the

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facade integrate the museum into the urban context as well as in the historic site. However, the
more important is how these material properties highlighted historical values and contributed to the
preservation of a site and the object’s authenticity. These material properties are “poetic”, a material
property which is hard to achieve, but creates meanings in object and reveals inherent sensuous
qualities of material as well as of the architectural object. Perforations allow diffused light to fill
specific areas of the museum as in Figure 3, casting shadows of different intensity over the ruins,
archaeological excavations and museum art installations, creating the illusion of movement and
bringing them back to life in moments. This interplay of light and shadows of different intensity over
the ruins and archaeological excavations as in Figure 4 could be felt and seen by walking on the
bridges among the ruins.

_ Figure 4: Interplay of light and shadows over the ruins and archaeological excavations

The inside of the museum, with all of its remnants and installations, could only be comprehended
as an internal reflection. In Kolumba museum, Zumthor’s interpretation of “truth to materials” gets
its physical form through light, softness, shadows, contrast, darkness, and all of the others poetic
qualities that can be seen or felt. The truth of Kolumba museum lies in fragments, in ruins, in rem-
nants and silence, and it can only be understood and revealed by contemplation. Zumthor made a
material that allows and encourages this contemplation. As he said, that materials are not poetic by
their nature, and that the architect must create a meaningful situation for them, this new material –
“Kolumba-brick”, has poetic qualities only because of the presence of old church fragments and ru-
ins. The most important properties of a new material is in allowing the old material to be seen much
better. This is why Kolumba Museum project is changing preservation discourse to a certain extent.

CONCLUSIONS

The concept of truth in architectural preservation began its theoretical framing with John Ruskin’s
theory, and continue to develop through the international preservation doctrines and charters (the
Venice Charter, the Nara Document on Authenticity). However, architects ideologies have the most
significant influence on different “truth to materials” concepts applied in preservation practice. As

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a result of the aforementioned case studies, it can be concluded that these are examples of differ-
ent methods of preservation, but with the same aim. In a broader context, the aim was to preserve
authenticity through the application of the concept of “truth to materials”. Nevertheless, the paper
suggests a different kind of the authenticity reading, and thus a different approach of preserving the
material authenticity. A detailed analysis of the historical and technical information on buildings
and applied materials, as well as of user’s experience, leads to characteristics of materials that are
not obvious and easily noticeable, which are concerning the life of materials, as well as character
and identity of the building. The “truth to materials” concept in this case is not reflected in its ap-
pearance, its primary characteristics (functional and aesthetical), but in the way in which the ma-
terial interacts with the environment. This interaction of materials with phenomena in the environ-
ment, activates different meanings of materials that appear in specific architectural contexts. These
meanings are manifested under specific conditions, and they represent “secondary” characteristics
of material, which can be experienced by all senses (not primarily visually). This kind of experience
awakes emotions which may identify with the experience of “truth”.
Above analysed “truth to materials” ideologies are interloping, at some extent. For example, some
of the materials which are used in Villa Tugendhat have poetic and sensuousness qualities, em-
bodied like in Zumthor projects. In Villa Tugendhat restoration project, Mies intended to create the
dialogue between nature and architecture, by opening the house towards nature with glass-curtains
and porches. However, this dialogue could be felt the most through the life of materials - in patina
coating of columns on the terraces, which contributes to the authenticity of material appearance
through time, as well as in the changing appearance of the onyx marble wall exposed to different
light intensity through seasons. These are examples of embodying poetic qualities of the material.
But, the issue of bringing the original appearance of the Villa is that it erases the life of the material,
by creating artificial and kind of a plastic conditions. For example, the creation of the illusion of a
polished marble surface in the restoration process of the interior of the Villa, may be one of Ruskin’s
“Architectural Deceits”, which affects bodily and emotional expectations, consequently changing the
meanings of a material. As opposed concept and method of preservation, Zumthor’s renovation of
the former Gothic church into the Kolumba Museum, consists of a creation of a new material which
embodies its meaning and sensuous qualities, by reflecting in the old one.
The contribution of this paper is suggestion of a new way of reading the truth, and at the same time,
a proposal for a new material valorisation, in order to preserve the authenticity. This new type of
valorisation might include “secondary” properties of material, which can be experienced by all sens-
es, by awaking the emotions and creating a unique ambience and character of the building. Case
studies prove that the truth in architectural preservation could be comprehended by all senses, and
that this must be further developed in preservation discourse, in theory, as well as in architectural
preservation practice.

REFERENCES

__ Book: Cohen, J.L. 1996. Mies van der Rohe. London: E & FN SPON.
__ Book: Hammer-Tugendhat D., Hammer I., and W. Tegethoff. 2015. Tugendhat House. Ludwig Mies van
der Rohe. Basel: Birkhäuser Verlag GmbH.
__ Book: Ruskin, John. 1849. The seven lamps of architecture. New York: John Wiley.
__ Book: Zumthor, Peter. 1998. Thinking architecture. Berlin: Birkhäuser.
__ Charter: ICOMOS. 1964. The Venice Charter: International Charter for the Conservation and Restoration
of Monuments and Sites. Venice: ICOMOS.
__ Conference paper: Jokilehto, Jukka. 2008. “The idea of conservation. An overview.” In Conservation and
Preservation. Interactions between Theory and Practice. In memoriam Alois Riegl (1858–1905), edited by
Falser, M. S., Lipp, W. and A. Tomaszewski, 21–35. Florence: Edizioni Polistampa.
__ Conference paper: Lowenthal, D. 1994. “Changing Criteria of Authenticity.” In Nara Conference on Au-

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thenticity, 123. Nara: ICOMOS.

__ Declaration: ICOMOS. 1996. Declaration of San Antonio. San Antonio: ICOMOS.
__ Document: Lemaire, R. and H. Stovel. 1994. Nara document on authenticity. Nara: ICOMOS.
__ Journal article: Jerome, Pamela. 2008. “An Introduction to Authenticity in Preservation.” APT Bulletin:
The Journal of Preservation Technology, Vol. 39, No. 2/3: 3-7.
__ Journal article: Martín-Hernández, Manuel J. 2014. “Time and Authenticity.” Future Anterior: Journal of
Historic Preservation, History, Theory, and Criticism, Vol. 11, No. 2 (Winter): 41-47.
__ Journal article: Self, Pamela. 2002. “Material presence and the mystery of the object.” Architectural
Research Quarterly, vol. 6, issue 2 (June): 190-192.
__ Journal article: Tostões, A., Hammer, I., and Zara Ferreira. 2017. “The re-birth of the Tugendhat House.”
Docomomo Journal: The Heritage of Mies, n. 56 – 2017/01: 44-55.
__ Journal article: Van Balen, Koenraad. 2008. “The Nara Grid: An Evaluation Scheme Based on the Nara
Document on Authenticity.” APT Bulletin: The Journal of Preservation Technology, Vol. 39, No. 2/3: 39-45.
__ Journal article: Zumthor, Peter. 2012. „Prostori puni emocija – to je ono o čemu sanjam.“ interviewed
by Grimmer, Vera, Glažar, Tadej, and Ana Dana Beroš, ORIS, no. 73: 6-31.
__ Internet source: ArchDaily. 2010. “Kolumba Museum / Peter Zumthor.” Accessed March 5, 2020.
https://www.archdaily.com/72192/kolumba-musuem-peter-zumthor.
__ Internet source: Tugendhat. 2020. “THE MATERIALS.” Accessed March 16, 2020. https://www.tugend-
hat.eu/en/the-building/the-materials.html.

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LOST AND FOUND: A QUEST FOR SUSTAINABILITY

AND RESILIENCE IN RURAL AREAS
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch43

_ Nataša Ćuković Ignjatović

Assistant Professor, University of Belgrade – Faculty of Architecture,
Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, natasa@arh.bg.ac.rs

_ Dušan Ignjatović
Associate Professor, University of Belgrade – Faculty of Architecture,
Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, Ignjatovic.dusan@arh.bg.ac.rs

_ Nikola Miletić
PhD Student, University of Belgrade – Faculty of Architecture,
Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, nikolamiletic1994@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

Global trends of rapid and constant urbanisation are constantly revealing new societal, spatial and
technological challenges, which naturally directs research focus towards urban areas. Urbanisation
and imminent migrations, however, have significant repercussions on rural areas as well: exposure
of tangible and intangible cultural heritage to decay, leading to extinction, can be identified as one of
such processes that indirectly affect entire population, not only the scarce locals.

In the quest for sustainable proposals tailored for small and fragile communities with notable archi-
tectural and cultural heritage, the W.A.Ve Abroad Workshop explored sustainable models of revital-
ization of the village Bebića Luka in the vicinity of Valjevo in Western Serbia. During the workshop
which was held in Belgrade, Bebića Luka and Venice in June and July 2018, architecture students
from Belgrade, Venice and Ljubljana were analysing the multiple layers of Bebića Luka’s present and
past, trying to envision future scenarios and define adequate programmatic and design proposals.
The workshop results included new models of activities, tailored to enable preservation of the tangi-
ble and intangible cultural heritage of the village through interactions between permanent and tem-
porary residents, providing first-hand mutual exchange of specific knowledges. This process should
expose local residents to some useful state-of-the-art concepts while directly transferring unique
heritage of the village of Bebića Luka and the surrounding area to the visitors that will eventually
return to urban areas. The workshop results were presented at IUAV University in Venice, during the
final manifestations of the W.A.Ve 2018 Workshop in which more than 1500 students participated,
which for the first time also included mentorship from teachers from five foreign universities.

The paper presents an overview of the methodological approach, derived concepts and design pro-
posals for variety of interventions: from retrofitting the existing facilities to development of new
complementary physical structures designed in accordance with principles of circular economy and
sustainable development.

KEYWORDS _ cultural heritage, rural areas, sustainability, circular economy, resilience

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INTRODUCTION

As a consequence of global process of urbanization, cities have grown in size and influence, while
rural areas have suffered negative social, economic and environmental impacts loosing its social
capital to urban areas. The process of depopulation could, therefore, cause the disappearance of a
large part of cultural tradition, which would consequently result in a ‘poorer’ and monotone society
without recognisable identity and narrowed natural diversity (Lekic et al., 2018). Therefore, “rethink-
ing” of rural areas is essentially a consideration of endurance, sustainable transformation therefore
survival. Such transformation is crucial, as evidenced by a number of studies that seek opportunities
for improving rural environments and preserving positive rural values (Wessely, 2019).
On the other hand, thanks to their marginalization and exclusion from the process of globalisation,
rural areas have often maintained recognisable, sometimes unique identity. It is based on local cul-
ture and tradition, deriving from the specific social, natural, and artistic resources that otherwise
would not have been preserved. This unique local spirit presents, at the same time, an important part
of global human tangible and intangible heritage. One of the examples of such “pockets” is the case
of a small village of Bebića Luka in Western Serbia, which was selected as the case study for “Wave
Abroad – Belgrade” workshop.
The workshop gathered 15 architecture students from Belgrade, Venice and Ljubljana with tutors
and guest lecturers from Faculty of Architecture – University of Belgrade and IUAV. During the first
two weeks, the students worked in Belgrade with two-day field trip to Bebića Luka and nearby city
of Valjevo and mount Medvednik. Final five days took place in Venice, where the presentation was
completed and workshop results shared with other teams participating W.A.Ve 2018 workshop at
IUAV, at the final exhibition.

METHODS

The search for Bebića Luka’s cultural and formal identity and sustainability was carried out in two
distinct phases: information gathering phase and design phase. Information gathering phase was
conducted at the Faculty of Architecture in Belgrade and directly on site, aimed at recognising all the
natural, historical, architectural, and cultural resources, as well as the immaterial heritage. Design
phase was guided by the findings and conclusions derived from the information gathering phase,
turning recognized potentials as well as weaknesses into developed set of spatial interventions. A
brief one-day brainstorming session was used as a transition from the first to the second phase.
The information-gathering phase started with analysis of various available sources: maps, research
articles and archives. Searching for, collecting and mapping all available information on Bebića Lu-
ka’s natural (topographic, geographic, biological, hydrological), social (population, age structure),
material (existing infrastructure, buildings, proximity to other centres) and cultural resources (tra-
dition, beliefs), both on macro and micro levels has been performed in order to achieve a general
overview of the current conditions and fragilities of the area. During this phase, a field trip was
organised, in order to collect context-specific data, identify and analyse the current condition of the
village. During this field trip, unstructured interviews were conducted with residents of Bebića Luka,
allowing researchers to discover and understand how the locals perceive their community and use
the resources they have. This relationship between the people and immediate environment is crucial
in planning a sustainable and resilient community, as the Randolph T. Hester states, “it is the com-
bination of how natural and cultural forces interact that provides essential pattern for resilience”
(Hester, 2006).
Brainstorming session, organized immediately after the field trip, served as tool for synthesizing the
results from the investigation phase and drafting the design guidelines for the design phase. Having
considered contextual specificities and the natural-economic-cultural diversity that needs to be
preserved, a list of priorities, barriers, potentials and goals was devised in order to develop a design
scenario of self-sufficiency for the village and its territory, tailored to its needs. Design brief was

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drafted based on the identified processes, daily and seasonal activities, and multi-layered intercon-
nections that formulate the local life style.
During the design phase, further research was carried-out for “fine-tuning” and retaining the iden-
tified authenticity as well as providing ground for achieving sustainability and resilience of the
proposal. Various design programs, of different scales, were presented, tangling with both existing
buildings and open spaces as well as with creation of new ones. The proposed scenario, aimed at
reducing the weaknesses and promoting the local resources and with delicate approach to village’s
particularities is recognized as an approach that enables slow and sustainable change (Viola, 2018).

BEBIĆA LUKA - “BACK TO THE LAND”

Catching the interest of experts, locals, students and nature lovers for almost two decades, Bebića
Luka is a small village within the municipality of Valjevo, situated about 500 meters above the sea
level on the southern side of Mount Medvednik, along the Jablanica River (Figure 1). Established
in the 1804. by four brothers that emigrated from the Lika region (Jankovic, 2009), it represents a
traditional community organization of the 19th century’s Serbian villages based on a family model.
Bebića Luka literally means “the Bebić port”.

_ Figure 1 Bebića Luka – a) the village, b) its geographical position in Serbia (source: workshop presen-
tation material)

Today the village represents a unique ambient set (Figure 1a) and is listed as cultural heritage and
protected ethnic community. How people live there and how they earn their living has a strong con-
nection with local culture and tradition thus representing intangible cultural heritage (Stevanovic
and Drazic, 2016). Traditional architecture, unique building disposition, as well as furnishing, uten-
sils and tools made from natural materials and traditional crafts are formulating specific material
cultural heritage depicting this rural unit as unique in the Western Balkans.
The village has grown intensively providing, at its peak, for the needs of about a hundred inhabitants
(Jankovic, 2009). As has been the case with many rural settlements, it has slowly decayed and to-
day it has population of only seven inhabitants, all over the age of 60. Well situated at the southern

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valley side, by the small river, surrounded by forests and fertile agricultural land, the village meets
almost all of the requirements needed for achieving circular economy it once had, but is no longer
able to maintain with its current demography. The village itself, but also the natural beauties of the
area, climate and neighbouring sites of interest constitute a significant tourist potential (Garača et
al. 2003) bringing new potential for sustainable development.
Despite of various favourable conditions for rural economy development, the village is now spatially
isolated and its infrastructure lags behind the technological needs of modern agricultural produc-
tion. The traditional economy based on the orchards and the livestock breeding have been aban-
doned and today is based exclusively on the cultivation of raspberries.

DESIGN FOR SUSTAINABILITY, RESILIENCE AND PROSPERITY

Proposed activities
Proposed activities primarily address the idea of repopulation which was identified as necessary
precondition for authentic future development while making sure the tangible and intangible cultural
heritage the village possesses is not lost. Functional reorientation of this village and its inhabitants
towards the promotion of culture, natural lifestyle, tradition and life of the people during the 19th
and 20th century has been seen by both the workshop and previous researchers as a possibility for
stopping the economic decline and severe depopulation. Such reorientation is envisioned though
the following set of activities:
_ Agro-tourism - Visitors do not just observe and consume the food, but they are taking an
active part in its production and preparation, as if they were farmers themselves (Todorović
and Bjeljac 2009). This way, the residents get the necessary help while the visitors get a
unique experience. The continuous presence of temporary residents can be seen as the new
form of repopulation.
_ Traditional food production - With good climate and soil conditions as a potential, Bebića
Luka can develop organic agriculture, which is the most sustainable method of food pro-
duction in rural areas like this (Cizler, 2013). Proposed agricultural activities emphasize the
regional and local particularities resulting from specific terrain, landscape and climate.
_ Local production and handcraft - These resources are an expression of authenticity and
originality, becoming an important witness of the territorial identity. Studies reveal the im-
portance of traditional farming systems and craftsmanship in contributing to the sustain-
ability of rural areas making them more adaptive and resilient (Lekić et al, 2018).
_ Interactive workshops and courses - Knowledge sharing about local food production and
traditional handcraft is used as a tool for enhancing the face-to-face interaction between
the village’s inhabitants and visitors from urban areas, and is giving meaning to the commu-
nity, both local and visiting (Grimwade and Carter, 2000).
Design proposals
In order to realize planned activities, changes and additions to the physical structures in the
village were proposed. The new structures – public spaces, shared facilities and accom-
modations are designed to support variety of planned activities and accommodate both
residents and visitors - temporary residents (Figure 2):
_ Improving the residential and utility structures - Existing substandard houses are adapted
and expanded to meet contemporary living needs of permanent and temporary residents;
older structures are renewed and converted for accommodation and shared utility spaces;
the most valuable structures are restored to their original form and function in order to pre-
serve cultural heritage.
_ Improving the agricultural production - Creating a new productive landscape, vegetable
and fruit orchards, to improve a self-sufficient local model of circular economy related to
food production and energy management.
_ Creating public spaces – Simple open-air amphitheatre, placed on the natural slope in the

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centre of the village, for organizing public gatherings and cultural activities; market, a new
covered multi-purpose space, adjacent to the village, embedded in the landscape as a new
shared facility for daily and seasonal activities, as well as for some special events related
to local production and agricultural education; network of small pedestrian paths and pub-
lic spaces, connecting the villagers’ houses and visitors’ accommodation to newly formed
sharing facilities, delicately responding to existing morphology.
_ Additional eco-based houses - New structures in the vicinity of the village planned to
contain housing/accommodation (primarily for visitors) and shared spaces (for visitors and
residents alike) having spaces of different levels of privacy - spaces for gathering the whole
community, working in smaller teams, and individually.

Design outcomes / Discussion

The severe depopulation of Bebića Luka was addressed on several levels. The existing residential
resources were expanded and improved to meet the contemporary needs of residents and visitors.
New physical facilities and shared spaces (versatile in program and in use), such as eco-houses,
market, amphitheatre and new paths and public spaces (Figure 2) are designed to facilitate social
contacts, to encourage activities that would support the interactive relationship between the resi-
dents and the visitors/temporary residents.

_ Figure 2 Summary of workshop’s proposals for Bebića Luka

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Traditional agricultural production, as well as craftsmanship have great potential in achieving com-
munity sustainability (Berkes and Folke, 1994); they form the basis of social and economic regen-
eration, and can gradually develop as the village’s human resources grow, providing for village’s
needs. Apart from economic, this type of production also has an educational aspect that can be
utilized in developing agro-tourism.
Tourism is often perceived as a good way to strengthen local economy, protect the cultural heritage
and develop community resilience. Still, we must consider that not all forms of tourism are compat-
ible with fragile territories like Bebića Luka. Since tourism requires a transformation of the territory,
it is necessary to reduce the anticipated risks. A possible strategy to introduce a slow and manage-
able change that ensures its resilience is community-based tourism, such as agro-tourism, which
promotes the relationship between local community and visitors and involves the whole community
in the shift of economy. This change could invert the depopulation trend, lead to improvement of
transportation infrastructure between the village and nearby cities, and socioeconomic conditions
of life (Viola, 2018).
The shared spaces, used for production and storage of home-made products and for traditional
handcrafts (production and interactive workshops), are places designed to facilitate eye contact,
physical closeness, equal access to work materials and information sources, encouraging people to
listen to one another and to work together. Working together in such environment, actively engag-
ing, exchanging knowledge, common experiences, customs, traditions and values, helps to preserve
the intangible aspects of rural cultural heritage and identity. Lekić et al. provide a comprehencive
overview of strategies and resarch findings regarding the sustainability of rural areas that strongly
support this approach.
Material, architectural heritage is preserved by conserving and adapting the existing buildings and
restoring the most valuable structures to original form and function. Village’s ambient value, unique
spatial disposition and density of authentic housing and utilitarian structures was preserved by
development of new paths and open spaces with minimal impact on the landscape. Also, all new
structures planned for the area outside the village centre, were designed in the way to blend in with
the natural and man-made morphology and to have minimal ecological footprint, using sustainable
technical innovative systems to minimize energy use. The workshop results can also be seen as a
starting point for the development of a broader scenario (Anguillari, 2019), especially taking into
account the recent changes in perception of quality and possibilities of permanent or temporary
residing in rural areas.

CONCLUSION

Rural areas, despite their economic, social and infrastructural decline, in the contemporary theories
of the sustainable development are seen more as a potential, than a problem, as is the case in our
practice. Compared to the urban areas, the rural ones are offering direct contact with the natural
environment coupled with cultural specificity of smaller community based on the traditional values
and lifestyle. Rich cultural heritage, both material and immaterial one, is identified as one of the
main values which should be enriched, developed and promoted in more diverse way creating the
starting point for transformation of contemporary life pursuing the “lost” values which we have to
“find” again.
This work provides insides into some of the activities and design proposals, developed during the
three-week workshop “Wave Abroad – Belgrade”. Results of the study are making the bases that
should enable a new, contemporary and sustainable way of revitalising a specific fragile rural com-
munity.
Research addressed both natural and manmade resources, specific for Bebića Luka, considering
the specific relationship between the people, their culture (crafts), the land and the natural environ-
ment as the main resource for their sustenance with an emphasis on a greater degree of self-suf-

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ficiency, autonomy and community life. The proposal aims at strengthening already present poten-
tials identified as crucial for village’s future development, through a set of socio-economic activities
and physical interventions.

REFERENCES

__ Anguillari, Enrico. 2019. Back to the land. Conegliano: Anteferma Edizioni S.r.l. and Venice: Università
Iuav di Venezia
__ Berkes, Fikret and Folke, Carl. 1994. “Linking social and ecological systems for resilience and sustain-
ability” (Biejer Discussion Paper Series No. 52). Stockholm: Biejer International Institute of Ecological
Economics, The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
__ Bertini, Viola. 2018. “Community Resilience and Tourism Development - The Case of Marginal Areas.”
in Sustainability and Resilience: Socio-Spatial Perspective, edited by Alenka Fikfak et al. 201-216. Delft:
TU Delft Open.
__ Cizler, Jasna. 2013. “Opportunities for the Sustainable Development of Rural Areas in Serbia.” Proble-
my Ekorozwoju – Problems of Sustainable Development, Vol. 8, no 2: 85-91.
__ Garača, V, Zdravković, Zorica and Stefanović, Nada. 2003 “Turistički potencijali sela Bebića Luka.” Tur-
izam 7: 49-51.
__ Grimwade, Gordon and Carter, Bill. 2000. “Managing Small Heritage Sites with Interpretation and Com-
munity Involvement.” International Journal of Heritage Studies, Vol. 6, no. 1: 33-48.
__ Hester, Randolph T. 2006. Design for Ecological Democracy. Massachusetts: MIT Press.
__ Janković, Dragana. 2009. “Zaustavljeno vreme _ Graditeljsko nasleđe - analiza seoskih kuća bon-
dručara zaseoka Bebića Luka u selu Vujinovača kod Valjeva.” in VREME arhitekture : Arhitektura i urban-
izam u Valjevu 2004-2009: 62-71. Valjevo: Društvo arhitekata Valjeva i Izdavačko preduzeće Kolubara
__ Lekić, Olivera, Gadžić, Nebojša and Milovanović, Anja. 2018. “Sustainability of Rural Areas _ Exploring
Values, Challenges, and Socio-Cultural Role.” in Sustainability and Resilience: Socio-Spatial Perspective,
edited by Alenka Fikfak et al. 171-184. Delft: TU Delft Open
__ Stevanović, Ksenija and Dražić, Tihomir. 2016. “Bebića Luka - Živi etno muzej.” Kulturni predeo - VII
Konferencija, 53-60. Beograd: Zavod za zaštitu spomenika kulture grada Beograda
__ Todorović, Marina and Bjeljac, Željko. 2009. “Rural tourism in Serbia as a concept of development in
undeveloped regions.” Acta geographica Slovenica, Vol. 49, no. 2: 453-473.
__ Wessely, Heide. 2019. “The village is Dead! Long Live the Village!”. Detail 9.2019: 22-31.

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REVITALISING THE OLD INDUSTRIAL

MOVE ALONG DANUBE WATERFRONT
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch44

_ Milena Vukmirovic
PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Belgrade – Faculty of Forestry,
Department of Landscape Architecture and Horticulture, 1 Kneza
Viselava Street, 11000 Belgrade, milena.vukmirovic@sfb.bg.ac.rs

_ Marko Nikolic
PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Belgrade – Faculty of Architecture,
73/II Blvd. Kralja Aleksandra, 11000 Belgrade, marko@arh.bg.ac.rs

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this paper is in presenting the new approach in revitalisation of the old industrial
move along the Danube waterfront in Belgrade, based on the active participation of different stake-
holders in design process. Special attention of the work is placed on the actual state of the industrial
heritage buildings and sites at the former Danube Industrial Zone and the design process of the
future Belgrade Linear Park. The main objective of this process is in preservation and use of the
potential of this territory, in order to make a new gathering place and establish a direct connection
of the city with its rivers.

KEYWORDS _ industrial heritage, old railway, Danube Waterfront, Belgrade Linear Park

INTRODUCTION

Until recently, Belgrade’s riverfront has been characterized by devastated industrial zones and pub-
lic promenades that are in poor condition. However, several mega-projects such as Belgrade Water-
front project, K-District or Belgrade Gondola, that were initiated in the last two decades are seen as
a power to completely change this situation. Having in mind that these mega-projects are developed
in a socio-political context characterized by insufficiently established neoliberal discourse, public
institutions and democratic culture, there were fears that this would affect the preservation of the
industrial heritage, but also the identity of Belgrade in general. Considering the mentioned situation,
the aim of this paper is point out actual experiences related to the process of revitalisation of the
old industrial trail along the Danube waterfront, also known as Slaughterhouse lane, which points to
some progress in the urban planning process and the preservation of the industrial heritage sites.
Industrial heritage includes all tangible and intangible evidence; document structures, human set-
tlements, as well as the nature and the built environment related to industrial processes, starting
from the second half of the 18th century to the present day, while not neglecting earlier roots in the
pre-industrial era. It is concluded that industrial heritage has great social value, as an important
evidence about the life of ordinary people and their identity. Also, it has a technological and scientific
value in relation to the history of manufacturing, engineering and construction, as well as a signifi-
cant aesthetic value in relation to its architecture, design and planning. These values are related to
only industrial heritage, its materials, components, equipment and method of installation in indus-
trial environments, as well as written documentation and intangible records related to the memory
of the people and customs.

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When it comes to protection and preservation of the industrial heritage, Republic of Serbia cannot
be really taken as a prosperous model. Common problem of the State is lack of recognition for the
importance of cultural and industrial heritage and absence of clearly defined cultural policy which
would enable stimulating atmosphere for dealing with the latter (Vukmirovic & Nikolic, 2021). In
favour of that also goes the fact that there are not enough competent and skilled people which
could be the driving force for treating this problem, so as absence of intersectoral partnership and
cooperation between the relevant institutions, organizations and bodies. The issue goes further as
there is no recognition of industrial heritage as a substantial segment of cultural heritage and a part
of cultural identity which possesses large development potential.
The issue concerning the preservation of industrial heritage in Serbia also include its instrumental-
ization by investors’ urbanism. Interpreting the recommendations1 in a peculiar way, entrepreneurs
often use the term industrial to promote a location, even when there are no industry traces left on
the site. This is in line with the urban renewal strategies in which the heritage is increasingly used
as a driver of renewal and a tool for attracting investment. Accordingly, heritage in general, and
even industrial, has in recent decades become not only the basis for promoting the memory of the
industrial past, but also a marketing tool in urban renewal, used to successfully sell restored spaces
(Cizler, 2016). Market-led development is often a threat to public spaces and to heritage, which also
characterises the situation in Serbia, especially in Belgrade where several mega projects are being
implemented. In regards with this, entire parts of city in the near vicinity of the Belgrade city centre
are owned and developed by the private sector and new projects are being built on them2, based
almost exclusively on high-value apartments and offices for large firms, located at the industrial
heritage sites. The spaces created in this way could also threaten democratic control of space, local
context and activities, and one of the main consequences is the lack of public spaces. That lead to
the question of the ways to deal with heritage protection when cities are so heavily influenced and
so dependent on the market. On the other side, the lack of greater public and civil sector involvement
often results in a lack of non-commercial and public spaces in the city.
Other issues are related to the situation that the preservation of industrial architecture in Serbia is
often compromised by a lack of appreciation of their values. Because most of this buildings and
sites date from the 18th to the 20th century, sometimes, they are not regarded as sufficiently old to
focus the attention of either conservation experts or citizens and users. They don’t understand that
the buildings which represent their everyday environment actually possess the values and charac-
teristics of monuments. For that reason, industrial heritage sites are exposed to degradation pro-
cesses, they are neglected and left to decay. Even though same efforts are taken in Serbia to find
a more adequate conservationist approach, to modernise the legal and administrative systems, to
integrate conservation into the planning process, and to achieve greater co-operation between the
protection service and urban planning, it is becoming more and more difficult to protect the endan-
gered urban heritage, while the preservation of its authenticity and integrity is becoming a prime
professional task. Although the conservation of cultural heritage has been integrated into the laws,
planning process and master plans, such in Belgrade, aiming to involve a large number of stakehold-
ers and citizens, in the practice we can see many problems and inconsistencies in implementation
those goals.

1 The Council of Europe Recommendation R (87) 24 on European Industrial Towns states that the dis-
advantages of industrial cities and regions should be turned into assets and opportunities, particularly
through the re-use and redevelopment of public services and infrastructure and the mobilization of ex-
isting human resources; that the wealth of the historical and architectural heritage of industrial cities
and regions should be rehabilitated so as to constitute a considerable source and potential for future
development; have amassed a wealth of experience and have the potential to promote and respond to
innovation and new challenges; and that industrial renewal policies should, wherever possible, be based
on a change of function and the revitalization of existing facilities.
2 Such as Belgrade Waterfront and other projects that will be presented and discussed in the next sec-
tions of the paper.

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In order to achieve stated objective, the research covered different phases that will be presented in
this paper. The first phase dealt with short overview of the actual socio-political context started after
the political changes at the beginning of 2000 and its planning procedures related to the industrial
heritage protection in Serbia. Next part of the research has focused on the study of the site along
the Slaughterhouse lane in order to present its origins, development and transformation initiatives
related to the actual Belgrade Line park project, taking into the consideration participative practices
and co-creation procedures which are implemented within this project.

HISTORIC BACKGROUND

The close relationship between the two rivers, the Sava and Danube, and the city is one of the main
elements of Belgrade’s specific historical and cultural identity, authentic urban morphology and
special cityscape characteristics. The modern urban development of Belgrade in the early 19th cen-
tury, after the establishment of The Serbian Principality and its partial political autonomy within the
Ottoman Empire, is connected with the rapid development of trade and river traffic and the estab-
lishment of the first manufacturing workshops.

_Figure
Figure1:1:Belgrade
Belgradeand
andits
itsindustrial
industrialsites
sitesalong
alongthe
thewaterfront
waterfrontinin1936
1936

The economic centre of the city was in the area of the Sava Port, as the main connection of Belgrade
and Serbia with the Austrian Monarchy and Europe. There, developed a new trade and transit district
and trading houses, hotels and warehouses were built. It displayed the new European spirit, liber-
ation and modernisation and many foreign travellers left testimonials that area was very colourful
and vivid. After the proclamation of the Kingdom of Serbia in 1882, stronger ties with Europe were
established, especially with the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. Foreign capital arrived in Serbia, the
first industrial factories were built and the state experienced constant economic growth. This was
especially supported by the construction of the railway (1881-84) and the first railway bridge over
the Sava River. The railway had a crucial impact on Serbia’s future development and Belgrade be-
came a link between Europe and Sofia and Istanbul. The greatest changes were made around the
Sava River’s right bank, where the Railway Station was built in 1884 which today stands as proof of
the technical and architectural development of Serbia.
The expansion of the city toward the riverbank was planned, with a new structure with square blocks
covering the area between the railway station and the riverbank, as recorded on the Bešlić plan from

[HER] 372

Figure 2: Overview of current urban plans for the City of Belgrade. Belgrade Urban Planning Institute 2020
7TH INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC CONFERENCE

1898. However, this has not been realized and today this area is a part of the Belgrade Waterfront
project. New industrial complexes were built on the south-west entrance to the city, at Mostar, near
the Sava River and the railway bridge, and on Palilula, near the Danube River. The attractiveness of
the Danube area was as a result of the railway connection, the easy supply of water and wastewater
discharge, and the vacant, undeveloped land.
On the Danube Riverbank area (near Pančevo Bridge) the First Industrial Slaughterhouse was built
in 1895 and has recently been in the process of valuation as a cultural property with preventive pro-
tection. The railway, parallel to the riverbank was built in 1898-99, and linked the new industrial area
on the Danube with the Railway Bridge on the Sava, cutting the connection time between the town
and the rivers (Nikolić and Roter Blagojević 2018.)

Danube industrial zone

Danube industrial zone has been developed in the area stretching from Dorćol to the present-day
Pančevo Bridge and further on towards Karaburma. The attractiveness of the area depended on
transportation advantages, an example supplies of water, wastewater discharge on vacant undevel-
oped land, and the proximity of the municipal power station built near the Danube in 1892. Moreover,
this was the first industrial zone connected to the railway system, which was a considerable boost
to its further development. Among other buildings it includes following objects and sites that are
of great importance for this research: one-track railway known as Klanička pruga, old textile facto-
ry (BEKO), “The power and light” thermal power station and Kosta Sonda’s Confectionery Factory.
Belgrade textile factory building was built in 1931. It is a complex under previous protection. It is
located in the area named as Danube industrial zone and belongs to the complex of Belgrade For-
tress with its protection as cultural monument of outstanding value. This fact is of great importance,
because all discussions related to this area starts and ends with it. Today, this complex has been
largely demolished and a new complex has been built for exclusive housing and business centre.
The “Power and Light” Thermal Power Station, a cultural monument, was built from 1930 to 1932,
according to a project by the Swiss Society for Electrification and Transport from Basel. The com-
plex consists of a Power Plant building, a crane, a pumping station and a filter plant. This industrial
complex is one of the most significant parts of the interwar period, with a distinct Bauhaus style
influence in its design. In addition to the architectural values, the complex can be noted significant
technical achievements related to AC power. The buildings are in very poor condition today, they
are abandoned and in ruins. Within the complex there are remains of machinery and other machine
plants. (Nikolić, Drobnjak and Kuletin Ćulafić 2020.) The former Kosta Sonda’s Confectionery Facto-
ry has now been renovated and revitalized into a hotel Mona.
Ten years after the Central railway station was commissioned, construction of a slaughterhouse
on the Danube began. The one-track railway known as Klanička pruga, which was commissioned
in 1899, ran from the Main railway station along the coast of the Sava River, ran through the dock
along the Sava quay in front of buildings with storerooms and shops, and continued around the
Lower Town and across Jalija to the Slaughterhouse. The Klanica railway station (later the Danube
station) was also opened on this line, which, received new tracks over time. The gorge was a “blind
track” until the construction of the Pančevo Bridge, when it continued across the river to Banat. In
the interwar period, the railway grew into an industrial railway to serve the Danube industrial zone.
Altogether, the Belgrade train system was modest, but due to running railroads parallel to the Sava
and Danube rivers, it made it difficult enough for future urban development (Vuksanović-Macura,
2015; Mihajlov, 2011).
Considering the Belgrade one-track railway – Klanicka pruga, there is currently no valid plan for the
entire railway line, except that a decision was made in 2018 to create a detailed regulation plan for
the line park. That plan will deal with the future transformation of this space into a large urban linear
park that will be used as a connection of the city to its waterfront.

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PLANNING CONTEXT IN BELGRADE

Citizens’ participation in the process of drafting and approving planning documents is defined in
the Rulebook on contents, method and procedure of plan documents adopted in 2011 and which is
harmonised with the Construction Planning Law many times as it has changed and improved. Thus,
the Principle of Participation of Participants in the Spatial and Urban Planning Process is provided
by the public insight. Since December 2014, public insight takes place in two phases, before drafting
the planning document as an early public inspection and a public insight of the draft planning doc-
ument. During these procedures, all interested citizens, institutions, companies, organizations and
other participants can send its comment, while the information on public insights into the planning
documents is posted in the Central Register of Planning Documents.
This is important to note because although more was expected after the democratic changes that
took place after 2000, this is the maximum participation that has been achieved so far. Many au-
thors3 have written about this issue, trying to determine the causes of this condition. In general, the
transformation that took place in the 2000s was characterized as “proto-democracy” (Vujošević,
2010), which meant “in terms of economic orientation, the tendency to implement the principles
of the neo-liberal paradigm have never been stronger, which, together with the lack of institutional
capacity, makes Serbia a transitional society even in the second decade of the 21st century” (Peric
& Miljus, 2017). In such circumstances of the market-based economic system, planners are left
unable to understand the complexity of the altered socio-economic framework (Maruna, 2015; Peric
& Miljus, 2017), while the involvement of different actors could be characterised as freedom man-
ifested only ‘on paper’ – the voice of stakeholders other than the ruling government bodies can be
expressed, but reaction to it is constantly missing (Maruna, 2015; Cvetinović, et al., 2017; Peric &
Miljus, 2017). According to Perić (2016), the present situation is characterised a close relationship
of the highest government bodies with foreign investors in which only experts close to governance
structures could be heard in the planning process and their influence on decision-making is, how-
ever, limited. On the other side, “civil sector and non-governmental organizations try to advocate the
public interest; when it comes to great spatial development challenges, they are mainly not capable
of such activity” Figure
(Cvetinović, et al.,
1: Belgrade and 2017; Peric &sites
its industrial Miljus, 2017).
along the waterfront in 1936

Figure 2:_ Overview

Figure 2: of
Overview
current of current
urban urban
plans plans
for the Cityfor the City ofBelgrade
of Belgrade. Belgrade. Belgrade
Urban Urban
Planning Planning
Institute 2020Institute
2020

3 Lazarević-Bajec, Maruna, Perić, Vujošević, Nedović-Budić, etc.

[HER] 374
7TH INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC CONFERENCE

If the presented situation is viewed in relation to the Arstein’s Ladder of citizen participation, it could
be estimated as tokenism - “pseudo-participation” with the most common approach related to in-
formation, while consultations and placation occur mainly as isolated cases. According to Sokolova
(2006) “new communication tools are to be used as channels for participation and consultations
from the citizenry”, which “meant not just relying on one specific tool, such as using the Internet
and wireless technologies, but including television, radio and whatever tools might work to facilitate
the process”. Publishing online legislation, legislation proposals and other public documents can
be seen as a beginning of the citizen involvement into the process, but it is still very much a top
down approach by government. Groups and individuals engaged in e-democracy mainly rely on the
agenda set by government and react to what government is doing to create input (Riley & Gilbert
Riley, 2003), but “at the same time there are individuals and organizations outside governments en-
gaged in recruiting “minipublics” or in developing online communities of e-democracy participants”
(Sokolova, 2006).
Considering all theFigure
mentioned, the next
1: Belgrade part
and its of the sites
industrial paperalong
will the
present the actual
waterfront state of the men-
in 1936
tioned heritage sites and particular civil initiatives related to its revival. This applies in particular to
the perceived fact that, with regard to the treatment of industrial heritage and its future function,
institutions and professional bodies dealing with heritage protection are exclusively consulted.
Slaughterhouse lane
In his paper titled Rise and Decline of the Sava Slope, Dajč (2012) shows the railroad that connected
the train station to the slaughterhouse and later to other territories via the Pančevo Bridge as one
of the key causes of coastal decline. Although the 1972 General urban plan foresees the removal of
this railway line and the relocation of the train station, with the aim of bringing Belgrade to its rivers,
this topic seriously began to be discussed and work on at the end of 2018 and the beginning of 2019.
In April 2019, it was announced in the media (Mučibabić, 2019) that the New York architectural stu-
dio “Diller Scofidio and Renfra”, who worked on the project for the High Line in New York, was invited
to submit a proposal for a move that extends from the Concrete Hall to the Pančevo Bridge, which
is planned to be transformed into a park. In the same period, they took a two-day visit to the site for
this occasion and gave the initial concept of transforming the move. However, the fee for hiring a
world-renowned team turned out to be extremely high, which led to the idea of a different approach.
All of the above was preceded by a decision of the City of Belgrade Assembly (September 2018), by
which the Directorate for Construction Land and Construction of Belgrade initiated the development
of a Detailed Regulation Plan (PDR) for this area, which covers the area of the section of the old rail-
way line from the Concrete Hall to the Pančevo Bridge, 4600 m long. The Urban Planning Institute of
Belgrade has been engaged in the work of drafting the plan.
Figure 2: Overview of current urban plans for the City of Belgrade. Belgrade Urban Planning Institute 2020

Figure
_ Figure 3: Linear 3:content
park, Linear park, content
analysis. analysis.
Source: CleverSource: Clever Cities, Bellab
Cities, Bellab

The change in approach coincided with the stage of the process in which the initial concept and pro-

375
 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

gram needed to be defined and the beginning of the realization of an international scientific project
Clever City. The theme of Clever City4 project is co-creation in city planning, using live lab approach-
es and nature-inspired solutions. Thus, the team working on the project together with the team of
the Urban Planning Institute devised a methodology for developing a plan that aimed to involve all
stakeholders. For this purpose, the Urban Innovation Partnership5 has been set up, bringing together
about 50 participants from different institutions, from over 35 local and national public and private
sector institutions, academia and civil society, that seek through focus group discussions. Members
of this Partnership pursue to jointly define their needs and wants, but also consider the constraints
and obstacles to their realization ways to overcome them.

_ Figure
Figure 4: Belgrade Linear 4: -Belgrade
Park Linear Park
3 of 10 winning - 3 of Remorker
proposals: 10 winningstudio,
proposals:
INKA Remorker studio,
studio, team INKA studio, team Vuk-
Vukmirović,
Vujović, Copić, Radić
mirović, Vujović, Copić, Radić

Table 1: Review
Theoffirst
the main characteristicsmeetings
two Partnership of the industrial
were heritage
held to buildings
prepare on the Danube Waterfront
a competition for young architects who
should propose
Heritage site aofnew look andstate
Actual function for the future Line
and character Park.
Level of Thus, at Plan
the first meeting, it resulted
for the
Location
interest of the site preservation location
Belgrade textile Complex under Business
Reconstructed, occupied
4factory
The Project aim to increase and improve local previous protection
knowledge centresolutions, demonstrate
of nature-based
that greener cities workDevastated,
better forvery bad and communities, contribute data and information to EU pol-
people
Danube The “Power and Light”
condition,
icymaking, and ultimately unoccupied,
promote the the uptake of nature-based solutions in urban planning
and enable
industrial Thermal Power Cultural monument Culture
world-wide. space isinnot
It is conducted in usable with cities that encompass Hamburg, London and Milan as
partnership
zone Station
condition
front runner cities, and Belgrade, Larissa, Madrid, Malmö, Sfântu Gheorghe and Quito. https://clevercities.
Kosta Sonda’s
eu/the-project/ Renovated and revitalized Cultural monument Hotel
Confectionery Factory
5 The Partnership was formalized by the Mayor’s decision form 29th November 2019, but it does not
Danube No protection
represent the final andDevastated,
closed set of members,
very bad but is the basis for a broad, holistic co-creation process in
industrial Klanica railway measures have been
urban development planning. http://bellab.rs/partnerstvo/
condition
zone defined

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7TH INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC CONFERENCE

in an initial interactive mapping of needs, wants and the first proposals for nature-inspired solu-
tions for the Line Park space at Dorcol. Motivated participants suggested a number of quality and
creative ideas, including the introduction of urban beekeeping, the sounds of nature in GSP electric
vehicles, air pollution alarms in the form of badges, and the integration of nature-inspired solutions
into medieval and industrial architectural heritage (Centar za eksperimente i urbane studije, 2019).
The second meeting, held in December 2019 on the basis of co-creation, defined the vision of the
Line Park 2025 as an attractive, self-sustaining, multifunctional, eco-technological, artistic, educa-
tional and research demonstration ground that promotes healthy living, community, cosmopolitan-
ism through national culture, nature protection and youth empowerment (Centar za eksperimente i
urbane studije, 2019).
In the same period, an online questionnaire for interested citizens was published as well as a com-
petition for young architects. During the same period, an online questionnaire for interested citi-
zens was published, as well as a competition for young architects who had insight into both the
Partnership reports and the survey results, on the basis of which they were able to define their Line
park design proposals. As of February 2020, 571 respondents answered their questions. Among the
proposed amenities to be found in the park, citizens cited a music pavilion, an acoustic playground,
an amphitheatre (for dance and theatre events), commercial facilities (coffee shop, restaurant, ca-
tering facilities), a network of observation points, a green creative corridor, a centre for applied phys-
ics, eco-educational centre, corner for socializing and board games, city orchard with community
checkpoints, sports fields, skate park, adventure park, outdoor gym, etc. The above contents, as well
as the strip, as a preliminary purpose of this space, influenced the character of the 28 proposed
solutions, among which 10 were selected, whose teams will further elaborate and design individual
segments of the location.
Further activities will include the development of conceptual solutions for the arrangement of the
line park, which will be carried out simultaneously with the drafting of a detailed regulation plan for
this area. Drafting and public access to the draft plan will be organized according to the established
procedure, which is expected in the coming months. At the same time, the City is negotiating with
potential project funders, more specifically, investors interested in investing in locations in the im-
Figure 4:
mediate Belgrade
area LinearPort,
(Belgrade Park K-District,
- 3 of 10 winning proposals:
Marina Dorćol,Remorker
etc.). studio, INKA studio, team Vukmirović,
Vujović, Copić, Radić
_ Table 1: Review of the main characteristics of the industrial heritage buildings on the Danube Waterfront
Table 1: Review of the main characteristics of the industrial heritage buildings on the Danube Waterfront
Heritage site of Actual state and character Level of Plan for the
Location
interest of the site preservation location
Belgrade textile Complex under Business
Reconstructed, occupied
factory previous protection centre
Devastated, very bad
Danube The “Power and Light”
condition, unoccupied, the
industrial Thermal Power Cultural monument Culture
space is not in usable
zone Station
condition
Kosta Sonda’s
Renovated and revitalized Cultural monument Hotel
Confectionery Factory
Danube No protection
Devastated, very bad
industrial Klanica railway measures have been
condition
zone defined

A theme entitled Line Park from Concrete Hall to Pančevo Bridge was opened on the Beobuild portal
under the General Discussion section in April 2019. Until present, the topic has covered 157 posts
on 7 pages. The participants in the discussion generally responded positively to the idea of realizing
a large city park on this move, however, there were also those who advocated the retention of the
railway. In addition, concerns were expressed regarding the current state of this space, as well as
the possibility of removing existing temporary structures and warehouses. The current part of the
discussion included some of the winning solutions, which were mostly positively responded to. The

377
 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

current part of the discussion included some of the winning solutions, which were mostly positively
responded to, especially regarding the amount of greenery foreseen, but also the ways in which the
strip was treated as an interpretation of the spirit of this place.

CONCLUSION

Although viewed as a kind of experiment, the approach used to reconstruct the trajectory of the for-
mer Slaughterhouse lane is an example of an expected practice in which co-creation and co-design
lead to a common solution. That is why many positive reactions of citizens to the proposed com-
petition solutions are not surprising, because they are just some kind of upgrade of the proposals
made by themselves. In addition, there are clear roles in the whole process, including the role of
urban planners and planners, as its mediators and coordinators, respecting the opinion of citizens
and stakeholders, who in this case play the role of experts. In the coming period, we will witness how
this well-conceived idea will be implemented.

LITERATURE

__ Centar za eksperimente i urbane studije, 2019. Partrnerstvo za urbane inovacije. [Online] Available at:
www.bellab.rs [Accessed April 2020].
__ Cizler, J., 2016. Aktiviranje napuštenih industrijskih objekata u gradovima: instutucionalna ograničenja
u Srbiji (Activation of former industrial buildings in cities: institutional limitation in Serbia). Belgrade:
University of Belgrade - Faculty of Architecure.
__ Cvetinović, M., Nedović-Budić, Z. & Bolay, J.-C., 2017. Decoding urban development dynamics through
actor-network methodological approach. Geoforum, pp. 141-157.
__ Dajč, H., 2012. Uspon i degradacija Savskog priobalja. Limes Plus. Identitet Beograda, Issue 1-2, pp.
97-112.
__ Maruna, M., 2015. Can Planning Solutions Be Evaluated without Insight into the Process of Their Cre-
ation?. Vienna, Real Corp, pp. 121-132.
__ Mihajlov, S., 2011. Nastanak i razvoj industrijske zone na desnoj obali Dunava u Beogradu od kraja 19.
do sredine 20. veka (The origin and development of the industrial zone on the right bank of the Danube in
Belgrade from the end of 19th to the midle of the 20th century). Nasleđe, Issue 12, pp. 91-116.
__ Mučibabić, D., 2019. Novi park od Beton hale do Pančevačkog mosta. [Online]. Available at: http://
www.politika.rs/sr/clanak/427093/Novi-park-od-Beton-hale-do-Pancevackog-mosta [Accessed 10
April 2020].
__ Nikolić, M. and Roter Blagojević, M. 2018. “Potentialsof the Belgrade Industrial Heritage in the Context
of Tourism Development”. HERITAGE for PLANET EARTH, Proceedings ofthe 20th General Assembly of the
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__ Nikolic, M, Drobnjak B. and Kuletin Culafic, I. 2020. “The Possibilities of Preservation, Regeneration and
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(13): 1-36.
__ Peric, A. & Miljus, M., 2017. Spatial and Urban Planning in Serbia: A Look through the Lens of Delibera-
tive Approach. Spatium, Issue 37, pp. 49-57.
__ Perić, A., 2016. The evolution of planning thought in Serbia: Can planning be ‘resilient’ to the transition-
al challenges?. Delft, TU Delft Open, pp. 181-193.
__ Riley, T. & Gilbert Riley, C., 2003. E-Governance to E-Democracy: Examining the Evolution. [Online].
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cessed April 2006].
__ Sokolova, M., 2006. Advocacy Democracy Modes: Benefits and Limitations. Informacijos Mokslai, Is-

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sue 36, pp. 110-121.

__ Vujošević, M., 2010. Collapse of strategic thinking, research and governance in Serbia and possible role
of the spatial plan of the Republic of Serbia. Spatium, Issue 23, pp. 22-29.
__ Vukmirovic, M. & Nikolic, M., 2021. Industrial Heritage Preservation and the Urban Revitalisation Pro-
cess in Belgrade. Journal of Urban Affairs, pp. (accepted for publishing - in procedure).
__ Vuksanović-Macura, Z., 2015. Bara Venecija i Savamala - železnica i grad (Bara Venecija and Savama-
la: The railway and the city. Nasleđe, Issue 16, pp. 9-26.

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[ARCH]
RESPONSIVE ARCHITECTURE

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ENHANCING EAGLE PASS–PIEDRAS NEGRAS INTERNATIONAL

BRIDGE DESIGN TO FUNCTION AS A TEMPORARY
ACCOMMODATION FACILITY FOR ASYLUM SEEKERS
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch45

_ Chang Lu
University of Pécs, Faculty of Engineering and Information
Technology, Pécs, Boszorkány út 2, 7624, cclu0820@gmail.com

_ Ons Ben Dhaou

University of Pécs, Faculty of Engineering and Information
Technology, Pécs, Boszorkány út 2, 7624, cclu0820@gmail.com

_ Shaha Mazen Maiteh

University of Pécs, Faculty of Engineering and Information
Technology, Pécs, Boszorkány út 2, 7624, cclu0820@gmail.com

_ Tianyu Zhao
University of Pécs, Faculty of Engineering and Information
Technology, Pécs, Boszorkány út 2, 7624, cclu0820@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

In May of 2019, a humanitarian crisis is intensifying along the borders of US-Mexico, almost 20000
people are waiting on Mexican borders to seek asylum in the United States, Mexico whish once a
country of transit is now buckling under the demands of its new reality. US administration fails to
absorb asylum seekers, organizations in Mexico have struggled to keep up with the influx of mi-
grants. Along with that, the inhumane living conditions in migrant camps, systematic discrimination,
and increased crime rate have made people restless for a response from the Centre of Border and
Protection (CBP). This has led them to occupy streets, spaces near border walkways and bridges.
Due to an increased number and drastic change of the social fabric, immigrants are a burden on city
tourism and the city’s safety. They are intruders and they are constantly facing racism, xenophobia
and discrimination. Asylum seekers are slowly being rejected by both countries; between climate
change and the chaos of global politics, the humanitarian crisis over the next decades will remain
paramount, thoughtful design cannot prevent that inevitability, but it can alleviate some of the suf-
ferings that asylum seekers will endure.

This research aims to solve the problem through enhancing the design of existing border bridges
such as Eagle Pass–Piedras Negras International Bridge; which are essentially shared spaces, be-
longing either country. While migrant facilities limiting total intake, asylum seekers refuse to leave
bridges, the essential design idea is to expand border bridges to become a temporary habitat for
asylum seekers. This paper illustrates the design process of an immigrant respite centre, which
functions as a temporary accommodation facility for 1500 asylum seekers designed on Eagle Pass–
Piedras Negras International Bridge.

KEYWORDS _ co-living, asylum community, temporary accommodation, shelters

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INTRODUCTION

War, conflicts, economic circumstances or drastic environmental changes are causing a global sit-
uation of human displacement crisis. In the past century; the number of people seeking asylum has
doubled, the refugee crisis is a paramount problem of today(International Organization for Migration
2020). According to the United Nations, the world is not capable of dealing with the accelerating
demand for refugee camps (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees 2019). In 2016 only
189,300 refugees were resettled from almost 70 million refugees, increasing the pressure on hosting
communities to accommodate the refugees, forcing crisis management systems to fall apart faster.
Asylum seekers seek refugee status in a safe country for better living standards and opportuni-
ties, however, when governments and institutions reject refugees, leaving them in life-threatening
circumstances, it creates a burden and hostile environments which place asylum seekers in more
harmful conditions than the ones they have escaped from. This same situation is happening now on
the Mexican- American borders.
The “Zero Tolerance Policy” implemented in 2018 and “Metering” in 2019 has increased the Mex-
ican- American borders humanitarian crisis(OFFICE OF INSPECTOR GENERAL Department of
Homeland 2018). Mexican borders are hosting up to 19 thousand people seeking refugee status in
the United States(Seelke 2020), settling in detention centres, camps and crowded shelters, facing
hard-living medical conditions.
The main objective of the research is to demonstrate the design process of a respite centre over the
Eagle Pass–Piedras Negras International Bridge to accommodate 1500 asylum seekers where they
will temporarily stay for 1-2 months until their cases are heard by CBP (U.S. Customs and Border
Protection). The design is based on creating a supportive social system within the respite centre by
creating human interaction options and a facility that promotes co-living as a tool for collaborative
community living. the design would provide asylum seekers with temporary accommodation, op-
portunities to plan their future, the proper health care and the right tools to enhance their skills to
become productive and to be easily integrated within the community.

Site
The design site is the international bridge of Eagle Pass–Piedras Negras, the bridge is 600 meters
long and 20 meters wide, the roadway is composed of two moving traffic lanes connecting the U.S.
Customs and Border Protection - Eagle Pass Port of Entry on the east end with Plaza de Cobro – Pu-
ente Internacional Piedras Negras on the west end. The bridge has two pedestrian walkways of 1.8
meters on either side, it was constructed 15 meters above The Rio Grande river, the site coordinates
are - 28°42’19.9”N 100°30’42.5”W. The bridge is not commercial use but connects the Eagle Pass
downtown shopping centres with the Piedras Negras downtown marketplace.

_ Figure 1:Overview of US-Mexico border near cities of Piedra Negras in Mexico and Eagle Pass in USA
by (RODRÍGUEZ 2019)

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It was originally built in 1927 and reconstructed after it was damaged in a flood in 1954 (Transpor-
tation and Texas Department of Transportation 2015). The bridge operates between 7 am to 11 pm,
the climate is semi-arid and hot. The site has a height restriction of 15 meters from the surface of
the existing bridge. Piedras Negras is located on the Mexican side of the border and has a 62% crime
rate, which is considered as a dangerous environment for immigrants seeking protection.

METHODOLOGY

Latin Americans tend to be highly group-oriented they consider family the core source of a commu-
nity structure, therefore individual identity and essence values are defined by the family. The family
mission is the protection of its members against the hardship of life, physically psychologically and
financially, grounding a sense of belonging to the family which can be extended for grandparents,
uncles, nephews, cousins and even people who are not biologically related such as sisters-in-law,
and brothers-in-law.
When seeking asylum status; due to long document processing time, a large number of asylum
seekers stray away from their values because they need the family’s constant support system be-
coming victims of crime and discrimination.
The design concept is essentially based on recreating stong family-like connection between asylum
seekers during their waiting time in the designed facility. The design promotes a modern coliving
and cohabitation that combines two living patterns: pod chambers and extended family houses.
Tailored for asylum seekers needs, the design is based on creating flexible and adaptable living units
that can create a modern cluster of a single unit to be able to host a mixture of user-profiles, from
a single adult, elderly couple, single parents with a child, or a family with 5 members. The design
development was generated through 4 main phases: site accessibility, living scenario, inner com-
munity circulation, and architectural massing.

RESULTS

Site Circulation
The proposed site is Eagle Pass–Piedras Negras International Bridge, one of the main border bridg-
es providing pedestrian and vehicle access route between Mexico and the United State. Asylum
seekers are not allowed to enter both countries legally, making access andcirculation through the
bridge extremely controlled and restricted. Therefore, the site access concept aims to keep the cur-
rent functions of the bridge and introduce the accommodation as a ringed community surrounded
by the main circulation, ensuring the safety and stability of the 1500 users, constraining any illegal
community expansion.
Cutting both ends of the existing bridge and build the “No Man’s Land” community on top of the
existing bridge, the accommodation area is locked, consequently, the design will be an “island” at-
tached to a designed traffic system connecting both lands. The existing bridge might need an ad-
ditional structural support to bear the load of living unites, the new design suggests building a new
pedestrian circulation path and a new car traffic lanes which have connections only with controlled
access points on either side of the bridge away from new accommodation, the new bridge is added
to the north edge of the exsisiting bridge, composed of two car lanes, each lane is 3-meter wide go-
ing in opposite directions, attached with an emergency lane of 2.3-meter wide. In addition, a 3-meter
pedestrian sidewalk is added to the south edge of the traffic lanes, the new bridge is aligned to the
exising bridge providing easy access and isolate the passage of asylum seekers from the flow of
non stop border crossing traffic.Figure(02) illustrates the overall circulation of the designed bridge.

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_ Figure 2:General illustration of inner and outer circulation with vehicles and pedestrian access points
(Authors)

Living scenarios
Being forced to abandon their families and become immigrants, living on the borders of hostile en-
vironments; raises their possibility of being involved in criminal activity. The design concept aims
to create a community support system like an extended family sitting which would improve the
social interaction between immigrants and build a sense of belonging. But the economical burden
of providing low cost, flexible and adaptive accommodation for asylum seekers plays a crucial role
in the quality of the proposed accommodation solutions. Thereforeour proposed design introduces
a hybrid modern living scenario which combines the Japanese pod hotels, with an extended family
house. The hybrid design would be very efficient on both economic and social aspects. The pod
compartment is a low-cost prefabricated lightweight structure which requires minimum floor area
while providing personal privacy. On the other hand, the extended family house is culturally accepted
in the perspective of potential users and build a new strong social relationship in record periods.
The accommodation configuration is developed into six main stages: First, a modular pod unit is
designed to assure the privacy of individual users in the pod compartment of 2.5*1.5*1.7 meters
configuration providing a sleeping area and daily-use storage space. Then another pod unit is at-
tached to the top of the base pod unit to optimize the use of storey height and floor area. Next, every
5 double-pod units are joined in a single cluster to form a nuclear family model analogy. Later every
three nuclear family units are grouped to create an extended family unit module, sanitary, shared
storage, and clean-shoe entrance are attached to the extended family cluster to serve 30 users as
shown in figure (3).
Then the extended family units are multiplied and connected horizontally along with the linear form
of the bridge platform in two-row formation creating 3 types of courtyards designed to host com-
munity gathering and maintain daylight accessibility to all family units. Finally, a second floor is at-
tached with a slight horizontal shift to achieve the required population of 1500 user, allowing natural
light access for all courtyard on the ground levelfigure (3).

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_ Figure 3:Modular development of accommodation scenario (Authors)

Figure 3:Modular development of accommodation scenario (Authors)

The extended-family module combination creates opportunities for social interaction, after studying
different massing scenarios the final massing was created to assure the optimum use of the bridge
The extended-family
span module combination
length and environmental creates
possibilities opportunities
of natural daylight for
andsocial interaction,
air ventilation after(4).
figure
studying different massing scenarios the final massing was created to assure the optimum
use of the bridge span length and environmental possibilities of natural daylight and air
ventilation figure (4).

_ Figure 4: Development of accommodation layout, (a) One floor 50 unit per floor, (b) Two floors25 unit per
floor, (c) Eliminate 6 units for second floor courtyards, (d) Add 6 unites to achieve population.(Authors)

Inner circulation
The project circulation is divided into two main circulation patterns. First, public circulation com-
posed of horizontal and vertical circulation the direct horizontal circulation designed as main hall-
ways and paths effected by the bridge linear geometry linking shared community spaces, the elon-
gated form secure simple wayfinding which is needed for clear access and safety regulations. The
vertical circulation is planned in a similar analogy utilising grand stairs leading to the first-floor level
proving clear visual and physical accessibility for all users figure (5). Second, the private circulation
connects accommodation unites to each other and to the shared courtyards, users can use indirect
circulation routes affording interesting visual viewpoints and provide privacy for community’s activ-
ities, enhance a sense of intimacy between users figure (6).

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_ Figure 5: Public circulation pattern inside the asylum zone. (Authors)

_ Figure 6: Asegement of accommodation private circulation. (Authors)

Overall massing
The massing concept is focusing on emphasising the longitudinal linear bridge structure as part of
existing features, due to the harsh hot climatic conditions an exterior mesh structure is designed to
cover the project using light-weight material that can withstand the environmental changes, by add-
ing a double-skin layer of perforated sheets the overall massing show a rotating tube using organic
curves adjusted to perfectly cover the geometry of the inner mass figure (7).

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_ Figure 7: Rotating tube double-skin shell

CONCLUSIONS

With the acceleration of humanitarian crisis of forced immigration and climatic and environmental
growing challenges, the need for creative examples and well-designed solutions becomes crucial
and in need; because they have the potential to change the fateful future of a vast number of immi-
grants and asylum seekers over the globe, collective living community sharing can be implemented
not only for an affordable city sitting but rather extended to be a valid rational solution for tempo-
rary asylum seekers, in addition to cutting construction and operational costs such living scenarios
can help asylum seekers on a social and psychological level by rebuilding community trust feeling
of belonging and support.
Developing collective living concepts that comply to such circumstances can be challenging and
might have many limitations and constraints which should be considered on an early stage of the
design, but if done in systematically it can be the start of a new era of dealing with forced immigra-
tion current failures and shortcomings.

REFERENCES

__ International Organization for Migration. 2020. WORLD MIGRATION REPORT 2020. Geneva: Interna-
tional Organization for Migration. https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/wmr_2020.pdf.
__ OFFICE OF INSPECTOR GENERAL Department of Homeland. 2018. Special Report – Initial Observa-
tions Regarding Family Separation Issues Under the Zero Tolerance Policy. Special Report, Washington:
Department of Homeland Security.
__ RODRÍGUEZ, JOSUÉ. 2019. Perciben a Piedras Negras, Coahuila, como la frontera más segura de
México. Vanguardia. 18 October. Accessed February 2020. https://vanguardia.com.mx/articulo/perci-
ben-piedras-negras-coahuila-como-la-frontera-mas-segura-de-mexico.
__ Seelke, Clare Ribando. 2020. “Mexico’s Immigration Control Efforts.” The Congressional Research Ser-
vice. 19 February. Accessed March 3, 2020. https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IF/IF10215.

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__ Transportation, Texas Department of, and Texas Department of Transportation. 2015. TEXAS-MEXICO
INTERNATIONAL BRIDGES AND BORDER CROSSINGS. Austin,Texas: Texas Department of Transporta-
tion.
__ United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. 2019. UNHCR PROJECTED GLOBAL RESETTLEMENT
NEEDS 2020. RESTRICTED DISTRIBUTION 25th Annual Tripartite Consultations on Resettlement, GENE-
VA: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. https://www.unhcr.org/5d1384047.pdf.

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BIM BASED PROJECT AND DIGITAL BUILDING MODEL

MANAGEMENT: APPLICATIONS AND EMERGING STANDARDS
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch46

_ Igor Svetel
Innovation Center, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of
Belgrade, Kraljice Marije 16, 11000 Belgrade, isvetel@mas.bg.ac.rs

_ Nenad Ivanišević
Faculty of Civil Engineering, University Of Belgrade,
Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73, nesa@grf.bg.ac.rs

_ Dušan Isailović
Faculty of Civil Engineering, University Of Belgrade,
Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73, disailovic@grf.bg.ac.rs

ABSTRACT

Architectural design and building construction are increasingly digitalized. A large number of appli-
cations exist that enable creation of digital building models either in the form of advanced geometry
modelling applications, algorithmic modelling applications or BIM applications. Each application
creates intrinsic digital model using its proprietary data format. The problem of connecting such
diverse models to a coherent project environment is addressed by open interoperability file format –
IFC. But only data format does not provide seamless interoperability, it is necessary to create proper
IFC model for each particular occasion of model exchange.

Existence of many diverse files and formats that all represent different aspects of digital building
model posed to the AEC stakeholders the problem of managing a BIM project. The paper gives a his-
torical overview of development of BIM applications dedicated to digital building model assessment
from model viewers, through model explorers, to modern BIM project management applications and
their connection to a set of ISO 19650 standards. The new standards and related applications does
not provide complete solution to the management of digital building models but represent important
evolutionary step in BIM progress.

KEYWORDS _ digital building model, BIM, model lifecycle management, BCF, ISO 19650

INTRODUCTION

Building Information Modelling (BIM) evolved as a blend of different CAD (Computer Aided Design)
technologies. Among the first commercial applications was ARCHICAD, a program that made it pos-
sible to produce consistent traditional project documents (plans, sections, layouts etc.) from a basic
3D building model. The problem of time consuming creation of a 3D model based on the definition
of the coordinates of the points and the description of the surfaces that close the 3D body has been
solved by introducing parametric objects that define the basic components of a building such as
slabs, walls, windows, stairs, etc. (Svetel, Kosić 2017). In addition to geometry information, these
objects also had information about classes, relationships, and features, such as material type, role
in a building, etc. In this way, when modelling, objects automatically performed certain operations,

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such as creating openings in the wall when installing a window or joining the same materials when
intersecting walls.
Soon a new application with similar functionality appeared. Revit provided creation of building mod-
els based on parametric objects that mimic building components and automatic combination of
elements based on their functions. The new functionality was support for model revisions. Unlike
ARCHICAD, Revit had a far more complex structure of relations between elements that allowed mod-
el parameters to be updated automatically depending on changes in the values of the parameters
with which they were associated.
At about the same time, the International Alliance for Interoperability (IAI) was formed with a goal
to develop an object oriented data model to attain highest level of interoperability in architecture
and construction software applications (Svetel 2007). The result was Industry Foundation Classes
(IFC) a neutral and open model that became the international standard for interoperability among
BIM applications, and IAI transformed into buildingSMART, a leading authority in the exchange of
information among software applications in Architectural, Engineering and Construction (AEC) field.
The first version that was candidate for the international standard appeared in 2005 as the ISO/PAS
16739:2005 (ISO 2005).
As the technologies described above began to be implemented in AEC firms, other software devel-
opers who had advanced 3D modelling applications improved their systems to deal with parametric
objects that represent building components so more applications resembling ARCHICAD and Revit
functionality appeared on the market. Soon a term Building Information Modelling (BIM) appeared to
describe this technological advancement. However, instead of describing only existing technologies,
the term was also used to depict all possible advancements in the AEC field (Succar 2009) that lead
to further advancement in the field, but also created some exaggerated expectations and disap-
pointments because existing applications do not achieve this functionality, known today as “BIM
utopia” (Miettinen and Paavola 2014). In these pioneering days everyone was trying to get the best
support for the new international standard IFC, so they used every opportunity to do so, often caus-
ing the model to be fully exported and imported within the application itself, while bugs occurred
with applications from other software vendors. Since, without a detailed knowledge of the structure
of the IFC file, it was not possible to determine whether an error in the transfer of information occurs
in the export of one or the import of another application, IFC viewers appeared very quickly as ap-
plications that enabled independent analysis of IFC models. The first was Nemetschek IFC Viewer
(AllPlan 2007) and soon DDS-CAD Viewer, Solibri Model Viewer and Tekla BIMsight followed.

MODEL VIEWERS

Although they did not attract much attention at the time of the appearance, the model viewers did
represent a significant improvement in BIM technology. At the time, BIM applications were viewed
only as tools for creating architectural documentation using a computer and IFC file as a data ex-
change format. Model viewers for the first time turned designers’ attention to the digital building
model that underlies all BIM technology. Through these applications, users could clearly see that the
IFC file contained a complete model of the building that is designed.
The basic functionality of these applications that caught the attention of most users is the ability to
visually analyze the model without having to own commercial BIM applications. IFC model viewers
allow the user to see 3D representation of the model, and model tree representing hierarchy of ob-
jects in the IFC format. Majority of viewers enables switching on/off visibility or changing transpar-
ency of particular objects or classes in the tree providing better visual understanding of the model.
Some applications enable insertion of clipping planes in the model providing 3D sections and plans
in the model. All application enables viewing the building through the rotation around the model or
by creating a walk through the model. Some applications simulate walking through the model to
the level of hitting objects, gravity impact (walk on stairs) and falling from a height. The model tree
enables the user to comprehend whole structure and hierarchy of classes and objects in the IFC for-

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mat. By selecting any point in the tree, a user can see all properties related to that particular class or
object. This functionality was very important in the pioneering days since it enabled users to resolve
problems in the interoperability among BIM applications at to detect sources of errors.
Most model viewers evolved during a time into model explorers, but some applications retained
only basic functionality. Most notable is free Graphisoft BIMx that enables integration of 3D model
with 2D documentation and enables viewing complex ARCHICAD models on desktop computers or
mobile devices.

MODEL EXPLORERS

The possibilities of further analysis of the 3D models were quickly realized. Among first introduced
functions was ability to record viewpoints, make comments and share them with other participants
in design process. Soon, ability to take measurements and make marks on the 3D model was intro-
duced. Next introduced functionality was clash detection.
In contrast to model viewers that enable users to load only one model, most modern model explorers
support loading of multiple models and creation of so-called federated model. Federated models
can be created from a single file type, mostly IFC, or from different file types. Some applications
merge the loaded models into one unique model, while others keep loaded models separate, but let
the user to view and perform all operations (such as clash detection) on a whole federated model.
The model storage can be local, but most applications support cloud based storage systems that
make models available to all participants all the time and at all places. Most applications allow
enrichment of the model content by insertion of various other formats that describe the model, e.g.
2D drawings, catalogues, photos, text reports, etc. In recent years, a large number of applications
that support this functionality have emerged on the market. As this area is subject to change and
improvement over time, most applications allow users to develop the improvements they need on
their own using the open application-programming interface (API).
BIM 360 (Autodesk 2020a) is a set of cloud-based services that supports mainly Autodesk BIM
formats. It enables loading of the Revit models, and creates federated model. The model can be
explored as the whole or selected parts based on levels or teams can be accessed. It also enables
view of attached files to the Revit model, like 2D plans. Different cloud services support document
management, clash detection, issue management, collaboration, and project management. The sys-
tem provides specific cooperation management environment based on teams and packages. Visual
timeline has separate line for each team that shows when particular set of data (package) is upload-
ed to cloud. New package can be analyzed by all project members and then “consumed” meaning
that the package is combined with another team’s model. Automated change visualization shows
added, removed and modified packages.
Trimble Connect (Trimble 2020) is the cloud service with desktop, web and mobile clients. It loads
IFC and other models and allows operations on a federated model while keeping files separate or-
ganized in folders. The system is collaboration platform that organizes stakeholders into teams
and allows them to share information like models, drawings and documents by creating release
packages that are then available to all stakeholders for revision. The application supports issue
management, clash detection and team management. The application also provides open API that
enables better integration with other applications.
3D Repo (3D Repo 2020) is the web based cloud service that creates federated model by combining
uploaded models in IFC, RVT, DGN, BCF, FBX and OBJ formats. Separate Navisworks Plugin enables
upload of other Autodesk formats. The application allows user to add over 40 different formats to
the model as documentation for issue management. It supports smart groups as the way for data
validation; change detection, clash detection and issue management that takes into account groups
from which data originated and enables all stakeholders to monitor data and its progress. The appli-
cation also contains health and safety information that can be associated with the model for project
risks management. The system’s functionality can be enhanced width add-ons made using server

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and viewer API.

BIMcollab ZOOM (BIMcollab 2019) is the free application that enables creation of federated model
from multiple IFC files. The application shows each model separately as the part of the federated
model. New IFC models can be added to federated model at any time. The commercial application
enables users to perform issue detection, clash detection, data extraction (quantity and property)
and validation of any object, classification or property against requirements.
SimpleBIM (SimpleBIM 2020) is different kind of BIM explorer. It is desktop application that enables
creation of federated IFC models, but contrary to other described applications, it enables optimiza-
tion and enrichment of IFC models. The application enables trimming, cleaning, splitting or merging
model in order to fit requirements. The user can include or exclude model elements, edit values,
associate elements with missing information or with appropriate classes, edit the correct model
structure, and edit locations. There is an option to automate the described processes through the
application of templates. The program also offers tools that automatically or through user inter-
action solve problems most commonly encountered with IFC models and their combination into
federated models. Particularly interesting is the Appearance Editor, which allows user to assign ar-
bitrary colour combinations to the elements of an IFC model. This process can be automated using
Excel spreadsheets, allowing the results of different simulations to be linked to model elements by
associating simulation values with specific element colours. This overcomes the usual one-way
flow of information from BIM models to building energy simulation programs (Svetel et al. 2018)
and provides feedback from simulations to BIM models. The open API enables users to customize
system to their needs.

BIM BASED PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Navisworks (Autodesk 2020b) is most notable for its support for a wide range of design file formats
like IFC, DWG, DXF, 3DS, SKP. It creates federated proprietary model that integrates multiple files by
saving references to original project files. The application enables navigation through model and
creation of various model presentations. It supports clash detection, issue management, creation of
4D construction sequencing (Time Liner) by linking Gant charts from project management software.
Using Quantification functionality users can automatically make material estimates, measure areas
and count building components.
Bexel Manager (Bexel 2020) is the application that was developed specifically to support AEC proj-
ect management, based on the experience with large real life projects. The application creates lo-
cally stored federated model with proprietary data structure from separate IFC models. From the
latest version (10.21.2), the application supports IFC export enabling Bexel Manager to integrate in
BIM workflow. The application supports traditional model exploring based on IFC model structure
and adds ability to group elements in custom defined selections sets and to make custom break-
downs of the model. It enables in-model measurement and clash detection. The main functionality
is directed toward assigning cost and time information to model elements and automated creation
of cost estimations, schedules and construction simulations. It enables users to link documents to
model and use BCF Manager for collaboration. The application provides users with open API either
as in-application API window or by inclusion of compiled add-ins to application. Add-ins enable
users to adapt applications to their needs and provide means to integrate Bexel Manager in BIM
workflow.

COOPERATION MANAGEMENT

With the development of applications that enabled exploration and issue detection in BIM models,
the need arose to share this information among project participants. Some software companies tried
to develop custom protocols, but soon it was clear that common solution is needed. The BIM Collab-

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oration Format (BCF) was developed by Tekla and Solibri and later accepted by buildingSMART and
published as the standard for the issue management collaboration in BIM (buildingSMART 2020).
Before the standard, it was necessary to transfer whole BIM model between stakeholders to account
for issues detected in the model. The BCF is the XML schema that records only detected issues,
requests or proposals and connects them to the BIM model. First, it was only file based format, but
with the development of bcfAPI it is now implemented as server based service. The Vectorworks,
ArchiCAD, Revit, Tekla Structures, DDS CAD, Bexel Manager, Solibri, TrimbleConnect, Navisworks,
simpleBIM support BCF format and many more BIM applications are incorporating this format into
their workflows. The format enables users to create, sort out and explore issues directly in their BIM
model. Some aspects of the process are structured but naming of the issue, descriptions and com-
ments are conducted in ordinary language that needs agreement among stakeholders.
The BCF standard does not solve all cooperation problems. Software developers add additional lay-
ers of cooperation management to their systems. Permission management enables control of who
can access, modify or decide about status of particular files. Team management defines which pro-
fession access specified part of the system. Time line indicates when particular model is uploaded
to the system for others to see.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT AND MODEL LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT

Increased understanding of the role of the digital building model in BIM workflow and the devel-
opment of applications that support it has led to the need to systematize the whole process. The
result is a set of ISO 19650 standards grouped under the name ‘Organization and digitization of
information about buildings and civil engineering works, including building information modelling
(BIM) – Information management using building information modelling’ that lay the foundations for
moving from file based BIM to model based BIM. The standards are applicable to all built assets and
construction projects regardless of their size or complexity. At the moment two parts of the standard
are published, part 1 that sets concepts and principles, and part 2 that sets specific requirements for
information management during delivery phase
The standard ISO 19650 - Part 1 (ISO 2018a) defines the AEC process using BIM technology as the
transition of digital building model from project information model to asset information model, where
former contains necessary information to carry on and complete building construction and later all
necessary information for maintaining built asset. The management of the whole process is put into
the hands of project managers who traditionally managed the process of building the facility.
In order for the process to take place, it is necessary to determine common data environment imple-
mented as the federated information model. It is a source of information (set of structured and un-
structured information containers) on which all stakeholders agree and that represents a “source of
truth” for their decision-making. Information container is any set of information retrievable from file,
system or storage hierarchy. The collection, management and dissemination of information should
be carried out through a managed collaborative process. The process should recognise different in-
formation management perspectives and to proceed in accordance with information requirements.
Project and asset information are specified progressively throughout the information life cycle and
are drawn from the whole delivery team through a check/review/approve transition. Every partic-
ipant in the process should adhere to the information handover principles and initiate horizontal
collaboration within a single project phase or set of participants as well as vertical reuse of data for
participants further along the project pipeline. To keep the process running efficiently the standard
identifies the types of information management functions and their responsibilities.
The ISO 19650 - Part 2 (ISO 2018b) explains processes of information management in the delivery
phase which goes through phases of appointment of information management function, through
establishing project information requirements, information delivery milestones, information stan-
dards, information production methods, shared resources, common data environment, and infor-
mation protocol.

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One of important activities is definition of BIM Execution Plan (BEP) that goes through phases of
establishing pre-appointment plan, through assessing teams’ capability and capacity, mobilization
plan, and risk register, to the confirmation of the delivery team’s BIM execution plan and responsi-
bility matrix.
The information that is created during collaborative production of information should fulfil all de-
fined information needs but not exceeds or extends beyond the information need. The authoriza-
tion of information should be conducted by lead appointed party before the project is closed and
archived.

CONCLUSIONS

While in the literature BIM is treated as the model-based approach, many practitioners treat the
digital model only as a data-containing structure. The difference between data structures and mod-
els is that the former contain only slots for fast retrieval of information, while the latter contain
relations, processes and other contents that allow simulations to be made over the model and new
conclusions drawn from this (Svetel et al. 2018). For now, people using BIM are carriers of knowl-
edge about relationships and processes, and they use BIM data structures to draw conclusions. In
practice, BIM has not yet reached the level of the model that by its existence brings new values to
the AEC process itself.
The new standards still do not give sufficient importance to the digital building models. They treat
them under the term Information Container and Common Data Environment, which enables many
different data structures to be used in the process. The digital model is still regarded as an external
thing in the AEC process that serves to transmit information, not as the core around which the whole
process is organized and that evolves from conceptual design to a construction design and to a
model of a built facility in the end.
On the other hand, these standards and related applications represent important evolutionary step
in BIM progress. The first BIM applications were evaluated based on the quality of the drawings they
produced. With the detection of IFC format issues, attention has turned to the quality of the digital
model. With the advent of the ISO 19650 standard, attention is focused on the quality of federated
models and the ability to establish efficient cooperation based on the digital model. Contrary to the
time when BIM applications and IFC standard where seen as sufficient to make revolution in AEC
field, these standards take into account the real current needs of the industry and take a step for-
ward based on existing technological solutions. Just as problems with the implementation of IFC
standards have led to the emergence of new applications and technologies that eventually enabled
the practical implementation of the principles of the new standards, we can expect that probable
problems with the implementation of the new standards will lead to the further development of BIM
technologies.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This research was supported by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic
of Serbia under grant TR-36038.

REFERENCES

__ 3D Repo. 2020. “The Digital Platform for BIM Data.” Accessed March 15, 2020. https://3drepo.com/.
__ AllPlan. 2007. “Nemetschek presents first universal tool for IFC.” Last modified May 02 2007. Accessed

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March 15, 2020. https://www.allplan.com/en/press-reports/press-report/nemetschek-presents-first-

universal-tool-for-ifc.
__ Autodesk. 2020a. “BIM 360.” Accessed March, 2020. https://www.autodesk.com/bim-360/.
__ Autodesk. 2020b. “Nawisworks.” Accessed March, 2020. https://www.autodesk.com/products/ navis-
works/overview.
__ BIMcollab. 2019. “BIMcollab ZOOM.” Accessed March 15, 2020. https://www.bimcollab.com/en/
Products/zoom.
__ Bexel. 2020. “Bexel Manager.” Accessed March 15, 2020. https://bexelmanager.com/.
__ buildingSMART. 2020. “BIM Collaboration Format (BCF).” Accessed March 15, 2020. https://technical.
buildingsmart.org/standards/bcf/.
__ EFCA. 2019. BIM and ISO 19650 from a project management perspective. Brussels: EFCA https://www.
efcanet.org/sites/default/files/2020-01/390764_BIM%20booklet.pdf.
__ ISO. 2005. “ISO/PAS 16739:2005 Industry Foundation Classes, Release 2x, Platform Specification
(IFC2x Platform).” Last modified October 2005. Accessed March 15, 2020. https://www.iso.org/stan-
dard/38056.html.
__ ISO. 2018a. “ISO 19650-1:2018 Organization and digitization of information about buildings and civ-
il engineering works, including building information modelling (BIM) — Information management using
building information modelling — Part 1: Concepts and principles.” Last modified December 2018. Ac-
cessed March 15, 2020. https://www.iso.org/standard/68078.html.
__ ISO. 2018b. “ISO 19650-2:2018 Organization and digitization of information about buildings and civ-
il engineering works, including building information modelling (BIM) — Information management using
building information modelling — Part 2: Delivery phase of the assets.” Last modified December 2018.
Accessed March 15, 2020. https://www.iso.org/standard/68080.html.
__ Miettinen, Reijo and Paavola, Sami. 2014. “Beyond the BIM utopia: Approaches to the development and
implementation of building information modeling.” Automation in Construction 43, (July): 84-91.
__ SimpleBIM. 2020. “SimpleBIM: Makes BIM Normal.” Accessed March 15, 2020. https://simplebim.
com/.
__ Succar, Bilal. 2009. “Building information modeling framework: A research and delivery foundation for
industry stakeholders.” Automation in Construction 18, no. 3 (May): 357-75.
__ Svetel, Igor. et al. 2017. “Expectations, Reality and Perspectives in Using BIM for the Green Building
Design.” Structural Integrity and Life 17, no. 3 (December): 229–34.
__ Svetel, Igor, and Tatjana Kosić. 2017. “Digital and Architecture: Still Not a Perfect Match.” In ON ARCHI-
TECTURE Conference Proceedings, 175-182. Belgrade: Strand.
__ Svetel, Igor, et al. 2018. “Digital vs. Traditional Design Process.” In Proceedings of 5th International
Academic Conference on Places and Technologies, “Places and Technologies 2018 – Keeping up with
technologies to adapt cities for future challenges”, 453-460. Belgrade: Faculty of Architecture, University
of Belgrade.
__ Trimble. 2020. “Trimble Connect.” Accessed March, 2020. https://connect.trimble.com/.

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A PROJECT OF LABORATORY CIRCO IN ROME: RETHINKING A

PUBLIC INSTITUTES OF ASSISTANCE AND CHARITY (IPAB) IN ROME
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch47

_ Francesco Careri
Department of Architecture, University of
Roma Tre, francesco.careri@uniroma3.it

_ Fabrizio Finucci
Department of Architecture, University of
Roma Tre, fabrizio.finucci@uniroma3.it

_ Chiara Luchetti
Department of Architecture, University of
Roma Tre, chi.luchetti@gmail.com

_ Alberto Marzo
Dep. of Civil, Constructional and Environmental
Engineering, Sapienza, al.marzo89@gmail.com

_ Sara Monaco
Department of Architecture, University of
Roma Tre, sara.monaco25@gmail.com

_ Serena Olcuire
Dep. of Civil, Constructional and Environmental
Engineering, Sapienza, serena.olcuire@uniroma1.it

_ Enrico Perini
Department of Architecture, University of
Roma Tre, enrico.perini@gmail.com

_ Maria Rocco
Department of Architecture, University of
Roma Tre, marimaria.rocco@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

The progressive aging of the population is a phenomenon showed by numerous researches. Several
agencies and structures (public or private) are updating their legal and organizational status, in or-
der to respond to new management methods for the provision of care and assistance services. An
example in Italy is represented by the passage of Public Institutes of Assistance and Charity (IPAB)
into Companies for Human Services (ASP). This transformation was addressed by the Laborato-
ry CIRCO (an acronym for “indispensable house for civic recreation and hospitality”), active in the
Architectural and Urban Design Laboratory of the master’s degree program in Urban Design of the
University of Roma Tre. CIRCO has investigated (thanks to a didactic planning experience) the case
of an important roman IPAB, (the Istituto Romano San Michele - IRSM) which is facing a change
without a complex posture, unable to combines the spaces of care with the need for temporary
housing and other functions coming from the city in transformation and its new users. In particular,

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the prospects of the IRSM highlight a future scenario of a mono-functional, mono-demographic

part of the city, incapable of weaving relationships of complementarity between problems and strat-
egies. Furthermore, the existing functional and spatial quality tends to introversion, failing to open
towards the neighbourhood, triggering the underutilization of some buildings, the mortification of
public space and a certain relational deficiency (in some cases conflictual) among the subjects
who inhabit it. The contribution deals with the first results of the CIRCO Laboratory in its attempt
(through the process and the project) to transform the IPAB into an open, inclusive, hospitable and
relationship-rich city.

KEYWORDS _ ageing society, hospitality, reuse, inclusive approaches

INTRODUCTION

The main world organizations have long reported that the percentage of people over sixty years old
will double in 2050, reaching a third of the total population (UN, 2007 and OECD, 2005). This phe-
nomenon will have irreparable consequences on the various social, economic and political struc-
tures and, consequently, on the organizational and spatial models of the city and on its ability to
re-configure itself to the new demographic scenario (Baratta et al. 2018). Some institutions and
structures that deal with third age assistance are updating their legal and organizational status,
in order to respond to the new management methods of providing care and assistance services. A
current example in Italy is represented by the passage of Public Institutes of Assistance and Charity
(IPAB) into Companies for Human Services (ASP). The Laboratory CIRCO had the opportunity to
deepen, thanks to a didactic experience held in a large Roman IPAB, the problematic picture and the
possible solutions in one of these transformations. In particular, the prospects of the IPAB Roman
Institute of San Michele (IRSM) show a change which is not supported by a complex posture, a pos-
ture that should be capable of combining the spaces of care with the need for temporary residential-
ity and other functions coming from questions posed from the transforming city and its new users.

_ Fig. 1. Elderly population, percentage of population, 1970 - 2014. Source: OECD Data: https://data.oecd.
org/pop/elderly-population.htm

The future scenario that appears is a piece of mono-functional, mono-demographic city, incapable

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of weaving complementary relationships between problems and strategies. Furthermore, the exist-
ing functional and spatial richness tends towards introversion, failing to open itself to the neigh-
bourhood, triggering the underutilization of some buildings, the mortification of the public space and
a relational (in some cases conflictual) deficiency among the subjects who inhabit it. With a view to
an open and inclusive process, typical of the projects developed by the CIRCO Laboratory, the aim
has been to fit into the existing framework of the transformation from IPAB to ASP, making unused or
underutilized spaces available to new users of the city, through a spatial, economic and managerial
logic that is meant to be progressive, circular and bottom up.

A CASE STUDY: THE IPAB SAN MICHELE

The history of the IPABs follows the steps of the Italian welfare since the first attempt of rationaliza-
tion, sanctioned with the Law n. 6972 of 17 July 1890 (Crispi Law), which defines “assistance and
charity institutions” all the pious works and any other moral entity aimed at “providing assistance
to the poor”. After this secularization of charity and its passage to the public sector, operated by the
Crispi Law, the following step will be the Republican Constitution which will modify the charity from
the benevolent approach typical of the nineteenth-century, based on the discretion of the structure
about the services offered, to a system of mandatory interventions connected with the recognition
to the citizen of the subjective right to social assistance, limited only by the spending policies (Corrà,
2005). Because of the establishment of the Regions, a series of regulations between 1972 and 1977
will complete the transfer of control of the IPAB from the State to the Regions. Finally, law n.328 of
2000 requires IPABs to be converted into Companies for Human Services (ASP). The ASPs retain the
legal personality of the IPAB, and the same affiliation to public law in the purposes of the institution,
in the absence of any profit-making, in being subject to the controls of the State authority and to
its management interference. However, the ASPs act as entrepreneurial services companies, part of
the integrated system of services and social welfare interventions. In this integration, always within
the framework of the absence of profit, they are subject to compliance with criteria of efficiency,
effectiveness and economy.

_ Fig. 2. Roman Institute of San Michele, general perspective view, source: New headquarters of the Ro-
man Institute of S. Michele. Arch. Alberto Calza-Bini, in «Architettura», n. 5, May 1932, p. 272.

The Istituto Romano San Michele (IRSM) complex, the largest Roman IPAB in terms of wealth and
number of users, is located in the southern sector of the city of Rome, about 2.5 km from the his-
toric centre. Today, the IPAB is completely immersed in the residential fabric of the Tor Marancia-

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Ardeatino district. The complex, originally intended for the professional and industrial training of
orphans and “the needy”, was designed in the 1930s and completed in 1934 (Fig. 2 and Fig. 3).
Placed over an area of over 10 hectares, the main buildings are located at the intersection of the
road system, following its alignment with a symmetrical and axial system that originates a central
trapezoidal courtyard, overlooked by buildings that were originally used as: offices, archive, library,
museum, schools, dormitories, kitchen, refectory and church (Catalano, 2011). Most of the buildings
were connected by porches that crossed the large open space, characterized by the design of gar-
dens and tree-lined paths, playgrounds and sports fields. To the original intentions of the IPABs (ac-
cording to the Crispi Law) that were, “to provide assistance to the poor [...] by providing education,
professional training, [...] or moral and economic improvement”, the original complex responded
with a system that integrated the spaces of residence, training, culture and leisure between them.
This internal functional integration, however, was conceived in a strongly introverted way, aimed at a
clear separation between the city and the Institute. Today the IRSM hosts several functions dedicat-
ed to assisting the elderly who will tend to increase because of the projects currently planned in the
future locations (the functions currently present are shown in table 1). The IRSM therefore presents
particularly evident potential, but also significant limits. The ever-growing tendency to allocate the
complex to a mono-functionality of care intended as health and social care involves on the one hand
the functional non-permeability of the spaces to the rest of the city (perpetuating some of the most
obvious mistakes of urban-architectural culture of the last 50 years), and for the other a user with
monotonous characteristics, such as a particularly advanced age and the inability to be self-suffi-
cient in satisfying basic needs.

_ Fig. 3. Roman Institute of San Michele, buildings under construction, source: Alberto Calza-Bini private
archive.

The infantilizing character of some forms of care implemented is evident in Italy. For example, many
migrant people move away from institutional care paths not only because they feel the need to freely
choose where to go to live, but also because inside the housing conditions offered by the migrant
reception system, they are forced to observe forced schedules and habits, without the possibility to
choose what to do or with whom to do it. These are restrictions motivated by the need to manage
spaces and services in conditions of hygiene and safety, but at the same time they contribute to

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 conditions offered by the migrant reception system, they are forced to observe forced
schedules
7TH andACADEMIC
INTERNATIONAL habits, CONFERENCE
without the possibility to choose what to do or with whom to do it.
These are restrictions motivated by the need to manage spaces and services in conditions of
hygiene and safety, but at the same time they contribute to damage privacy and to
damage privacy
infantilize adultand to infantilize
people in theiradult
dailypeople
lives, in their dailypreventing
effectively lives, effectively preventing the
the construction ofcon-
any
struction
sense ofof home,
any sense of home,
simply simplyaccommodation
providing providing accommodation for the satisfaction
for the satisfaction of primary
of primary needs
needs (Squire,
(Squire, 2018).
2018). This
This approach to
approach to care
careisisdirectly reflected
directly in thein
reflected management of the Institute’s
the management of the
spaces, intended
Institute's as aintended
spaces, compartmentalized manner for the different
as a compartmentalized manner categories of users,categories
for the different which, while
of
sharing
users, some
which,even trivial
while needs
sharing (sucheven
some as eating), cannot(such
trivial needs shareas theeating),
spacescannot
to satisfy them.
share the spaces
to satisfy them.
_ Tab. 1. Buildings and functions currently present in the IRSM.
Tab. 1. Buildings and functions currently present in the IRSM.
Num. Name of the Functions Mq
building

Offices Museum, entrance, IPAB offices, Local Health Authority of Rome,

1 2000
primary assistance.

Toti Assisted living facility for elderly, cafè (unused), gym, common areas,
2 4500
nursing home.

3 Locatelli Totally unused. 2400

4 Valente Occupation (squatting) for housing purposes with common areas. 2000

ex Dining Hall Rented to “Costumi d'Arte”, a private company that deals with the
5 2400
creation of costumes for theatre and cinema.

6 Innocenzo XII Occupation (squatting) for housing purposes with common areas. 2800

Ex Cifap Rented to “Emmaus” (dormitory, kitchen, soup kitchen and sales

7 1150
rooms).

8 Liuzzi Entirely rented to the Local Health Authority of Rome. 4600

Ex Mechanical Work in progress by the tenant “UNISAN”, a private company that

9 3000
Workshop deals with elderly care.

Church / Occasionally used church and abandoned theatre.

10 1100
Theater

Giuliani Community of Sant’Egidio; SPRAR (Services and housing for

11 migrants); Reception centre for migrants; Brazilian Lay Sisters 4500
Community; Several unused rooms and parts.

Ex Gerontologic Intended to be rented to “UNISAN”, a private company that deals with

12 3000
assistance for the elderly.

Dribbling Sport Sports facilities

13 300
Centre

Ruin Unfinished building of which only the structure is present; completely

14 2000
unused.

The partitioning also has a direct consequence in terms of de-qualification of the public
The partitioning also has a direct consequence in terms of de-qualification of the public space in-
space inside the Institute, dotted with the most varied physical and relational barriers: the
side the Institute, dotted with the most varied physical and relational barriers: the subjects who
subjects who inhabit the IPAB (daily or occasionally) have difficulty finding a space to meet
inhabit the IPAB (daily or occasionally) have difficulty finding a space to meet and non-conflicting
relational dimensions. The spatial richness of the complex also clashes with the non-use of an
important amount of areas. Whether the spaces are used or not, in any case, the already mentioned
mono-functionality of the complex and the wall that surrounds it contribute significantly to its intro-
version, preventing it from opening towards the neighbourhood and the city itself, which perceives it
as a spatial amnesia, a void that cannot be crossed and which, after all, has no reason to be crossed.

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THE CIRCO PROJECT: FROM CITY OF CARE TO CITY AS CARE

The theme of care cannot prescind from some of the contributions coming from the feminist move-
ments, on the one hand critically analysed as a further exclusionary patriarchal device (in the di-
chotomous equation that entrusts the production work to the man and that of reproduction and care
to the woman), on the other claimed as an approach to act on and in the world. In this sense, some
of the contributions emerged in the field of architecture and planning declines care as a form of
territorial intervention, in three main aspects: a) care as a form of listening to the territories and the
communities that inhabit them, paying attention to the needs, the balances and the potentialities,
expressed and latent; b) care as a practice of relationships, which starting from the recognition of
the other aim at creating social bonds (Poli, 2016); and C) care as a process, as an action “aimed at
the improvement, the work-in-progress in a constantly evolving space, in a continuous adaptation
to the needs that may arise from time to time” (Belingardi, 2015). The design indications developed
for the IRSM within the 2018/2019 Architectural and Urban Design Laboratory have gone in the
direction of these meanings of care, starting from the methodology with which the work was set
up, physically moving the Laboratory within the Institute and thus promoting an active involvement
of the group within the complex, its territory and its inhabitants. The course was characterized by
events, exhibitions and collective reviews, in constant relationship with the actors of the Institute
and the neighbourhood. The events were also designed and implemented in an ambitious attempt
to suggest possible relationships between the actors of the Institute themselves and the related
spaces, obtaining for example that the guests of the SPRAR used the kitchens of the elderly Centre
to prepare a common lunch. The design proposals (fig. 4) that emerged from the Laboratory, which
systematised the functional needs identified within the IPAB and at the neighbourhood level, in-
volves four main dimensions:
_ integration of new functions, based on spaces for work (co-working), for culture (library,
theatre, widespread school), for wellness services (public toilets, clinic, gym, emporium for
people in economic hardship), for catering (restaurant, literary café, “pink” living room), for
residences and forms of hospitality (apartments for short, medium and long term, hostel);
_ elimination of some of the physical barriers that compartmentalise the functions and their
related areas, aiming at an evolution of the uncovered open space as a collector between the
different realities, transforming it into a real public space permeable at urban level;
_ rethinking the categories of access to the services offered, and the consequent reorgani-
zation of the spaces: an example is the case of the residential function, which proposes a
centralization of the service entrusting its management to a single body, “CIRCO Coopera-
tive”, to overcome the current compartmentalisation of the managing bodies. In this way,
permanent, transient and errant users (terms that rearrange migrants, tourists, students,
people needing a housing assistance and / or homelessness) can access a diversified ser-
vice only according to the different length of stay;
_ the implementation of circularity of resources, also for the purpose of an economic sus-
tainability of the intervention. Each spatial and functional transformation action is accom-
panied by a cost / benefit feasibility plan that seeks to balance “hot” activities (which pro-
duce economic profit), “warm” activities (with moderate gains or moderate prices for some
types of users) and “cold “ activities (which do not produce profit, but social value). The
project foresees an active role of some inhabitants in the management of the spaces, both
in their maintenance and care and for their possible valorisation (economic or social) by
starting work activities.
The project therefore proposes a multidimensional rethinking of care, which is not limited to a uni-
vocal vector (provider towards beneficiary user) but which, based on a reciprocal concept of hos-
pitality, aspires to a relational process between its guests. This involves forcing the boundaries of
the assistance service itself, trying instead to take on the difficult task of providing the creation of
a material, social and cultural environment that allows the development of relationships of trust
and mutual respect (Gill, 2018). The project proposes a change in the relational paradigm not only

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among the IPAB’s users, but also between people and places themselves: in this sense, the inhab-
itants of IPAB can - in various forms and different degrees - activate processes of looking after the
spaces of the Institute, sometimes in exchange for the same service they benefit. The rethinking of
existing functions wants to expand the concept of care to the different needs of urban living and inte-
grate health / care needs with those of education, culture, recreation, work and obviously residency.

_ Fig. 4. Masterplan developed during the Lab. CIRCO

This intercepts different social segments, trying to overcome the compartmentalization suggested
by many places of care (developed exclusively for the elderly or the infants or the disabled etc.): CIR-
CO suggests how to be together with respect to common needs, rather than dividing according to the
different characteristics. The intervention aims to erode the limits that characterize the confinement
of the care work: the opening of important gates in the surrounding wall of the IPAB physically and
symbolically suggests the possibility of finding a new relationship with its neighbourhood and with
the whole city. The proposal to integrate existing services with new cultural, recreational and con-
vivial activities also extends the concept of care at an urban level, multiplying the possibilities of use
and adapting them to the needs of the neighbourhood. Lastly, overcoming the categories of users
who access the provision of care services aims to generate new forms of reciprocity and coexistence
between permanent and temporary inhabitants of the city. In this sense, the dimension of care is
rethought in a double correspondence with its environment: on the one hand, the IPAB extends its
services by generating a care centre for the urban territory, on the other it is the urban territory to
propose itself as an additional dimension of care for IPAB users, in a virtuous circular relationship.

CONCLUSIONS

What is proposed in this contribution can be considered a summary of a first approach to the theme
of the re-functionalization of the IRSM, shifting its being a “city of care” to a possibility to be a form
of “care of the city”. This may be made through a redesign of its spaces and functions: the ISRM

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needs to mix functions concerning ageism treatment with other uses of the space (and the relative
users): it is necessary to overcome the compartmentalization suggested by many places of care, and
to promote their opening to rest of the city, in order to provoke a change in the relational paradigm
not only among the IRSM’s users, but also between people and places themselves. In relation to the
CIRCO project, the main focus of this phase must necessarily be placed on the methodological path
addressed both in the analysis and in the proposal phase. Having carried out the Laboratory on-site
allowed a focus of the problematic picture based on direct, daily contact and in close adherence
with users, operators and inhabitants of the Institute. The design process, centred on large-scale
strategic choices and on relationships (spatial and relational), requires in-depth analysis and con-
stant checks at the scale of the individual building design. In the logic with which CIRCO intends to
redefine the methods of use and transformation of abandoned urban spaces, the IRSM is certainly
an emblematic case of underutilization: today, in fact, it remains the clear sensation of a lost oppor-
tunity, of an underused resource that keeps a space entirely twisted around a surmountable concept
of city of care which, if rethought, would have the strength and capacity to act as a cure for the city.

REFERENCES

__ Baratta, A. F. L., Farina, M., Finucci, F., Formica, G., Giancotti, A., Montuori, L., Palmieri, V.
2018. Abitazioni per Anziani. Nuove tecnologie per la fruizione dello spazio domestico. An-
teferma.
__ Belingardi, C. 2015. Comunanze urbane. Autogestione e cura dei luoghi. FUP, Firenze.
__ Catalano, S. 2011. Alberto Calza Bini Architetto (1881-1957). PhD Thesis in History of
Architecture and Conservation of Architectural Heritage, XXI Cicle, University of Palermo,
Department of Architecture.
__ Corrà, D. 2005. La disciplina delle nuove IPAB. Maggioli Editore, Rimini.
__ Gill, N. 2018. The suppression of welcome. In Fennia, 196(1) pp. 88–98.
__ OECD. 2005. Financial Market Trends: Ageing and Pension System Reform. Implications
for Financial Markets and Economic Policies, OECD, Paris.
__ Poli, D. 2016. Cartografie di genere. Disegnare il mondo con tratto di donna. In Città. Poli-
tiche dello spazio urbano. Edited by Belingardi C. and Castelli F. IAPh Italia, Roma.
__ Squire, V. 2018. Mobile Solidarities and Precariousness at City Plaza: Beyond Vulnerable
and Disposable Lives. In Studies in Social Justice, vol 12, n. 1.
__ UN. 2007. World Population Ageing 2007, June 2007, United Nations, New York.

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FROM RECEPTION TO HOSPITALITY: CULTURAL, METHODOLOGICAL

AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE LABORATORY CIRCO IN ROME
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch48

_ Francesco Careri
Department of Architecture, University of
Roma Tre, francesco.careri@uniroma3.it

_ Fabrizio Finucci
Department of Architecture, University of
Roma Tre, fabrizio.finucci@uniroma3.it

_ Chiara Luchetti
Department of Architecture, University of
Roma Tre, chi.luchetti@gmail.com

_ Alberto Marzo
Dep. of Civil, Constructional and Environmental
Engineering, Sapienza, al.marzo89@gmail.com

_ Sara Monaco
Department of Architecture, University of
Roma Tre, sara.monaco25@gmail.com

_ Serena Olcuire
Dep. of Civil, Constructional and Environmental
Engineering, Sapienza, serena.olcuire@uniroma1.it

_ Enrico Perini
Department of Architecture, University of
Roma Tre, enrico.perini@gmail.com

_ Maria Rocco
Department of Architecture, University of
Roma Tre, marimaria.rocco@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

The so-called ‘refugee crisis’ has spread a sense of emergency in the management of migrants’
arrivals in Europe making extraordinary reception facilities a structural feature of the Italian system
and fostering interventions by non-governmental organizations to support vulnerable people. At the
local level, the emergency generates urban policies that blend security and decorum, depicting mi-
norities and urban poor as undesirable subjects to be pushed at the margins of the socio-spatial or-
der. The welfare shrinkage, born out of austerity policies, pushed local authorities to curb migrants’
access to territorial rights such as social services. This lack of formal welfare leads migrants to rely
on informal social networks, showing their capacity to construct their own paths of socio-spatial
insertion in a new environment. The diversity of urban solidarity experiences – local associations,
urban movements and individual citizens – creates an autonomous infrastructure of resistance to
security policies and put in question the dominant nationalism. Drawing on these experiences in
Rome, CIRCO proposes to rethink migrants’ reception through the mutual concept of hospitality,

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with the aim of generating new forms of reciprocity and cohabitation. CIRCO (acronym for house
indispensable for civic recreation and hospitality) is active in the Architectural and Urban Design
Laboratory of the master’s degree program in Urban Design of the Roma Tre University. Starting
from the reuse of abandoned buildings and opening them to mobile populations and all the urban in-
habitants, CIRCO reinterprets the temporariness and coexistence of diversity to trigger a process of
collaborative construction of spaces for democracy, exchange, work and sociability, able to produce
fractures in the territory of urban speculation, and build emancipatory paths to the right to dwelling.
The paper presents a summary of the three years of activity of CIRCO: from the methodological and
cultural system, to the production of urban “waste” maps, up to the synthetic proposal of some
design scenarios.

KEYWORDS _ migrants, hospitality, building reuse, collaborative constructions

INTRODUCTION

The theme of migratory flows is showing a heavy inadequacy of the various political bodies, trapped
among decision-makers in the continuous search for consensus and at the mercy of the altered
perceptions spread in the population towards the phenomenon. For example, the worldwide sensa-
tion that migratory flows will lead to the total turnover of the population is cited, while the number
of people living in a country different than the native one is around 245 million, just over 3% of the
world population [IOM , 2018]. In 30 years the percentage has grown by a few decimal places (it was
2.9% in 1990). In Italy, 73% of people perceive the presence of immigrants to 25% of the population,
when the real figure oscillates between 7 and 8%. The increase in crime related to the increase
in migrants is a further distortion, since, from 2011 to today, the number of foreign residents has
risen by 16% and the reported crimes have decreased by 10% [Eurostat 2019]. The crises related
to migratory flows highlight the inability of the European system (and national systems) to provide
answers to a phenomenon that is no longer as emergency as structural. In particular, innovative or
experimental approaches that attempt to tackle the problem in alternative ways are in short supply.
The only practice of distinguishing between regular and irregular migrants becomes the source of
a harmful hierarchy between those who have access to rights and the territory and those who see
these rights denied through standardized criteria of victimization and vulnerability, that form a real
humanitarian frontier [Walters, 2009]. The emergency approach has made the extraordinary recep-
tion structures the main feature of the Italian system [Campesi, 2018], stimulating the emergence
of distinct segments: asylum seekers are forced to enter clandestinely and face the regularization
process but are still included in the formal circuit, while, those who are not recognized as worthy of
protection are forced to remain in a state of invisibility and blackmail. This condition influences the
recognition of fundamental rights such as work, home, health, education and all other rights related
to the presence in a territory. In Italy, many people move away from institutional assistance paths
both because of the need to freely choose where to apply for asylum (and where to go to live), and
because the housing conditions offered by the reception system force strict rules, such as timeta-
bles (wake up call, return, forced exit, meal delivery) without the possibility of choosing or preparing
your own food, and without the possibility of being able to share it with other people who are not
guests of the center. These restrictions, motivated by the management needs of hygiene and safety,
end up harming privacy and infantilizing adult people in their daily lives, effectively preventing the
construction of any sense of home, limiting themselves to providing accommodation for the satis-
faction of primary needs. The CIRCO Lab, active in the Architectural and Urban Design Laboratory of
the master’s degree program in Urban Design of the Roma Tre University, proposes a rethinking of
the reception spaces by starting from the abandoned empty spaces of the city by re-inserting them
into an innovative process of reuse and management.

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FUNDAMENTALS AND METHODOLOGY OF THE CIRCO PROJECT

CIRCO arises from the observation of the limits of current reception policies, from the recognition
of resistance practices, from the detection of a substantial building heritage abandoned throughout
the city, but above all from the need to re-discuss the categories in which citizens and non-citizens
are organized with their housing, work, cultural and recreational needs. CIRCO is an acronym that in
Italian is configured as indispensable house for civic recreation and hospitality. CIRCO proposes a
rethinking of the system of reception and intends to recognize and learn from the practices of con-
struction of the living environment of migrants, asylum seekers and refugees in formal and informal
contexts. In this sense, CIRCO has the objective of promoting the construction of autonomy paths
for the right to live. The project offers new welfare services based on the period of permanence and
the economic possibilities of each person, with the aim of generating new ways of reciprocity and
coexistence between permanent and temporary inhabitants of the city. Although difficult to summa-
rize, the main methodological assumptions underlying the CIRCO project are shown below.

From Reception to Hospitality

CIRCO was born from other previous projects, two walks organized by the Stalker Lab: the first, on
the theme of contemporary ruins, was called Walk out of Contemporary 2016 [Romito, 2015]; and
the second, which retraced the path of Aeneas on Italian soil, called Xeneide 2017 [Stalker, 2017].
From these projects, CIRCO inherits an approach that looks back towards the art of hospitality of an
ancient world. This concept takes up the Greek word xenía, the gift that the host gives to the guest,
but more generally concerns the complex of reciprocal rules that underlie hospitality, which was
sacred to all the ancient world and which today has always more lost in meaning and has been re-
placed by the word welcome. As Virgil handed down to us in the epic poem Aeneid, Aeneas, ancestor
of the founders of Rome Romulus and Remus, arrives from Troy after a difficult journey across the
Mediterranean. He arrived in Italy as a refugee, bringing his foreign blood to mix and join to those of
the latins. He reaches the Palatine hill (already characterized by the presence of ruins, even before
the existence of the city) and he meets Evandro the Greek, to whom was already connected from a
previous bond, the xènia, the gift of hospitality. That gave origin to the latin hospitalitas. From Evan-
dro and Aeneas until Romulus and finally to the city of Rome, cyclically distinguished by its ruins
reactivated by foreigners who inhabit it. With the aim of taking care of this cultural heritage, the main
idea of CIRCO is to counterpose to the unilateral approach of the concept of reception the more re-
ciprocal concept of hospitality. Hospitality derives from the Latin hospitalĭtas that gave origin to the
enantiosemic word hospes, which means both the one who host and the one who is hosted, duality
that persist in the Italian language. The reciprocity of the act of hosting somebody, that whoever he
or she is, or comes from, is welcome because he/she could bring a wonderful, especially immaterial,
gift, made of stories, legends and culture of faraway lands. This approach wants to underline that
the true gift is the meeting of foreign people. Hospitality wants to promote the exchange of cultures
towards a process of coexistence which would hopefully led to building new places of common
practices. Once again, contrasting the attitude of the reception structures, where people are treated
as if they were only asking (food, blankets, warmth, etc.) and with the presumption that they have
nothing to bring us as gifts.

A Waste Constellation
“But when we look at waste and scars with interest, we may learn how to integrate them into a
continuous cycle of use. [...] but if we mean to integrate waste into the cycle of use, we must modify
our automatic squeamishness. [...]. Since we expect to continue to produce waste, we must be pre-
pared to reuse, even enjoy, that waste continuously” [Lynch, 1972]. With these words, Lynch invited
architects and urban planners of the early seventies to a substantial revolution of thought. At a time
when the society of consumption and overproduction was beginning to show the first unmistakable
signs of failure, Lynch, and others with him, invited us to look through these signs, to find potential
and beauty in what until then had been catalogued as waste, as scrap (scarto in italian). CIRCO

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did exactly that.In this perspective, in fact, CIRCO Lab, together with the students of the semester
2017-18, carried out an abandoned and/or underused buildings’ mapping in the municipal territory.
The main goal was to highlight the amount of places where CIRCO, a policy of rethinking the way to
host, live and experience the public city, could find a home. At the core of this work is the awareness
that mapping the disused building stock, especially public property, is one of the fundamental and
most urgent operations in order to direct urban governance towards zero land consumption policies,
integrated urban regeneration and solutions to the housing problem.

_ Figure 1: Waste constellation map.

The work carried out by CIRCO Lab involved several groups of students working on the reconnais-
sance of different types of abandoned space, as many as the most outstanding “abandonment”
categories that recent socio-economic transformations have produced within the urban territory:
health structures no longer used, sports centres no longer attractive, military structures, large spac-
es for storage and sorting of urban mobility now abandoned, the huge amount of places dedicated
to education and culture (such as schools, cinemas, theatres) as well as the increasingly dense
underused ecclesiastical heritage and, finally, the many buildings linked to production, such as fac-
tories or warehouses, containers of activities that the city has expelled to its margins but has not yet
replaced. A first substantial mapping has emerged, certainly partial and implementable, but which
provides a very clear picture of the amount of this heritage. From this mapping emerges what we
wanted to call a waste constellation: remnants of urban transformation processes. This heritage
was abandoned for a variety of reasons, often in view of subsequent speculation, nonetheless, it,
constitute a resource of extremely significant consistency. Finally, it is necessary to consider that
over 754,000 buildings in Italy are unused because they are abandoned, unsafe or unfinished, ap-
proximately 5.2% of the total assets.

The Economic Strategy: Mixitè, Progressivity and Informal Approach

CIRCO’s economic strategy refers to new methods of social regeneration, capable of compensating

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or the contribution of PAs, involving third sector entities, traditionally destined for the production
of goods and services, aimed at the redistribution of resources in favor of disadvantaged subjects,
based on the different forms of donations or voluntary work. Social enterprises guarantee produc-
tive initiatives, at the base of which there is a goal other than the profit of the owners or the max-
imization of their economic advantages [Yunus, 2008]. A new generation of urban actors, capable
of framing their corporate vision by combining the use of public fixed territorial capital, the creation
of social value, the ability to intercept public funding, the use of innovative financing instruments
(such as ethical finance) in a new welfare model. It is also in the economic-functional mix that CIR-
CO substantiates its strategy with the idea of a context in which the inhabitants self-manage the
provision of services jointly with the social managers (legal counters, clinics, reading rooms, cultural
exhibition spaces, etc.). These activities, guarantors of a social value, are economically unsustain-
able as they cannot be priced and can be defined economically “cold”. On the other hand, activities
that include fees or tariffs at market prices, defined as “hot”, can be included, which allow to cover
costs, remunerate the work done and generate profits. From the circular point of view of CIRCO
projects, if the managers are jointly responsible for the social purposes, the partial reintegration of
profits in support of the cold functions is conceivable. Then, there are “lukewarm” functions that
provide services with different rents than the market, alternating groups of users in relation to the
type of service. A functional composition capable of compensating the diseconomies related to the
more social aspects of space, thanks to the surplus produced by the most profitable functions, can
represent a virtuous mechanism for CIRCO projects.
Further improvement of the economic profile can be obtained with the concepts of temporariness
and progressivity. The first aspect refers to flexible spaces, convertible to different uses for dif-
ferent users, compartmentalized, capable of transforming themselves, expanding the spectrum of
services, activities and times of use of the CIRCO, with a consequent increase in user flows. Pro-
gressivity, on the other hand, aims to manage the project in phases: the immediate activation of all
activities can represent an unsustainable economic effort, while the progressive activation of the
functions can allow a feasibility, linked to the positive cash flows of each phase. Finally, for years,
reuse for social purposes has been activated through informal practices, often connected with the
unauthorized use of the space in which numerous services are managed, capable of diversifying
from the market, in two specific directions: 1) lower prices or tariffs; 2) socializing methods of use.
The first aspect concerns the possibility of including people in unfavorable economic conditions,
thanks to the containment of the costs that informality allows (availability of space, less bureau-
cracy, voluntary contributions, micro-credit networks, exchange of services based on asymmetric
utilities and not on exchange of equivalents, self-construction, self-production, etc.). The second
aspect consists in the diversification of the fruitful modalities of the service; in traditional consumer
experiences, sociality is limited to the consumption of the good or service. In informal practices, the
social relationship goes beyond the fruition by showing itself in interferences with the management
of the service. In the services offered by informal spaces, in addition to access to a reduced econom-
ic level, if you share the basic social premises of the space that provides the service, you can actively
take part in the decision-making and management activities of the space and the service itself. This
dual fruiting method (almost never offered by the market) allows to maximize, in addition to the utili-
tarian aspects related to consumption, also relational and social satisfaction, intercepting the desire
for active and conscious citizenship. This practice, applied to many services offered by some infor-
mal experiences, such as popular sports clubs, time banks, tea rooms, wine bars, social kitchens /
restaurants, popular canteens, music rehearsal rooms, exhibition spaces, consultors, legal counters,
housing solutions, emergency and many other activities, could be a good insert in CIRCO’s strategy.

A Different Way of Living

The space that CIRCO offers is a sort of caravanserai, a nomadic and sedentary place at the same
time, where you can experience ways of life in common between permanent residents and transient
inhabitants. The strategy is to hybridize housing with all categories that seek space in the city such
as off-site students, travellers, new arrivals (expats, migrants, asylum seekers, etc.). The strategy is

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rooted in the exploration and expansion of the category of temporary inhabitants, questioning what
the various subjects that can refer to it share and what distinguishes them: from access to basic
public services to legitimacy on national soil, from the objectives to be to complete in a given period
the desire for local roots. Having learned the urban lesson of mono-functionalism, it is obvious that
it is a good practice to hybridize living with mixed functions and services, breaking the consum-
er/producer dichotomy, dressing the inhabitants towards a model that, in another context, Jeremy
Rifkin has defined prosumer (producer and consumer together). In CIRCO, the residence is connect-
ed to services (some of a pertinent nature and others open to the rest of the city) allowing the use of
innovative solutions of the inhabited space based on collaboration and sharing.

The didactic approach

In the last three years, starting from the didactic experiences, the laboratory has worked with the
students on the above-mentioned themes and on other parallel and complementary. The didactic
approach is based on an open, indeterminate and process-oriented planning, has led students to
learn what the city had to teach, for better or for worse. Car parks turned into tent cities were visited,
where thanks to volunteering anyone is welcomed, as a person, without asking for documents. They
institutional structures of the so-called reception, the structures of the Catholic world and many
of the places of informal living in the city of Rome were visited. We asked the many people who
accompanied us and made their knowledge available, intervening in the courses, hosting us in their
places of action. On the next page are shown some design examples of the imagery to which the
project relates, developed over the three years of the Architectural and Urban Design Laboratory at
the second year in the Master Degree in Urban Studies, and some Degree Theses discussed at the
Department of Architecture of Roma Tre University.

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_ Figure 2. CIRCO. The strategy of CIRCO needs to be adapted with both socio-territorial resources of the
context and the variety of architectural typologies where is inserted. The figure shows some of the most
significant project made by CIRCO’s students from 2017 to 2020. The scale of the project, the network
of actors involved, the amount of physical transformations as well as the life cycle of the project vary
according to what kind of “urban waste” CIRCO meets, from the reactivation of a small abandoned school
to the redesign of the open spaces of an entire neighbourhood. The projects are available at https://
laboratoriocirco.wordpress.com/.

CONCLUSIONS

The Lab CIRCO is a research in progress, and as such, even before providing answers, it allows to ask
yourself a series of questions. Among the various questions, one concerns its role as a policy for the
temporary use of disused buildings, a character that can be easily intercepted by strategies for the
enhancement of the built heritage by private owners - or even contribute to gentrification processes
and other excluding urban transformations. CIRCO offers an inclusive place, where the problems
of the city become resources thanks to the synergies that can be explained by having dealt with
them together and not separately. A house in which space is made for those seeking and hospitality
and those who wish to host. A world of worlds [Piasere, 1999] in which everyone offers his skills to
be put into play for everyone. An experimental and normogenerator living, which imagines, builds
and proposes new rules and regulations. A civic architecture that challenges the city by showing
itself indomitable, irreducible and therefore indispensable. To verify its effectiveness CIRCO needs
an experimental application on a real case and the Laboratory is working in this direction. Meth-
odologically, in design terms, the Lab CIRCO has applied to the case of a Roman Public Institutes
of Assistance and Charity (IPAB, Istituto Romano San Michele) the rethinking of abandoned and
underused spaces in a circus key. After about six months of permanence of the teaching activities
in the building complex, the planning put in place has clashed with the different political wills of the
complex that have, to date, frustrated the intent. Despite the various difficulties, CIRCO has identified
a lot of spaces within the city and is ready to assemble its tent and kick off the show.

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REFERENCES

__ Campesi G. 2018. Between Containment, Confinement and Dispersal: The Evolution of the Italian Re-
ception System Before and After the ‘Refugee Crisis, in “Journal of Modern Italian Studies” 2018.
__ Eurostat. 2019. Crime statistics. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/in-
dex.php?title=Crime_statistics. Accessed 01.02.2020.
__ IOM. 2018. World Migration Report. Available at: https://www.iom.int/sites/default/files/country/
docs/china/r5_world_migration_report_2018_en.pdf. Accessed 01.02.2020.
__ Leonardo L. 1999. Un mondo di mondi. Antropologia delle culture rom. L’Ancora, Napoli.
__ Lynch K. 1972. What Time is this Place? MIT Press, Cambridge, USA.
__ Romito L. 2015. “Walking out of Contemporary”, in Mitrasinovic M. (Ed.) Concurrent Urbanities: Design-
ing infrastructures of Inclusion. Routledge, 2015.
__ Stalker. 2017. Xeneide il dono dell’altro. http://articiviche.blogspot.com/2017/03/avviso-per-gli-stu-
denti-di-arti-civiche.html. Accessed 01.02.2020.
__ Walters W. 2009. Foucault and the frontiers: notes on the birth of the humanitarian border. Brokling, U.,
Krassman, S., Lemke, Th. (Ed.), Governmentality: current issues and future challenges. Routledge, Lon-
don.
__ Yunus M. 2008. Un mondo senza povertà. Feltrinelli. Milano.

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DWELLING WITH THE WATER

DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch49

_ Michele Montemurro
Dicatech Department, Polytechnic University of Bari, via
Orabona 4, 70121 Bari (Italy), michele.montemurro@poliba.it

ABSTRACT

The absence of an organic port strategy on the coasts of the Puglia Region has led to the develop-
ment of many yachting expansion projects of ports and tourist landings, not included in a system
vision in which every port and every city-port can assume a precise and identity feature within a
sustainable transformation process of coastal and marine tourism. The choice of the city of Mola
located in south of Bari was to abandon the previous expansion plans of the port, which provided for
a huge increase in the available berths, in favour of a new vision of the water area of ​​the port basin in
the conditions of terramare, to be understood as a new urban space. A space that sees the mirroring
of the ancient city in the sea as the founding condition of an ancient fishing and housing tradition.
The research work developed in the Dicatech Department of the Polytechnic University of Bari has
assumed the availability of timber generated by the VAIA storm (2018) in the Italian Alpine areas as
an opportunity to rethink the wooden housing systems in the water, in continuity with the tradition
and history of the places. The theme of the stilt house, of the “Trabucco” (cantilevered wooden
structure on the rocks dedicated to fishing with “ great balance”) as well as that of the houseboat
were faced by identifying the construction and typological grammars to redefine the protected water
place of the new port of Mola as an urban place and place of representation of the relation between
the city, its seafaring and the sea.

KEYWORDS _ waterfront, port, stilt house, floating house, coastal cities

WATER CITIES

In recent decades, water cities have played a central role within the various territories, demonstrat-
ing how much the presence of water (sea, river, lake or lagoon) is a crucial resource as a catalyst
for regeneration processes not only of large urban realities, but also of small and medium-sized
cities overlooking the water. The scale of the interventions, the territorial and urban strategies, the
management of the transformative processes, are some of the issues that emerge from the complex
city-port relationship, synthesis of the ideological and scalar contradictions between architectural,
urban planning and design (Giovinazzi, 2008). The Waterfront Redevelopment has become the driv-
ing force for the development of entire urban areas according to two different scales: the vast in-
dustrial one (more typical of the great ports of Northern Europe), characterized by entire abandoned
port areas, often huge empty ones, placed now in central position; the more contained, urban (more
typically Mediterranean), characterized by often natural port sites, internal or close to the consoli-
dated fabric, where the relationship with the city is denied.
In the first case, the presence of wide abandoned areas has allowed the design of new neighbor-
hoods or entire “parts” of cities (Hafen-City in Hamburg, Borneo Sporenburg in Amsterdam, etc.). In
the second case, the intervention concerns the recovery of the port as a real water square, recon-

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structing the relationship between city and water (Marseille, Genoa).

The project for the Old Port of Genoa has clearly shown how the “rediscovery” of water in contexts
in which this relationship is denied, is capable of triggering transformation processes for the entire
urban and territorial reality.
The port, with its multiple meanings, infrastructural, cultural, residential and tourist, is often an area
bounded and separated from the city, an area rooted in the place but at the same time projected far
across the sea which, through regeneration and connection processes, it can go back to being the
representative and identifying place of the coastal city, a new space in the city where water becomes
an element of continuity that welcomes new forms of living (co-housing), work (co-working), com-
mercial, recreational and receptive.

_ Figure 1: 1930 (about), Mola di Bari (Puglia, Italy), stilt structure offshore for swimming and leisure.
https://www.citta-nostra.it/lalbum-dei-ricordi-mola-comera/

The research1, of which this essay exposes partial results, assumes this complexity considering
the port as a constituent part of the city and a place of living which, giving collective value to water
spaces as new centralities, without interfering with the necessary autonomy of the infrastructure,
can reconstruct the urban continuity and identity of the coastal city.
The research developed in two complementary phases, an analytical one aimed at the study of the
topic, the definition of the field of investigation, the definition of the appropriate research tools and
methods; the other design aimed at verifying through the project the knowledge acquired in the first
phase, taking Mola di Bari as a paradigmatic case study.

1 The research was developed within the “Dwelling with the water” Masters’s Degree Workshop, consist-
ing of undergraduates A. Grossi, M. Farinola, G. Guerra, A. Tuberoso, supervisor prof. Michele Montemur-
ro, together with prof. Nicola Martinelli and arch. Nico Berlen, with the contribution of profs A. Fraddosio,
M. Ieva, A. Labalestra, V. Ardito.

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_ Figure 2: “Trabucco” is a kind of fishing machine built along the coast of Puglia. http://colibrimagazine.
it/trabucchi-termoli/

CITY AND PORT. FORMS OF GEOGRAPHY AND URBAN STRUCTURE

«The cities with port are distinguished from the port-cities. In the former the ports were built out of
necessity, in the others they were created according to the nature of the places; here is a mediation
or a completion, there the beginning or the center. There are ports that always remain only landings
or anchorages, while others become stages and finally worlds (...) We can also distinguish ports
from other elements: if they were opened by the course of a river, if they were chosen or imposed by
the mainland thrusts or even from the hinterland or if it was finally wanted by the sea. The nature
of the ports depends on the way the sea is inside it, on the subjects to which it is accessible: The
Atlantic and Pacific are seas of distance, the Mediterranean a sea of propinquity, the Adriatic a sea
of intimacy. » (Matvejevic, 1987).
For Fernand Braudel, in fact, there is a unity of the Mediterranean space due to a network of cities
and villages and structured on a set of maritime and terrestrial streets connected to each other
and therefore of cities that hold hands and that projects on the territory a precise model of social
organization. The construction of city-port give form to the relationship between nature and artifice,
forms of geography and the settlement system, highlighting the way in which architectures capable
of interpreting the water limit are characterized as primary elements of the city and urban centrality.
The water enclosed by the piers assumes form and dimension as a space and, like that of stone,
can constitute the element of continuity of the urban places in which the settlement and housing
forms are compared and arranged according to specific relational grammars capable of enhance the
spatial values of both river and marine port basins, by means of architectures and urban spaces that
acquire identity through their relationship with water. The port is an element of identity and recog-
nizability of the coastal city (Mileto, Ostia, Messina) and organic part of the urban structure building
continuity between urban spaces and water spaces (Trieste).
Ports are also placing of fishing, of material culture linked to the sea, of the craft traditions of the
seafaring and its rites. Spaces shared and therefore representative of the community of small and
medium-sized coastal cities. The progressive closure of the port areas and the creation of customs
barriers determinate the separation of the cities from the ports, making the spaces on the water like
autonomous, infrastructural “citadels”, within which, the filled parts to the sea redesign the coastal
limit, removing the sea from the land and definitively modifying the original coastline, the matrix of
the urban form and the waterfront.

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_ Figure 3: The project for the new port of Mola di Bari. The pier perpendicular to sea shore divide the old
port from the new, in correspondence of the “lama” that comes from internal territories and that separate
city from cultivated territories on the coast. The projects interpret the space of the new port with stilts
houses on the coast, the new pier with “Trabuccos” and the houseboat of the hotel, and, for ending, the
floating house quarter. (this figure was taken by “Dwelling with the water” Degree Workshop)

«Ports have generally been mentioned only in relation to sea voyages; stops towards other ports of
call, places of storage and exchanges, open to the rest of the world first of all (...) In this long history
of travel we have only rarely focused on the fact that ports were also extraordinary cities» (Fortier,
1987). The landscape of the port is built from the forms of the soil (docks and piers), large-scale
architectures, the basin (large void) from their ability to interpret the geography of the place. « [The
port] Universe of shapes and places that seems to detach itself from the ground to be in that geo-
graphical limit in which we all want to participate » (Rossi, 1990). The sense of the port is twofold
and inverse: it is a place where activities develop separate from the city, characterized by its off-
scale architectures, such as cranes, silos, lighthouses, maritime and customs stations, shipyards,
symbolic forms and elementary figures of the port infrastructure; but its piers, limits of the water
basin, and its quays, extensions of urban paths beyond the shore, constitute a spatial device to ex-
perience a poetics of unpublished spaces linked to its large voids, beyond the city.
In the vision from the sea, the large structuring elements of the port reveal its relationship with na-
ture and with the formal structure of the urban landscape. The waterfront is often a synecdoche of
the shape of the city, to be defined through the dialectic between the land line and the vertical ele-
ments (the waterfront of Castel Fusano by A. Libera or the project for Buenos Aires by Le Corbusier)
which takes on the value of “urban door” and faces of the city. Reconnecting the city and port there-
fore means connecting two entities with different spaces, through the construction of places where
the city and the sea interact. Cities of water are often built by subtracting space from water, filling
and founding in stable forms (Venice, Amsterdam), but also by supporting water with elastic (stilts)
or mobile forms (Amsterdam, Antwerp). Unlike the inner cities, the water cities have a more complex
structure for the different types of relationship that is established between the house and the differ-
ent forms that the public space assumes (“water square” and “stone square”, canals, streets, water-
front, docks, etc.). The new experimental neighborhoods of houseboats, ecological and sustainable,
such as Jiburg in Nederland, are expression of a culture that has learned to live in balance between
land and water, derive from a constantly renewed tradition, able to offer a settlement, housing model
and spatial identity, of general value, consistent with the territory features.

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_ Figure 4: The project for the new port of Mola di Bari. The stilt houses saw from the pier of the floating
houses. (this figure was taken by “Dwelling with the water” Degree Workshop)

HOUSING IN URBAN WATER SPACES: THE STABLE HOUSE, THE FLOATING-HOUSE,

THE HOUSEBOAT

The port space can be interpreted as a place where different realities confront each other, a water
square in which the ancient city, the waterfront, the places of fishing, the market and the fishing
boats, the shipyard and the boats, the transport, housing, work and commerce are spaces and activ-
ities that convey the identity of the seaside city, through the sharing of forms linked to the wooden
construction tradition of buildings, boats and port equipment.
The main port cities of the Adriatic, the arsenals, the piers, the “briccole”, the large roofs, were often
built using wood and naval construction techniques also in civil construction, developing widespread
and shared traditions. A koinè of coastal cities based on sharing updated construction techniques
and renewed housing forms in wood. Wood expresses the memory of the lost continuity between
forest and sea, between cultivation, construction and navigation. The frame construction, light for
boats (furniture) or heavy for fixed structures, such as pontoons, platforms and stilts. It is no coinci-
dence that the pile dwelling forms have developed coevally in the world and in Europe, sharing form
and construction in a diatopic way to live in harmony with water. The stilt house has consolidated
itself as a settlement and housing form and an element of sharing in that strip of landscape between
the mainland and
the water defined as “terramare”, a place for recreational activities such as bathing and productive
activities such as fishing, overcoming difficulties such as coasts inaccessible or tides. The contrast
between lightness and “provisionally”, as opposed to the stability and “fixity” in the water of the light
wooden construction, connotes this type as an appropriate and stable form of settlement of water
spaces, an ideal extension of urban space beyond the limit of the coast, in continuity with the city,
but representative of the port condition. The fixity of the stilt house is contrasted by the mobility of
the fixed or mobile houseboat whose shapes originate in the nautical tradition.

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_ Figure 5: The project for the new port of Mola di Bari. Intermediate plans of the houses on stilts.
(this figure was taken by “Dwelling with the water” Degree Workshop)

The floating house and the houseboat are distinguished by the degree of mobility that their nature
of boat can guarantee, within the spaces and waterways of those cities and those places where the
land breathe with the water. The floating house takes water as a foundation site but often belongs to
a settlement structure, that is, to an urban form and to its system of planned relationships between
housing and collective space. The houseboat instead establishes new relationships with the main-
land through the landing, giving new meaning to public spaces along the water, often expressing the
transformation induced by an unexpected presence that causes estrangement in places of custom.

MOLA PORT AND CITY. NEW SETTLEMENT AND DWELLING WOODEN MODELS IN THE WA-
TER SPACES OF THE MEDITERRANEAN CITY

“The piers are the worthiest defenders of the ports” (...) they are as different as the ports themselves:
some have sprung up naturally from the coast and leaned on it, others are just a pile of stones car-
ried by who knows where and thrown in bulk on the seabed. On the first you can walk and laze in the
others you can only unload the goods and trade» (Matvejevic, 1987).

_ Figure 6: The project for the new port of Mola di Bari. Plans of the floating house and sections of house-
boats. (this figure was taken by “Dwelling with the water” Degree Workshop)

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Along the Italian Adriatic coast from Venice to Puglia, constructive traditions have developed related
to fishing and navigation that mark the history and material culture of numerous coastal towns.
The city of Mola2, located south of Bari is among these: its tradition of ax masters, skilled builders
of wooden fishing boats, combined with the knowledge of fishermen and farmers, capable of taking
care of the agricultural area overlooking the sea, have built the cultural and productive identity of its
community and its territory, linked not only to the close relationship between land and sea, but also
to an interrupted tradition of inhabiting the sea with stilts systems, mediators between the rocky
coast and water, which has characterized the image of the Adriatic seaside cities of Puglia for many
years.
A tradition that refers to two types of structure that express the value of living between land and sea:
the traditional pier / stilt house dedicated above all to bathing and recreational structures and the
“Trabucco”, a wooden cantilevered structure on the rocks dedicated to fishing. In the project the new
port is assumed as a water square, a projection of the city into the space of the sea, in which, in the
place of the limit between the land and the sea, whose shape constitutes the etymological root of
the shape of the port itself (Martì Aris, 2007), new forms of living (working) are experimented. The
identified housing forms, the stilt houses, the houseboat and the houseboat are arranged in conti-
nuity with the urban structures, building “neighborhoods” within the port basin which becomes the
place of the mixité between housing, production, accommodation and recreational functions. The
pile-dwelling settlement generates an urban fabric located east of the Madonna di Loreto, an ideal
extension of the former Gaslini into the sea, a new nucleus of services for the sea, for boating and
for bathing, facing the ancient city. The floating house system and the mobile houseboat system
are located close to the new pier and a new transverse arm parallel to the coast that encloses the
new harbor basin, closing to the west on the Madonna di Loreto pier, as elements of the port sim-
ilar to the fishing infrastructure. They are an interpretative form of the third system, the receptive
one and define another neighborhood located between the open sea and the pile dwelling system,
giving new value to the breakwater pier. The new “Trabucchi”, located outside the pier and intended
for fixed-fishing tourism and catering, complete the accommodation spaces. The theme of the stilt
house, of the “Trabucco” and that of the houseboat were tackled by identifying the constructive and
typological grammars to redefine the protected water place of the new port of Mola as an urban
place and place of representation of the link between the city, the his seamanship and the sea. The
aim of the project was to identify the morphological and constructive elements of the stilt house, the
houseboat and the houseboat and to describe the significant relationships that they establish with
the forms of nature (the sea, the coasts, the connecting structures between land and water) with the
forms of the port, identifying the appropriate analytical categories that allow to define the grammars
of their aggregative forms according to the control of the transformations / modifications that can
be made to the city and its urban spaces without altering its formal and topological value.

CONCLUSIONS

The absence of an organic port strategy on the coasts of the Puglia Region has produced numer-

2 The ancient center of Mola di Bari, with the castle, is built on a point extending into the sea from which
extends the pier that protects the ancient port, between the historic center and the natural limit of the
urban fabric constituted by the “lama”. The new pier, that define the basin of the new port, is rooted fur-
ther east including the strip of coast on which the area of the ex Gaslini oil mill overlooks. The route that
connects Mola to Rutigliano generates a system of measurement and structure of the territory called
“Capodieci” that is a system of parallel roads and perpendicular to the coast that develop east and west of
the ancient center every 500 meters, ordering also agricultural parceling out. The church of the Madonna
di Loreto marks the presence of the first “Capodieci” in the east and the separation between city and
countryside at the mouth of the “lama” in the harbor.

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ous and incongruous expansion projects for the purpose of pleasure boating, favoring an inorganic
development of the coast, often compressed between illegal construction, undermined naturalness
and uneven growth of the accommodation / port facilities. The solution proposed in the research is
to consider the expansion plan of the water area of the port basin as a new urban space to enhance
the identity of the seaside city within a process of sustainable and organic transformation of coastal
and marine tourism through the experimentation of new forms of living (working) in harmony with
the water and the forms of the coast. The identified housing forms, made of wood according to naval
construction techniques, i.e. the pile-dwellings, the houseboat and the houseboat re-link the broken
thread of the housing tradition of the Apulian seaside city and are arranged in continuity with the
urban structures in the Terramare space , building “neighborhoods” within the port basin. Coastal
landscape, city and sea, with its rituals that mark the time of day, establish the invariant elements
of a new harmony capable of renewing tradition, enhancing the identity values of these places and
offering an appropriate and sustainable response to enhance the beauty of extraordinary places by
nature.

REFERENCES

__ Amirante, Roberta, and Bruni Francesca, and Santangelo Maria Rosaria. 1993. Il Porto. Napoli: Electa.
__ Braudel, Fernand. 1985. Il mediterraneo. Paris: Flammarion.
__ Bruni, Francesca, and D’Agostino Angela, Santangelo Maria Rosaria. 2002. La trasformazione delle
aree portuali. Napoli: Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane.
__ Fortier, Bruno. 1987. “Il sogno di città macchine: porti e arsenali all’inizio del XIX secolo”. In Arsenali e
città nell’occidente europeo, edited by Concina Ennio. Roma: NIS.
__ Giovinazzi, Oriana. 2008. Mediterranee, n°111, edited by Rodrigues-Malta, Rachel,.Aix-en-Provence :
Presse Unviersitaire de Provence: pp.69-74
__ Matvejevic, Predrag. 1987. Mediterraneo. Un nuovo breviario. Milano: Garzanti.
__ Rossi, Aldo. 1990. Gabriele Basilico. Porti di mare, Udine.
__ Santangelo, Maria Rosaria. 1994. “Il Porto: città nella città”, Civiltà del Mediterraneo, no.2 (jul-dec):
p.78-85.

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ARCHITECTURAL ANALYSIS OF THERAPEUTIC

CANTERS FOR DRUG ADDICTS
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch50

_ Sadoud Nesma
PhD Student, Architecture, University of Pécs, Faculty of Engineering and
Information Technology, Breuer Marcel Doctoral School, amsen.archi@gmail.com

_ Erzsébet Szeréna Zoltán

University of Pécs, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology,
Institute of Architecture, 7624 Pécs, Boszorkány u.2. betty.zoltan@mik.pte.hu

ABSTRACT

The design of healthcare buildings is questioned in several types of research, and it’s still studying
from different sides, this research aims to target the rehab canters and their relations with patients.
moreover, it’s interested in finding the interaction that occurs between the spatial quality of rehab
centers and the well-being of addicted patients based on the visual perception concept. It requires
therefore, an understanding of which factors can contribute to the physical qualities of the spaces,
and it studies the architectural characters of establishments.

To achieve this research, an inductive approach is adopted rest on identifying and testing the vari-
ables and factors associated with the assessment of physical space and its impact on the user’s
perception of construction, which are subdivided into three proposed factors; (the functional, spa-
tial, and historical factors).

KEYWORDS _ design, healthcare, well-being, spatial quality, visual perception

INTRODUCTION

The aim of this research was to determine the visual perception of patients suffer the dependence
on drugs in their healthcare spaces, thus the issue is related with the hypothesis that spatial quality
of this sensitive institutions had a certain role or impact that can be direct or indirect on the patients’
behavior. This paper suggests classifying, decreasing, and representing the data in a term of manful
themes to create a lead for this research. (DEVLIN, 2002)
The quality of the architectural space is connected by several parameters that can have an influence
on the perception of this space which figures several functionalities in the quotidian of the users,
many studies focus on how the environment can provide wellness for the individual and how sen-
sitive design effects the recovery of patients, but some research remains still vague in identifying
some relationships.
To carry out this study a comparative evaluation was opted for which the spatial quality is focused,
and this study takes its criteria from the visual perception of an architectural space and its influence
on the behavior of the occupant, this concept of perception interposes the relationships between the
perception of elements and their interpretation.
As architecture gives space its physical shape, architects and psychologists seek to link the archi-
tecture and the psychology of the users into the physical space. The perception process is the first

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stage to interact with space; for this purpose, the architectural studies define this concept first by;
Creating space and being perceived by users, then distinguishing it to identify its characteristics and
its functioning. (POP, 2013) (P, 2009)
This article is a prelude to organizing the stages and steps of research to identify what the percep-
tion is and how this process controls the correlation with space and patients.
The study cases on which this study will be conducted have been chosen in Algeria, the choice fell
on three institutions that agreed to take part in this report and they share the same point of treating
drug addicts, after interviewing the employees in each institution, it was noticed that they follow the
same method and stages of treatment, which helps this research to attribute its analysis much more
in the architectural side.

INTRODUCTION OF CASE STUDIES

To start this research three establishment are selected from Algeria as it mentioned below, and to
keep the study scientific without any nomination, this establishment will be kept anonym with cod-
ing: the first institute (E01), the second institute (E02) and the third one (E03). (Nesma, 2019)
1 The institute (E01):
This establishment is located in city in the north part of the country, with a capacity of 30 beds 15
women and 15 men. The hospitalization of drug addicts can take from 21 days to 6 weeks until the
patient becomes stable; Then he follows the external treatment until the complete healin

_ Figure 1: An external photo of the first center (E01). Source: Author.

2 The institute (E02):

The establishment is located in city in the northwest of Algeria; It hosts currently 25 patients (men)
shared between drug addicts and people with mental disorders. Hospitalization of drug addicts can
take 21 days or more until the patient becomes more stable and then fate for external hospitalization
until complete healing.

_ Figure 2: the second institute situation (E02). Source: Author.

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3. The institute (E03):

This establishment located in the capital Algiers, unlike the previous institutions this establishment
is a day-care center, it follows the same care method and treatment units except that it does not
provide accommodation space for patients. The choice of criteria in this research is opted for the
purpose of touching the elements contributing to influence the visual perception of patients within
these institutions.

_ Figure 3: Photos about the third center (E03). Source: Author.

THE METHODOLOGY:

The centers selected above participate in adopting the same stages of medical treatment, but they
differ in terms of available services, architecture, geographical and historical background for each
building. These factors were chosen in the comparative study because the architectural aspect is
not sufficient to judge the quality of the place and the flow of patients who arrive there. As well as the
effectiveness of the treatment, in the architectural field, these factors can be summarized for that
the gaps can be compared to ultimately determine the most efficient building to complete study and
extract the appropriate wills to build this type in the future.
a) The historical scope:
This scope investigates the historical aspect of the therapeutic centers to determine the identity of
building and the impacts of this factor on their performance by addressing:
the urban context of the project “urban reading”: the elements of the context present an important
role in understanding spatial planning because often these components are a product of the urban
history, of the structure of which fits the analyzed project. (Evans, 1984)
The Urban reading enables the analysis of the surrounding buildings and their impact on the per-
ception of selected institutions.
The historical background of the building may affect its physical quality. The cases selected in this

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research vary from institutions specifically designed to treat addicts while others were created for
another activity and then changed their functionality and underwent rehabilitation. This should be
decided by interviewing the staff of the centers. (Estelle, 2014)
b) The functional scope:
The spatial system contains multiple functions in relation. The method followed in this study head-
ing towards the determination and classification of the relevant places according to their function-
ing and the activities carried out within the establishment, with the purpose to describe the samples’
characteristics, and getting the information concerning the existing installations and thus identify-
ing the model of care in each establishment. (CHING, 2007) (Estelle, 2014)
Moreover, this method contributes the determination of the functional character of the places to
note the daily occupation and the frequentation of the space by the patients, this is connected by
the concept space-time which represents the key moments of a typical day of an addicted patient
- The treatment spaces: these spaces are for the psychological consultation and
in a rehab center.
The spatialmedical examination,
configuration stimulation
and the living sessions,
pattern within theseetc. These centers
treatment treatments
are theare
twopart of
reference
patients' day routine.
points for how the different functions are specialized in different ways and giving a conductor wire
for evaluation and spatial design based on this deep structure.
- Spaces for
The classification activities:
is based these places
on including are connected
the functional contentsto of
thethetreatment spaces because
different facilities in the es-
tablishmentstheyunder
workcommon
on the motor and to
concepts mental stimulation
understand through structure
the functional various activities
of the place:
_ The treatment spaces: these spaces are for the psychological consultation and medical
- examination,
Rest areasstimulation
(bedrooms): these etc.
sessions, spaces
Thesearetreatments
a very important
are part ofpart in the
patients’ daytime of
routine.
_ Spaces for activities:
hospitalized patients.these places are connected to the treatment spaces because they
work on the motor and mental stimulation through various activities
- _ Rest
Freeareas
time (bedrooms): theseareas
spaces: in these spacesthearepatients
a very important
are freer part in the
in their time of hospitalized
activities, they can
patients.
play, relax and socialize.
_ Free time spaces: in these areas the patients are freer in their activities, they can play, relax
- andWaiting
socialize.
areas: the waiting room is an important area especially for drug addicts
_ Waiting areas: the waiting room is an important area especially for drug addicts who are
who are following their out-patient treatment (non-hospitalized), and it is possible
following their out-patient treatment (non-hospitalized), and it is possible that even these
that even these places affect the behavior of patients. According to a previous study
places affect the behavior of patients. According to a previous study focuses on the percep-
focuses on the perception of the waiting area and proves its ability to directly and
tion of the waiting area and proves its ability to directly and indirectly influence the quality of
indirectly influence the quality of care thanks to its architectural quality, design,
care thanks to its architectural quality, design, lighting, furniture, etc. (DEVLIN, 2002)
lighting, furniture, etc. (DEVLIN, 2002)
_ Table 1: a table classifies the functions of each institution according to their mainly roles.
Table 1: a table classifies the functions of each institution according to their mainly roles.
E01 E02 E03
The waiting area provided provided provided
The treatment spaces -Psychologist offices -Psychologist offices -Psychologist offices
-Psychiatrist -Psychiatrist offices -Psychiatrist offices
-Rehabilitation room -Social assistant office
-Rehabilitation room
-Sample room
Spaces for activities -Ergo therapy room (the -Ergo therapy room -Ergo therapy room
activities are carried out -Play area -Computer room
in the ergo therapy -The kitchen -Sports room
room) -Computer room
Free time spaces -The courtyard -The courtyard -Not provided
-The TV room -The TV room
-The play area
The rest area -Individual bedrooms -Isolation room -Not provided
-Bedrooms for group

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_ Figure 4: the functional classification of the first institute (E01). Source: author

_ Figure 5: The functional classification of the second institute (E02). Source author

_ Figure 6: The functional classification of the third institute. Source author

c) The spatial scope:

The therapeutic environment includes several interrelated features in both terms of the physical
environment and health conditions. The area of focus in the study is about the physical environ-
ment within the therapeutic centers, by using a combined method evaluation of clinical behavior
of patients and the spatial design under the main priority which is the impact of physical design on
patient behavior. (Daniel Oberfeld, 2011) (BINGGELI, 2005) (CHING, 2007)
It’s obvious that the physical facilities are determined by different therapy faiths, besides, the physi-
cal elements of the interior space have an influence on the way the visual perception of the environ-

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ment could be, consequently the behavior of users.

The evaluation method is based on a component (qualitative/observational), by involved screening
all elements that identify the physical space:

_ Figure 8 (left): The spatial components that effect the visual perception. Source: (Nesma, 2019)
_ Figure 9 (right): The elements of spatial quality. Source: Author

DISCUSSION AND RESULTS

The historical scope analyses: The article suggests that the socio-geographical and historical as-
pects of each institution can influence the flow of patients to these institutions and their percep-
tions. As well as provide the study with information about the changes that have occurred in each
building.
Regarding the establishment of (E01), it is an ancient center dating back to the French era in Algeria,
where it is located within a group of other buildings that provide multiple medical services. This
building has undergone functional and spatial alterations and is considered the most heavily con-
trolled by patients, perhaps due to its historical background and even social geography.
Both the establishment (E02) (E03); are new construction compared to the first center, the estab-
lishment (E02); is dedicated as psychiatry, but it receives drug addict patients for hospitalization.
According to the interviews with doctors, this can be an influencer factor for decreasing patients
flow, even the progression of treatment.
The functional scope analyses: To be able to evaluate the establishment at the functional level, the
paper opted to unify the relevant places and spaces that share the same activities. This method
makes it possible to notice the gaps in each establishment (Table 01) and making the selection of
optimal establishment for further research logical.
The spatial scope analyses: This stage made it possible to identify, analyze, and relate the internal
elements of the building to the behavior of patients. The results of the spatial component analysis
assume that the interior quality of the building affects the behavior of patients and their frequenta-
tion at each space. (Nesma, 2019)

CONCLUSION

The processes selected in such a way as to organize the structure of the research and in parallel
it makes it possible to represent the quality of each establishment and its influence on the visual
perception of the addicts who undergo a sensitive situation during this period of dependence, this
hypothesis includes the purpose of the research that remains to prove or to be denied in the next
relative studies.

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REFERENCES

__ BINGGELI FRANCIS D.K. CHING . CORKY INTERIOR DESIGN ILLUSTRATED [Book]. - New Jersey : John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2005.
__ CHING FRANCIS D.K. architecture architecture FORM, SP A CE , AND ORDER. third edition [Book]. - New
Jersey : © 2007 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. , 2007.
__ Daniel Oberfeld Heiko Hecht “Fashion versus perception: The impact of surface lightness on the per-
ceived dimensions of interior space [Journal]. - [s.l.] : sagepublications, 2011. - 284-398.
__ DEVLIN ALLISON B. ARNEILL AND ANN SLOAN PERCEIVED QUALITY OF CARE: THE INFLUENCE OF
THEWAITING ROOM ENVIRONMENT [Journal]. - London : Elsevier Science, 2002. - 345-360 : Vol. 22. - 2.
__ Estelle DEMILLY AUTISM AND ARCHITECTURE ,in french (AUTISME ET ARCHITECTURE,Relations entre
les formes architecturales et l’état clinique des patients) [Book]. - Lyon : Doctoral thesis : National School
of Architecture of Lyon Discipline: Architecture, 2014.
__ Evans Gary W. Environmental Stress [Conference]. - London : Combridge university press, 1984.
__ Nesma Sadoud THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPACE QUALITY OF ADDICTION CENTRES AND PA-
TIENT BEHAVIOUR [Journal]. - Pecs,Hongary : 6th INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC CONFERENCE ON PLACES
AND TECHNOLOGIES., 2019.
__ P Silverstein Steven M. Keane Brian Perceptual organization in schizophrenia: Plasticity and state-re-
lated change [Journal]. - [s.l.] : Pollack Periodica, 2009. - 2 : Vol. 1. - DOI 10.1556/LP.1.2009.2.111.
__ POP Dana Space Perception and Its Implication in Architectural Design [Journal]. - Cluj-Napoca, Ro-
mania : Acta Technica Napocensis: Civil Engineering & Architecture , 2013. - 2 : Vol. 56.

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HUMAN COMFORT IN ARTIFICIAL PLACE

DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch51

_ Ramos Gonzalez, Nicolas

University of Pécs, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology,
Marcell Breuer Doctoral School, 2 Boszorkány Street, 7624 Pécs,
Hungary, nicolasramosgonzalez@gmail.com

_ Medvegy Gabriella
University of Pécs, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology,
2 Boszorkány Street, 7624 Pécs, Hungary, medvegygabriella@mik.pte.hu

_ Borsos Ágnes
University of Pécs, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology,
2 Boszorkány Street, 7624 Pécs, Hungary, agnesborsos@mik.pte.hu

_ Zoltán Erzsébet Szeréna

University of Pécs, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology,
2 Boszorkány Street, 7624 Pécs, Hungary, betty.zoltan@pmmik.pte.hu

_ Gazdag Gábor
University of Pécs, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology,
2 Boszorkány Street, 7624 Pécs, Hungary, gabor.gazdag95@gmail.com

_ Noori Pooya
University of Pécs, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology,
2 Boszorkány Street, 7624 Pécs, Hungary, pooya1652@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

Since prehistoric times humans have adapted and modified their environment according to their ne-
cessities. Nowadays, technology has advanced to the point that we feel we are living in an artificial
environment, and we have the sensation of being far away from a natural setting and feel uncom-
fortable. Especially, in our workplaces. Consequently, in which way can we develop a comfortable
working space as humans and keep its efficiency? In addition, what are the elements that assure the
well-being of the workers in an artificial interior space?

This paper is based on an investigation of a research group and will analyse a current example of
an office building in Budapest, presenting the information recorded of thermal comfort, acoustics,
lighting and air quality. It also includes the processed data from a survey conducted among three
hundred employees of the company. The building was designed with an open office concept, which
consists of two major areas: workstations and conference rooms. There are also some spaces orig-
inally dedicated to leisure activities, which are underused. As a result of this research, which has the
aim to improve the well-being and comfort of the personnel, it will be considered for the redesign
of these spaces to improve the mood and conditions of the employees. As it is proven that these
alternative spaces can maximize collaboration and creativity.

KEYWORDS _ workplace, well-being, productivity

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INTRODUCTION

The aim of this investigation has been to examine the effects of interior working spaces in the hu-
mans’ health and propose alternative solutions. It has previously been observed that the impacts of
interior office spaces on well-being of employees is noteworthy. A significant analysis and discus-
sion on the subject was presented by Croome (2006). The author emphasises the importance of the
good architecture enriches human capacities.
Therefore, according to an existing collaboration between the Faculty and an IT Company Services
which has its headquarters in Budapest, the research group had the opportunity to examine office
workplaces to analyse the employees’ physical conditions. And, it has been noted that in some inte-
rior spaces, which originally, they were conceived as lounges, are underused.
The methodological approach taken in this study is a mixed methodology based on a questionnaire
(answered by approximately 200 employees), empirical data (from parametrized analysed) and the
workshop method.
Consequently, the research team redesigned these underused spaces, their ideas and concepts will
be presented in this paper.

Background
The company has specialized in a wide range of IT and telecommunication services. The firm fo-
cuses on innovation and the development of system integration. The building is located in Buda-
pest, and the first impression of the group was that the employees were working in a comfortable
atmosphere and they had access to everything that high technology could offer in an office building
nowadays. However, after the architects began to examine and explore the facilities, they recognised
that the comfort conditions were not as good as it had been expected. For example, it could be seen
that nobody was using the leisure spaces and it is possible that the reason why was that some of
them do not have comfortable furniture that invited the employees to enjoy the space. On the other
hand, the lighting conditions were not appropriate for relaxation since they were too bright. Conse-
quently, the group could immediately figure out that there were interesting opportunities in these
spaces, and it was a perfect place for developing new ideas according to nowadays office space
trends.

DESIGN METHODS

There are three main types of study design used to identify the current functional situation of the
space. To begin this process, the group elaborated a questionnaire which was presented in Hun-
garian and English and it answered by almost 200 employees. The design of the questionnaire was
based on how the employees are satisfied of the characteristics of the physical environment. Then,
the participants were asked to provide feedback on how they feel in the office. The benefit of this
approach is that it could be possible to identify each personal opinion. Because, the survey was
anonymous, so the surveyed had not to be concerned about expressing honestly their point of view.
Second method used to identify the physical parameters involved was the data collection. After sev-
eral deliberations with the representatives of the firm the group decided to take a floor as example
of the global situation. In consequence, the third floor was chosen as a reference for doing the mea-
surements. And within the floor it was specified different point for their analysis. Then acoustics,
lighting, CO2 and thermal data were gathered from multiple points during the day. After collection,
the samples were processed and organized for an appropriate understanding.
Once the samples were systematized and the questionnaire’s answers processed the group was
capable to understand the operation of the office. In order to address the possible solutions for the
space, workshop meetings have placed. The studio was conducted over weeks and gave place for
discussions and interchanging opinions. Following the conformational analysis of the site, it was
necessary to divide the group in two. Through this process, the investigators emphasis the archi-

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tectural design exploring different theories and literature.

In addition, as a part of the subject “Interior Design” giving in Pollack Mihály Faculty of Engineering
and Informational Technology of the University of Pécs, it was assigned the students the collabora-
tion in the design development of these spaces.
The significant advantage of using a multidimensional approach is that allow the researchers to
have different viewpoints or valid solutions for the same space. It allows the development of the
ability of the creativity according the architectural requirements, well-being and information ob-
tained from the measurements.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

After synthetizing the survey’s data and analysing it is important to bearing in mind some relevant
aspects. It can be seen that over thirty-six percent of those surveyed remarked the lack of private
area for relaxation or have private meetings. Also, six percent highlighted that the existing lounges
are not comfortable.
Some of the results obtained from the analysis of the questionnaire are shown in Figure 01 where it
can be seen the positive and negative aspects remarked. Interestingly, the survey’s results revealed
that over thirty-five percent of the employees surveyed perceive the environment very noisy.
If, over eighty percent of respondents claim that they like the working atmosphere among the teams
and they feel that they belong to a working community. However, perhaps unsurprisingly, they men-
tioned they would like to have private space for interaction.
In summary, these results show that the majority of the surveyed (61%) would like to have more
comfortable spaces for relaxation. That would allow them to have more opportunities for informal
meetings and discussions. So, the group will take the challenging to design these spaces concern-
ing employees’ requirements, their well-being aspects and support virtual and telecommunications
developing.

_ Figure 1: Negative and positive aspects remarked within the questionnaire.

LOUNGE DESIGNS

The functions
The questionnaire’s results, the sites evaluation and the new workspace trends [3] gave the group
the idea of the functions that could be suitable to the interior spaces design. Then, concerning these
aspects, it had been decided to give a wide variety of activities which allow the workers to relax, have
privacy, have informal meetings, working-out and have video games-films hub space.
After several meetings and analyses of each lounge, the team decided to divide the spaces in two
categories: lounges without windows and with windows. The spaces located in the inner space

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building, which do not have openings to the exterior, will be the space to focus and have private in-
formal meetings. Meanwhile, the lounges with windows are bigger than the previous ones, it was un-
questionable to provide them with other activities. The activities stipulated were decided according
to the employees’ needs, results reflected in the questionnaire´s answers and there are mentioned
in the previous paragraph.
The group divided the lounges among the members. And our sub-group will design three lounges.

The Pine forest - 3rd floor – THE ALPINE VILLAGE

Functions: focus room, private phone calls and private conversations
Size: 22 square meters.
Taking the floor’s theme as a reference inspired by an Alpine little village located in the middle of
the woods, comfortable “cottage” phone booths were designed for relaxation and private calls. The
booths disposition in the space give the idea of a village and offer privacy but at the same time flu-
idity of the space. Please see figure 02.

_ Figure 2: The cottage booths perspective – Image author: Gábor Gazdag

The booths are designed in the way that they can be assembled the parts without any tool, silently
and with a couple of workers. The pieces are smaller and light. The pack is composed by the timber
structure and plywood panels, the 3D printed plastic joints and upholstery. In the image 02 it can be
appreciating the components and the ensemble’s steps.
The idea is to encourage the employees to have a “workshop” day off to collaborate together in the
construction of the booths.
Each “cottage” was built with a timber structure covered with plywood. This material is made from
wood layers and they are bonded together. As it is well known, wood is a renewable resource, so
plywood is an environmentally friendly product.
In addition, inside the booths, a comfortable and soft upholstery of polyurethane foam can be found,
which gives a feeling of cosiness. In consequence, this finishing provides an excellent absorption of

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sounds and noises.

Technically speaking, the phone booths are provided with a cooling – heating system where each
user can adjust the conditions according to their needs. This technical requirement gives much
more comfort to users. All of the booths were designed with USB connection as well.
Last but not least, the brightness of illumination regarding every cottage can be controlled by each
user within a light dimmer switch, according to their demands. Therefore, if employees want to read,
they can choose a high light intensity.
According to the description below and the attached graphics, the main aim is to provide the maxi-
mum level of comfort. This idea is going to be presented through the resolution that the group gave
considering the thermal, acoustic, lighting and well-being issues.

Phone Booths (cottages):

_ Figure 3: The parts to assemble a cottage booth– Image authors: Pooya Noora and Gábor Gazdag

_ Figure 4: The steps to assemble a cottage booth – Image authors: Pooya Noora and Gábor Gazdag

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_ Figure 5: 3D visualization of the booth – Image authors: Gábor Gazdag and Attila Kovács

The Snowy meadows - 5th floor – THE ICE CUBES

Functions: focus room, private phone calls and private conversations
Size: 22 square meters
Snowy meadows and cold winters were the motives for designing this lounge. Hence, this space is
composed with ice cubes floating inside. Employees can use each box or “cube” as they desire. For
example, one can have a private call in one of the boxes, meanwhile another user can enjoy reading
in another box. Alternatively, spontaneous meetings can take place according to their needs. This
variety of activities can be placed because of the orientation and disposition of the boxes in this
space.
The boxes were designed to provide the maximum level of comfort for the users. Each one is com-
posed of soft seating areas (made by upholstery fabric sheets) and surrounded by tensile fabrics,
which can adapt to the user’s positions. These fabrics can help to absorb the sounds and noises
that are produced inside the box.

_ Figure 6 – Booths – Image authors: Pooya Noori and Attila Kovács

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In addition, the exteriors are constituted with translucent polycarbonate, which creates privacy, and
at the same time a possibility to open the box and integrate it into the given space. In consequence,
the skin gives the possibility to have a visual connection between the interior and exterior.
The load bearing structure is composed by hollow steel tubes. This solution creates the lightest
possible structure and easier connections among the elements.
The lighting is provided with LED stripes located inside the boxes. Therefore, the boxes are illuminat-
ing as lanterns in the whole space, thus creating a magical atmosphere.

Snowy fields – 6th floor – THE CREATIVE LOUNGE

Functions: meeting room, relaxing space, innovation and technology room.
Size: 24.10 square meters.
The team got the inspiration regarding the design of the lounge on some snowy fields (as a theme
of the floor) Consequently, the image of soft curves, meadows and snowy trees are represented in
the concept.
In addition, the group remarked the particular conditions of the location considering the lounge.
Having bright sunshine during afternoons and nice views towards the courtyard of the building. This
peculiarity has motivated the group to choose this place for the creativity space.
The main idea of the group is to provide as much flexibility in the possible usage of the space as
possible, according to the needs of the employees. For that reason, a rotating “wall” was designed,
which will provide the integration of the whole space. It allows the users to scatter the furniture
around the whole leisure area and enjoy the whole space. However, if the space is required for a
meeting, the walls can be close it.
The organically shaped rotating walls can be used in different levels, thus encouraging relaxation
and communication. Their structure is made of plywood and the upholstery is constructed of poly-
urethane foam.
The group also included hammock chairs hanging from the “trees branches” and the Tip Ton chair,
which allows its users to swing within the space, hence changing the position in a playful way.
The Tip Ton chair shows dual sitting postures that, according to studies from ETH Zurich in 2010,
straightens the pelvis and spine and thus improves circulation in the abdominal and back muscles.
The tree concept related to the nature of the fields, is presented in the design as a net of branches
hanging from the ceiling where it helps to incorporate some suspended furniture and lighting as
well.

Lighting – smart lighting

The lounge itself was planned to include the high technology gadgets which could be used by em-
ployees. For example, the walls have smart screens, which are connected with the organic shaped
table and it is possible to link personal devices as well as mobile phones with them. Giving the users
the smart flexibility as the technology can offer nowadays.
An automatic curtain system is also included in the project. The plan is to have three modes: man-
ual mode, wireless remote control and automatic light sensor mode. As it is written below, one of
the particularities of this lounge is strong light in the afternoon. Consequently, users can move the
shades according to their needs. The shades can be operated with tablets, smartphones or a remote
control.

CONCLUTIONS

It has proved that leisure spaces could contribute to the workers having better every day work ex-
perience [5].
According this paper office workplaces have a potential for improvement. The Research group took
underused spaces and presented some projects considering employees’ needs, examining data as
well as the analysed literature [1, 2, 4, 6] for a better understanding of nowadays way of working.

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Having this office’s style is possible because of the use of new technologies and the company’s
organization.

REFERENCES

__ Magazine article: M. Apgar, (1998). The alternative workplace: Changing where and how people work.
Harvard Business Review, 76(3), 121-136.
__ Book chapter: D. Clements-Croome, 2006. “Creating the Productive Workplace: Consciousness,
well-being and senses”, edited by Derek Clements-Croome, Taylor & Francis Group– 2nd edition, 14–21.
Abingdon: Milton Park.
__ Blog entry or comment: Cort 2020. “Evolution of the Office” The Cort Blog, February 20. Accessed Feb-
ruary 26, 2020. https://blog.cort.com/workplace/evolution-of-the-office-infographic/
__ Journal article: P. Fröst. 2016. “Administrative workplaces in healthcare: Designing an efficient and
patient-focused environment.” Journal of Hospital Administration, vol. 5, no. 4: 68–75.
__ Journal article: M. Robertson, P. Vink. 2012. “Examining new ways of office work between the Nether-
lands and the USA.” Journal Work, vol. 41, no. Supplement 1: 5086–5090.
__ Book chapter: J. Rostron. 1996. “Sick Building Syndrome Concepts, issues and practice”. In Overview
of the possible causes of SBS and recommendations for improving the internal environment by A. J.
Rayner, edited by J. Rostron. 5–29. Liverpool John Moores University.

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VAPOURABLE SUBLIME: AQUATECTURE EXPERIMENT AND

PROJECT REVIEW
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch52

_ Miloš Stojković
M.Arch., Teaching Assistant, PhD student, University of Belgrade
Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia, milos.stojkovic@arh.bg.ac.rs

ABSTRACT

There is hardly anything that entices pure awe and a feeling of the sublime as ruins of a historic
manor. Notions evoked by such ruins confine strong sensations of longing for a non-discernible
object of loss. Taking that into consideration, this paper takes everything a step further – it de-
materialises the formal language of manorial architecture and challenges the intuitive melancholic
sensations of the visitor. It eliminates the habitually known architectural elements of a manor and
calls for a rewriting of space and atmosphere. In the described research, water is the key element,
as all of its states are familiar to humans and thus serve as an effective stimulation of the sens-
es. The most sublime state of water is vapour. It is manifested here as a visible exhalation of the
ruin, a mist that disintegrates architecture, dematerialises space and annihilates gravity. Vapour
makes the architecture insubstantial and human emotions transitory. It provides strange, senseless
and fantastic notions which rewrite architectural design, offering new methods for applying water
in landscape architecture, heritage and tourism. The aim of this paper is to present the aquatic
phenomenon in architecture: the structure of space by water as a primordial element. The case
study for this research was a competition project for Château de la Mothe Chandeniers in France.
Designed according to doctoral research on relations between water and architecture, and offering
a responsible design approach and a unique methodology, the project deliberates upon those two
commonly known notions, while adding the third – Aquatectural common ruin as innovative method
of revitalization of built heritage.

KEYWORDS _ aquatecture, water, vapour, sublime, experiment, heritage

INTRODUCTION: THE COMMON RUIN

At the beginning of 2019, the international team of young professionals (design team members:
Boris Dundović, Lidija Lukić, Petar Tošić, Luka Stijović, Stefan Lakić and Miloš Stojković), had the
opportunity to work on a unique competition project, organized by YAC – Young Architects Com-
petitions, with the aim of promoting contemporary solutions that embody a temporal and personal
approach to architectural space. The architectural competition was entitled Common ruins (Young
Architects Competitions [YAC], 2018), and we named our Project for this competition Vapourable
Sublime.
There is a special fascination in ruins, when we can feel a sublime hint in dissolved architectures, as
we flow through the pulverization of time. During those moments, when silence takes over archi-
tecture and gives it to the water, Aquatecture is born (YAC, 2018; Wylson, 1986). In the long sunset
that follows abandonment and preludes destruction, nature completes the design of humankind
by taking space back according to its own pace. In that moment, something magical happens. In
that moment, architecture gives way to ruins. And we can say that the Renaissance castle of Mothe

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Chandeniers is one of a kind, a unique, perfect ruin. This structure is an enchanted mirage fluctu¬at-
ing on a calm lake, which creates a perfect Spatial image of Aquatecture (Stojković, 2019), one that
had to be lost in order to be found in the romantic French countryside (YAC, 2018).

SITE AND INTERVENTION

“There is hardly anything that entices pure awe and a feeling of the sublime as ruins of a
historic manor. Notions evoked by such ruins confine strong sensations of longing for a
non-discernible object of loss. Taking that into consideration, this paper takes everything a
step further – it dematerialises the formal language of manorial architecture and challenges
the intuitive melancholic sensations of the visitor. It eliminates the habitually known archi-
tectural elements of a manor and calls for a rewriting of space and atmosphere. By chal-
lenging the visitor’s senses, it persuades an individual to reflect on one material substance
and physical presence.” (Dundović, 2019, 1).
Before going further, and before a deep explanation of the project and methodology, we must mention
that Mothe Chandeniers is not too far from the magnificent castles (châteaux and manoirs) that made
the Loire valleys famous. The Castle is situated in a context which is perfect for a dreamy scenario
for the act of human creation of the Myth and the Concept of Sublimity (Popović & Milenković, 2015),
or more appropriately for an aquatecture project as unique as the house of water (Stojković, 2019).
The site as an extended countryside separates the castle from the main towns; consequently, the
visitors of the site have the impression of traveling through time. Golden fields and thick woods that
surround the site lead to quiet villages with bluish sloping roofs and solid chimneys. Such elements
evoke settings more fitting for Alexander Dumas rather than the scenary of a contemporary France.
Scattered towers covered in ivy overlook lavender and wheat fields. Roses, lilies and petunias em-
bellish vegetable gardens and porticos. Every element of this unique architectural work contributes
to creating a sense of conciliation evoked by the smell of hay and the quiet dance of the fronds of
willow trees. The ancient Aquitaine region is truly an oasis of peace. Only flying doves and hunting
shots interrupt its peaceful silence (YAC, 2018, 6). Such a description can be recognized as a „frag-
ile“ perception of space, giving life to inspiration on the road to profound learning, all in the name
of understanding and making of a contemporary architectural space (Pallasmaa, 2017, 57). In our
design, we consider this meaningful context of the castle, and by doing so, we propose an efficient
tourism and accommodation scenario with a unique intervention achieved by blurring the boundar-
ies. The structure of the castle was affected by decades of abandonment and its static performanc-
es are consolidated in a series of up-to-date structural architectural interventions, both indoor and
outdoor. They enhanced the visit, the discovery and the unique potential of the castle as a romantic
site made of the architecture of sublime dreams (Popović & Milenković, 2015).

_ Figure 1: Design concept & conceptual idea, Vapourable Sublime project diagrams and sketches, au-
thors: Boris Dundnović, Lidija Lukić, Petar Tošić, Luka Stijović, Stefan Lakić and Miloš Stojković, 2019.

The implemented intervention can be split into two zones. The first zone is comprised of the castle
interior, followed by the moat, and including the nearby chapel. Our intervention is aimed at enhanc-
ing the visitor’s perception of the castle, with new routes and platforms, volumes and floating struc-
tures, enriched by an open air (aquatic) theatre and an artificial island scene with hydraulics, sound

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and lighting systems. The second zone consists of the gardens around the castle and the lake,
accentuated by a newly formed semi-circular structure above the ground, with a multifunctional
rooftop, arising conceptually from the arc of a water drop (Fig. 1), marking a central axis and its route
that improves the usability of the castle (Fig. 4). These kinds of interventions are to guarantee fas-
cinating and improved views of the castle, respecting both nature and historical architecture in situ.

AQAUTECTURE PROJECT: VAPOURABLE SUBLIME

At the beginning of the study, the intervention is described as a setting for intuitive melancholic sen-
sations and a dreamy, sublime vessel (a kind of sublime dream) for rewriting space and atmosphere.
Now we can say that in the described mechanism, water is the key element, as all of its states are
familiar to the visitor and thus serve as an effective stimulation of the senses. That notion appears
as a leitmotif throughout all parts of the depicted project. The most sublime state of water is vapour.
It is manifested here as a visible exhalation of the ruin, a mist that disintegrates architecture, dema-
terialises space and annihilates gravity. Vapour makes architecture insubstantial and the visitor’s
emotions transitory. It provides strange, senseless and fantastic notions which rewrite the overall
story of the chateau with each visitor. On a wider scale, the ruin itself functions as a water droplet.
It emanates vectors, emits surfaces and structures which physically manifest as ripples crystallized
in time (Dundović, 2019). Conclusively, the common ruin of the manor transcends the known physi-
cality and emerges as a notion of sublimity – that is, the Vapourable Sublime (Fig. 2).

_ Figure 2: Vapourable Sublime – Conceptual aquatecture diagram (aquarelle triptych), author: Miloš
Stojković, 2019.

As the focal point of the site, the manor is a node that dictates the intensity of spatial vectors orient-
ed towards it. In this project, the vectors affecting the manor and turning it into a ruin are emanating
beyond physical boundaries, spreading to the surrounding area, manifesting in the water that envel-
ops it, in surfaces and objects that make a new architectural disposition. The manor is envisioned
as an artistic space where a sequence of rooms (circular enfilade) and salons serves as a kind of ex-
hibition hall. The rooms present contemporary art and architecture installations in dialogue with the
historic ruin. Starting with the first room (sala baronale - Fig. 6), the visitor is introduced to elements
of manorial architecture, but the newly embedded elements also suggest that it is a place of recon-
sideration. Room by room, the contemporary elements overtake the ruin architecture, disintegrating
it into atmospheres. The visitor’s senses are also gradually challenged, until common concepts like
sight, touch, gravity and other sensory information is completely out of reach. It is lost in pools of
black, in metal, in fog and mirrors, so that when the visitor returns to the central courtyard (cortille)
where they started, they are immediately splashed with a strong return of physicality and emotions
(Dundović, 2019, 1), indulging in the Sublime Dream (Fig 3).

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_ Figure 3 & 4: Vapourable Sublime project – Floor plan of the chateau & use of the space: 1 - Entrance
(shop a/b), 2 - Baronial hall (soil/sand/gravel), 3 - Black/Blue floor room, 4 - Water room, 5 - Steam hall,
6 - Installation, 7 - Ice room, 8/9 - Gallery spaces, 10 - Library, 11 - Office, authors: Boris Dundović, Lidija
Lukić, Petar Tošić, Luka Stijović, Stefan Lakić and Miloš Stojković, 2019; Vapourable Sublime project –
Site plan of the chateau and manor central axis, authors: Boris Dundović, Lidija Lukić, Petar Tošić, Luka
Stijović, Stefan Lakić and Miloš Stojković, 2019.

_ Figure 5 & 6: Vapourable Sublime project – Exterior and interior ambients (Fig. 6 Exibition hall - sala
baronale), authors: Boris Dundović, Lidija Lukić, Petar Tošić, Luka Stijović, Stefan Lakić and Miloš Sto-
jković, 2019.

The most significant of the vectors is the central axis of the manorial site, which dictates the sym-
metry of the estate and which centres the courtyard of the ruin. While it emanates from the manor
house ruin, its conclusion is marked by a lake with an island (Fig. 4). The manor is a central point
for new architecture that surrounds it. As scenography, it visually “exhales mnemonic vapours” to

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the surrounding space, materialising the idea of the manor house that once was. On the other hand,
the new architecture also uses certain elements reminiscent of the manor, such as stone walls and
white walls, but it reverses relations between these elements to accommodate new functions (Fig.
5&6). The deconstructed elements are oriented as vectors towards the manor (Dundović, 2019, 1).
“The outline of the manor doubles not only in the mirror canal, but also in the small lake
opposing the original structure. Placed one towards the other, the duality of manors once
again contrasts the notions of real and virtual, of material and transcendent, and of manorial
and vapourable.” (Dundović, 2019, 1)

Competition briefing and the program of Common Ruin as Vapourable Sublime

The issue of the relationship between artificial and natural is a funda¬mental feature of a place
where water is the key element that surrounds the ruin. In the castle, ar¬chitecture, nature and his-
tory tell their most remarkable story. The challenge of Mothe Chandeniers deals with the mysterious
relationship between the different elements that compose the unique beauty of this place (YAC,
2018, 8). With water as the key element in that equation, the Castle can became a true Aquatecture
project and a unique House of water (Stojković, 2019). It also deals with uses and new accommo-
dation models. Consequently, the intentions are focused on the individual and experiential discovery
methodology of the ruins as part of visit models that can be observed as open and as common
as possible. Therefore, what is offered is an exclusive, interior and outdoor emotional expe¬rience
for future visitors (consistent with the nature of the castle and water around it by creating floating
platforms with mist, (Fig. 7).

_ Figure 7: Vapourable Sublime project – Floating platforms with mist, ambient and axonometry (diptych),
authors: Boris Dundović, Lidija Lukić, Petar Tošić, Luka Stijović, Stefan Lakić and Miloš Stojković, 2019.

Here¬by follows a paraphrase of different functional and program possibilities we offered in our
project for a Castle revitalization (following the instruction from the Competition briefing): 1. Visi-
tors’ center: we create an architectural route in and around the castle (inspired by a water drop). It
will have to ensure the knowledge of the fortress’ history, in-cluding a series of spectacular views
of the ruin. This is one of the numerous elements aiming at witnessing and enhancing the inherited
story of the castle; 2. Shop: this place will include the merchandise of the castle and a specialized
bookshop, conceived as a space next to the entrance before one enters the sequence of rooms –
the circular enfilade (Fig. 3); 3. Restaurant/biofarm: in this area visitors will have the opportunity to
enjoy a refreshing break, tasting French food and wine specialties, as the restaurant and biofarm are
to be located in the new archi-structure, on the bank of the lake next to the water, near the chapel
(which is left intact); 4. Theater and events area: Mothe Chandeniers provides extraordinary natural
and architectural scenography. It is the perfect set design for any show or artistic/musical perfor-
mance. Today, as in the 16th century, the Castle will host actors, musicians and performers. There-

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fore, three stages are placed along the central axis of the manorial site. The first and the biggest - at
the entrance, the second one in front of the Castle on the water with floating platforms (where facade
of Castle makes a unique scenography), and the third as an island scene at the outskirts of the ma-
norial site; all three stages can be called the Aquatic theatre (Stojković, 2019); 5. Castle villas: Mothe
Chandeniers is to en¬sure sufficient hospitality solutions for all those visitors who want to escape
their everyday routine in order to relax in the castle. Anytime during the year, Mothe Chandeniers can
guarantee a remarkable and prodigious splendor, also thanks to the ever-changing sky and colors
of nature. Thus, we propose a right wing of the new archi-structure for this residential purpose. We
also added Minimal modules around the ruin, floating elements on water stretches, with facilities
(springs and vapour sticks) which can create a mist (Dsrny. 2002) framing the suggestive views
of the castle and allowing a walk on water (Christo and Jeanne Claude. 2016), forming the unique
Image of the Space (Stojković, 2019); 6. Wellness services: observing the castle covered in snow
immersed in the vapors of a heating swimming pool is just one of the possible scenarios of wellness
services. They are to be private and situated in front of the villas with a view of the facade of the Cas-
tle. The integration of such water elements will guarantee a unique and unforgetta¬ble experience
of the castle; 7. Nature and ruins observatory: It is an equipped trail aimed to better discover the
castle and its surrounding nature. We proposed a rooftop trail which supplements the central axis
trail in Castle and the water as Gangways connecting the ruins, meditation and relaxation spaces or
panoramic viewpoints (YAC, 2019, 8-9). This kind of treatment shall guide visi¬tors in a unique expe-
rience of a vapourable sublime. These indoor and outdoor trails (decking paths) will enable visitors
to stand on the elements that slightly touch the water, observe sensual roots twining the castle and
find hidden friezes, art, sculptures and installations, such as ice, aquatic and vegetative rooms and
halls, oculus corridors, or kaleidoscopic sky installations in towers of a glass-roofed castle.

INITIAL RESEARCH AND METHODOLOGY: AQUATECTURE EXPERIMENT

The initial research was conducted as part of my post-graduate studies, during the second year
of the Doctoral Academic Studies in Architecture and Urbanism at the University of Belgrade, from
March 2017 to February 2018. The experimental research for this, now freely called aquatectural
project and study, was created in the elective course Architecture and Visual Language, under the
mentorship of Professor Branko Pavić. The name of this initial research was Water: inspiration in
architectural space design - methodological experiments. The research looked at four case studies
(in Serbia and Croatia, guided by the criterion of being related to a water element). Those locations,
from which the water sample was taken in order to emulate scientific (artistic) poetical information,
as relevant to architectural practice, can be colors (through the formation of tone maps for a spe-
cific place or object) and shapes (made for new or existing structures) during the design research
process or the process of revitalization (Stojković, 2018).
It is also important to note at the end, that the design research carried out in this paper is presented
in the architecture design and a study (Conceptual Design). The framework in this process is based
on the integration of theoretical and pragmatic design aspects using a contemporary understanding
of aesthetics as communication on a cultural and social level. In that context, the design research
process can be thought of as a form of manifestation (for presented methodology) of the designer’s
and the architect’s aesthetic intention, providing possible variable forms of its expression (Mako,
2009). One such methodology significantly complements the aesthetic segments of the solution
and the process of the creation of the presented project review and team of authors that participated
in the design of this Aquatecture experiment.

Recent research on similar concepts and ideas: Models from practice

The jury of the competition consisted of eminent experts and artists such as Edoardo Tresoldi and
Anish Kapoor, whose work in practice are very complementary to the presented research methodol-
ogy (Tresoldi. 2019; Kapoor.2019). In addition to these experts, works of Olafur Eliasson (Eliasson.

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2019) and Christo (Christo and Jeanne Claude. 2016), as well as structures and concepts like the
Blur Building at the Swiss Expo 2002 (Dsrny. 2002), were also found to provide substantial inspi-
ration, and they greatly influenced the presented project. Any further analysis of the works of the
aforementioned authors (artists) would lead to a deepening of the presented problem and topic/
theme, as well as a possible improvement of methodology, which could deepen the way of under-
standing water in contemporary architecture. Such case studies would go far beyond the scope of
this paper, and therefore it is expected to cover them further in some future research, in the form of
a design or research process of a peculiar type of architecture – Aquatecture.

CONCLUSION: COMMON SPACE OF THE VAPOURABLE SUBLIME

In addition to the above mentioned, the architectural project review and (experimental) design re-
search process according to the experiments from past doctoral research on relations between wa-
ter and architecture, this paper deliberates those commonly known notions, while adding the com-
mon ruin as a contemporary, and very possible innovative method of revitalization of built heritage.
Since the paper is funded under the “Study of Climate Change and its Impact on environment: im-
pacts, adaptation and mitigation”, the effects of humidity on the spatial structure of buildings should
also be mentioned. Humidity can definitively lead to a degradation of space and structures, but in
this project, well-ventilated spaces are planned, mostly under the open sky, where under the influ-
ence of insolation, the harmful effects of humidity would be avoided and prevented. While on the
other hand, water vapour as a sublime character of contemporary design, especially for revitalizing
the built heritage, is proposed as a unique solution in the given environment and site. Therefore, the
methodology and the aquatectural project and study presented in this paper open us to possible
future fields of action in the protection of the architectural heritage, merging the common space of
the Vapourable Sublime of art and culture.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This paper was realized as a part of the project “Studying climate change and its influence on the environment:
impacts, adaptation and mitigation” (43007) funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological De-
velopment of the Republic of Serbia.

REFERENCES

__ ArchDaily. 2018. “Common ruins.” ArchDaily 2008-2020 ISSN 0719-8884. Last modified October 29,
2018. Accessed March 13, 2020. https://www.archdaily.com/904760/common-ruins
__ Christo and Jeanne Claude. 2016. “The Floating Piers.” Lake Iseo, Italy. Accessed March 13, 2020.
https://christojeanneclaude.net/projects/the-floating-piers
__ Dsrny. 2002. “Blur Building project.” Swiss Expo 2002, Yverdon les Bains, Switzerland. Accessed March
13, 2020. https://dsrny.com/project/blur-building
__ Dundović, Boris. 2019. “Vapourable Sublime”, introductory text. In Vapourable Sublime, architectural
project and study, authored by Boris Dundović, Lidija Lukić, Petar Tošić, Luka Stijović, Stefan Lakić and
Miloš Stojković, 1. Belgrade: unpublished study.
__ Eliasson, Olafur. 2019. Accessed March 13, 2020. https://olafureliasson.net/archive/artwork
__ Kapoor, Anish.2019. Accessed March 13, 2020. http://anishkapoor.com/#works
__ Mako,Vladimir. 2009. Estetika – Arhitektura, knjiga 1: sedam tematskih rasprava. Belgrade: Arhitekton-
ski Fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu & Orion Art.

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__ Moore, Charles Wilard. 1994. Water and architecture. New York: Harry N. Abrams.
__ Pallasmaa, Juhani. 2017. “Opipljivost i vreme – beleške o krhkoj arhitekturi.” In Prostor vremena: iz-
abrani eseji, edited by Ajla Selenić and Vladan Đokić. 51-63. Belgrade: Univerzitet u Beogradu, Arhitek-
tonski fakultet.
__ Popović, Mihailo and Vladimir Milenković. 2015. “Evolution Digitalized: Architecture of Sublime Dream.”
In Keeping Up with Technologies to improve places, edited by Eva Vaništa Lazarević, Milena Vukmirović,
Aleksandra Krstić-Furundžić and Aleksandra Đukić, 146-154. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars
Publishing.
__ Stojković, Miloš. 2019. “WATER IN ARCHITECTURE: Imaginary Aquatecture space – Houses of Water.”
In Possible Worlds of Contemporary Aaesthetics: Aaesthetics Between History, Geography and Media:
Proceedings / 21 International Congress of Aaesthetics ICA 2019, Belgrade, 2019, edited by Nataša Jan-
ković, Boško Drobnjak and Marko Nikolić, 1924-1935. Belgrade: University of Belgrade, Faculty of Archi-
tecture.
__ Stojković, Miloš. 2018. “Water: inspiration in architectural space design -─methodological experiments”,
mentor Branko Pavić, elective course Architecture and Visual Language. Belgrade: University of Belgrade,
Faculty of Architecture, unpublished study.
__ Tresoldi, Edoardo. 2019.Accessed March 13,2020. https://www.edoardotresoldi.com/works/
__ Wylson, Anthony. 1986. Aquatecture: architecture and water. London: The Architectural Press.
__ YAC. 2018. “Common ruins Competition.” YAC ltd - Vat No 02509200412 - R.E.A. Bo. 523578. Last
modified March 27. 2019. Accessed March 08, 2020. (Competition Brief CR_ENG. PDF) https://www.
youngarchitectscompetitions.com/competition/common-ruins#competition; https://www.youngarchi-
tectscompetitions.com/competition/common-ruins#brief

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COLLECTIVE HOUSING AS NEW IDENTITY IN RURAL AREAS

DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch53

_ Miloš Arandjelović
PhD, Associate scientist,Faculty of Architecture University of Belgrade,
Bulevar Kralja Aleksandra 73/2, mls.arandjelovic@gmail.com

_ Aleksandar Videnović
PhD, Associate Professor, Faculty of Architecture University of Belgrade,
Bulevar Kralja Aleksandra 73/2, videnovic.a@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

Changes in the social and cultural pattern have led to some changes in the forms of rural housing.
Especially in the post-war period, more precisely 70’s and 80’s of the twentieth century, which rep-
resents the research timeframe. One of the main reasons for this is certainly the process of post-
war intensive industrialization, while the other lies in the need to improve the basic amenities and
services of the settlement. The paper describes the collective housing in rural areas built in Serbia
as a former republic of socialist Yugoslavia. Collective housing in the countryside appears to be a
real need for working class accommodation employed in industrial plants as well as housing for
government officials and workers of public institutions (post office, police, schools, etc.). The archi-
tecture of these buildings, on the other hand, did not possess the features of regional and traditional
architectural values. It belonged to a different practice embodied in the values of socialist ideology.
It should also be added that the construction of such buildings was not characteristic for all forms
of rural settlements. These were predominantly rural settlements of higher category which had well
established centers and other elements of urban structure as well as solid demographic potential.
In this sense, the research seeks to point out some relevant specifics of such construction on the
one hand, and on the other to point out some of the possibilities for future spatial and functional
organization of rural settlements.

KEYWORDS _ collective housing, rural identity, socrealism in architecture, industrialisation

and village

INTRODUCTION

The analysis of the social context in which the construction of rural collective housing facilities
took place is undoubtedly important for the understanding of that process. It is primarily necessary
because it indicates certain specific characteristics of that practice. Namely, the nature of the need
for such form of housing in the communities traditionally characterised by agricultural activity and
the connection with the soil. Accordingly, this study recognizes the shift in life styles and economic
activities in rural areas as one of the main reasons for changes in the housing models.
The analysis of the original context of the construction of these buildings in the Serbian villages is
linked to the period of post-war construction efforts and the planning of rural settlements in accor-
dance with the socialist principles. The massive state-promoted push towards the intense indus-
trialization of the Yugoslav society at the time demanded additional workforce, which usually came
from rural areas. Employment in plants increased the demand for worker housing so the factories

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erected in rural communities have themselves constructed collective housing facilities, but also
entire worker settlements for their own needs.
This study is relevant since the trend of diminishing agricultural production continues to this very
day. Contemporary rural development strategies increasingly strive to find the ways for keeping the
population by means of economic sector improvement, while, on the other hand, few of them focus
on manner and quality of life of people in rural communities. Tourism, specialized agricultural pro-
duction and other possible forms of rural economic activity are promoted, while the issue of housing
is somehow taken as granted and remains in the context of individual free standing houses. In that
sense it is important to indicate some of the forms of housing which could, and logically should,
follow the current settlement development, and where such forms were previously present in the
construction practice in Serbia, although in a specific historical context.
From the point of view of methodology, this study represents the analysis of the aforementioned
social context which has defined the construction of collective housing facilities, but it also notes
some of the examples of this construction such as the buildings in settlements Crna Trava and
Kalna on Stara Planina Mountain. By providing specific cases we endeavour to review not only the
negative aspects of such construction in villages, most often related to general criticism of socialist
heritage, but also some of the advantages of life in such buildings.

SOCIALIST CONSTRUCTION CONTEXT

The changes on the planning and organization of rural settlements started immediately after the end
of the Second World War. The architectural practice in socialist Yugoslavia was completely aligned
with the social and political development trends. In the light of the idea of general socialist transfor-
mation of society, the program of agrarian reform and accelerated industrialization was imposed on
the new state. The reform criteria and objectives notwithstanding, the industrialization was largely
to be spearheaded by the rural population, thus achieving a double effect - the construction of in-
dustry on one hand, and the reform of the agriculture (which implied the creation of working class in
villages) on the other (Stevanovic, 2008). From the viewpoint of those in power, the reasons for such
efforts were completely justified since 70% of the population at the time lived in rural areas.
The aforementioned changes are relevant for this study simply because this is the moment when
mass construction of collective housing buildings was initiated in rural communities. This con-
struction was fuelled by the need for the housing of workforce which came from villages and was
employed in plants. We should also note the housing of civil servants and other public employees in
the rural communities (police officers, postmen, teachers and other school staff, etc.).
General efforts aimed at the resolving of the issue of rural housing were especially intensified in
late 1950s and early 1960s. This is when the ambitious attempt was made to define certain cor-
rect housing postulates through specific designs for rural houses and households. The proposals
of standardized houses for specific areas and regions in these cases implied individual buildings.
The entire process was organized by the Institute of Hygiene of the People’s Republic of Serbia
which made an important step in the development and presentation of programme designs for both
houses and rural yards with attached facilities (Simonović & Ribar, 1993, pp. 140-142). However, the
obstacles soon encountered in practice by both designers and numerous state institutions were
related to the lack of funding for the implementation of the said ideas.
On the other hand, the architecture of collective housing buildings, which were also being construct-
ed, had no specific traits linked the regional or traditional construction heritage, but was rooted in
the new practice reflecting the values of the socialist ideology. The construction continued in this
manner from 1950s up to 1990s. The efforts aimed at rural settlement planning and changes in
living conditions in line with socialist ideas have initiated certain tangible spatial and functional
changes in the villages, primarily from the aspect of rural hubs design which implied the construc-
tion of cooperative buildings and spatial planning of public areas (Aranđelović & Videnović, 2016,
pp. 947-960).

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Groups or individual examples of collective buildings are most often located in the central zones of
settlements and as such used to be the models of new development and socialist urban planning.
Unlike some examples being constructed today, the architecture of this period possessed a certain
aesthetics and form accompanied with adequate quality of housing. On the other hand, today the
fulfilment of minimal construction standards has become an excuse for development of an unac-
ceptable rural architecture which represents a complete functional and aesthetical failure.

ARCHITECTURE AS A REFLECTION OF A LIFESTYLE

Rural architecture has historically usually followed a spontaneous manner of construction which
was not implemented by professional organizations but arose as the need of the population building
independently for their own needs. The construction knowledge and skills were transferred from
generation to generation along with the respect for the tradition which directly influenced the archi-
tectural forms.
Traditional rural architecture has always reflected the needs of the people living and working in
these areas. At first glance, such a statement seems completely self-evident; however the impact of
different economic activities, from the aforementioned industrialization to modern tourism has con-
siderably altered not only the needs but also the understanding of the very notion of rural housing.
Collective housing as a concept is not inherent for rural areas. Link to agriculture as primary eco-
nomic activity has largely determined the concept and rhythm of rural life. However, changes in the
economy have, quite expectedly, engendered relevant changes in the concept of housing.
These and similar changes have also impacted the shift in the visual identity of rural settlements.
Such is the case today in, for example, suburban settlements where semi-urbanized spaces are
created between the urban and rural areas, and where these spaces tend to grow into settlements
serving the needs of the near-by city, having in mind the fact that they offer lower costs of living then
those in the urban centre.
Noting that man’s survival depends, among other things, on the planned and designed image of the
environment he inhabits, Christian Norberg-Schulz indicates the need for preservation of a specific
location’s identity, more precisely its existential space (Norberg-Schulz, 2006). Certainly, specific
changes, even in small communities, are necessary due to shifts in lifestyles, communication and
economic activities, but it is still important to understand the need for preservation of the original
values of rural life, and accordingly the need for careful planning of future facilities.
When discussing spatial changes, it is irrelevant whether we refer to the shifts in forms of housing or
economic facilities; the more important thing is to accept the fact that changes in social, economic
and cultural spheres must be paired with the changes in the architectural shaping of space, since
this provides the sustainability of a settlement in complex contemporary circumstances.
In that sense, Schulz notes that it is a duty of an architect to assist the man in defining his existential
framework in line with the social guidelines which are almost constantly in the phase of turbulence
and transformation, to adapt to the changes but also the preserve the values of the traditional con-
text in order to avoid the loss of one’s own identity.
Village houses and yards as basic elements of spatial organization of a rural district have always
been a reflection of rural life. The construction of collective housing has in a certain manner repre-
sented the break with the traditional architecture continuity and was based on the creation of a new
visual identity of rural settlements.
In the original socialist context the construction of collective buildings in the rural communities was
a result of:
_ Changes in the domain of economy which contributed to the creation of a rural working
class (employment in the industrial sector, agrarian reform consequences)
_ Strive for urbanization and spatial planning of settlements
(based on the idea of socialist transformation of villages - creation of new symbols)
On the other hand, we should still emphasize certain advantages of such a form of housing. Some

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of these are certainly:

_ Reduced communal needs;
_ Settlement concentration which facilitates infrastructural planning, as well as provides
additional acce3ssibiolity to different facilities (social protection, service and commercial
facilities etc.);
_ Improvement in the quality of housing;
_ Settlement spatial planning in line with the professional rules and guidelines.
Maybe, in line with all of the aforementioned, it would be best to review the shifts in the functional
and spatial composition of settlements in the light of a specific example. Until 1965, the village
Kalna was the seat of the municipality consisting of 14 settlements. In 1963, uranium was dis-
covered in the village Grabovica near Kalna, and at the time it was believed this would kick-start
the economic development of the area. Intensive infrastructure improvement was undertaken and
numerous public buildings and worker colonies were constructed. The construction of the mine and
the attached settlement was stopped after two years, which was followed by the demographic shifts
and migrations towards primarily Knjaževac and Zaječar as larger hubs.
According to the official 2011 Census few people remain in this settlement - only 289 and it is
expected to completely disappear in a few years’ time. However, the existing sound infrastructure
and various facilities could be used to potentially revitalize the settlement (Aranđelović & Videnović,
2016, pp. 69,70).
From the aspect of architecture, these buildings are aligned with socialist aesthetics, with a stronger
focus on function than on external ornaments, but with clearly defined shapes and volumetry (Fig-
ure 1, 2). They represented standardized designs produced by various professional organizations,
so design-wise these were functionally well-designed buildings. The apartments were of no lower
quality than those in the urban centres. The only issue that arose later on was that the buildings
have seemingly lost their purpose after the mine was closed and the idea of ore processing was
abandoned.

_ Figure 1,2: Settlement Kalna. Source: Authors archive

On the other hand, the study also refers to construction activities in Crna Trava as an example of
individual collective housing buildings (Figure 3). From the aspect of urban planning, the newly con-
structed buildings have been aligned with the design of the central space and pedestrian zone in
the settlement. They became the main elements of the settlements spatial plan. Built in 1970s and
1980s mostly for the needs of the housing of workers employed in the newly opened furniture fac-
tories in Vranje and textile industry in Pirot, these buildings have become the visual symbols of the
settlement. The only issue (that arose later on) was related to the inheriting of the apartments (Vide-
nović, 2017, pp. 367-369). The heirs were not obliged to get employed in the same organizations in
order to keep the ownership rights which later lead to different social shifts, mostly migrations. It is
similar to the situation in Kalna, where the deterioration of factories without the option for continued

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employment or going back to intensive agriculture resulted in the population leaving their house-
holds in a search of a better life.

_ Figure 3: The facility for the needs of health and child care workers, built in the 1980s. (Crna Trava).
Source: Authors archive

CONCLUSIONS

The study endeavours to indicate certain relevant specific traits of the collective housing construc-
tion on one hand, and the potential options for future planning of rural settlements on the other.
Rural collective housing can represent a model for affordable housing at the present, especially
having in mind that, in spite of numerous strategies, the percentage of agricultural population keeps
dropping. Life in traditional rural households requires a lot of work on building maintenance and,
understandably, considerable financial resources that the population that is not engaged exclusively
in agriculture or doesn’t see it as its chosen economic activity simply does not possess. In contem-
porary terms, collective housing can represent sustainable housing for non-agricultural population.
However, the negative effect, that has been proven in practice as common for a considerable num-
ber of cases, is that several decades of crisis and sanctions that have affected our country, have
encouraged a considerable number of people living in such buildings to resort to different forms of
agriculture in order to survive these troubled times. This created a disbalance where people lived in
apartments but worked in agriculture.
On the other hand, it is positive that the construction of these buildings was accompanied by the
landscape design of the immediate surroundings. Quite often collective housing facilities were sur-
rounded by public spaces, paved or green areas with benches and occasionally drinking fountains
which enabled decent stay in the open. For the aspect of urban planning, this has enabled significant
improvement of the spatial and functional potential of the settlement.
The original context of the socialist construction definitely demonstrates the importance of the
state and competent professional organizations leading the entire process. Especially when having
in mind the current practice of own-initiative construction governed by „investor urbanism“ which
frequently lowers the quality of the designed space, primarily because it is profit-oriented. The ideo-
logical and political framework from the socialist construction (and the negative image thereof)
notwithstanding, the involvement of professionals remains important since it would reduce negative
interventions in space which have been considerably degrading the look of the settlements in prac-
tice, their traditional identity and thus the living conditions in such an environment.

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REFERENCES

__ Aranđelović, Miloš and Aleksandar Videnović. 2016. „Društveni značaj zadružnih domova u postsoci-
jalističkom kontekstu.“ Zbornik Matice srpske za društvene nauke, 4/2016: 947-960.
__ Aranđelović, Miloš and Aleksandar Videnović. 2016. “Regional factor of sustainable development of
rural settlements of Kalna and Minićevo at the foot of the Stara planina mountain.” Spatium, No. 35
(june): 63-70.
__ Videnović, Aleksandar. 2017. Obnova centara u ruralnim područjima. Beograd: Arhitektonski fakultet
u Beogradu.
__ Stevanović, Đura. 2008. Industrijalizacija poljoprivrede i budućnost sela. Beograd: Zavod za prouča-
vanje sela.
__ Simonović, Đorđe and Milorad, Ribar. 1993. Uređenje seoskih teritorija i naselja. Beograd: IBI.
__ Norberg-Šulc, Kristijan. 2006. Egzistencija, prostor i arhitektura. translated by.Milutin Maksimović,
Beograd: Građevinska knjiga.

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ARCHITECTURE-INSTRUMENT: THE ARCHITECTURE-MACHINE

ORIGINS AND FRAMEWORKS OF MACHINIC LINE OF THINKING
IN ARCHITECTURE
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch54

_ Dragana Ćirić
PhD, dragana.ci@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

The paper will aim to introduce the format of the architecture-instrument as a specific spatial model
for the converged architectural artistic and scientific design research and practice. This will be per-
formed in relation to its machinic origins or counterparts - since this form constitutes itself through
different concepts of the machine variously present, applied and interpreted throughout the history
within and adjacent to the architectural discipline or field of interest depending on the historical pe-
riod, different machinic modalities and their attributes will be the central concern of the study. Archi-
tecture-machines will be analysed in line with several criteria alongside the additional aim of tracing
its genealogy and categories. Therefore, the long present machine paradigm in architecture will be
challenged toward its contemporary reassessment within which possible lines of development and
major features of the architecture-instrument could be inferred against the chosen references and
theoretical notions.

The experimental prototype exo that claimed the status of the architecture-instrument in its most
advanced form - integrating sentience, algorithmic control and automation, kinetic properties,
adaptability, intelligent responsiveness and interaction concerning the tracked objects, systems
and environmental parameters – while also attempting to redefine and question its epistemological,
methodological and technical implications, will be used as a case study that has tested some of the
proposed claims, providing thereby necessary empirical evidence for the arguments. The analysed
examples and sources will establish a clear outline and framework of the machinic line of thinking
in architecture, enabling one thus to discern and better understand the architecture-machine/in-
strument’s semantic scopes, applied forms, constitutive properties and importance along with the
disciplinary and scientific-artistic integration they imply in the current moment as a continuation of
its much longer traditions.

KEYWORDS _ architecture-instrument, architecture-machine, machine genealogy in

architecture, design research science and methodology, disciplinary convergence

INTRODUCTION

In its initial statement, the first prototyping phase of the global eye(s) project – exo experiment
– theoretically challenged previously widely used concept of the architecture-machine which has
been planned to deliver the proof of the concept and start the development phase of the techni-
cal solution for the proposed architectural integration. The form of the architecture-instrument has
been presumed as the architecture-machines’s refined modality, better suited for the investigative
and testing objectives in this particular situation, converging thereby all the models which already
existed in literature and practice in line with its own criteria and specific aims. The reason why the

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existing forms haven’t been just adopted are all those fine differences in their definitions which
couldn’t have been neglected and whose subtlety has been important for the maintenance of the
richness of architectural formal capacities and vocabulary. Besides the machine and its modali-
ties (device, mise-en-scène machine and installation (Wihart, 2015:110-118), architectural model
as machine (Smith, 2004), mechanical, cybernetic, mathematic, state-machine and heterogenetic
machine (Broeckmann, 2016:19-28)), the instrument, prototype and prototyping model, analogue
model, performative model (Stojanovic, 2013) and simulation (Kolarevic, 2003, in Stojanovic, 2013:8)
were all taken into consideration. This project has been drawing features from all of them, qualifying
to be designated by each term except for those having passive properties (such as architectural
scale model). But, if identifying with any of them alone, the opportunity of displaying the nuances
that were posited by its initial concept or further documented throughout its strategic planning and
realisation, would be at risk. Hence the principal theoretical analysis follows the question of the
format elaborating on introduced machinic concepts. The primary references address the notion of
the “machine”, both mechanical (kinetic, tactile) and conceptual (virtual/abstract). The questions
of how these notions influenced and shaped or could be transformed into or replaced by the “in-
strument” along with the requirements that should be fulfilled to justify such transition, will lead to
main conclusions. One will be able to see how boundaries between certain aspects or categories of
different “machinic entities” easily blur before the design integration approach.
When appearing in the text, the aspects of the exo experiment will serve as supportive arguments to
critical observations on principal attributes and key concepts that make up the identity and the class
of objects of the architecture instrument and/or machine. It will serve to demonstrate the legitimacy
and importance of these forms for architectural design research and experimentation.

ARCHITECTURE-MACHINE AND ARCHITECTURAL MECHANISM: TOWARDS THE FORM OF

AN ARCHITECTURE-INSTRUMENT

The principal section of the paper will try to elucidate the historical lineage of machinic concepts,
models and representations with architecture as the central field of interest. The references will span
all the fields that have significantly contributed to their development and various applications taking
into account more complex integration of different research areas, as well as scientific, artistic and
technological convergences and collaborations. Aware of the scope of such an idea, this review will
probably have to leave out some examples since the topic is rather demanding and requires signif-
icant investigations, especially regarding the time-period and literature it needs to cover. Therefore,
it will be designated as an outline of the possibly more detailed future project performed especially
for the purposes of the main architecture-instrument hypothesis. The complexity of the historical
evidence preceding the first modern interpretations of the concept as well as that of the official
machine age (the period that has proclaimed its machinic status - clear machinic conceptual in-
tentions and further convergence of machines and architecture) - demand a more elaborate study.
Still, the most distinguished examples will be analysed to support the effort of tracing the machinic
continuity and influences in architectural ideas and the proposed classification. The technological
progress of societies and their productive capabilities are seen as an important framework predom-
inantly shaping those certain kinds of machinic models that will be discussed. Their succession has
been presumed to have led to the form of an architecture-instrument the way one can use it in the
current moment but also to the specific articulation of the autonomous line of development of the
instruments themselves within the machine genealogy. Hence historical progression of time along
with typological clustering and specific architectural operationalisation of the machinic concepts
will direct the way the architectural machinic ideas and technical solutions will be presented (Fig.2).
The next lines are going to inquire into the evidence and possible arguments in support of the pre-
sented claims within the important historical, methodological and epistemological foundations of
the converging fields of engineering, architecture, arts, sciences and technologies.

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Theoretical Framework, Historical References and Classes of Machine-Architecture Forms

Michael Wihart’s claim that the history and theory of the “architectural machine” have yet to be writ-
ten (Wihart, 2015:57) could be agreed with. No such comprehensive work has been provided by any
previous architectural study while contemporary research in the field still inscribes its own contribu-
tions in the course of the current experimentation. Nevertheless, an important start has been made
with his proposal of the “first comprehensive history and theory of architectural machines” (Wihart,
2015:53) the way he defines such ambitions of the chapter addressing the issue. Wihart provides a
brief overview of the selected historical constructs from different scientific areas proceeding with
observations on the experiments from the early and late modern period, technocratically enhanced
mid-20th century and the second half of the 20th century, concluding everything with the emergence
of soft (machinic) paradigm, the current soft architectural robotics and digital control which his
own investigations have been based on. He manages to cover the machinic concepts and sources
closely related to the architectural field which few more examples could be added to, mostly those
developed within different disciplines (such as, for instance, in arts (Broeckmann, 2016), philosophy
or history of science) or in historical periods that weren’t so elaborately inquired. After the refer-
ences to Vitruvius as the most featured representative of the ancient period and most frequently
translated, Wihart decides to put the focus on the 16th century and the period of Enlightenment by
recognizing their particular significance for the rise of the mechanical paradigm (Wihart, 2015:59)
based on then posited laws of mechanics and development of various technical solutions in line
with thereby developed formulas. To that analysis, one can certainly add the publications such as
Picturing Machines 1400-1700 (Lefevre (Ed.), 2004) or Il Teatrum Instrumentarum et machinarum
(Besson, 1582) and a series of singular articles arguing on the theme (e.g. Scaglia, 1966; De Gandt,
1986; etc.) as volumes that draw on the examples that weren’t given sufficient attention by Wihart.
They adduce convergences or close relationships between the architecture and machinic solutions
from earlier historical periods (including Aristotle, Archimedes, Heron, Pappus, Ctesibius, Vitruvius,
Hero, Boethius, Brunelleschi, Da Vinci, di Giorgio Martini, and others; Scaglia, 1966:90-114; Lefevre,
2004), continuing with mathematically refined explanations of mechanical problems and their pre-
cise scientific framing during the 17th and 18th century (based on the studies of Galileo, Leibnitz,
Newton, Descartes, Laplace, and others) which Wihart gives emphasis to. The engineering, mechan-
ical and structural line of development of architectural ideas, investigated in the author’s previous
studies (Ciric, 2017), represents a helpful complement to the list of sources, while among the new
publications from the last couple of years Wright Steenson’s Architectural Intelligence represents an
invaluable record on the cybernetic period in architecture whereas Broeckmann’s The Machine Art in
the Twentieth Century reveals an important perspective on the way the subject has been interpreted
within the artistic discourse and practices.
Throughout history, there has been a number of mechanical solutions related to different kinds of
spatial or building interventions. Not all of them have been directly aimed for architecture, but those
applied in architectural design implied either influence on building techniques, typological and pro-
grammatic transformations, narratives and functions, or integration of innovative systems into the
design logic and processes. One can distinguish several modes in which mechanical or machinic
(both “soft” and “hard”) designations in architecture appear. This classification is based on the em-
beddedness of the machinic features in architectural structures and systems, and on the level (or
a scale) of the machine-like presence in architectural objects. In other words, the criteria refer to
the existence of either replaceable mechanical components or complete machinic integration (a
total equivalence of the architecture and the machine) and to the level which the machinic concept
has been applied to. The latter distinguishes 1. a component and element - the part and detail of
an object having mechanical properties, 2. the system and logic where mechanical procedures are
used either as the concrete technical solution (the logic of systemic networking) or as an analogy
(whereas analogies might be designated as false mechanical concepts based on association rather
than real machinic properties, or as concepts of the abstract machines - mindsets and structures),
and 3. the whole object assigned with full integration without the possibility of being separated
from the machinic features in any way. Integrative and systemic approaches directly influence and

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control the very design process entering into its logic from the conceptual start, while the use of
mechanical components as autonomous elements implies certain flexibility regarding both their
inclusion in development stages of the project and the possibility of their refinement or replacement
in various stages.
Following these criteria, one can try to identify the more precise set of categories of architecture–
machine convergences. The first one refers to mechanical interventions applied on a smaller scale
providing therefore mobility of architectural elements based on specific architectural detailing or
more complex structures that enable kinetic maneuvering. They range from the simplest sliding,
rotating and revolving functions of architectural elements (doors, windows, walls, roofs) to theater
props, mechanical scenographies or audience constructions. It draws some origins from the an-
cient mythological interpretations of the mechanic-craftsman-architect contained in the character
of Daedalus and its ability and power of making objecthood interpretations of the invisible and ab-
stract dynamics, or daidala – i.e. machines, automatas (Smith, 2004:40-49). The second recognizes
the use of machines as facilitators of architectural design and execution tasks (machines as devices
used in either drawing and design processes or in building processes), and specific use of machines
involved in the construction of the visual reproductions (from the first visualising techniques of
drawing, painting and sculptural 3d modelling, across the first vision machines, aerial reconnais-
sance photography and film, to the contemporary machine vision based on multispectral analysis
and other artificial visual systems). The objects that could be assembled, reassembled and dis-
assembled according to the requirements, represent the third form also dependent on the specific
design of mechanical components and detailing. Here fabricating methods become essential for
the acquisition of the machinic features as well as automation and software integration in self-as-
semblies. The category also traces the leap from constructivists’ to deconstructivists’ ideas having
reconfiguration and self-reconfiguration alongside the forces that cause them, at its basis used
even as the abstract design principle (e.g. Denari’s or Woods’ “machine-architectures as a destruc-
tive/deconstructive or technomorphic force”; Wihart, 2015:83-84). Finally, there is a total integration
proposing certain smoothness of architecture-machine synthesis (inclining either towards a kind
of biochemical integration (soft kinetics) or indicating the electronic and sentient control of spatial
systems - architectural embeddedness in systems of pervasive computing). The last category is
largely present in experimental forms of installations and prototypes while also implying various
applications on larger scales (in objects, architectural and urban systems, or on the planetary and
cosmic level).
Machinic attribute usually introduces dynamics into static architectural forms or provides certain
kinds of animation to the initially inanimate objects. Dynamic properties work as input information
conditioning further the performance, some inner principles or a narrative of the constructed object.
Historically, in some of the first machinic examples natural dynamics such as astronomical or me-
teorological occurrences, have been embedded into the architectural settings as a time component
or the means of the time measuring, official ordering and organization of daily lives as well as for
the integration of some higher natural principles into the architectural language and creation of
symbolic meaning. Reflected in architectural ideas, celestial dynamics for instance – mechanical
movement derived from the “revolution of the heavens/heavenly bodies” – created some of the first
astronomical and time machines, the cosmic machines as not only “mere expediency but a symbol
of the universe as well” (Jormakka, 2005:7). Jormakka mentions Marcus Terentius Varro’s aviary
with the dome that slowly revolved on the inside corresponding exactly to the sky, thus functioning
as a clock, the patent that has been later applied in Nero’s Domus Aurea and Villa Adriana’s Te-
atro Marittimo. One finds such examples in numerous architectural objects, ensembles or elements.
Among the many that have used such environmental and symbolic parameters (Ciric, 2017:71-80)
are the pyramids in Giza (Magli, 2009: 35-50), the whole complex of Hadrian’s villa in Tivoli (Caliari
2012), Pantheon (Spelling, 2015: 220-223, 225), Augustus’ Horologium in Rome and many other
less analysed singular examples of religious and important public buildings as well as their urban
and territorial networks, architectural complexes and the whole urban matrices (urban design as
cosmo-geometric logic in Rebelo Paio, 2009:70). Designed to reflect the astronomical, civil or ec-

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clesiastic time and time metrics related to daily functions and activities (Monti, 2010:80-115), these
objects engineered synchronisation of the natural, social and biological rhythms. From the Renais-
sance on, observation practices and architectural programmes subsequently recorded notable ad-
vancement in the development of the scientific instrumentation that was more and more becoming
the integrative part of the architecture. Modern era observatories with new models of telescopes,
machine technologies and their mechanisms, manifested new architectural mechanical models,
specific kinetic domes, rotating floors and ceilings. Large mechanical systems housed within the
space – the sliding opening/closing systems, the rotating mechanisms and kinetic elements that
bear loads of the observation equipment – merge with the specific construction systems and their
design processes and solutions, rendering architecture’s machinic character. This type of archi-
tectural buildings evolved along with the development of observational technologies and has been
present as “machinic” architecture all the way to its current forms (reviewed in Leverington, 2017).
Today they can take different courses and forms instigating the emergence of new architectural
typologies or enhancing the existing ones. The measuring instruments are not only housed with-
in the architectural space but become architecture themselves – a real integration of architecture
and instrumentation whether objecthood or digital. On a larger scale, such objects-instruments be-
come nodes in the networks of data transmission, observation and information systems (Easterling,
2014:16, 119, 134; Kitchin and Dodge, 2011) and part of new machine landscapes (Yang, 2019:6-13).
Machinic features related to military engineering, architecture and design represent a historical
commonplace. Starting with the machines that have served as building and measuring instruments
enabling proper geometry of a building (fortification) and its accommodation to landscape (Di Gor-
gio Martini; Cataneo; De Marchi in O’Donnell, 2013:47-59; Henninger-Vos, 2004:143-169), the forms
that have informed architecture in this way, either as its integrative constructive mechanical parts
or a means of its destruction, evolved into real architectural war machines. Dependent on their ca-
pacities, both constructive and destructive, architecture reflected the results of their influence and
integration. A destructive threat (and its measure) which architecture had to withstand has been
formative for the attribute of the architectural resistance. It shaped and steered design and choices
of architectural elements, building techniques and materials. Moving machines (siege engines) for
breaching into the adversarial installations represented one of the examples that architecture had
to respond to properly as to all alike perilous external forces but it also represented their source
of design and construction guidelines since some of them closely resembled more permanent ar-
chitectural objects. Vitruvius’ mobile war machines, mechanical devices based on water and air
power and construction machines (X Book) along with time machines (IX Book) are just some of
the first machinic kinetic designs of the ancient period one usually refers to while investigating this
class of objects. Even though the number of machines he represents were adopted from numerous
predecessors, the fact that he compiles them as a part of the architectural volume or for the purpos-
es of the architectural education shifts their principal field of reference and application. Following
his famous statement that “the body of architecture consists of three parts: buildings, clocks and
waterworks” (in Jormakka, 2005:7) two of which are essentially machinic, mechanical skills and
knowledge were placed within the architectural field of competence. Instruments used in building
and engineering, territorial survey and measuring, became major architectural equipment and part
of the architectural arsenal of tools implying additional training within the profession.
First machinic solutions in ancient architecture are also found in theater buildings and the design
of their components (rotating parts of the audience, platforms and stage props). Lots of them have
been significantly changed only with the modern period and contemporary technological innovation.
Proposals for the total theater (Gropius, 1927), Friedrich Kiesler’s design for an endless theater and
the R.U.R. stage set, or László Moholy-Nagy’s design for kinetic construction (1922) based on mo-
bile structures and his theory of the dynamic-constructive system of forces (Moholy-Nagy, 1947 in
Wihart, 2015:78), are only some of the examples. Following thus presented new design methods in
the long tradition of the class of theatrical settings, the extensions within the typology in the form
of temporary event architecture, including exhibition and experimental pavilions at different Inter-
national Exhibitions, added to its range of possibilities for architectural mechanical expression and

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experimentation. A significant contribution to machinic genealogy in architecture, considering both

mechanical and electronic integration, has been thus assigned to proposals introduced through
these forms. The cybernetic and information turn got inscribed through exhibition proposals for the
Brussels, Montreal and Osaka Expos (e.g. E.A.T.’s Pepsi Pavilion, Arata and Kurokawa’s robotised
event system for Festival Plaza and the whole concept of the Model City of an Information Society)
while the latest projects based on transformative structures and spatial assemblies - adaptive and
performative experimental spaces – imply, perhaps, more tenable mechanical settings (e.g. OMA’s
Prada Transformer (Lipson, 2011:22-23) and MPavilion, or Diller Scofidio + Renfro’s Shed reflecting
on Fun Palace’s transformativity, responsiveness, flexibility, deployment of gantry crane technology
and rail tracks).
Machines had a large impact on basic spatial organisations in line with industrial upheavals that
instigated their advents. Their influence on residential architecture comes as another proof. For
instance, the whole typology of skyscrapers with extensive efficient vertical stacking and move-
ment became possible only due to the specific use and new patents of elevators. Villa Girasole,
Invernizzi (Carapacchi and Fagiuolli, 1929-1934) and La Casa Girevole (Pier Luigi Nervi, 1934) used
mechanical systems from the industrial domain to include the movement (rotation) into their spatial
concepts. A direct concept of the architecture-machine has also emerged (Le Corbusier, 1923). Le
Corbusier’s famous modernist’s fascination with industrial production and engineering rationality,
movement, automobiles, airplanes and ocean liners, became canonic. As seamless continuity of the
scientific engineering convergence with architectural discipline from the previous epoch, and con-
sequent appraisal of the mobility, progress and machines in futurism, their moderate and humanized
position came as one of the outcomes. The traditions of the rationalistic thought and scientific
approach in French architectural theory and practice and its progressive engineering line emerging
as a consequence of industrialization (Rondelet and Blouet, 1812-1814; Viollet-le-Duc, 1863-1872;
Picon, 1992, 2014) got its altered and refined continuity in Le Corbusier’s writings, designs and pub-
lic statements in support of the new architectural and social ideology (new spirit) following the
internationalization, second industrial revolution, rapid production and standardisation. The noted
concept of the machine, however, hasn’t been used to designate the architectural object in a literal
sense, but rather reflected social, technological and cultural conditions that shaped and ordered
these entities and the life within representing it as a completely mechanized activity. It worked as a
metaphor coming from assembly lines and mass-production, the new ordering of time in everyday
life and practices that all now had a kind of machinic (automated and repetitive) properties. The ma-
chine represented the system - the way of thinking, living and production – and as such functioned
as a constitutive environment for attitudes inclining towards the rational and efficient solutions re-
lying on new design approaches of engineering science and new building techniques. It represented
the logic of a perfectly tempered mechanism of normative thinking which all the living organisms,
qualities and programmes could have been subjected to. The attribute of being functional or opera-
tive as a machine worked in two ways – the first regarding building processes that “machinic logic”
made more effective and efficient; the second referring to the programmatic aspects - functionality
and operation inside the finished object referring to daily activities and performances as precisely
controlled social and natural rhythms. The machinic attribute also referred to new equipment - the
real machines included in the spatial programmes such as vehicles, kinetic elements like elevators,
mobile sliding walls and windows, and home devices.
While the early modern period had airplane and automobile industries in the background of its
machinic metaphors and applications, and space sciences were still entering the industrial realm,
the next phase of machinic development has been focused mostly on digital systems and cyber-
netics. The noted “technical transformation from a mechanical to computer-based machine par-
adigm…” (Hultén in Broeckman 2016:94) implied the focus on the development of autonomous
machine systems and software-controlled processes, those that transferred decision-making from
humans to machines. The transition from hard to soft steering marked the “end of the mechanical
age” (in reference to “The Machine at the End of the Mechanical Age”, 1968 and Banham). The notion
of the “machine” in the coming years and cybernetic explorations, according to Broeckman, traced

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two meanings (Broeckman, 2016:95) - the mechanical/physical and mathematical/conceptual. The

first one represented a continuity of the classical technical apparatus in which “machine” still had
material properties, construction and now electronic integration, while the second one interpreted
“machine” as “conceptual device that could have been modelled in mathematical formulas or algo-
rithms…” (Broeckman, 2016:95) dealing with mathematical processes that define performances and
operations but also representing the logic of thinking. These two concepts haven’t been opposed to
each other, nor devised to replace one another, but used in a way that “blurred a distinction between
the physical and conceptual notion of the machine” (Broeckman, 2016:95). In other words, the ma-
chine’s inner logic and “thinking” or controlling component (its brain) and its physical configuration
have been integrated. Cybernetic science also aimed at blurring the perfect boundary between the
living and mechanical worlds, the humans and the machines. It used biological systems as models
for artificial counterparts, while the artificial systems worked as devices of human enhancement.
The awareness of the unprecedented primacy of artificial systems in some areas and evident dif-
ficulties with certain tasks in others while being in constant competition with human organisms,
incited new questions. The difference between the analytical power and more complex sentient
and experiential power came with the apparent underscores for the artificial systems in the second
one. This has, however, significantly changed in favour of the machines with recent advancements
in sensory technologies - modules and devices that can emulate human sensorium but more im-
portantly go beyond the human sentient abilities. The latter refers to multispectral reconnaissance
which has made every signal outside of the optical window and outside of the human hearing range
sentient for the machine (through UV, IR, X-ray, gamma-ray, radio, infrasound and ultrasound sen-
sors) – precisely the kind of the technological convergence designed for the exo’s performance.
With the latest machine learning algorithms, machines are approaching the challenge of being “su-
perhuman” on all levels.

_ Figure 1: Social Graph of Cybernetics and how it connects computing, counterculture, and design, Hugh
Dubberly and Paul Pangaro, 2015 (also published in Dubberly, H. and P. Pangaro. (2015) “How cybernetics
connects computing, counterculture, and design”. In Hippie Modernism: The Struggle for Utopia — Exhibit
Catalog, Walker Art Center, pp.1-12; diagram, pp. 2-3)

The commented period of these first abstract electronic and mechanical machines has been made
possible based on, not only cybernetic science but the number of new research fields such as sys-
tems theory and complex adaptability, information and computer sciences. They were equally treat-

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ed and investigated in all disciplines that could have had an interest in their application besides
those from where they have originated. These fields were mutually highly contagious and support-
ive, instigating each other’s progress. The experiments that appear in arts, design and architecture,
social theory and culture along with information and computer sciences all constructed this new
intellectual movement and network.
Within the field of architecture, the influences of the cybernetic, ICTs, systems theory, artificial intel-
ligence and complexity have been more than evident. The new approaches to mobility and adapt-
ability have been proposed by Yona Friedman’s 1958 Mobile Architecture Manifesto or Archigram’s
and Ron Herron’s Walking City (Cities:Moving, 1963, 1964, 1968) inspired by space technologies and
vehicles designed for extreme environments. Dennis Crompton’s Computer City (1964, in Sadler,
2005:21) draws direct influences from monitoring systems and sensory nets acting as the “cyber-
netic city of control and communication”, the city as computer mechanism (Sadler, 2005:120, 121),
while collaborations such as those between Gordon Pask and Cedric Price in Instant City project and
Fun Palace (Pask having the role of the cybernetic consultant to Joan Littlewood and Cedric Price
(Sadler, 2005:216, note 220; Wright Steenson, 2017:129) while John Frazer being instrumental for
the computation framework (Wihart, 2015:126-note 205)), stand out as some of the most striking
efforts of architects to cope with the new electronic, wireless, remote control and monitoring era.
Applied cybernetics and information processing techniques represented the main issues of the Ox-
ford Corner House (OCH) and Generator (Wright Steenson, 2017:5, 134-162) as well. Besides the
cybernetic, these projects introduced another machinic feature based on communication and re-
sponsiveness. Designated as teaching machines, emulating large intelligent computer/information
processing systems which it has been possible to interact with, they have represented distinctive ar-
chitectural environments both self-learning and human learning systems: “… by designing buildings
that worked as computers, multimedia environments and distributed intelligence platforms, [Price]
he made it possible to envision what it would be like to learn, play and experience in a computerised
world.” (Wright Steenson, 2017:5). Price’s and Archigram’s buildings as first cybernetic, electronic,
networked information machine-architectures now clearly stand for the precedents of recent smart
and intelligent systemic solutions (objects, cities, regions and the whole planet).
In Archigram’s works, the idea of architectural sentience and responsiveness (the architecture that
could transform according to the users’ needs or different input information accordingly; Sadler,
2005:123) alongside modernism’s central preoccupation with communication systems and tech-
nologies (including traffic), appears in line with their interest in computing and intelligence as the
main condition for autonomous performance, learning abilities and therefore a proper response
of designed artificial systems. Archigram directly dealt with the technological scientific progress
brought by cybernetics, systems theory and ICT. In group’s projects, behind the flashy pop fea-
tures of the representational and media aspects of their critical statements, there is real knowledge
about information and computer networks, while for instance Banham and Independent Group, even
though influenced by the systemic fusion of architecture, environment and technology, have been
“dismissive about cybernetics and uninterested in computers” with their conception of cybernet-
ics marked as “precomputational” (Broeckman, 2016:101). On the other hand, while looking at the
OCH and Generator as centralised and distributed networking models (Wright Steenson, 2017:134),
one can easily infer Paul Baran’s organisation of the internet system. Even though Wright Steenson
doesn’t point directly to this reference, she does draw a resemblance between their functioning and
the way today’s social platforms (e.g. Facebook, Google) work and collect data (2017:132)), either
as monitoring or as learning and conversing mechanisms.
The first ideas of machine-learning that cybernetic architects have proposed in those years (today
clearly seen as predecessors of the generative algorithms and neural networks) were taken for a
model of the human enhancement and learning as well. They were presumed to operate as learning
devices (in the form of the whole environment) thus extending and influencing the human cognitive
performance. On the other hand, by taking into account the performances and desires of the visitors,
thereby shifting their own attitudes and operations according to them, improving and extending their
own data-bases and experiential memory, computers conduct learning processes. They shape their

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behaviour in a given social setting while also predicting the possible future responses and require-
ments related to participants or “conversants”. Based on such computer-environment integration,
architecture becomes a real “connoisseur” of the profiles of the people it interacts with, capable
of anticipating their behaviour and responding to them properly and autonomously. Teaching and
conversing architectural machines were thus artificial cybernetic intelligent responsive and sentient
“species” at the scale of the architecture and the living environment that operated as learning and
training appliances (both bodily and intellectually).
In support of her architectural intelligence thesis, Wright Steenson distinguishes the works of sever-
al architects (Richard Saul Wurman, Nicholas Negroponte, Christopher Alexander and Cedric Price).
All of them mark this specific period of information and computer sciences development and entry
of architectural interests into their scientific fields (while, conversely, the interest of computer and
information engineers and scientists for architecture appears, too (Engelbart in Wright Steenson,
2017:10-11; Minsky in Wright Steenson, 2017:13). Their contribution to the new definition of the
machine in the architectural context made a significant shift concerning the existing concepts. Not
all of them have directly inquired the very term, but they have provided valuable insights for architec-
tural machinic purposes. The abstract machinic logic which is particularly at stake in this historical
period is their main asset. Besides the appearance of the machinic attribute implied by “teaching
and conversing machines” from Price’s experimental proposals, Negroponte expressed more direct
machinic orientation and interests. As the author of the books The Architecture Machines (1970)
and Soft Architecture Machines (1975), and the founder of the MIT’s Architecture Machine Group
(AMG) with Leon Grossier (Wright Steenson, 2017:5, 165-170), later embedded in the MIT Media
Lab in 1985, he is one of the most significant figures for the investigation of the architecture-ma-
chine concept. His work, centered around the very notion of the machine “contributed to practices
which are still considered emergent, including artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning, intelligent
environments, virtual reality, remote sensing and drone surveillance” (Wright Steenson, 2017:5).
Architecture machine, in Negroponte’s terms, stood for his “vision of the intelligent environment
that we would all eventually inhabit and that would eventually surround all of us” (Wright Steenson,
2017:170, 172). His interpretation of the machinic environment has been based on an artificial envi-
ronment’s ability for self-organisation and learning. Cybernetic feedback loop and responsiveness
of the architectural object/system/environment to certain user requirements, behaviours or external
conditions have been widely used in Archigram’s projects, but Negroponte will see in these inter-
active conversations between the machines and humans the possibility of the “system becoming
more intelligent over time, by learning from its users and developing in tandem with them...” (Wright
Steenson, 2017:9-10); Negroponte will posit the concept we today distinguish as machine learning.
Scientific-architectural collaborations between the AMG (Negroponte, Grossier and Bolt) and MIT AI
Lab (Minsky and Papert), J.C.R. Licklider, M. Denicoff (Information Systems Programme at the Office
of Naval Research), C. Fields (DARPA) and other important figures in ICSs, contributed to Negorpon-
te’s success on this matter.
The era discussed by Wright Steenson (1950s-1990s) represents the formative age of the integra-
tive human-machine approach investigating new ways for humans and computers to cooperate
“in making decisions and controlling complex situations without inflexible dependence on prede-
termined programs” (Licklider in Wright Steenson, 2017:177). While investing themselves in this
research area, architects were enabled to reconstitute themselves as system architects capable of
cybernetically changing their architectural practice (Pask in Wright Steenson, 2017:17). With an em-
phasis on the design of the abstract layers of space or a design process, this ability could have been
applied in two ways – the first by redefining the relation between architects and machinic devices
they were using in spatial design, and the second by equating the machine with abstract spatial
logic - spatial software (set of designed, self-enhanced and self-reproduced instructions for spatial
performance) - that architects themselves were now able to devise and define.
The use of command-and-control technologies for steering mechanical systems or in order to ob-
tain the status of autonomy of artificial intelligence (machinic decision making), has been at the
basis of these last-mentioned examples. It is significant to trace how this steering power and log-

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ic has changed from the first mechanical solutions based on row human force or natural power
sources, across self-powering and motorized steering to computer control and finally soft kinetic
actuation. The most recent stage of machinic development in architecture has been placed along
the two tracks. The first represents a continuation of software/algorithmic-controlled architecture
– its integration with digital communication, command and control systems whereas the pairing of
architectural design with pervasive or ubiquitous computing and different modes of thereby enabled
networking, results with different modes of coded space or code/space (Kitchin and Dodge, 2011)
and various smart or intelligent technical solutions. The second one follows the biotechnological,
biochemical and physical chemistry line, pairing research and theories from these fields with spatial
concepts and processes of kinetic actuation (Beesly and Armstrong; Menges; etc.). Operating at the
level of atoms and molecules, soft forms of actuation have been supported by the cluster of natural
sciences but not without the involvement of information sciences and digital tools as well. The
convergences of these two lines incline towards new forms of environmental sensing and respon-
siveness, determining also the lines of programmable, active and informed matter.

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individual (an artist) as the one having the major authority over the presented work and the
idea.
 PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2020

could have been realised. Referring to historical classes of spatial technical solutions, they resem-
ble the category of artistic assistance to staged events while nevertheless nurturing the role of an
individual (an artist) as the one having the major authority over the presented work and the idea.
The book Machine Art in the Twentieth Century by Andreas Broeckmann provides the complete
historical overview of the machine concept along with major artistic works that were establishing
and confirming its status. In this elaborate study, one finds all the 20th-century art references that
dealt with the concept through critical writings, curatorships and practices, and all the external in-
fluences that have shaped certain artistic movements and discourses. They have all framed an ar-
tistic engagement with technology (Broeckman, 2016: 9-17) inscribing progressive lines of thought
and practice within their fields of interest. The collection spans everything from the first appraisals
of the machine age and machine art by futurists and constructivists marked by the first exhibi-
tions under their titles (Machine Age in 1927, and Machine Art in 1934 curated by Philip Johnson at
Moma), across the Center for Advanced Visual Studies at MIT and its focus on kinetic art, sky art,
telecommunications and media, work with lasers, satellites, and innovative materials (Broeckmann,
2016:15,17), to cybernetic, digital and software art. Regarding kinetic experiments, new artworks
did rely on its traditions adopting the move from the mechanical towards electronic and cybernetic
perspectives - from Tatlin’s “machine art” (1915), Alexander Calder’s mobiles (the 1930s) or Bruno
Munari’s playful Useless machines (1930s and 1940s) to Jean Tinguely’s dysfunctional machines
(1950s and 1960s), Nicolas Schöffer’s aesthetic appropriation of cybernetics (Schöffer, in Broeck-
man, 2016:101) and works of E.A.T. group. The interest for cybernetics, general systems theory,
communication infrastructures and sensing technologies in the 1950s and 1960s, constituted a
specific artistic register along with its own tools and forms of communication. The Man, Machine
and Motion organised by Richard Hamilton in 1955 (Broeckman, 2016:101), 9 Evenings: Theater and
Engineering (1966) arguing for the model of artist-engineer collaboration, or the Cybernetic Seren-
dipity (1968) the first international overview inspired by cybernetics and systems theory (Broeck-
man, 2016:103) are just some among the exhibitions Broeckmann gives emphasis to in this regard.
Alongside their curatorial frameworks, he traces two main artistic lines that have, from the current
perspective, constituted the main criteria for artistic deployment of named technologies and the
definition of the character of the created systems and experiences. These are cybernetic art (Bro-
eckman, 2016:106-108) and system aesthetics - the first evolving from mathematical cybernetics
and steering science, the second from ecological systems theory and general systems theory (Burn-
ham, 1968, in Broeckmann, 2016:106, 293)). The three important features one finds in the definition
of systems aesthetics for instance - environmental property (blurring a distinct boundary between
the artwork and its surroundings or space), interactivity (following von Bertalanffy’s definition of a
system), and autonomy (both concerning humans as passive or active participants and the ability of
autonomous learning and decision making) - define principal attributes by which to evaluate, classi-
fy or direct design of the machinic systems even to this day. The last one - a degree of the system’s
autonomy, the main difference between these two approaches (Broeckman, 2016:107-108) - has
been maintained as the most challenging feature and condition of intelligence in systemic solu-
tions. Being centered around the processes rather than complete objects and closed works (Bro-
eckmann, 2016:106) they have also argued for and realised open formats by introducing responsive-
ness (feedback loops of information used in their systemic integration). Equipped with sensors and
software-control enabling interactive protocols between the designed systems and changes in the
environment which spectators formed a part of, they have posited another key attribute for the most
featured digital or algorithmic art experiments to the present day.
Within the artistic discourse, cybernetics could have been defined as a mode or a framework that
enables one to steer artfully towards the goal or to steer towards the artistic goal using different
technical devices and inventions (in reference to Pangaro’s notions on cybernetics). The “artful con-
trol” – in representational and aesthetic registers but also in awareness and problematisation - is
that important added value that artistic legacy can offer to all the practically oriented and applied
forms of research and experimentation. In this way, the contribution of artistic approaches to scien-
tific rigour confirmes its important share in all the projects trying to converge their areas.

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_ Figure 3: Machine art (cybernetic era) - based on the information provided from the publication The
Machine Art in Twentieth Century by Andreas Broeckmann) - in relation to additional sources and fields
of research: a sketch for a network diagram

Alongside mechanical machine (the machine as an autonomous mechanism, “Archimedean-classi-

cal machine”; Gunther, in Broeckmann, 2016:19) and cybernetic machine (“transclassical machine”;

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Gunther, in Broeckmann, 2016:19), Broeckmann adds the concepts of the machine as totalitarian
infrastructure (mega-machine, apparatus or state machine; Mumford, 1934, 1967-1970 in Broeck-
mann, 2016:19-20; also a dispositive, Foucault, Agamben in Broeckman, 2016:28), the mathematical
machine (Turing, 1930s), and heterogenetic machine (emerged from the concept of living systems
as autopoietic machines defined by Varela and Maturana, from where Deleuze and Guattari de-
rived their understanding of the autopoietic self-production and reproduction of machinic systems;
in Broeckmann, 2016:19). He also includes the interpretation of the machine as a “constraint of
thought” (Burckhardt, 1999 in Broeckmann, 2016:21) referring to the abstract logic and system of
thinking, altogether offering powerful insights in the machine’s problematisation. In-between the
explanations, the major questions that determine the machine concept have emerged as the main
guiding instances – the question of the relation between the machine and human organism, the
question who sets the rules of the mechanism or the machine and whether this mechanism is an-
imated from within or from outside the system, as well as those of its degree of autonomy. These
questions remained to shape and structure the machinic object by setting the features that qualify
certain entities for a machinic designation, whether used in a technical-concrete or a metaphorical
[conceptual] sense (Broeckmann, 2016:26).

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE ARCHITECTURE-INSTRUMENT

When the format of the architecture-instrument has been proposed as a design research model, the
number of other forms of architectural experimentation had to be analysed along with the question
of the instruments’ relation to machines – the hierarchy, overlappings or possiblly autonomous line
of genealogy. Taking architecture-machine for an overarching category as the starting assumption,
one could have focused on specificities that made more subtle divisions within its domain. Wi-
hart singles out three modes as its common manifestations – device, mise-en-scène machine and
installation (Wihart, 2015:110-118). A device implies functional, but passive and closed technical
solution; the mise-en-scène machine’s “staging for display” and performative tactics – a “theatrical
potential of machinic performance” (Wihart, 2015:113-114) - that slightly invade scientific rigour,
incline toward artistic application suitable for exhibition performances and simulations, while in-
stallation’s didactic and investigative potential to test concepts in larger scales and in the form of
the real architectural environment could fulfill both scientific and artistic investigative objectives.
As the type that outweighs in favour of the scientific method, the prototype model has been added
to these options. Its precision, set of procedures, real function and a proper 1:1 scale (implying
the correct sizes and proportions of all the modules and elements) coming from the field of the
industrial design, formalises and frames the possibilities of the object’s technical application. The
cluster of architectural models prevailing in passive and representational forms lacks the ability
to transform and interact and only their performative models and simulations could make an ac-
ceptable substitute when these are required. The absence of functionality as well as scaling will
also keep them aside in situations where these demands represent the principal modelling assets.
Architecture-instrument, concerning previous comments, introduces additional qualities and sub-
tlety. Differing significantly from some interpretations in which it takes the form of a mere appliance
(referring to the notion of instrumentalisation with negative connotations), it implies the following:
a higher degree of sophistication, engineering and design high-tech precision (high definition; Sheil,
2014) with minimum tolerance applied only for the intentionally included creative disruptive ele-
ments, and specific attention dedicated to all the functional-operative (performative), measuring,
analytical, structural, aesthetic and production registers.
Considering the interpretations of different research fields and the constructed opposition between
arts and sciences, the term instrument can be twofold. The first refers to this scientific context
and high-precision machine which can provide reliable data or scientific facts, thus expressing
use-value according to the procedures it performs, parameters it measures, problems it solves, and
programs and protocols it follows. The second unfolds within the artistic context where it can be

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designated as a medium capable of producing and reproducing the content or an effect of a specific
artistic and aesthetic value and impact, while also entailing a distinctive critical and speculative po-
tential corresponding to the technologies by which they have been mediated. From the artistic point
of view, the instrument could be interpreted as a device that enables virtuous aesthetic performance
or experience and that is constitutive for certain artistic practices. Within the scientific framework,
the instrument as a kind of machine has usually been translated as a control-mechanism: Wihart
quotes these curious cases in which architecture-instrument comparison has been mentioned only
by the medical doctors, mathematicians and physicists attached to the French Academy of Sciences
and not architects (Tzonis and Lefaivre 2004:25 in Wihart, 2015:67), while architecture interpreted as
an “instrument of control” (Wihart, 2015:66-677) or machine that disciplines humans and their be-
haviours is yet another example of the scientific approach to the problem. The way this strict and a
bit scientifically “repressive” flair can be partly tamed (though scientific utility won’t be abandoned)
is exactly through artful calibration of the main objectives and forms of expression along with its
sophisticated aesthetic and sensorial design.
Besides these oppositions, the notion of the “intelligent instrument” (Matthews, 1973) appears from
the convergent scientific-artistic field. Coined during Matthews’ work at the Bell Labs, it has been
assigned a specific explanation within the context of his sonic experimentation as “an instrument in
which you embody a certain amount of logical intelligence, such that the response you get is other
than a 1:1 correspondence between your physical interaction with it and the sonic response.” (Mat-
thews in “Bell Labs & The Origins of the Multimedia Artist” Panel, 1998). By the analogy that might
elevate such definition to the level of the universal principle, a new derived explanation could be
formulated as the following: an intelligent instrument is an instrument in which a certain amount or
a degree of logical intelligence has been embodied in such a way that a response of the system dif-
fers from the basic 1:1 relation in the present interaction (the relation between the input information
(initial impulses) and output information (system’s reaction)) implying more than a mere reflection,
imitation or transduction of the input values as they are (a simple change or transformation of the
system as the absolute equivalent of the input parameters) and the existence of certain “thinking
processes” that will alter this basic reaction and demonstrate higher cognitive performance. The
instrument’s machinic response, thus, includes cognition, inferencing and autonomous decision
making - certain intelligence that has been inherently ascribed to the machine and that guides its
behaviour – while the very term of the instrument implies high precision and quality of thereby
delivered information and performance, as well as of their aesthetic and intelligible reception (expe-
rience) from the user’s point of view.
In one passage about the 1950s’ break that cybernetics made regarding modern epistemology (cy-
bernetic epistemology as he calls it), Claus Pias identified this shift as “the shift from experiments to
instruments, from hypothetical construction and pataphysical machines to instrumental hardware
and institutionalised computer science, from speculation to explanations, from questions about the
in-betweens to certainties of answers.” (Pias, 2002:60 in Broeckmann, 2016:114). The second part
of each transitive pair refers to something scientifically proved and applied, providing thereby ex-
planations and answers as opposed to sheer ideation, testing, questioning and uncertainty. The
instrument, thus, has been designated as a carrier of such explicative results based on and providing
reliable facts; device able to perform certain tasks with precision while exhibiting firm operational
qualities.

CONCLUSION

It appears that the exact term of the architecture-instrument (within the merged machinic proto-
type and installation typology) hasn’t been so frequently, if ever so clearly used and defined, thus
exhibiting the high investigative potential and the need for its better understanding. Its proposal
has challenged a bit scarce resources on its particular designation (including theory, epistemology,
methodology within both scientific and artistic research fields) as well as practical use and interpre-

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tations. It can be claimed that it is still underrepresented in experimental methodologies (e.g. Draw-
ing Instruments by Kulper and Chard) while some analysis of the historical resources and uncritical
deployments of the terms do not satisfy the strict scientific demands of their comprehensive study.
Following these conclusions, the inquiry into the properties by which architecture-instrument can
be identified and evaluated, as well as the proposal for the more elaborate analysis of its origins and
interpretations, represented justifiable goals.
The exo experiment used the architecture-instrument designation to bridge the gap between the as-
pects of an artistic didactic and speculative device (staged in the form of an installation and certain
modes of the prototype) and those of a reliable technical solution that performs demanding oper-
ations. It also aimed at merging procedures of scientific testing conducted by prototypes, and the
artful critical and aesthetic analysis, performance and communication presented by installations.
The format, having basic references in machinic solutions, implies properties of high-precision in
production and operation, and properties of a sophisticated design focused on each detail of its
structure and performance. This places it somewhere between the industrial (scientific) produc-
tion (based on prototyping, versioning and optimisation design methods) and the artistic approach
(highly concerned with unbiased aesthetics and critical thinking, unsusceptible to commercial pref-
erences). They are regarded as mutually complementary methodologies enhancing each other in
certain parts or rendering a greater degree of refinement in an either scientific or aesthetic register.

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CHALLENGES OF DESIGNING REMOTE COMMUNITIES

IN EQUATORIAL AFRICA: OKOLASSI EXAMPLE
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch55

_ Dejan Vasović
Assistant Professor, University of Belgrade – Faculty of Architecture, Bulevar
kralja Aleksandra 73/II, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia, d.vasovic@arh.bg.ac.rs

_ Ruža Okrajnov Bajić

Assistant Professor, University of Belgrade – Faculty of Architecture,
Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia, ruza@arh.bg.ac.rs

_ Darko Pavićević
Teaching Assistant, University of Belgrade – Faculty of Architecture, Bulevar
kralja Aleksandra 73/II, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia, darko.pavicevic@arh.bg.ac.rs

_ Goran Gogov
Cabinet 2G, Immeuble Diamant II, BP 1140,
Libreville, Gabon, info@cabinet2g.com

ABSTRACT

Developing countries in Africa are facing numerous challenges in the process of constructing new
settlements in the remote areas. Most of the construction activities are performed in the big cities,
encouraging major migrations from all sides of country to the dense urban areas. Developing new
settlements on the outskirt of the city is the only way to prevent its collapse. However, these areas
have no infrastructure needed for the purpose.

The paper will present the case study of the construction challenges during the design and con-
struction of the new settlement in Okolassi, local community 30 km distant of the capital Libreville.
Different challenges like poor road infrastructure, lack of electricity, water and sewage, or non-ex-
istence of the skilful workforce, could transform even the simplest construction task in the insur-
mountable problem. Careful planning and designing are essential for the successful procurement
and construction in the rainforest environment.

KEYWORDS _ remote communities, developing countries, construction of settlements

INTRODUCTION

One of the most challenging issues in developing countries, if not in all, is to provide dissent but
affordable living conditions for the fast growing population. Looking for the job and better life per-
spectives, majority of population migrate to the big cities. Urban infrastructure is developing more
slowly compared to the increase of the population, bringing capital cities to the edge of the collapse.
As a continent with the highest rate of the population increase, Africa is a challenging experimental
polygon desperately seeking for new solutions.
Gabon is an African country, lying on the west coast of Africa, intersected by the Equator. With the
population of more than 2.23 million people (2020. est., 146th in the World), 2.5% population growth

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rate (2020. est., 22nd in the World), with almost 90% of the inhabitants living in the cities, and more
than 58% of the population under than age of 25, Gabon is forced to find the solutions for the grow-
ing housing problem.

_ Figure 1: Gabon – political map (source: Encyclopaedia Britannica)

As a former French colony, Gabon and capital Libreville have a respectable urban planning and ar-
chitectural heritage. However, decades of planning and construction negligence formed large infor-
mal settlements and slums around the city, blocking the continuous urban development. The only
way to overcome this problem is to overpass the congested periphery of the city, and form new,
satellite settlements on the capital outskirts, along the main roads.
Small village Okolassi is lying on the national road, which leads to central Gabon, 30 km from the
centre of the capital Libreville. Remote position, dense tropical forest and lack of infrastructure
saved hundreds of hectares of land from the devastation and misuse. About 25 ha of the forest land
for the first phase, and up to 100 ha in the second phase, was determined for the construction of
the new Okolassi settlement for more than 5,000 people. Private developer acquired the land and
delegated the contract for the planning, design and construction development to the team of Serbian
and Gabon architects. In this paper, the planning and designing process for the construction of the
Okolassi settlement is presented. The Challenges and the faults of the planning process for the con-
struction at 8,000 km distant location, in the heart of the dense rainforest, are discussed.

OBTAINING VALID INPUT FOR THE VALID DESIGN DECISIONS

Design and build form of the construction process is worldwide practice. Key for the success is
to make right long-term tenable decisions at the early stages of the design, when architect has
insufficient information. It is well known fact that the quality of the outcoming result highly depend
of the accuracy and quality of the input data. However, the challenge is to define a method for the
decision-making at the early stages of design that will provide efficient and profitable construction.
Designing for the Investor and a plot far away, at the other continent, different climate and environ-
mental zone, diverse social, cultural and urban heritage, demands profound preparation. Previous

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experience and focus on the most important data is of the essence for the success of the project.

Land, climate and environment based decisions

Determination of the general programme for the Okolassi settlement should have begun with thor-
ough, detail and precise collection of information about environment, people, needs, market, etc.
Gabon (officially Gabonese Republic) lies on the west coast of central Africa, bordered by Equatorial
Guinea and Cameroon on the north, Republic of Congo on the east and south, and Gulf of Guinea on
the west. Gabon has 2.23 million inhabitants on 257,667 sq. km (8.7 inhabitants per sq. km; it makes
Gabon one of the least densely populated countries on earth.). Almost 90% of the people live in the
cities, nearly 40% (824,000) in capital Libreville.
Climate in Gabon is equatorial, with high humidity and temperatures year-round, and varies so little
throughout the year (humidity 80 – 90 %, temperatures between 20 – 30 °C).

_ Figure 2: Climate graph for Ntoum, 35 km from Libreville, Gabon – (source: various)

Equatorial climate is characterised by humid and hot climate with heavy rains, varying from an an-
nual average of 3,050 mm at Libreville to 3,810 mm farther north on the coast. However, precipitation
varies significantly throughout the year, with almost all of it raining between September and May.
Number of rainy days that are 4 – 5 in June and July goes up to 22 – 23 in September and October.
That means half of the year are rainy days (177 days on average). From June to beginning of Sep-
tember there is virtually no rain but high humidity. In addition, there are occasional rains in Decem-
ber and January. During the remaining months, rainfall is excessive, “caused by the condensation
of moist air resulting from the meeting, directly off the coast, of the cold Benguela Current from the
south and the warm Guinea Current from the north.”
Congo basin is the second largest block of contiguous tropical rainforest after the Amazonian ba-
sin. The analysis made by using the satellites, “estimate that the total lowland humid and swamp
forest area for Africa is 1,998,290 km2, of which 89.3% is in Central Africa, 6.0% in West Africa, 2.2%
in Madagascar and 2.4% in Eastern Africa. In terms of countries, the Democratic Republic of Congo
(DRC) is the forest giant, accounting for 53.6% of Africa’s lowland rainforest area, followed by Gabon
(11.2%), the Republic of Congo (10.4%) and Cameroon (10.0%). The remaining countries account for
14.8% of total lowland rainforest area.” Throughout Gabon, tropical rainforest cover more than 87%
of the land, and practically, there are no large savannah but areas with forest patches on plateaus.
There are more than 10 ha of the forest per capita in Gabon.

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Relief and drainage

Gabon is situated along the Atlantic Ocean. Therefore, coastal relief is plain, narrow (less than 30
km wide), and formed of sand and alluvium. Strong Benguela Current with the influence of large
Ogooué River estuary deteriorates Gabon’s coastline by creating sandbars. In the continental part
of the country, there is a vast Ogooué River basin covered with the dense rainforest. Geologically,
this basin is formed by series of granite-based plateaus, spreading from west to southeast, rising
to 300 – 600 meters. The Ogooué River, together with several big rivers (Okano, Ngounié, Komo …)
drains the majority of Gabon territory.

Transportation
Transportation is one of the Gabon’s weak points that strongly influence economic development.
Maritime transport is the dominant type of transport for the import of the goods. The main inter-
national ports are located at Port-Gentil and Owendo (Libreville). However, inland transport is a
problem. The Ogooué River is navigable from the Atlantic (Port-Gentil) to Ndjolé, 150 miles (240 km)
upstream.
Until the 1970s, Gabon had no railroads. In 1974, the construction of the Transgabon (Transgabo-
nais) Railroad from Owendo (Libreville) to Francevile (936 km) started in three sections: to Ndjolé
(opened in 1979), to Booué (opened in 1983), and finaly to Francevile (opened in 1986). Railway is
mainly used for transport of the bulk cargo: petrol, ore, logs and other goods from and to deep inland.
These are the reasons why almost everything else is transported by trucks and lorries. Nevertheless,
to build, and especially to maintain roads in these climate conditions is a challenging task. However,
road network is very modest, often deteriorated by heavy rains and slides. There is only one road
– called National road – from capital Libreville to inland, and not even one from the second largest
city in Gabon, Port-Gentil.
Passenger transport is mainly by air. In 2002, Gabon had almost sixty airports, ten of which had
paved runways, and three of them are international airports: Libreville (Leon M’Ba), Port-Gentil, and
Franceville.

Local infrastructure networks

Gabon’s electricity production meets more than 85% of its needs. The production is based on nat-
ural gas from the fields at Port-Gentil - 51%, and on hydropower (Tchimbélé, Kinguélé, and Poubara
complexes) - 49%. At the Libreville surroundings, electrical grid is well developed along the National
road, but blackouts are not rare. Gabon is rich in water, but the water supply grid is developed in the
bigger cities. Almost everywhere is possible to bore a well, but the people usually drink bottled water.
Sewage is rudimental and underdeveloped, even in the capital.

OKOLASSI SETTLEMENT – DESIGN CONSTRAINTS

Those facts were very important for the program defining of the Okolassi settlement, and crucially
influenced the programme designing decisions. On the basics of those facts, decision was made to
start the construction of the plot with access on the National road, closest to the Libreville, because
there was some existing infrastructure. It was planned to provide water locally, by boring the well.
Sewage grid should have been built locally and sewage water treated (Gabon laws are very strict
regarding this matter, so it was planned to build the water-treatment plant in the first phase).
Predominant type of housing is single-family housing for growing families (having in mind that
average fertility rate is 3.41 child per woman). Size of plots and houses were designed carefully, to
allow the possibility to extend the buildings with additional bedrooms, as the family grow up. Once
defining the families as a principal Okolassi settlement occupants group, a necessity for the social
amenities constructed in the first phase, raised as a must. Therefore, programme was enriched with
the market, small shopping mall, and a gas station, as well as a kindergarten and a school. Parcels
for a church and a mosque were also planned. However, because of the proximity of the Tax-free

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economic zone and its employs’ demand for the nearby flats, two apartment buildings were included
in the program and designed in the first phase.

_ Figure 3: Arial view of new Okolassi settlement (3D render of the first phase)

Rainfall was the most influential parameter for the construction. As the design process started in
May, at the end of the rainy (sunny) season, in order to begin the construction process over the on-
going year, it was of the ultimate importance to start with the ground works during the dry (cloudy)
season at the mid June. Whole plot was covered with dense and high rainforest, so the geological
excavation and survey weren`t performed before the planning and design. Therefore, zoning and
planning of the settlement, as well as the design of the most of the buildings (not only houses,
but also school, market, apartment buildings, church and mosque as well) was performed “blindly”,
solely relying on the previous experience and rare photographs. Fortunatelly, everything more or less
fitted well except the positions of the school and the kindergarten: it was impossible to make regular
access, without the displacement of the nine meters of soil from the top of the hill. Removed soil was
used for the embankment throughout the plot.

Figure 4: Okolassi houses types (expandable house – two bedroom to five bedroom – first phase)

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OKOLASSI SETTLEMENT – CONSTRUCTION CONSTRAINTS

During the design process, lot of time was spent to foreseen the problems inherent to the construc-
tion. However, it was not possible to predict everything, but the complications were diminished to an
acceptable level. The main challenges during the construction phase were logistic: procurement and
transport of the materials to the construction site.
The time schedule was tight: to construct thirty houses, a market and a school for 90 days. It was
very important to use local materials, but there were just few of the possible providers. Local sand
appeared to be very muddy, acceptable for the infill and rendering, but inappropriate for the concrete
production. Instead, the granite aggregate had to be used. That increased the transportation cost
and time, but at the same time increased the quality of the concrete to the level that some concrete
construction elements` dimension were minimised.
Due to heavy rainfalls, site traffic was complicated. Site roads intensively eroded, so the only way
to transport material to the construction sites was to use telescopic forklifts. As this problem was
foreseen during the designing phase, two telescopic forklifts were imported from Italy before the
construction started. The equipment were very useful for some other purposes, including assembly
of the steel construction.
One of the problems that aroused during the construction was the situation when preselected local
steel construction provider withdraw from the project. It was not possible in Gabon to provide steel
structure for the construction of the market, so decision was made to purchase it in Serbia. Direct
consequence of that decision was detailed adaptation of the design, in order to provide appropriate
dimensions of the structural elements for the maritime transport in ship containers. Maritime trans-
port of the heavy steel elements provided an opportunity to transport it together with bulky material
from Serbia (water and sewage pipes, insulation etc.). Another problem appeared when the locally
leased crane for the assembly of the construction, broke down. Assembly of the steel structure was
executed with two telescopic forklift, used for the lifting the concrete blocks and roof tiles for the
construction of the houses. All of those increased the costs and prolonged the construction time,
but did not influence the date of completion.

_ Figure 5: 3D render of the Okolassi market, construction phases and assembled structure.

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CONCLUSIONS

In the time shortage and tight schedule for the construction, quality decisions made during planning
and design phase is crucial. At the remote sites, no one can expect to avoid the problems. Therefore,
good preparation, procurement of the material, quality and motivation of the workforce, as well as
its capability for improvisation, makes the difference between the success and fail. Some of the
recommendations, based on the Okolassi case, should be:
1. It is essential to collect all available information on the climate, relief and vegetation of
the area being worked on;
2. Transport possibilities should be studied thoroughly to make a precise plan for the trans-
port of people, materials and equipment;
3. Planning should be well-ahead: it should be kept in mind that it may take several weeks
to carry out any activity;
4. Inquire about the available local workforce; also invetigate the possibility of accommo-
dating non-local workforce;
5. It is useful to create variant solutions in advance, for each activity, in order to adapt to
changes in situ;
6. It is necessary to make quick and timely decisions, but also to be prepared for surprises.

REFERENCES

__ Mulène, Remy. 2002. Le Gabon Aujourd`hui. Paris, Editions du Jaguar.

__ Michael Majale, Graham Tipple, Matthew French and Remy Sietchiping, 2012. Affordable Land and
Housing in Africa, United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT) Nairobi, Kenya, https://
unhabitat.org/.
__ Walters, Gretchen, Parmentier Ingrid and Stévart Tariq. 2012. “Diversity and conservation value of Ga-
bon’s savanna and inselberg open vegetation: An initial gap analysis.” Plant Ecology and Evolution 145 (1):
46–54, 2012 http://dx.doi.org/10.5091/plecevo.2012.606
__ Cuni-Sanchez A, White LJT, Calders K, Jeffery KJ, Abernethy K, Burt A, et al. 2016. “African Savanna-For-
est Boundary Dynamics: A 20-Year Study.” PLoS ONE 11(6): e0156934. doi:10.1371/ journal.pone.0156934
__ Gond V, Fayolle A, Pennec A, Cornu G, Mayaux P, Camberlin P, Doumenge C, Fauvet N, Gourlet-Fleury S.
2013. “Vegetation structure and greenness in Central Africa from Modis multi-temporal data.” Phil Trans R
Soc B 368: 20120309. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2012.0309
__ Oslisly R, White L, Bentaleb I, Favier C, Fontugne M, Gillet J-F, Sebag D. 2013. “Climatic and cultural
changes in the west Congo Basin forests over the past 5000 years.” Phil Trans R Soc B 368: 20120304.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2012.0304
__ Malhi Y, Adu-Bredu S, Asare RA, Lewis SL, Mayaux P. 2013. “African rainforests: past, present and fu-
ture.” Phil Trans R Soc B 368: 20120312. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2012.0312
__ Cia World Factbook, 2020. “Africa:Gabon”, Accessed February 15, 2020. https://www.cia.gov/library/
publications/the-world-factbook/geos/print_gb.html
__ Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2020. “Gabon”, Accessed February 10, 2020.Last modified August 22. https://
www.britannica.com/place/Gabon
__ Nations Encyclopedia, 2020. “Gabon”, Accessed February 11, 2020. Last modified 2019. https://www.
nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Gabon-CLIMATE.html
__ Weather-and-climate. 2020 “Climate in Libreville, Gabon.” Accessed February 14, 2020. https://weath-
er-and-climate.com/average-monthly-Rainfall-Temperature-Sunshine-fahrenheit,Libreville,Gabon
__ Weatherspark. 2020. “Average-Weather-in-Ntoum-Gabon”. Accessed February 14, 2020.
__ https://weatherspark.com/y/61792/Average-Weather-in-Ntoum-Gabon-Year-Round
__ WorldData.info. 2020. “The Climate in Gabon.“ Accessed February 14, 2020. https://www.worlddata.
info/africa/gabon/climate.php

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RESPONSIVE TERRITORIAL PLANNING

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ARE SHRINKING CITIES A COMPLETELY NEW PHENOMENON IN

POST-SOCIALIST SPACE? URBAN SHRINKAGE IN EASTERN EUROPE
BEFORE AND DURING SOCIALISM
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch56

_ Branislav Antonić
PhD, Teaching assistant, University of Belgrade – Faculty of Architecture,
Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/2, Belgrade, Serbia, antonic83@gmail.com

_ Aleksandra Djukić
PhD, Associate professor, University of Belgrade – Faculty of Architecture,
Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/2, Belgrade, Serbia, adjukic@afrodita.rcub.bg.ac.rs

ABSTRACT

Shrinking cities present the prevalent type of present-day urbanisation in post-socialist countries in
the eastern half of Europe. The outspread and the socialism-related features of their shrinkage have
made them a compelling topic for scholars internationally. Thus, they are well-documented today.
However, this straight focus of researchers on post-socialist shrinking cities has somehow formed
the opinion that this phenomenon is completely new for this region. If such research is oriented to
the past of urbanisation in this part of Europe, it usually examines the causes of post-socialist urban
shrinkage originated in the specificities of socialism. Nevertheless, urban shrinkage existed in the
eastern half of Europe before the fall of socialism. Concrete data covers the examples of shrinking
cities in inter-war (pre-socialist) and post-war (socialist) periods. Although these cities were not
very frequent, they represent the predecessors of many shrinking cities in this part of Europe today.
They can even be categorised by the various factors that were crucial for their shrinkage: change
of borders, fall of industrial production, internal/national spatial planning policies or the loss of de-
pendent area. The aim of this research is to systematise this knowledge relating pre-socialist and
socialist urban shrinkage in Eastern Europe. Hence, this paper is organised as a scientific review,
with a special intention to present the different categories of affected cities. In that way, this paper
contributes to the further understanding of the circumstances that have provoked urban shrinkage
to be so widespread in this part of Europe.

KEYWORDS _ shrinking cities, Eastern Europe, socialism,

pre-socialism, urban development, border cities, deindustrialised cities

INTRODUCTION – POST-SOCIALIST URBAN SHRINKAGE

Shrinking cities present the prevalent type of present-day urbanisation in post-socialist countries
in the central-eastern, eastern and south-eastern regions of Europe. The process of widespread
and rapid urban shrinkage in this region started with the collapse of socialist system in the early
1990s. Just one decade after, in the early 2000s, more than 82% major cities in post-socialist Euro-
pean countries were shrinking. This was twice more than an average for the whole continent (Turok
and Mykhnenko, 2007). The process of urban shrinkage is persistently widespread even today. The
recent report done by the World Bank summarises that more than half of cities in the former social-
ist space were demographically declining in 2010s. This percentage is more severe by excluding

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Central Asia. In this constellation, post-socialist countries in Europe have more than 70% of cities
with shrinking patterns. The ‘recorders’ are Romania and Bulgaria where more than 90% of cities
are losing population (Restrepo Cadavid et al, 2017). To conclude, urban shrinkage in post-socialist
countries in Eastern Europe is the most acute among all world regions.
Why shrinking cities in Eastern Europe are so unique? A. Haase, D. Rink and K. Grossmann (2016)
point out that the (post)-socialist character of these cities is exactly the main feature that defines
the uniqueness of their shrinkage. This means that the patterns of urbanisation during socialism
and after its collapse have left so immense influence on the cities in this region that it is a key de-
terminant to differentiate post-socialist shrinking cities as a type within the global discourse relat-
ing urban shrinkage (Batunova, 2015). In brief, aside of globally well-known shrinking problems in
economic and demographic sphere, post-socialist shrinking cities posses the further burden based
on the fast and weakly controlled change of political and economic systems. The transformation
of the former socialist countries from one-party systems with planned economy to multi-party de-
mocracies with market and capitalist economy has had a deep negative impact on their cities, urban
economy and urban government (Stryjakiewicz et al, 2012).
The explained outspread and the socialism-related features of urban shrinkage in cities in Eastern
Europe have made the straight focus of researchers on them. This situation has somehow formed
the general opinion that this phenomenon is completely new for this region. If such research is ori-
ented to the past of urbanisation in this part of Europe, it usually examines the causes of post-so-
cialist urban shrinkage originated in the specificities of socialism. Nevertheless, urban shrinkage
existed in the eastern half of Europe before the fall of socialism. However, the present-day known
construct Eastern Europe did not exist before 1945 (Gutkind, 1972), which significantly complicate
the research of pre-socialist urbanisation in this region as an entity.
Although shrinking cities before and during socialism were not very frequent, they represent the pre-
decessors of many shrinking cities in this part of Europe today. They can even be categorised by the
still valid factors that were crucial for their shrinkage: change of borders, fall of industrial production,
internal/national spatial planning policies or the loss of dependent area. The aim of this research
is to systematise this knowledge relating pre-socialist and socialist urban shrinkage in Eastern Eu-
rope. In that way, this paper contributes to the further understanding of the circumstances that have
provoked the current urban shrinkage to be so widespread in Eastern Europe.

METHODOLOGY

This paper is organised as a scientific review, with a special intention to present the different catego-
ries of affected shrinking cities. Categorisation is divided in two parts: inter-war (pre-socialist) and
post-war (socialist) period. Each type of a shrinking city is demonstrated through a showcase(s).
Before this illustration through showcases, historic circumstances and their influence on urbanisa-
tion and urban shrinkage are explained in brief. All extracted types of shrinking cities from both pe-
riods are discussed together in final conclusions, to clarify ongoing situation about urban shrinkage
in Eastern/post-socialist Europe.

URBAN SHRINKAGE IN EASTERN EUROPE BEFORE SOCIALISM

Urbanisation in Eastern Europe has had a different pace then at the west of the continent from its
early beginnings. Western part has been always more developed and the main historic powers were
there (Musterd & Kovács, 2013). Hence, Eastern Europe had postponed urbanisation, as well as the
relatively late development of capitalist economy and modern society (Musil, 2005). The same pat-
tern was followed in industrial revolution, which reached Eastern Europe in the second half of 19th
century, i.e. one century after its start in England (Clossick, 2014). Despite its late initiation, the in-
dustrialisation on the turn of 19th to 20th century of Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires, which

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covered the most of Eastern Europe, was very rapid, enabling their fast economic development and
urbanisation. The economic and demographic growth of cities as the centres of industrialisation
was great in both empires, but also followed with uncontrolled construction, substandard housing
and the rise of social inequalities (Berenger, 1997).
After the World War I (WWI), the simply organised political space of Eastern Europe, mainly divided
between three empires, German, Austro-Hungarian and Russian, was profoundly reconfigured; these
empires were collapsed and many national states were born (Boeckh, 2014). New states had much
smaller space and a lot of new borderland thereof. The new borders further cut many previous trade
routes and divided former markets and gravitation zones. This consequently left many East-Europe-
an cities and towns in an unenviable position and brought economic obstacles, which was reflected
through demographic stagnation or decline.

Type 1a: New border cities

Some cities began to shrink due to their physical proximity to new borders. Some of them even be-
came border cities or new twin cities, i.e. the cities divided by border.
The first presented case is Sopron in present-day western Hungary. The city was the historic seat
of western Hungarian lands, today organised within the eastern Austrian Province of Burgenland. In
contrast to the rest of these lands, mainly inhabited with Germans, Sopron became a city with dom-
inantly Hungarian-speaking population, as a consequence of the fast urban growth due to indus-
trialisation during late Austro-Hungarian period. After the WWI, newly-created Austria and Hungary
were demarked along ethnic lines. The city was left to Hungary, but in the form of a ‘pocket’ mostly
surrounded by Austrian territory (Beigbeder, 1994). This border location and the dwarfed gravitation
zone of few villages hindered the development of Sopron; the city stalled and, after the WWII, entered
four-decade long urban decline when nearby border with Austria was an “Iron Curtain” (Sik, 2015).

_ Fig. 1: Unplanned twin cities – View on Esztergom Basilica in Hungary across the Danube River
from Štúrovo/Párkány in Slovakia (author: B. Antonić)

Even more severe destiny stricken the cities divided by new borders, such as the former Hungarian
royal city of Esztergom on the middle Danube (Fig. 1). The river became a border between Hungary
and Czechoslovakia at the end of 1918. The core of the city was assigned to Hungary, while its
northern suburb of Párkány across the Danube was inaugurated by Czechoslovak authorities as the
Town of Štúrovo. The both urban settlements have passed through the periods of stagnation and
shrinkage since this division. Only after both Hungary and Slovakia entered EU Schengen area in
2003, the situation between two cities relaxed.

Type 1b: Industrial hubs with reduced market

The second type of the shrinking cities and towns made during the interwar period is also related to

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new borders, but in different way. Newly-established countries outlined their own national markets,
usually much smaller than the previous ones of three huge imperial powers. For example, many
Finnish and Polish cities belonged to the most western and the most developed part of vast Russian
Empire and their industrial products prevailed there; their early industrialisation in the second half of
19th century (comparing to the other parts of Imperial Russia) was definitely initiated and led by this
huge and underused market (Branch et al, 1995). Riga, the capital of newly-established Latvia, was
an interesting case; it compensated its role as the main Baltic port of the former empire with the new
functions of a capital city (Morawski, 2017). However, many cities could not find the right solution for
this gap in local economy. The City of Łódź in Poland was illustrative for this situation. This city was
the most western major city of Russian Empire, developed mainly between the abolition of serfdom
in 1861 and the start of the WWI in 1914. This can easily be presented through demographic growth
– from 13,000 in 1840 to approximately 600,000 in 1915. Łódź was known as a “Polish Manchester”
due to its advanced textile industry (Fleming, 2012). However, city entered urban shrinkage after the
WWI and the city recovery lasted till the WWII. After the war, Łódź grew slowly comparing the other
cities in Communist Poland. Finally, after the fall of communism in the early 1990s, the city founded
it in an even more acute position that after the WWI due to the complete collapse of local industry.
This has been followed by population decline (-20%), as well as the other forms of urban shrinkage
(Fig. 2) since that (Holm et al, 2015).

_ Fig. 2: The visibility of urban shrinkage in present-day Łódź in Poland on street (author: B. Antonić)

Type 1c: Former imperial cities

The third interwar type is well-documented, because it refers to two large imperial capitals that lost
their significance with the decomposition of their vast empires: St. Petersburg and Vienna. However,
their urban shrinkage had noticeable differences.
Vienna was the capital of long-lasting Habsburg Monarchy that transformed itself into dual Aus-
tro-Hungarian Empire in 1867. This year is approximately the outset of industrial era of this empire,
which was reflected in its fast urbanisation, too. Vienna exemplified this development. The city pop-
ulation quadrupled from 1850 to 1910, passing remarkable two-million threshold at the last imperial
census in 1910 (Berenger, 1997). Although Vienna preserved its position of a capital after the WWI,
new Austrian Republics was incomparably smaller than the former Monarchy. This was immedi-
ately observable in the city demographics; Vienna lost approximately 10% of population after the
war. Then, the city had a peripheral position in Austria, close to national borders to Czechoslovakia
(east and northeast) and Hungary (southeast). This precipitated much smaller gravitation zone than
previous, especially after the WWII, when these borders became an “Iron Curtain” between the West
and the East. The post-WWII urban shrinkage of Vienna lasted several decades. The reurbanisation
of the city started only after the opening of the borders in 1990 and after the launching of the mass
reconstruction of old building stock in the 1980s (Fig. 3) (AW, 2008).

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_ Fig. 3: Reconstructed building in central Vienna, Austria, as a role-model for the city regeneration in the
1980s and 1990s and reurbanisation thereof (author: B. Antonić)

The developmental trajectory of St. Petersburg, the capital of Imperial Russia, was unique. The city
lost the most of its western gravitation zone in Finland and Estonia, as well as the role of national
capital in favour of centrally located Moscow. The city lost almost 40% between the censuses in
1910 and 1920, but this was overcome by reurbanisation within the socialist mass-industrialisation
of the early USSR (Eliseeva & Gribova, 2003). The planned economy in the USSR prevented the sce-
nario seen in the case of Vienna.

URBAN SHRINKAGE IN EASTERN EUROPE DURING SOCIALISM

One of the main premises of socialist urbanisation is the controlled development and growth of cit-
ies as the hubs of the constant development of industry and the enlightenment of proletariat (Enyedi,
1998). The exemptions from this ‘canon’ were rare. They were neglected in contemporary scientific
sources, too. Yet, shrinking cities existed in a small proportion in all censuses in the post-war USSR
(Cottineau, 2016). On the other hand, there were the relatively numerous examples of the cities with
very slow growth due to the planned measures of the deconcentration of urban population. An ex-
ample is the deliberate demographic slowdown of Prague and Budapest after the WWII in favour
of secondary cities in socialist Czechoslovakia and Hungary (Musil, 2005). Similar measures were
taken in the USSR, but with more modest outcomes. In addition, shrinking cities during socialism
were often somewhat opposite from the typical model of a socialist city. Three cases of socialist
shrinking cities can be signed out.

Type 2a: Border cities

The first interwar type – shrinking cities close to and thereby isolated by national borders – got its
post-war replica. They were more often in the socialist countries with slower demographic growth.
Then, the location of such declining cities was someway different, because they prevailed along
“hard” borders, like “Iron Curtain”. For instance, many small cities in the westernmost Czechoslo-
vakia, along the border with its ‘problematic’ neighbour, Western Germany, were shrinking during
socialism due to this unwanted location (Musil, 2005). The most of them were ethnically German
before the WWII, so the border issue was not very visible during interwar years. The case of the Town
of Aš, situated in Czech semi-enclave surrounded by German territory, was more than useful. The
town lost almost the half of its interwar population during socialism. Finally, the town population
stabilised after the 1990s (ČSU, 2007).

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Type 2b: Shrinking towns due to spatial isolation

The second post-war type is a bit ambiguous, because it is strictly reserved to small historic cities
and towns without a real industrial base. They are formed and have existed as trade and service
centres for their rural surroundings. Thus, it is questionable if they can count as modern urban set-
tlements in their essence. Nevertheless, they were probably the most often type of shrinking urban
settlements during socialist era, because this type of settlement has been quite common across the
eastern half of Europe. The main reason that these cities and towns began to shrink due to the rural
exodus in the areas around them, which was very intensive in socialist states (Musil, 2005). In the
other side, the second reason is their isolation and the distance from major cities and development
corridors, which limited the industrial growth of such places. This trend was more noticeable in the
last decades of socialism, with the decrease of birth rate and with the more severe demographic
exhaustion of countryside.
Furthermore, the trend was especially visible in the countries with already low population density,
such as Russia (Wegren, 1995). The right showcase is the Town of Yuryevets (Rus. Юрьевец) in
Ivanovo Oblast. This town was the first urban settlement in this region, established in 13th century
and was the important port on Volga River till 20th century (Trevish, 2003). However, modern devel-
opment bypassed Yuryevets, while river activities could sustain the previous glory. Hence, the town
has been shrinking since the 1960s despite rich urban heritage.
Type 2c: The first shrinking cities due to industrial decline
The shrinking of cities in old industrial areas in northern Bohemia and southern Eastern Germany
(Saxony) is the third type. It differs from the previous two types, because their urban shrinkage is
essentially linked to industrial decline. Two mentioned areas were already well-industrialised and
urbanised before socialism and their metalworking industry and mining were pretty outdated even
during socialist era (Musil, 2005). Quite small rural surrounding could not replace the negative de-
mographic implications in the cities with diminishing industry.
A well-known example is Leipzig in Saxony (Fig. 4), which was the second biggest city in the for-
mer Eastern Germany. The city was industrialised before the WWI (Bontje, 2005). This industry was
mainly obsolete after the war. Moreover, the socialist state intentionally suppressed the further de-
velopment of Leipzig and its urbanised vicinity due to its high density and inherited high develop-
ment (Florentin, 2010). Thus, the city lost almost 25% of its pre-war population or more than 200
thousand inhabitants till 1990 (Rink et al, 2011). The urban shrinkage of Leipzig even continued after
the fall of socialism, eventually re-growing from 2010s.

_ Fig. 4: Leipzig was a shrinking city in (Eastern) Germany with typical socialist features (source: flickr.
com)

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CONCLUSIONS

The last type of socialist shrinking cities described is particularly indicative for the present-day
urban shrinkage in Eastern Europe. As places where an ‘industrial congestion’ and its technological
anachronism caused an early urban decline during socialism, they are precursors to the incompara-
bly larger shrinkage process after the collapse of socialist system in Europe, in the early 1990s. The
explained example of Leipzig and many similar major cities in Eastern Germany (Dresden, Rostock,
and Magdeburg) that have entered reurbanisation last years confirms also that their long struggle
with deindustrialisation and pre-orientation to a service economy was eventually successful and
that they can be a role-model for many other cities across post-socialist space.
However, the named cities are probably a good example for the reurbanisation and redevelopment
of major cities, because middle-size and small cities and towns are still shrinking across the region,
regardless of the development level of the country they belong. The future is still triggering even in
the most development (Eastern) Germany (Kühn and Liebmann, 2012). The majority of pre-socialist
and socialist shrinking cities also point that these cities are particularly prone to general urban de-
cline if they are further isolate, such as the cities close to ‘hard’ borders, without dependent (rural)
area and far away from the main transport/development corridors and nodes. This is one of the key
conclusions in the recent World Bank report about shrinking cities in post-socialist countries; the
most vulnerable cities and towns are those with smaller population and spatially isolated (“single
cities”) (Restrepo Cadavid et al, 2017).
The last conclusion reveals that the causes of urban shrinkage have not changed drastically in the
last hundred years, regardless of different political and economic context. The slower urbanisation
before modern period, the anomaly of many new borders during interwar period and, finally, the
consequences of the improper maintenance of old industrial facilities in socialism are certainly the
factors that are significant for the research of widespread post-socialist urban shrinkage in Eastern
Europe. The fall of socialism was only a trigger for the outspread of urban shrinkage. In accordance
with this, the further research on the character and examples of urban shrinkage in Eastern Europe
before post-socialist transition matters from contemporary perspective and it had to be more in the
agenda of the future research across this region.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This paper is done as a contribution for two international scientific-research projects: (1) “CREATIVE DANUBE”
(2019-2022), Erasmus+ KA203 Cooperation Programme, financed by the EU; and (2) DANube Urban Brand + Build-
ing Regional and Local Resilience through the Valorization of Danube’s Cultural Heritage – DANUrB+ (2020-22),
INTERREG EU Danube Transnational Programme.

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THE POSITION OF TOWNS IN DIGITAL

CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY ENVIRONMENT
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch57

_ Velimir Stojanović
PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Pristina in Kosovska Mitrovica,
Faculty of Technical Sciences, Kneza Mililosa No. 7, 38220 Kosovska
Mitrovica, ISO 3166-2: RS, velimir.stojanovic@pr.ac.rs

ABSTRACT

The position of towns in the traditional hierarchy was clear and defined. Their place and importance
were defined by their structure, contents, and functions. Compared to cities, they had harmonized
relationships that were more or less balanced and mutually beneficial. In towns, people lived in the
conditions they provided, and migratory flows were a necessary consequence of the gravitational
impacts of cities. Nowadays, city digitization has become a reality. The notion of the so-called digi-
tal or “smart city” encompasses, first and foremost, large and medium-sized cities, filling their urban
parameters with the values ​given by computer science, from the planning process to the smallest
streams and services in the processes of urban life. This “city in a city” or invisible city that con-
stantly flows and manages the flows of everyday city needs has expanded into a global net they can
no longer escape from. Cities need this as such globalization has given a whole new dimension to
their existence and functioning. What about the position of towns? Are they necessarily sucked in
and involved in this process of connection, or are they isolated and left to themselves? It would be
logical to expect them to be part of one such global integration. But is it really so? By its very nature,
a town has low resources and potentials, and it could be incorporated into a broader integrative
process primarily from that point of view. Increasing these resources would necessarily mean that it
would grow into a city, which could not be expected in most cases.

The first issue would lie in the very desire (ability) of a town to become a city. Abandoning such a
desire would confirm the path to (self) isolation. The very position of a town could thus be found in
proper assessing of its contents and fitting into the network of integrated cities and areas that is
constantly growing and developing. Who could do this and in what way? A modern digital city has
a large and well-developed power to manage its urban flow from the biggest issues to the smallest
detail. That power, capacity, impact, and reach could be channeled to towns to provide them with
the services they need.

KEYWORDS _ town, digital city, capacities, processes, integration

INTRODUCTION

The production of digital plans has become a reality in recent decades, not only in the experimen-
tal sphere but also in the sphere of effective implementation and daily practice. It is applicable at
all levels, starting from the state and regional spatial plans themselves, through the level of cities
and their urban regulations to the smallest administrative procedures such as issuing building per-
mits and the like. The enabling information technology has evolved in phases over the years, going
through periods of creating an IT “tool” (appropriate hardware and software), as well as through

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adapting and converting a classic stock of planning documents to a new digital format. This process
has not been easy, it is still ongoing and commensurate with the issues it deals with. Digitization,
as expected, encompassed primarily large cities and areas gravitating toward them, while smaller
cities and towns were less concerned or not considered at all. This logically raises the question of
whether (in due course) they will be dealt with at all, and what their place and position will be in the
whole process. The question of small and medium-sized cities thus remains open and looks for
possible solutions for their connection with the processes of overall digitization of planning, which
will become more and more complex and content over time. The solutions to the involvement of
small and medium-sized cities in this process, lie both in the cities themselves, and in the already
developed system of new planning that could (should, must ...) include these cities and areas. The
active participants managing these flows should recognize these needs in a timely manner, and use
both, existing and future resources at their disposal, to avoid division (or, to a lesser extent, dispro-
portion), into the areas involved in the process, and those that are not. Opinions on this come down
to financialisation. Financialisation is hardly a new phenomenon in circuits of capital, the penetra-
tion of finance into various spheres of social and economic life speaks to its increasing dominance
as a medium of socio-economic interactions (Lee et al., 2009). There are different definitions of the
concept and meaning of the term financialization. Krippner defines it as a pattern of accumulation
in which profit making occurs increasingly through financial channels rather than through trade and
commodity production (Kripner, 2005).

DIFFERENCES IN THE POSITION OF SMALL AND MEDIUM-SIZED CITIES IN RELATION TO

MAJOR CITIES IN THE DIGITIZATION PLANNING PROCESS AND EXISTING PROBLEMS OF
THE PROCESS

Small and medium-sized cities have their traditional position in relation to large cities, and their
position varies from case to case, depending on both spatial and temporal (historical) dimensions.
The content of small and medium-sized cities was not necessarily linked to the development of
large cities, and many of them developed separately, and more or less independently, in accordance
with their resources. These resources were primarily based on location (geographic), then demo-
graphic, economic and then social and cultural. Connecting such cities to large cities was often
not necessary, and usually amounted to the migratory movements of people from less developed
areas to larger and more developed ones. The spatial-social relation was perceived as inevitable.
The relations between spatial and social patterns are researched with a goal to established whether
and how space influence into socio-economic processes through which the built environment is
created and inverse way too. theories can use space syntax tools to explore How spatial patterns
modify if objects in space are deployed in different ways, can be examine by using different methods
like space syntax tools, analysis of the different functions and cultural models (Hillier, 1996). After
all, there was also a review of environmental factors on the surroundings. The concept of the city is
highlighted and its significance encouraged by way of ecology and information technologies, and
saving the spatial resources by using modern technologies to reintegrate unused and abandoned
spaces into the urban landscape (Ellin, 2006),
There were also small and medium-sized cities whose ties with large cities were tighter and more
complex, but their numbers were smaller and their relationship and position were, and remained
specific. In the current times of change, we cannot expect these traditional relationships to be main-
tained. When considering the future and the changes that the general digitization of spatial planning
brings, it is necessary to impose at least three variants of the position of small and medium-sized
cities within this process, and these variants would be the following:
- neglect of small and medium-sized cities in the framework of new forms of planning (at
least until the technical and IT structure is raised to a higher and more developed level) This
is shown in Figure 1.

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_ Figure 1: Cities without interconnections (Source by author)

- partial inclusion of small and medium-sized cities in new forms of planning, depending on
the potentials, needs and interests of those who manage the planning
- continuous and synchronized inclusion of small and medium-sized cities in new forms of
planning, based on an assessment of potentials, resources and needs, in order to obtain a
comprehensive and unique planning concept and framework.
Considering that the digital planning system consists of a series of steps that attempt to make the
planning complete, active and usable, both in the process of temporal development and in the cur-
rent sense of present use, this is the area where the possibilities of answering all three mentioned
variants should be sought. The question of the identity of these areas, the losses and the gains also
becomes topical. The ways in which the changes will be implemented will decide whether these
places will be pleasant to live in. It is important to note the shortcomings of a haphazard urban-
ization triggered by financialization, which eliminates the cultural aspect, and in the case of Serbia,
creates a sense of non-place without authenticity identity, and identification, where man loses the
sense of community and socialization, and where it is necessary to create an individual sense (Marc
Augé, 1995). Identification determines the conditions of existence, including material and symbolic
resources that are needed to maintain it (Hall, du Gay, 1996).

DIGITAL PLANNING SYSTEM AND ITS TECHNICAL – FUNCTIONAL FEATURES

Custom themes and data models (primarily graphic ones) are the basis of a digital planning system.
A unique way of collecting this data (both old and new) is the hardest part of the job, both in cre-
ating databases, and in developing and creating hardware and software tools. While creating such
systems, it seemed impossible to integrate all the plans and put them together in one place, without
talking about any coherent analysis. In order for these systems to become balanced and stable, and
to allow easy access to the use and utilization (reading) of the plans, both by expert and the gener-
al public, it was necessary to create adequate portals with modules and applications, standardize
them, give them a special name and regulate them by legal regulations. The original digital plans,
the system and the structure of their use, made at the end of the last century, were a major step up
from the so-called “manual” design of plans, which in all environments were different, colorful and
made according to the technical and legal norms and standards applicable to those environments.

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Subsequently, the new standards first required the development of spatial plans through the use of
CAD or GIS software, and introduced a number of subsystems related to cartography, graphic layers,
scales, symbols and other necessary contents of plan displays.
Both in the initial and ongoing digital planning system, there are a number of unresolved or partially
solved problems. So, for example, there is the problem of coordinating systems (coordinate sys-
tems), prescribing data models in relation to them, evenly describing graphical data, and perhaps
most, introducing new data obtained by experts, during their new work and research, as well as in-
troducing new legal acts and laws enacted by the state and its institutions. Reorganization and do-
mains thus become issues that are addressed by the decision-making system. For what concerns
the management of built environment, and buildings in particular, the availability of an integrated
system of knowledge is the basis for a smart assets management. The modelling of urban informa-
tion at different level, from city-wide models to single building models, is the central idea of many
smart city projects developed in different domains and it refers to internationally recognized data
structures (BuildingSMART International, 2015) (Gröger et al. 2012). The dangers of disintegrating
those decisions also arise as a possibility. Nevertheless, in developed countries existing buildings
interest the majority of urban assets and the availability of integrated information able to describe
the quality of the existing building stock requires city managers to face current problems associated
with poor data quality, out-of-date databases and lack of interoperability between different sources
(UN-GMM 2015).
Today we have reached a level of development in Serbia when the newly created digital plans (as
well as the planning process itself) are available over the Internet, but this is not fully resolved and
harmonized. Access through the Internet is not always the case, the plans given in this way are scat-
tered on several web pages (their number can reach several hundreds) and the particular problem
is the creation of plans in several sites where they are provided in different formats (pdf, jpg, tiff, dvf,
etc.) Plans like these generally do not have the fully expected spatial reference, and sometimes do
not need official verification. There is an urgent need for these plans to work in real time. Adaptive
systems will be developed, able to detect the real time situation of built spaces, perceiving changes
due internal uses and external conditions, planning alternatives responses, choosing the best action
to undertake and monitoring the effect of such action (Mostashari et al.2011). Even miniature, local
web portals are created, not so useful for wider use, that they hire a great deal of staff relative to their
value, and spend a lot of financial means. This is shown in Figure 2.

_ Figure 2: Cities with limited connections (Source by author)

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This puts a strain on both users and the institutions that need to use such data. Therefore, ac-
tive participants are encouraged (forced) to prepare digital displays in a topologically orderly and
technically clean manner in that process, so that the graphic and textual provisions of the different
maps of the single spatial plan do not coincide, even if they were coincidence. The training of the
personnel structure is imposed as a necessity. Methods differ, starting from development of ame-
nities and special atmosphere in the city that attract creative people (Florida, 2002, Landry, 2000,
Jacobs, 1969), clustering of companies (Scott, 2007), generation of job opportunities, or investment
in educational and research institutions.
Digital planning from its higher levels necessarily goes down to the functional and usable levels of
the lower species, and today it reaches levels of building permits (in a very short period of time) and
monitoring and locating the occurrence of so-called “illegal construction”, and disregard of spatial
and urban plans in various locations and areas. The latter requires an IT segment that is valuable
and necessary for all digital planning - and that is the interactive exchange of information through
databases and their effective use in the prevention, control and elimination of this unwanted phe-
nomenon, which has been widely spread in Serbia. This is significant, first of all, as it seeks to create
a single, coherent, interactive and integrated system, which many see as the ultimate goal and suc-
cess of digital planning and its ultimate validation and incorporation into new theory and practice.
This is shown in Figure 3.

_ Figure 3: Cities with complete connections (Source by author)

The overall goal of globalization planning is thus indicated. Principal sites of cognitive-cultural
economy are cities, especially top global cities (Scott, 2008). Expanding the ideas of work is for that
purpose implied. Jane Jacobs (1984) connects city strength and position with its capability to pro-
duce ideas, or as she defines it, to conduct import-replacement cycle. Through import replacement
cycle cities stop import, start producing for their needs and come to export their own products.
Without this process cities are condemned on stagnation and decline. It is more important that
cities have human potential for innovation, knowledge and creativity than having available natural
resources and the newest infrastructure
Digital planning systems also use so-called locators, tools that can be linked to various applica-
tions inside or outside the system. They are important for adding data and spatial components to
already written and formed databases, so that overall data can be displayed on the geoportal. In this
way, for example, the aforementioned “illegal construction” objects can be located, entered in the

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appropriate registers and displayed as graphical representations on the geoportal, with appropriate
alphanumeric data and related to the law and treatment of illegally constructed objects. All values of
planning attributes become the destination of spatial and urban planning, and may even go up to the
level of the project sector, in order to provide an instrument in the end, to get an answer as to what
may (or may not) be built at any chosen location, how is it supposed to look like, if there are specific
requirements for the implementation of the plan or project, and which body would be responsible
for establishing those requirements. Association of multiple spheres of activity is thus expected.
Krӓtke (2012) claims that scientific/technological occupations have the strongest impact on city
economic growth and global urban positioning, followed by artistic occupations, basing his claims
on the research of employment in different sectors. The results of such an association would quickly
become visible. Most of these strategies are based on theories and principles established by Landry
(2000) and Florida (2002). Urban programs based on Landry’s work are putting emphasis on local
governance creativity, creative leaders of the city and engaging citizens in this process. They use lo-
cal cultural potentials and identity, evolve it to create broadly recognizable image, a brand of the city.
Digital planning processes thus become the physical framework of the country they cover, and are
being implemented on, which technically means that topics within a single process (layer) cannot
overlap. Every part or point on the land can only have one predefined purpose (for example, residen-
tial, industrial, agriciltural, etc.) and only one set of enforcement rules. This kind of existence and the
way digital plans work, will be crucial (destinal) for the treatment of small and medium-sized cities,
integrating them with larger and more developed environments, and ultimately placing them in a
comprehensive digital spatial planning system. All this would be based on the improved economic
footing that the environment provides. If the city governance wants to keep the capacity for knowl-
edge and innovation it needs to take careful small interventions that will protect original groups. Too
high institutionalization will drive away investors and suppress alternative character. Informal and
smaller art organizations are more important than flagship cultural institutions for social networking
(Currid, 2007). In the new economy it is necessary to link scientific and technological innovation
production with local artistic and cultural creativity, since only by joint appearance they contribute
to enhancement of city cognitive-cultural economy (Krätke, 2012).

ANALYSIS OF SMALL AND MEDIUM-SIZED CITIES AND THEIR VALORIZATION IN A NEW, DIG-
ITAL PLANNING SYSTEM

The treatment of each small and medium-sized city would begin with an analysis of its current
resources. First the geographical position and topological characteristics, then the demographic
situation and then the economic capacities and social image at its disposal. It would be then nec-
essary to determine the required economic means to begin the planned digitization of area. Con-
nections with major cities would not be a planning priority at the outset of the work, since the idea
of digital planning is in principle tied to wider areas, up to country (state) level, and would (with
respect to analysis) be concerned with assessing whether such a city should undergo digital spatial
plans at any given time. From this, we draw the conclusion that the decision to digitize is primar-
ily of a technical and economic nature, and not political or otherwise, and that it depends on the
above mentioned conditions. There are also broader and more detailed ideas about this. For exam-
ple, the comprehensive definition by Laguerre describes the digital city as ‘a set of virtual practices
or repertoires that are undertaken in a sustainable manner by individual residents and groups of a
particular city for the purpose of interacting, simulating, explaining, reinforcing, monitoring, neu-
tralizing, criminalizing, expanding (locally or globally), processing, transacting, or undermining any
political, social, economic, religious or communicational aspect of the daily activities of the urban
community’(Laguerre, 2005:1). Of course, it is a desire in modern societies to encompass as much
of the area/space as possible, by developing digital plans, and refining them at all levels enumerat-
ed. Experience in perceiving digital cities is demanding. The contemporary cities, pervaded by ICT
networks, generate a new experience of physical locations.

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The importance of data has been recognized in different aspects of urban life, adding a new dimen-
sion of spatial perception in which a concentration of information is more important than a number
of inhabitants (Vidler, 1992), Urban media, as defined by (de Waal, 2014), could be used as so-called
‘experience markers’ and/or ‘territory devices’, recording events in the space and/or influencing
the experience of a place. At that moment, a turning point may arise - which fatefully determines
the relationship of small and medium-sized cities to large centers. It is sufficient enough that one
product of the analysis does not show that, at this point in time it is necessary to start making digital
plans for a specific area, and to abandon them. Especially if it is found that more than one product
of analysis is in support of it, or it is found that there is not enough appropriate economic resourc-
es to access the business. Then the fate of a small or medium-sized city tends to the first variant
mentioned in the previous chapter - isolation and neglect. This is not the case when decisions on
the development of digital plans are made from a center (s) that has technical and economic mea-
sures. A different course of events would be when small and medium-sized cities themselves had
the resources and were able, and in position, to make decisions independently, and on their own, but
this is rarely the case.
The products of the analysis of small and medium-sized places may also be such that they can be
partially developed for digital plans, which would in particular be applied to certain values derived
from the analysis, to which the development of digital plans would then be tied. Such partial digital
planning would cover only one part of a complex set of digital space planning treatments, while
the rest would be left to some other times and opportunities. The relationship of the partial and the
complete is not unsolvable. The role of information networks would be to improve urban functional-
ity by increasing the efficiency and complexity of information exchange, without necessity to adjust
to existing spatial modules. (Mitchell, 2000) also proposes a digital - ‘smart’ upgrading of existing
spatial structures, within an overall intelligent adaptation and automated personalization introduced
by the concept of e-topia.
To put it simply, it would be like saying “all that you do not have to do today, leave it for tomorrow.”
It can be seen that this approach and such solution (s) is not ideal, and that in most cases it is not
good for anyone but is used and applied in practice. If such plans were to be extended and estab-
lished, this would not be good for the digital plan as a whole, since it would be inconsistent with
many shortcomings and unfulfilled goals. However, if applied to a number of examples, it would
lead to the second variant mentioned - the partial inclusion of small and medium-sized cities in
new forms of planning, depending on the capabilities, needs and interests of those who manage
that planning. The most successful, and therefore, the best implementation and realization of digital
plans for small and medium-sized cities would be the one in which prior analysis (analyzes), sup-
ported by specific economic means and technical potentials would fully (or to the greatest extent),
cover and process the space, and accommodate it into a connected network of the digital planning
structure of the country, thus providing them with the necessary connections with large places and
centers. This is undoubtedly the desire of those involved in digital planning, but unfortunately this
desire is not always in line with the possibilities. This does not mean that this wish could not be ful-
filled. According to (Landry, 2005), the foundation of the creative city is influenced by several factors:
personal qualities, will and leadership, human diversity and access to varied talent, organizational
culture, local identity, urban spaces and facilities, networking dynamics.
However, the most important among them are political will and appropriate organizational culture
which means that both governmental and other stakeholders should recognize the need for creative
city - as a model which stimulates and generates new ideas and approaches. Simultaneously, the
existence of a digital platform, as an interface between stakeholders, has already become a ne-
cessity in developing and exchanging knowledge, especially in the area of climate/environmental
awareness. In the future, this approach is expected to be dominant over the previous two options
in in Serbia as well, regardless of all the limitations and difficulties that exist in it. A certain order
of procedures would go that route. According to (Healey, 1997), collaborative planning integrates
soft and hard infrastructure through procedures and protocols of communication that enable wider
participation and representation in decision-making process.

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As far as the planning practice referred to the position of the towns concerned, we can say that is
refers to the development of a digital way of planning and all those technological recourses that this
technology requires. It is complete change in the way of planning from legal administrative proce-
dures to the use of permanent use of new technology that the institutions that would deal with it
would have. This, of course, implies a change in the way employees of these institutions work an a
change in the habits of service users.
All of this does not, of course, apply to cases where other factors are deciding in the process of
digitizing plans of area and place, such as political decisions made outside the consultation and
consent of the profession, particular economic reasons, and even resistance and misunderstanding
within small and medium-sized cities when it comes to these activities.

CONCLUSION

The position of small and medium-sized cities is not predetermined in this digital planning system
as it was (or would be) in the old system, or in the inherited traditional relationships. All their posi-
tions and places depend primarily on the technical - economic means and capabilities managed by
the state, and the institutions authorized therein, and to a lesser extent, on the ability and capability
of small and medium - sized cities to do so themselves. Therefore, their new connection with major
cities, regions and areas, depend on it. Creating new digital plans thus becomes a new condition for
better positioning and better connectivity, which was not the case before. This condition does not
have to be used, or it does not have to be exploited to the end, but it becomes a testament to how
much new technology, new approaches and new practices are changing the old conditions, and pav-
ing the way for new solutions and a new spatial planning hierarchy. The best change would happen
in terms of removing the old system and organizing city planning and replacing it with a new one.
The planning practice would be significantly different in essence and form. Connecting towns to
all levels of urbanizations an beyond would be more meaningful, complex and larger. Towns would
no longer look like isolated planning units or parts of semi - planned spaces but will be integrated
into stat - level planning process. This would primarily refer to the connections of large, medium
and small cities. This will be greatest contribution that the position of towns in the digital planning
process makes to the practice of planning.
When this is so set, new developments in the economic, social and cultural system, structure and
function of place and area or space, slowly begin to emerge. This would prove that digital planning
is a major asset in the development of small and medium-sized cities, and their path to a better
and more harmonious way of living in them. Small and medium-sized cities will not become larger
(though it is not excluded), but their position will become an integral part of the general structure of
planning reality, where many of their problems and issues will be solved in a much faster and better
way.

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TRIP GENERATION AND TOUR DISTRIBUTION OF PUBLIC

TRANSPORT TRIPS IN THE CITY OF SLAVONSKI BROD
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch58

_ Ljupko Šimunović
Full professor, Faculty of Transport and Traffic
Sciences, Vukelićeva 4, ljsimunovic@fpz.unizg.hr

_ Julijan Jurak
Research associate, Faculty of Transport and
Traffic Sciences, Vukelićeva 4, jjurak@fpz.unizg.hr

_ Božo Radulović
Research associate, Faculty of Transport and
Traffic Sciences, Vukelićeva 4, bradulovic@fpz.unizg.hr

_ Matija Sikirić
Research associate, Faculty of Transport and
Traffic Sciences, Vukelićeva 4, msikiric@fpz.unizg.hr

ABSTRACT

Trip generation and trip distribution are the first steps in conventional four-step travel demand mod-
elling. Four-step travel demand model is the most used methodology for creating validated data re-
garding travel demand and traffic flows in a defined area, territory or city. Trip generation calculates
number of trips that are produced or attracted from specific area or a territory, while trip distribution
determines how many trips are conducted from one area to another (or zone). Slavonski Brod is one
of the largest cities (7th) in the Republic of Croatia and it is the centre of Brodsko-posavska County.
Public transport in the City of Slavonski Brod is organized by a private operator with eight defined
bus lines and with more than 70 departure from 5AM to 11PM during a characteristic workday.
Used data for determining trip generation and trip distribution was collected during a questionnaire
survey conducted during the project development of the Sustainable Urban Mobility Plan of the City
Slavonski Brod. Goal of paper is to detect how household characteristics influences trip rate values
and origin-destination matrices between various areas of the City for trips in the public transport.
The paper will consist of an introduction, literature overview, methodology of data collection, results
of trip production, trip attraction and origin-destination matrix, discussion about calculated vales
and conclusion.

KEYWORDS _ urban mobility, transport and traffic solutions

INTRODUCTION

Trip generation and distribution is the first step in a four-step transport demand model methodol-
ogy. Trip generation is the number of trips that occur or are attracted to specific zones and areas.
Trip distribution represents the number of trips between two specific zones or areas. The city of
Slavonski Brod is the centre of the Brodsko-posavska County and one of the largest cities in the Re-
public of Croatia. According to the 2011 census report, there were an estimated 60,000 inhabitants.

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Passenger transportation is performed by Terzić bus d.o.o. on eight lines according to the contract
between the city and the transportation operator. There are 72 departures on eight lines during a
typical business day. One of the tasks of the Sustainable Urban Mobility Plan of the Slavonski Brod
Urban Area was to analyse the current state of mobility. The analysis entailed counting passengers
at all departures and conducting a survey in public transport vehicles and households. Determining
the impact of household characteristics on the number of trips and the trip distribution is a crucial
part of the work. Household characteristics were determined through household surveys. After de-
terming the number of trips and their distribution, conclusions were drawn as how household char-
acteristics influences trip rate values and origin-destination matrices between various areas of the
City for trips made by public transport.

LITERATURE OVERVIEW

The conventional four-step transportation planning model consists of 4 phases: trip generation; trip
distribution; modal split; and traffic assignment (Easa, 1993). According to Meurs, 1990., trip gener-
ation models are often used to forecast future travel demands in specific regions, given population
characteristics such as household size and composition, income, car ownership and sometimes
residential descriptors, such as density and network connectivity of the zones where the household
is situated. In order to assess the land use policy implications, trip generation rates are essential
knowledge for both planners and engineers working in the field of town planning and transportation
(Pitisiava-Latinopoulou, Tsohos, and Basbas, 2001.). The objective of trip generation is to estimate
the number of trips originated in each zone within the study area, which it is usually correlated to the
socioeconomic characteristics of the resident population in that zone (Ortuzar, 2000).
Trip distribution is a fundamental element of short-range analysis and long-range transportation
planning (Easa, 1993.), but can also be used for large scale development projects, community level
planning, and corridor studies (Mcguckin, 2015.). There are two different approaches to trip gener-
ation, micro, ie. site impact studies, and macro, ie. regional planning studies. In terms of data col-
lection, one approach relies on direct observation and counts of traffic entering and leaving specific
land uses while the other relies primarily on person-trip information obtained in regional origin-des-
tination (O-D) surveys (Mcguckin, 2015.). The decision of an individual in choosing a transportation
mode to be used for his/her daily trips is related to several characteristics. The trips attractors
(Aparecido, Pongitori, 2015.) can be related to the characteristics of individuals (sex, age, income,
educational level etc.), characteristics of the available transportation mode (cost, travel time, com-
fort, safety etc.), characteristics of the” trip per se” (length, schedule, motive etc.), and to the char-
acteristics of the urban environment (accessibility, topography, land use, urban density etc.). Trip
distribution consists of the following elements (Easa, 1993.): preparing input data; selecting a trip
distribution model; calibrating the model; validating the model; and forecasting. Trip distribution
is mainly affected by the purpose of the trip. The weight of the destination zones is different from
purpose to purpose and the attractivity of the zones are influenced by (accepted) travel time and
distance (impedance) of the persons doing a trip. As it is common praxis, the trip distribution model
considers the weight of each zone as well as the impedance between zones (Berki, Monigl, 2017.).
For each zone in the study area it is necessary to determine the area covered by each land-use to
estimate the trips to and from that zone (Amavi, Luigi, Ibeas, 2014.).
The operation of the transport model requires the origin-destination trip vectors for each analysis
period, classified by trip purpose and demand category, as input data. Those trip vectors are es-
timated through the generation/attraction models (Amavi, Luigi, Ibeas, 2014.). The base-year trip
matrix is generally composed of three types of trips: internal trips, external-internal trips, and exter-
nal trips (Easa, 1993.). O-D surveys are the most frequently used method of collecting travel pattern
data, with the advantage in locating both ends of the trip. Vehicle or person counts obtained from
specific locations are the basis for trip generation rates used in site planning and site impact eval-
uation studies (Mcguckin, 2015.).

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METHODOLOGY OF DATA COLLECTION

The data used in the paper is collected during the analysis of the current state of mobility and the
transport system in the urban area of Slavonski Brod. The current mobility situation analysis con-
sisted of data collected by assessing the city’s traffic flows, passenger counting in public transport
vehicles, and surveying households. The data collected by counting made it possible to calibrate
and evaluate the results. Passenger surveys were conducted during one characteristic day on all
departures of public passenger transport. Household surveys were conducted throughout the ad-
ministrative area of the City of Slavonski Brod. The methodology for processing the results consist-
ed of data collected from household and passenger surveys. The collected data were processed in
the MS excel software tools, QGIS 3.4. and PTV Visum. The data were processed according to the
basic characteristics of the population: number, age and financial possibilities. The production and
attraction of public transport passenger journeys are calculated from household survey data, while
the origin-destination travel matrix is calculated from the passenger survey.

TRIP GENERATION OF PUBLIC TRANSPORT TRIPS

Generating trips in traffic planning is one of the first steps of the four-step concept of creating a traf-
fic demand model. Traffic demand is the number of trips attributed to a given traffic network in a unit
of time. In the literature, four-step concepts take two time periods, the whole day and the peak peri-
od. The peak period is the hour or two-hour period during which demand for a mode of travel is at its
highest. By defining the transport network, it is necessary to define a set of spatial units (hereinafter
TAZs) in the observed area. The size and number of TAZs depends on the detail of traffic modelling,
number of households, population density, spatial and economic characteristics of the coverage
area. The paper analyses the administrative area of the City of Slavonski Brod, where, according
to the listed characteristics, approximately 90 TAZs were determined. The household survey was
conducted according to TAZs where it focused on the equal representation of the sample from each
individual TAZ. The data collected through the survey is sublimated into the mode of travel distribu-
tion. Following data influences the trip generation and thus the way in which trips are distributed: the
age structure of respondents, the working status of residents and the number of passengers arriving
and departing at all stops of public passenger transport.

_ Figure 2 Working status of the respondents

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Figure 1 Modal share of travel for the City of Slavonski Brod

Figure 1 shows the modal share of trips in the area of the City of Slavonski Brod. Observing the total
number of trips, only 3% of passengers use public transport, of which 1.4% of respondents use daily
commuter transport (the remainder belongs to rail and county bus passenger transport). The chart
also shows that 60% of respondents use a passenger car every day as a driver or passenger. Such
distribution suggests poorly organized and efficient urban passenger transport.

_ Figure 2 Working status of the respondents

The passenger survey showed the following data:

_ More than 4/5 of all travellers are high school or college students;
_ A tenth of all passengers are employed persons;
_ More than 2/3 of all passengers are 18 or under 18 years of age;
_ Only 3% of passengers are over 65 years of age.

_ Figure 3 Ages of the respondents

The data suggest that the vast majority of passengers use public transport for reasons of inability
to use a car or other forms of private transport (motorcycle, bicycle, etc.). The data also show that
the largest number refers to persons under the age of 18 who are forced to use public transport due
to school obligations (compulsory travel), although pensioners are a dominant population structure.

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_ Figure 4 Numbers of passengers at public stops

Figure 4 shows the total number of passengers arriving and departing during a typical business
day at all bus stops. Green indicates passengers entering and red passengers departing. The figure
shows that most passengers arrive or departure at a small number of stops, and that these stops
are located in the centre of the City of Slavonski Brod.

TRIP DISTRIBUTION OF PUBLIC TRANSPORT TRIPS

Trip distribution is the second step in the four-step concept of traffic demand. Travel distribution
represents the number of trips between all zones in the observed area. By defining 90 zones when
creating a traffic model, 90 pairs of journeys were created between zones for public passenger
transport. The total number of trips during a typical business day is 2070 trips. By dividing this num-
ber by the number of trips, you get a ratio of 30 trips from and to each zone using public transport.
By reducing the time period to the peak hour, this ratio shows an average of only 3 to 5 passengers
per zone.

_ Figure 5 Numbers of passengers obtained from the transport model during a typical business day

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Figure 5 shows the traffic model of demand for public passenger transport in the area of the City of
Slavonski Brod. The model in the figure represents the total number of trips on the public transport
network during the business day. The following information can be read from the figure:
_ The busiest part of the public transport network is the downtown area around the main
attractors of travel;
_ The north and north-eastern parts of the city located next to the center follow by observing
the loads of public transport;
_ The eastern, western and north-western parts of the city have under 100 passengers
transported during the weekdays.

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

The collected and processed data from the household survey and passenger characteristics served
to create a traffic model of demand for public passenger transport in the area of the City of Slavon-
ski Brod. The very low share of public passenger transport (below 2% of urban transport) suggests
several possible reasons. The reasons are as follows: the low number of departures; the public
transport fleet age; the poorly traced routes; the mismatch of all forms of public transport; poor
infrastructure; insufficient number of stops; and outcomes of poor tariff policy. All these consid-
erations have a stronghold in the passenger survey, which suggests a large number of passengers
being forced to use public transport because of the inability to use their car or the distance between
the source and destination of their trips. The low share of pensioners in the total number of passen-
gers carried confirms the reasons listed above. By comparing the results of the survey and the data
obtained by the transport model, a large influence of household characteristics can be determined. If
the household owns a car or can use a private car, the household is not likely to use public passenger
transport. When there are young people in the household who attend high school or college, the like-
lihood of using public transport is greatly increased, regardless of the system characteristics. Due to
the extremely negative demographic picture of the population of the area and the emigration of the
working population, the majority of households will be exclusively retired persons. Adapting public
transport to such a structure (over 65 years of age and small financial opportunity) can result in an
increase in the number of passengers and, consequently, a greater share of public transportation in
the overall trip modal share.

CONCLUSIONS

Trip generation and trip distribution are the basic elements of making a quality analysis for plan-
ning both short-term and long-term measures and strategies. The development of the model can
identify certain patterns of travel, as well as the shortcomings in the current mobility planning, and
result in timely reactions in eliminating them. The collection of relevant data through the counting
of passengers, their survey and the survey of households in the area of the City of Slavonski Brod,
showed a great influence of household characteristics on travel habits. The proportion of only 1.4%
of respondents using public urban passenger transport, over 80% of whom are high school or uni-
versity students, suggest that all trips of the obligatory (mandatory) type of trip are completed. The
passengers counting and the trip distribution showed that the largest number of inbound passen-
gers is in the area of densely populated residential areas, while the destinations were in the areas
of large attractors (school, college, hospital, market). The extremely low number of trips and the
largest distribution of trips from the city centre to the outskirts of the city confirms the obligatory
travel thesis. A large proportion of pensioners in the total population, and their low representation
as users of public transport, are a key element in improving public transport services and adapting
infrastructure.
Very close or the same level of influence of household characteristics on travel habits in similar cit-

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ies as Slavonski Brod can be detected. Similar cities can be found in this part of Europe, with similar
number of inhabitants or socio-economic similarities. But there is needed to conduct research that
will accept or reject that hypothesis.

REFERENCES

__ Alexandre, Amavi, Juan, Romero, Luigi, Dell’Olio, and Angel, Ibeas. Advanced Trip Generation/Attraction
Models. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 160. 2014. pp. 430 – 439.
__ H., Meurs. Trip generation models with permanent unobserved effects. Transport Research-B, Vo1.24B.
No.2. 1990. pp. 145-158.
__ J.D., Ortuzar. Modelos de demanda de transporte. Ediciones Alfaomega. Santiago. 2000.
__ José, Aparecido, and Caroline, Pongitori. Characteristics of the Trips Generated by a Trip Generation
HUB. 10th International Conference on Coputers in Urban Planning and Urban Management. 2015.
__ M., Pitisiava-Latinopoulou, G., Tsohos, and S., Basbas Trip generation rates and land use – transport
planning in urban environment. Transactions on the Built Environment vol. 52. 2001. ISSN 1743-3509
__ Nancy, Mcguckin. An Overview of Trip Generation. Trip Generation Discussion Working Paper. 2015.
__ Said M., Easa. Urban Trip Distribution in Practice I: Conventional Analysis. Journal of Transportation
Engineering 119. 1993. pp. 793-815
__ Zsolt. Berki, and Janos, Monigl. Trip generation and distribution modelling in Budapest. Transportation
Research Procedia. 20th EURO Working Group on Transportation Meeting, EWGT 2017. Budapest. 2017.
__ Faculty of Transport and Traffic Sciences. Sustainable Urban Mobility Plan of urban area Slavonski
Brod – Mobility analysis report. Slavonski Brod. 2019

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POTENTIAL OF MAKER MOVEMENT ON SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT OF REMOTE CROATIAN ISLANDS
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch59

_ Rene Lisac
PhD, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Architecture,
Kačićeva 26, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia, rene.lisac@arhitekt.hr

_ Morana Pap
PhD, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Architecture, Kačićeva 26,
10000 Zagreb, Croatia, morana.pap@arhitekt.unizg.hr

_ Roberto Vdović
MSc, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Architecture, Kačićeva 26,
10000 Zagreb, Croatia, roberto.vdovic@arhitekt.unizg.hr

ABSTRACT

In the last 15 years the maker movement, among other things, is changing our society, the way we
learn, teach, work, produce and live. For the last 10 years we have not only been researching the topic
of this social movement, but we are also part of it. Based on our experience as being part of the mak-
er community and based on our previous research on sustainable development, this paper examines
the potential of makers and maker movement. In fact, above all, the paper examines the potential
of new agents (such as makers laboratories, art residencies and coworking hubs), and their pro-
spective impact on our society, especially on the sustainable development of non-urban areas such
as remote (Adriatic) islands. The question in front of us is: can these new agents have a changing
role for these isolated areas? We offer the answer by introducing the story about Adriatic Greenlab
Initiative and Biševo Makers Workshops which was held as part of the mentioned initiative. Biševo
Makers Workshop presents a real test in the physical environment – remote Adriatic island Bilevel in
Croatia, with the main actors – makers, in collaboration with the members of the local community.

KEYWORDS _ new innovation agents, art and technology makers,

remote islands, local engagement, sustainable development

INTRODUCTION

New innovation agents like makers laboratories, art residencies and coworking hubs aspire to in-
fluence our society in a new and sustainable way. In the form of living laboratories, in the existing
system they introduce values of community driven development, smart specialisation, nature based
solutions, local productivity and global connectivity. Initially these new and innovative scenarios oc-
cur in the urban context, leaning on or growing out of existing urban processes, transforming them in
the contemporary sustainable way: bringing fresh innovation and collaboration energy - new social
and environmental values.
Faced with a century of depopulation and decline of traditional living scenarios, Croatian islands are
irreversibly losing values that through thousand year old history shaped their natural and cultural
landscapes. Culmination of massive tourism has a beneficial effect on decreasing depopulation, but

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tends to be harmful for the environment and social diversities, especially lethal for preservation of
traditional agricultural scenarios, as well as occurring of new and innovative activities. In this con-
text, can these new agents, apart from influencing intensive and complex urban environments, have
a changing role for the depopulated rural areas like remote islands?
Adriatic Greenlab Initiative, a collaboration between FabLab Zagreb and Faculty of Architecture,
University of Zagreb, is exploring the potential of makers movement to provide new synergies of
environment and people, nature and technology, science and arts, for the sustainable development
of Adriatic islands. In the framework of the initiative, community driven activities on the remote
south Adriatic island of Biševo have introduced this concept in the challenging island environment,
showing its potentials and limitations.

MAKERS CULTURE AND ITS SOCIETAL INFLUENCE

The emergence of maker culture depends a great deal on our understanding that different people
learn through different means. Some are auditory learners, and some are visual learners. Yet another
group learns best by doing. These are the makers. Makers at their core are enthusiasts. They are
people (technology enthusiasts, educators, thinkers, inventors, engineers, authors, artists, students,
artisans etc.), and start-ups and companies, that solve problems and help to create a more sustain-
able society. Makers motto is “do it yourself” (DIY) and, above all, “let us do it together”. They are, in
fact, part of an international community, sharing information and knowledge both through the web
and through real physical places, fablabs or makerspaces.

_ Figure 1: Makers working on the island of Biševo. Author: Stjepan Tafra.

Maker culture leans heavily on the idea of constructivism, that is the notion that learning is best
done through doing. In the past, this learning technique was used heavily by craftsmen to train their
apprentices. It was a perfect fusion of DIY wherewithal and immersion learning. Today, we have
moved away from the apprenticeship model, a transition that has been as regrettable as it was inev-
itable, in favor of long years of formal education. While people today may not treasure the ability to
create/make/repair out of the same sense of necessity as they once did, they are finding their lives
enriched by creating something new and learning new skills.
The maker movement is a global phenomenon impacting the future of work, product development,
education, and learning, and more. Since 2005, Maker Faire (more information: https://makerfaire.
com/makerfairehistory/) and Make: magazine (more information: https://makezine.com/) have
been leaders in telling the maker story. Their mission is to celebrate and nurture maker culture and
the creative spirit. The maker movement, and its values, can be applied to company culture, and
lately we are witnessing some of the ways that makers can champion entrepreneurial boldness and
risk-taking. But just as important are those less obvious qualities, the ones that are a little harder to

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see and touch. In other words, within the maker movement values exist that can apply to any kind
of business venture. And the interesting thing is just how simple they are: 1. The maker movement
is particularly keen to remind us that openness, and a spirit of sharing, is not just a good idea, but
absolutely essential to continued progress (Value openness – open source represents the future);
2. While some of history’s brightest innovators have been unapologetic perfectionists, a great many
more made their peace with the fact that nothing will be perfect the first time around, and in many
cases, not the third or fourth time around, either (Make Peace with Imperfection – risk taking); 3.
Technology, business, and an innovative spirit should bring people closer together, rather than drive
them apart (Build a Community); 4. The maker movement places a particular emphasis on creativity
and breaking out of the status quo. New products demand new kinds of businesspeople, after all;
and the best ones are people who love what they do. (Love What You Do - life is only worth living if
we do what we love).
Therefore, keeping in mind all the above, it can be said that the approach of maker culture is not
completely new in relation to the past, but it is in harmony and in a way responds and recognizes
very well today’s needs of society. What sets maker culture (perceived as DIY culture on the sur-
face) apart from the traditional culture of crafts is that the artistic and creative elements are often
complemented by digital components. The global economy and the latest technologies are utilised
in learning and networking as well as in production and distribution. Interest in maker culture has
grown as technology has become more affordable and accessible. Equipment that is now within
the reach of hobbyists can be used to carry out projects that were previously restricted to the realm
of professionals. Further, and logically, the maker also is not an invention of the digital age, but a
revival of something that already existed before, only now it has been given another name, one that
corresponds to the 21st century. The maker movement has come about in part because of people’s
need to engage passionately with objects in ways that make them more than just consumers. But
other influences are in play as well, many of which closely align the maker movement with new
technologies and digital tools.

_ Figure 2: Discussing role of makers on remote islands. Author: Rene Lisac.

Maker communities have a focus on health and wellbeing, sustainable development, local culture
and can from that point of view also be seen as a negative response to disposables, globalized

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mass production, the power of chain stores, multinationals and consumerism. The act of making
is rooted in play, collaboration and curiosity. It develops a mindset that enables us to see ourselves
as more than just consumers, but as creators with a bias toward action. Makers combine domain
expertise and traditional craftsmanship with modern tools to innovate solutions for themselves and
their communities. Can these new circumstances be beneficial also for remote areas, specifically
isolated island communities?

REMOTE ISLANDS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Islands have always had an inherent relation to sustainable development. Inability to rely on other
activities and resources, spatial and thus social isolation forces actors in space and their scenarios
to a significantly higher level of self-sufficiency. In other words, the unsustainability of one scenario
is much more difficult to be lost in the complex networking of processes, as it is the case on land.
(Fernandes and Pinho, 2011). Fragile social and economical Island environments have suffered due
to depopulation, especially In the most intense period of abandonment of the islands in the second
half of the 20th century. Although connectivity to the mainland has been increasing, ensuring work,
quality medical care and education, as well as cultural services has become more and more difficult
for the small remaining population.
Simultaneously, rural lifestyle has gradually been replaced by touristically driven use of space as
a new form of colonization of this valuable spatial resource culminating in the last 20 years (Pod-
gorelec and Bogadi, 2013). Life on the Adriatic islands in the past decades is undergoing these
intense and significant developmental processes which will irrevocably direct their economic, social
and in particular spatial development. Due to stabilization of the Croatian market economy posi-
tion in the European Union and thus increasingly intensifying opening up to the global market, this
process now has exponential growth. This seemed to be a solution, and indeed the culmination of
massive tourism has had a beneficial effect on decreasing depopulation due to financial progress,
but tends to be harmful for the environment and social diversities. It is especially lethal for preser-
vation of living scenarios based on traditions and agriculture, and has overall proven to be almost
impossible to direct it into a sustainable direction.

_ Figure 3: Working scenarios of the island for sustainable development analysis. Author: Rene Lisac.

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Although disadvantages of conventional tourism are more than evident for a long time, its economic
strength has never met an at least equal and sustainable opponent. Nevertheless, the ongoing dig-
ital age offers new technological possibilities, as well lifestyle trends. Work from home, mobile or
remote working present new life scenarios, to join the traditional ones in diverse and sustainable op-
position to tourism. This implies using island natural values as a resource for work inspiration and
healthy lifestyle. Recent COVID-19 outbreak crisis, together with cancellation of all tourist activities,
has undoubtedly put this new agenda in front.

ADRIATIC GREENLAB INITIATIVE AND BIŠEVO MAKERS WORKSHOP

Biševo is a remote Adriatic island of 5.8 km2, located 5 km southwest of the island of Vis. The is-
land has a history of settlements since the late Roman times and then the activity of the monastery
complex in the early Middle Ages. (Novak, 1954, Skok, 1950) Biševo is not a completely abandoned
island, but the fundamental features of the Biševo community have disappeared in the last 50 years.
With the intensification of tourism driven activities in the last 20 years, the number of permanent
residents has been raised to 11, working in agriculture, fishing and mostly tourism. Occasionally,
more people live (50) during summer season, in monthly or weekly cycles. Although all Island activ-
ities tend to diverge in conventional tourism, being the most profitable, local initiative “Biševo Island
Artist Residency” is an notable local effort to preserve traditional island identity by promoting more
sustainable island agendas. Several years of hosting artist and literature groups, and exposing their
responsive work on the island and online, together with its active role in protecting the island, the
initiative has slowly paved the way for new and alternative island futures.

_ Figure 4: First Biševo Makers Island Workshop. Author: Rene Lisac.

The idea of testing of the role of Makers on the Adriatic Island has been quickly developing over the
last few years. 1st Makers island workshop, organized by “Bisevo Island Artist Residency”, Fablab
Croatia, Faculty of Architecture Zagreb with the support of Vulca European Program as part of Adri-
atic Green Lab Initiative, was held in September 2019 on the island of Biševo. The primary goal of the
Workshop was to have a diverse group of makers work together, while using their simple technolog-
ical skills and creativity to solve local issues and leaving their DIY projects to the local community.
After a month of preparations in their home cities, 7 international participants from EU context to-
gether with 4 croatian organizers have spent a week working on the island, assembling and testing
their projects. Three main topics, developed in cooperation with the locals, were: 1) Remote sensing
& mapping of island (creating 3D spatial database using Drones, AUV and 3D scanning devices),

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2) Plastic waste collecting & recycling (solutions to the local community, to manage, recycle and
reuse plastic and glass waste) and 3) Water related problems (solutions for collecting, testing and
filtrating water). In the same time the whole process was to be observed and continuous theoretical
discussions were held to clarify the role of makers movement for sustainable development of re-
mote islands. Discussions also included the locals who critically evaluated theoretical statements
from practical, real life perspective.

THE POTENTIAL ROLE OF MAKERS IN REMOTE AREAS (CONCLUSIONS)

People have always used their hands to make things, both because their circumstances have made
it necessary and simply because it gives them pleasure. So, creation has always been a part of hu-
man life, and most people are makers, even though they are not aware of it. As times have changed,
makers have wholeheartedly embraced new (digital) technologies and integrated/combined them
with old (analog) technologies, to create a whole new level of DIY and innovation. They exchange
solutions and co-design in a participatory way, they prototype and validate innovations. Today they
represent a real cultural movement capable of having an enormous impact on the economic and
social development of communities. This is because of their ability to explore new avenues or sim-
ply to go along existing ones in a new way. We believe that maker culture and makers can help not
only urban but also non-urban areas such as remote Adriatic (Croatian) islands and that they have
a great potential and important role regarding their sustainable development. With the Maker Move-
ment we are seeing a new culture of manufacturing rising because many makers combine techno-
logical interest with a societal mission. We should in fact look to the maker movement for tips on
how to create an ecosystem of talent, connections, and learning that will lead to a truly innovative
economy and society.
Having a sustainable work scenario on the island without a doubt presents a fundamental element
for preventing depopulation in a sustainable development manner. Important missing facilities that
directly follow, like medical care and education, are becoming more and more available in forms of
tele/remote medicine, e-education and similar. This all is a precondition to forming or preserving
island communities, whose diversity has been threatened over the years by monofunctional tourist
activity.
Although occurrence of makers activities on the island can at a certain level support basic needs
such as work, education, and health care, it does not represent a game changing factor for the
contemporary sustainable island development shift. Still, in the following phase of supporting the
connectivity and practical needs of isolated islands and their non-resilient communities, makers
movement has its strongest influence. New simple and available technical solutions and inherent
creativity of makers movement represent an ideal upgrade on traditional DIY skills of islanders.
Their methods as repairing and recycling vs. throwing, innovating and improvising as well as down
to earth practicality support island life as closed ecosystems. Last but most importantly, positive
energy for collaboration, life improvement and sharing represents the strongest resource for regen-
erating weakened island social structures.

 
REFERENCES

__ Anderson, Chris. 2014. Makers: The New Industrial Revolution. New York: Crown Business.
__ bisevoislandartistresidency.org 2019. “Prva Makers otočna radionica.” Last modified September 14.
Accessed September 21, 2019. https://bisevoislandartistresidency.org/en/makers-island-workshop/.
__ Fernandes, Ruben; Pinho, Paulo. 2017. “The distinctive nature of spatial development on small is-
lands.” Progress in Planning, Vol. 112 (February): 1-18.
__ Novak, Grga 1954. “Otok Vis i Biševo u srednjem vijeku.” Starohrvatska prosvjeta, Vol. III No. 3.: 105-

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130.
__ Podgorelec, Sonja; Klempić Bogadi, Sanja 2013. Gradovi potopili škoje - promjene u malim otočnim
zajednicama, Zagreb: Institut za migracije i narodnosti.
__ Make Community LLC. 2020. “Maker Faire.” Last modified September 30. Accessed October 1, 2020.
https://makerfaire.com/.
__ Make Community LLC. 2020. “Make Magazine.” Last modified September 30. Accessed October 1,
2020. https://makezine.com/.
__ Skok, Petar. 1950. Slavenstvo i romanstvo na Jadranskim otocima. toponomistička ispitivanja. Za-
greb: Jadranski institut JAZU.

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THE IMPACT OF ECONOMIC FACTOR ON TRANSFORMING

THE URBAN FORM OF ERBIL IN KURDISTAN REGION-IRAQ
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch60

_ Rebaz Khoshnaw
Department of Urban Planning and Design, Csonka Pál Doctoral School,
Budapest University of Technology and Economics, 1111 Budapest,
Műegyetemrkp. 3. Building K II/93, rebaz.arch@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT

The aim of the paper is to provide an insight of how the economic factor has influenced the urban
structure and the urban form of Erbil city in northern Iraq. The escalation of urbanization in the past
few decades resulted in dramatic increase of population. Moreover, after the Iraq War in 2003, the oil
revenue helped the economic growth in the country especially in Erbil which was in a high security
situation that attracted investors and individuals. The growth of economy in the city associated
with growth of population, and it influenced the transformation of land use, transportation and real
estates. The economic force was behind the increase in demand for land, densities, building heights
as well as the change in land uses. Thus, all these factors collectively shaped structure of the city in
a way that reflect the change of the economic growth of the city. New highway roads, new residential
neighbourhoods have been constructed and high-rise buildings can be seen almost every were in
the city. Yet, a prosperous city is not the one with higher economic growth, but the one, alongside
with economic growth, provides the inhabitants with a better place to live in. Without a clear plan-
ning vision and well-prepared regulations, the economic factor (cost-benefit) will take the control
of transforming the urban area of the city without consideration to the sustainability aspects. Here
comes the institutional role, regulations and municipalities, to guide the investments and future
developments to the right direction that serve the prosperity of the city.

KEYWORDS _ erbil, urbanization, land use, land economics, sustainability

INTRODUCTION

Today, 55% of the world’s population lives in urban areas, a proportion that is expected to increase
to 68% by 2050, (United Nations, 2019). With this mass movement from rural to cities (trend of
urbanization), the large cities are facing unprecedented transformation. Increasing populations of
the cities means more needed residential units, more traffic and denser functions. Here comes the
importance of land use, housing planning and regulations, as a framework to overcome the issue.
Even though the land use arrangement can vary significantly depending on the function of a city,
residential land use is the most common, occupying 65-75% of the surface of a city. Commercial
and industrial land uses occupy 5-15% and 15-25% of the surface respectively, (Rodrigue, Comtois,
& Slack, 2017).
Erbil city (Figure 1), has witnessed different waves of urbanization prompted by the circumstances
that Iraq and Kurdistan region have experienced such as Iraq-Iran war (1980-1988), the 2003s war
and the crisis that followed which greatly affected the socio-economic status of the city. The Gov-
ernorates of Erbil (Greater Erbil) with population over 1.8 million shows a high rate of urbanization
(Figure 2). The aim of the paper is to understand the relationship between the growth of economy,

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urbanization and the transformation of urban form in the city. This will help municipalities and urban
planners to act accordingly regarding the future growth of the city. Also, to adopt the necessary
regulations to encounter further sprawl of the city.

_ Figure 1: The Location of Erbil City According to Iraq

_ Figure 2: The Urban and Rural Population of Erbil Governorate (Source: Central Statistical Organization/
Iraq, 2017)

METHODOLOGY

The research is an attempt to provide understanding of how the economic growth is affecting the
transformation of the urban form of Erbil at different levels. The research and the statistical data are
focusing on the last twenty years. Because most of the growth has happened during this period of
time especially after the year 2003. During this time, the expansion of the city and the increase of
population was concurrent with the rapid economic growth. Yet, the transformation was not only
affected the boundary of the city, but also reflected on the existing urban form as well. To under-
stand these changes, multiple primary and secondary sources were combined in the process of
investigation. The primary sources such as maps and satellite images were used. In addition, the
demographic and statistical data were another source of information. Perhaps, using tools such as
space syntax analysis software was an important part of the research. The literature reviews repre-
sent the secondary sources of information that support the analysis.

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URBANIZATION AND THE CITY STRUCTURE

The major force in shaping the environment is human activities, rather than nature, (Committee on
Global Change, 1990). Historically, the land transformation has been caused by agriculture. Later on,
the industrial revolution and its associated urbanization had taken the role. Today, the globalization
of the world economy is causing further growth of population in the cities. Urbanization “perhaps
the most significant influencer of real estate strategies in recent years” is not limited to labour mi-
grations, but also includes the move of large companies, capital and investment, to cities (Pwc and
The Urban Land Institute, 2017).
A United Nation’s survey shows that the majority of decision makers discourage urbanization rather
than welcome it. They would prefer to see people return to rural areas (Spence, 2009). However, ur-
banization is not only the result but also a cause of the economic development (Gallup et al., 1999).

Due to the great demand and unavailability of affordable houses, housing units turns into a com-
modity and a means of accumulating wealth that can be tradable and profitable for affluences and
investors (UN News, 2017). Beside the availability of better services and easier access to amenities
in cities, the economic aspect, especially job opportunities, is the key factor of migration from rural
to urban. Thus, it is a major driving force of urban change. Urbanization is an unavoidable result
of economic growth of cities, simultaneously a contributor to it. However, a better city is the city
that functions better and provide higher quality of life for its inhabitants. Even though land use
and transportation networks are very slow to change, their associated movements can change and
adapt quickly. Housing are considered slow in changes as the buildings take several years from
planning to completion. Whereas, population and employment are fast in changes (Wegener, 2004).
This leads to disrupt the urban dynamics and for cities to not function efficiently.

Wegener shades light on these factors and their roles in transforming the cities and the systematic
structure of these changes:
1. Land use: the generator and attractor of movements, it is the most stable component of
urban dynamics, as changes are likely to modify the land use structure over a rather long pe-
riod of time. Changes in the functional land use (economic nature of activities such as pro-
duction, consumption, residence and transport) will affect formal land use that concerned
with qualitative characteristics of space such as form and pattern.
2. Transport network: it is considered to be a rather stable factor, as the infrastructure are
built for the long term. Changes in the transport network would impact accessibility and
movements. Thus, more accessible street means more concentrated functions and conse-
quently higher real estate prices.
3. Population and housing: They are the generators of movements, because residential ar-
eas are the sources of commuting.

URBANIZATION AND HOUSING SECTOR IN ERBIL

Being the capital city of Kurdistan region (with population of 850 thousand) and due to the safety
and stability situation, the city of Erbil has attracted investment from other countries in Middle-East
especially in construction field. In addition, opening Erbil’s international airport in 2010 gave the city
an opportunity of growth by connecting it with most of the cities in the Middle East and Europe. Both
the economic growth and increasing population of the city has affected the demand for real estate
projects in sectors of housing, commercial and hospitality.
Due to the decline in oil price in the mid of last decade and the political dispute between Erbil and
Baghdad the construction activities have slowed down. Meanwhile, the growth of population contin-
ued due to the immigration from rural to the urban areas in addition to the IDPs who fled other Iraqi
cities and sought shelters in Erbil. Thus, the real estate market in Erbil showed continuous increase

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due to the high demand (Figure 3,4).

_ Figure 3: General fiscal budget of Iraq (Source of the data: Ministry of Finance-Iraq).

_ Figure 4: Average residential unit prices in Erbil, 2005-2020 (Source of the data: hajisalam real estate
co.)

_ Figure 5: Erbil, Investments by sectors, 2006-2014 (Source: world bank)

Investing billions of US$ in the housing sector during the last two decades in Erbil did not contribute
in reducing the prices (Figure 5), because the larger portion of the capitals are invested in luxury
units. In other words, the money is packed into a limited number of zones. Consequently, it caused
scarcity in affordable houses and directly affects the liveability (pull force) of the city. None availabil-

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ity of affordable housing units has encouraged the phenomenon of plot divisions. In many districts
the originally one house designed plot areas of 200m2 or 250m2 has been divided into two units.
This practice has resulted in increasing the density and scarcity of amenities in these neighbour-
hoods (Figure 6a,6b).

_ Figure 6a & Figure: 6b: The practice of plot divisions in Erbil (Source: Author)

_ Figure 7: Shelter Type, (Source: UNFPA, demographic survey, Kurdistan region of Iraq, 2018)

_ Figure 8: Growth of Erbil city (Source: drawing by the Author based on the data from Ministry of Munic-
ipalities-KRG).

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Another factor that affected the increase demand on residential land use in Kurdistan region and Er-
bil is the tendency of the families, in both rural and urban areas, to live in private houses rather than
shared ones or flats. The majority of shelter types in Erbil are single household (92.1%), while the
families who live in apartment flats are just (1.4%), (Figure 7). This fact imposed the change in land
use from agriculture to residential which caused an urban sprawl (Figure 8). with all its subsequent
negative results on traffic, air quality, social equity and the city’s infrastructure.

LAND ECONOMICS

Cities are dynamic entities and their physical form is constantly changing to reflect the underlying
economics of land use markets (Jones et al., 2010). We can describe land use as a market, where
different urban activities are competing for land usage at a specific location (Rodrigue, Comtois,
& Slack, 2017). It is strongly based in the market principle of competition. The more desirable the
location, the higher the rent value would be (Lipsey & Chrystal, 2003). Land use is determined by the
rent-paying capability of different functions in urban areas, such as retailing, industry and residence.
The activity that affords the higher rent would get the best place (Verheye, 2009). This competition
for land varies with the access to the land, the more accessed lands will have the highest prices.
Thus, the price of land reaches the peak in the urban areas and subsequently influence the land use
type. Usually, that high land value means more intensive usage of space, so the highest number of
activities can benefit from central locations. The space syntax analysis of 60m ring street in Erbil,
which surrounds the inner city, shows a high level of connectivity and integration, (Figure 9a,9b). The
integration measure shows the level of integration and segregation of each street according to the
system. Higher level of integration of a street means it is easier to reach. On the other hand, connec-
tivity measures the number of spaces immediately connecting a space of origin. It is worth mention-
ing that the properties of this street were residential up until 1990s with a few shops. The high level
of accessibility and the demand on commercial lands on both sides of the street has changed the
land use from residential to commercial. In other words, due to the high level of accessibility the real
estate force has changed the land use, shape, density and the heights of the buildings.

_ Figure 9a: Space syntax analyses, Integration axial map & Figure 9b: Space syntax analyses, Connec-
tivity axial map (source: Produced by the Author)

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Capital and financial support is the engine for improving urban areas. However, in the long term it my

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hurt the city system. Also, job opportunities might lead to other problems such as over population.
Therefore, demand on land will increase and unoccupied areas within the city begins to be filled.
Consequently, availability of land will decrease and real estate prices will rise. This phenomenon can
be seen clearly in the case of Erbil city, as an example of a fast-growing city in a developing country.
Due to the lack of appropriate planning vision and because of the absence of efficient regulations,
land use changes in Erbil has been affected mainly by economic forces rather than planning strat-
egies. Subsequently, the negative aspects of urbanization are obvious in the city such as urban
sprawl, lack of services, and social inequality.
The research has identified three aspects of transformation in Erbil of how the economic and popu-
lation growth has influenced the urban form of the city
1. At a city scale, it caused an urban sprawl. The expansion of the city was on the expense of
agriculture lands. Consequently, it is affecting the air quality also adding a financial burden
to supply the new neighborhoods with services and infrastructure.
2. In the absence of effective regulations, the real estate prices are transforming the func-
tional and formal land use of the city.
3. At a neighborhood scale, the none affordable prices of residential lands have influenced
the trend of plot divisions, which resulted in overcrowded neighborhoods and lack of ser-
vices.
To avoid such consequences, the local government should plan a future vision for efficient
distribution of land uses. Also, for a successful land use planning and active regulations, the
economic factor should be taken in to consideration. In addition, it is of paramount impor-
tance for local government to ensure that the investment and allocation for developments
has been done with taking sustainable growth into account and focusing more on affordable
housing units for low-income families.

REFERENCES

__ Committee on Global Change. 1990. Research Strategies for the U.S. Global Change Research Pro-
gram. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
__ Gallup, L., Mellinger, D. and Sachs, D. 1999. “Geography and economic development.” International
Regional Science Review 22, no. 2: 179-232.
__ Jones, C., Leishman, C., MacDonald, C., Orr, A. and Watkins, D., 2010. “Economic Viability” In Dimen-
sions of the sustainable city. edited by: Mike Jenks and Colin Jones, 145-162. London: Springer.
__ Lipsey, R. & A. Chrystal. 2011. Economics. 12th eds. Oxford University Press. New York.
__ PwC and the Urban Land Institute. 2017. Emerging Trends in Real Estate, Europe 2018. London: PwC
and the Urban Land Institute.
__ Rodrigue, J., Comtois, C., & Slack, B. 2017. The geography of transport systems. London: Routledge,
Taylor & Francis Group.
__ Spence, M. 2009. Urbanization and growth. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, Commission on Growth and
Development.
__ UN News. 2017. “Financial speculation led to unsustainable global housing crisis.” Last modified
March 3, 2017. Accessed February 27, 2020. https://news.un.org/en/story/2017/03/552492-finan-
cial-speculation-led-unsustainable-global-housing-crisis-un-expert-says
__ United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. 2019. World Urban-
ization Prospects: The 2018 Revision (ST/ESA/SER.A/420). New York: United Nations.
__ Verheye, W.H., 2009. Land Use, land cover and soil sciences, Volume III: Land Use Planning fifth ed.
EOLSS Publications, Oxford.
__ Wegener, M. 2004. “Overview of Land-use Transport Models.” In Transport Geography and Spatial Sys-
tems; Handbook 5 of the Handbook in Transport; Pergamon/Elsevier Science: Kidlington, UK, 2004; pp.
127–146.

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SEGREGATED NEIGHBOURHOODS AND THEIR INTEGRATION

ATTEMPTS: PARTICIPATORY SLUM-UPGRADING IN THE MAKING
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch61

_ Tímea Csaba
PhD student, University of Pécs, Faculty of Sciences, Institute of Geography,
Department of Human Geography and Urban Studies, Doctoral School of
Earth Sciences, H-7624 Pécs, Ifjúság útja 6., csabatimi@yahoo.co.uk

ABSTRACT

As the proliferation of informal settlements has gained pace around the world, often coupled with
spatial and social segregation, the global community has made efforts to provide a set of norms to
tackle the issue. From the UN Sustainable Development Goals, a clear message takes shape for ur-
ban experts and decision makers: the focus is from now on social inclusion and community building;
a priority before infrastructural intervention. The offered tool, named Participatory Slum-upgrading
Program (PSUP) draws up a guide suitable not only for the Global-South but for urban rehabilitation
projects of segregated areas in the developed world, too. The challenge is not only to implement
global recommendations to local context but to measure the projects’ effectiveness in order that
we can learn from each other: to be able to decide at a glance whether a project supports social
integration and strengthens communities. To answer this need, a tentative index is tested on two
case-studies. One that had begun as an urban experiment but at the end turned out to be a model of
social urban rehabilitation in Pécs (HU), and the second one in Siklós (HU) implementing the former
model, is a live project, still running. The background and process of the two cases are analyzed
according to the index to demonstrate their comformation to the PSUP principles. On the side, the
importance of process-design will also be examined.

KEYWORDS _ participatory slum-upgrading, urban rehabilitation,

informal settlements, socio-spatial exclusion, Roma integration

INTRODUCTION

“Informality is neither good, nor inherently bad – it simply is.” (Brillembourg, 2010). This claim by
Urban Think Tank hints at the scale of a phenomenon already present world-wide: the proliferation
of slums, or better said: informal settlements. The UN estimates above 1 billion people to reside in
conditions that are inhuman: lack of access to basic infrastructure and utilities, precarious housing
conditions, constant threat of forced eviction. Although associated largely with the Global-South,
the presence of informal settlements with inhabitants living in extreme poverty is still an unsolved
issue in the developed world. 6% of the world’s population living in extreme poverty are located in
the developed world, indicating around 54 million people (UN-Habitat, 2013). As slums are still ex-
panding and spreading around the globe, efforts have been made in international conferences, with
UN-Habitat in the leading role, to reach consensus on the issue.
The international community intends to create a corpus of norms that would be further implemented
and discussed locally in each country, in partnership with local authorities. This is the Sustainable
Development Goal (SDG) with 17 goals to reach until 2030. Its leading idea calls for the harmoniza-
tion of economic growth, social inclusion and environmental protection (UN-Habitat, SDG). In fact,
from an urban planner/designer point of view, one may observe a novel focus: the strategic plans

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all name social inclusion as their main organizational priorities, from which all areas of work shall
derive. It officially frames a tendency in urban planning, tangible since the ‘90s: the importance of
social integration as integral part of urban rehabilitation projects (Egedy, 2005). This is closely linked
to resilience: the ability of a community to adapt and renew itself in the face of crisis. (Pirisi, 2019)
According to the UN-Habitat, resilience of a certain city or neighbourhood may be reached through
empowerment of communities. To offer a tool for urban experts and decision makers around the
world, UN-Habitat has developed PSUP – Participatory Slum-upgrading Program, where under a
global recommendation framework, the actions shall be adapted to local context by local govern-
ments (UN-Habitat, PSUP).

METHODOLOGY

As the urban strategies concerned with the improvement of slums evolved from eradication and re-
settlement, through isolated infrastructural interventions, to complex upgrading (Pamuk, 1998) and
recently to social inclusive and participatory approaches; the number of case-studies in internation-
al scientific literature grew exponentially. As each informal settlement is a unique case, affected by
a complex array of political, environmental and social impacts (Neuwirth, 2005), which are specific
to the local context, the analysis of interventions and their outcome are generally performed case
by case. When searching for comparison of the results, one can rely only on quantitative data, such
as the UN-Habitat’s statistical analysis on slum development for developing countries (UN-Habitat,
2015). What is missing, however, is a common platform evaluating qualitative results: the effective-
ness of the slum-upgrading programs.
Since UN-Habitat offers a “globally” valid method for slum-upgrading, the PSUP, it seems logical to
use its criteria as an umbrella to measure the success of individual interventions. Is there a way to
objectively show on a diagram whether a neighbourhood renewal project supports social integra-
tion and strengthens communities? Are European urban rehabilitation practices conform with the
principles of the PSUP?
To test these ideas, two case-studies were chosen, both social urban rehabilitation projects of seg-
regated urban neighbourhoods in South-Hungary. Through in-depth interviews with the two project
managers of the urban rehabilitation processes and the documentation provided by the two mu-
nicipalities, the projects’ details were gathered. In Siklós, where the rehabilitation is still ongoing,
it was possible to participate in some of the social programs organized for the locals. This helped
understand the real depth of involvement of the residents, their motivation and interest for change.
The advantage of the other site, Pécs-Kelet was that the rehabilitation project was closed 5 years
ago, so it was possible to examine the project from the perspective of social sustainability. Here in-
terviews with residents of two neighbourhoods (Györgytelep and Pécsbánya) revealed details on the
impact of social coaching at individual levels, which in return effected the integration of the whole
community. These were all valuable first-hand information, which contributed to the evaluation of
each project according to the new set of criteria.

TOWARDS A GRAPHICAL EVALUATION INDEX FOR SLUM-UPGRADING PROJECTS

PSUP is defined by UN-Habitat as an urban renewal process where slum-dwellers are in the centre
of change: they participate in decision-making, in design, in implementation and even in monitoring
and follow-up. Their individual development and contribution lead to the strengthening of the com-
munity, and by feeling ownership over the project they are more willing to take over (also character-
istic of a resilient community). Their change of mind-sets results in citizen empowerment. PSUP on
the other hand also calls for cooperation on a multi-stakeholder platform.
Do current European urban rehabilitation practices, aimed at marginalised and spatially segregated
neighbourhoods correlate with this? In what extent?

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During the early 2010s an urban rehabilitation program in Pécs (South-Hungary), has become a
model project, in what Hungarian urban literature calls social urban rehabilitation. It is because of its
detailed work on individual coaching and community development, which foregoes the infrastruc-
tural intervention. It is referred to as the Pécs-model and will be discussed in the next paragraph.
Another project, working with segregated neighbourhood in the small town of Siklós, 30 km to the
South from Pécs, has chosen the Pécs-model as its reference and built its subsidy application and
urban regeneration program after the former. Although the method was the same, the result surpris-
ingly is less community oriented and effects a larger rate of inhabitants to move out.
To be able to represent differences of the two projects on a single graphical overview, the main crite-
ria of the PSUP were extracted. These are all qualitative values, scoring from 0 to 10: 1. partnerships
– whether a project invites various stakeholders to cooperate on the same platform. 2. Individual
help – whether inhabitants are offered individual coaching in education, job-training, bureaucracy
and legal assistance, family and psychological consultation, etc. 3. Community organization – how
strong a program supports community building. 4. Contribute – the rate of (possible) contribution
of inhabitants. Whether they are given the possibility to participate in the execution of the renew-
al of their residence. 5. Involvement – whether or not slum-dwellers are given the opportunity to
contribute their ideas in the design or have a say in the decision-making process. 6. Infrastructural
development – the rate of renewal of community spaces and public buildings. 7. Environmental
safety – whether the program enables an environmentally safe home for the inhabitants (public
utilities, structural stability of the house). 8. Elevate economic status – a key message of a social
rehabilitation project is always that social upgrade of the inhabitants is essential for the successful
and sustainable upgrading of the neighbourhood. (The graphical representation was inspired by the
European Green-City Index. (Shields))

_ Fig.1: PSUP index, main criteria

The resulting diagram will be a representation of social inclusion and social-oriented approach of
urban rehabilitation: the larger the area on the diagram covers, the larger the citizen-involvement
and need-based planning is.
Besides, it appeared crucial to understand the causes leading to different results while working with
the same model. Since the implementation of the norms and their adaptation to local context is up
to the local government, the background of each segregation and the renewal process itself will be
analysed.

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THE PÉCS MODEL

In Hungary extreme poverty has regained significance as the gap between rich and poor keeps wid-
ening again. The Gypsy minority is condemned to spatial segregation: their social exclusion tends
to drift them towards residential segregation, into so-called Gypsy-settlements or villages inhabited
solely by the Gypsy. Although not restricted to ethnicity, people in extreme poverty are often exposed
to living conditions that define as slums according to the UN-Habitat: they often lack access to
sanitation, basic utilities, their housing conditions are characterized by poor structural quality and
overcrowdedness (UN-Habitat, 2015b). The legal status under which they inhabit their houses is
often insecure. How many people are concerned? In Hungary in 2012, 17% of the total population
lived in income poverty, which was down to 13.4% in 2017 (TÁMOP, 2014, Eurostat, 2019a), however,
still well above the European average of 6%. Regional differences are significant: poverty rate in the
capital is 6%, in county seats it is 17% and the largest rate we observe is on the countryside with
25% of the local population (TÁMOP). Mid-size towns have larger segregation indexes (13.8%) than
county seats (8.1%). Coupled with emigration, these smaller towns are more vulnerable to spatial
segregation. (Koós, 2020). It is worth mentioning that poverty in Eastern-Europe is more typical for
the countryside, whereas we speak about urban poverty in Western-Europe. Nonetheless, Hungary
spent only 18.9% of its GDP on social protection in 2016, compared to the European average of 28%
(Eurostat, 2019b).
It was therefore essential for Hungarian towns and villages to apply for European subsidies target-
ing poverty reduction. In 2011 started a new series in funding, called TÁMOP (Operative Program
for Social Renewal) that distributed EU-subsidy to settlements that applied with social programs
aiming to “mitigate the deepening, the reproduction and the spread of poverty, and to promote inte-
gration for those living in extreme poverty”. (TÁMOP) They were social programs, intending to pro-
mote community building, to improve access to public services and to involve the inhabitants. The
frame on how to implement these principles were relatively loose. Between 2011-2014, 25 projects
received funding, and since all were tailored to local needs, 25 different methods responded to the
initial challenge. The projects lasted in average 2,5 years. The conclusion was that break-through
can only happen if the projects are participatory, and if all stakeholders of the area participate in the
planning and creation of a common future vision.
The project of Pécs-Kelet – who first applied with a single segregation, called Györgytelep – has
grown out into a model-project between 2012-2015 as the municipality successfully built one fund-
ing on top of the previous. Pécs-Kelet is on the North-East fringe of the city of Pécs and consists of
five former miners’ colonies, all declared segregation at the 2001 census. As a prerequisite of the
rehabilitation program, such an area was chosen where already social workers and local associa-
tions had been present. The first funding, TÁMOP 5.3.6-11/1. worked with social-coaching of the
people: it prepared them with job-training, after-school education, individual development plans,
health-care services and community programs. Second, Pécs received another type of subsidy for
infrastructural renewal, called TIOP, which enabled the city to rehabilitate individual homes, intro-
duce missing public utilities, rebuild public space, community house and a social centre in the area
of the segregation. A third funding, Natura, assured that even after the works were completed, the
residents receive the individual social care from the first program. This latter is referred to as the
“follow-up” phase. It was a multi-stakeholder cooperation: municipality of Pécs, local NGOs, social
workers, Roma associations and even the Faculty of Architecture of the University of Pécs partici-
pated. The life-conditions of the 30 families (around 100 people) significantly ameliorated as well
as the image of the area.
After the experimental start it became clear that the sequence of interventions is key for a socially
sustainable result: social coaching of the inhabitants first, infrastructural rehabilitation next and
approximately 3 years of social follow-up to complete. In this regard, process design is essential.
With the same model, the municipality of Pécs was able to renew the neighbouring four other segre-
gations. It needed a total of 6 successful funding applications in 3 EU funding cycles to rehabilitate
5 segregated neighbourhoods.

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Siklós Váralja – Segregation spanning across centuries

The segregation area of Siklós Váralja is unique both in location and in history. It lies at the shadow
of a listed monument, the Siklós castle (Váralja means “below the castle”) and has been the edge of
the town even as of today, as the adjacent polder prevented the town to spread in that direction. It
evolved historically into a segregation, as Váralja was the place for service people of the castle, who
belonged to the poorest population.
Váralja was declared segregation also at the 2001 census. The population rate of the working-age
(15-59 years) residents is +17% above the average of Siklós, nonetheless, only 24.6% of them are
employed, and unemployment rate in the segregation is 46.9%. The houses are low in comfort
(27.3% compared to 5% in the town), and 9.3% of them have only one room. They are constructed
on a terrain that is vulnerable to landslides, as it happened in 2013 e.g. This situation is aggravated
by the fact that sewage system of individual households is often not linked into the public utility
system. (Siklós, Project Plan)
The late 20th and 21st century have put the segregation into a real-estate trap: it now lies in the
triangle of the touristic castle, the bus terminal as well as a four-star hotel and spa. As such, the first
attempts of renewal were not that of rehabilitation but of slum-clearance. The municipality of Siklós
applied with the same model of urban rehabilitation as Pécs for EU-subsidy and is currently running
the urban rehabilitation project. The rehabilitation process runs according to the Pécs model: social
coaching first, infrastructural intervention next.

PARTICIPATORY SLUM-UPGRADING IN EASTERN-EUROPE? – PROGRAM ANALYSIS

What answers did each municipality give to these different set of issues? In order to be able to
compare the different outcomes of the two projects, the program elements of each rehabilitation are
examined according to the PSUP index mentioned above. During the analysis, we shall bear in mind
the largest difference between the two projects: whereas in Pécs-Kelet the municipality owned 100%
of the dwellings, in Siklós the houses were all in private ownership.
 
Rehabilitation project Pécs-Kelet (5 settlements)

_ Fig.2: PSUP index for Pécs-Kelet

1. Partnerships: Municipality of Pécs (also head of county) founded the success of the rehabilitation
project by involving a wide range of stakeholders: it applied for the EU funding together with the Mal-
tese, who were responsible on-site for the individual social-coaching, the recording of every-day life
of slum-dwellers, so they knew exactly who is eligible (and capable) to move into a renewed dwelling
and pay the monthly costs. The municipality also worked together with local Roma associations,

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other NGOs and the UNDP (United Nations Development Program). 2. Individual support: Pécs-
Kelet ranks high on supporting people individually. Inhabitants received according to age and need:
job-training, coaching in job-search, language and IT courses, consultancy on legal issues, family
guidance, after-school programs for kids, psychological assistance and health-care programs. 3.
Community organization: Another strength of the projects were the large variety of available social
programs that brought together the community. 4 types of club programs, 5 types of workshops and
8 thematic days took place in the Community house. 4. Contribute: inhabitants were able to partici-
pate in the rehabilitation works themselves. Those who were trained during the individual programs
as mason and painter helped rebuild the houses. The Men’s club founded during the community pro-
grams was the one that rebuilt the main staircase of Györgytelep, which counts as the main “public
square” of the neighbourhood. 5. Involvement: Pécs-Kelet received a lower score on involvement in
decision-making. This is because the community was strengthened during the project. However, at
the redesign of some of the public square, participatory workshops helped define the main needs of
inhabitants (eg. at Hősök tere). 6. Infrastructural development: building for the community reached
highest score in Pécs-Kelet project. All 5 settlement-rehabilitation projects involved the following:
one public square renewal, one community house, one social centre (both as transformation of ex-
isting buildings, e.g. the reconstruction of the former movie theatre in Györgytelep) and public util-
ities renewal (e.g. rain drainage system under the road). 7. Environmental safety: individual homes
were completely reconstructed, smaller ones merged into larger homes that required the reshuffling
of the residents. Basic infrastructure was installed: cooking stove, running water inside the house.
A negative point goes for the heating with wood but this could not be avoided as people would not
have been able to pay for the costs of central heating. 8. Economic status: the formation for basic
jobs (33 people in Györgytelep), the active job-search coaching contributed to the integration of the
inhabitants to the society, however, many of them abandoned later on the new skills and finished
working for communal works (employment by the state for half of the official minimal wage).
All in all, the involvement of the inhabitants was significant in all 5 settlements and this contributed
to the fact that inhabitants feel the place their own, even if they rent the houses from the munici-
pality.

Rehabilitation project Siklós Váralja

_ Fig.3: PSUP index for Siklós Váralja

1. Partnerships: Municipality of Siklós has created a multi-stakeholder platform, though with less
actors, since there were no local associations in the neighbourhood. Their partners were: Munici-
pality of Baranya County, Helping Families Service, MIOK Association for the Disadvantaged who
is responsible for the constellation of social programs. 2. Individual support: high score goes for

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individual life-coaching of inhabitants. The Helping Families Service guides families through bu-
reaucratic services, loan problems and ownership difficulties. A few job-trainings were conducted,
and active job-search is on the agenda. Children receive after-school programs. 3. Community or-
ganization: following the Pécs-model, Váralja has been organizing 7 different types of community
programs for 2 years, including one called Napraforgó, where inhabitants went on an excursion to
different cities to see best practices of Roma entrepreneurs. 4. Contribute: apart from learning to
maintain their garden, inhabitants have little possibility to contribute to the renewal of their sur-
roundings. 5. Involvement: during the project, the inhabitants did not have the possibility to take part
in decision-making processes, nor in the design. Public hearing took place at the start of the project.
6. Infrastructural development: Váralja receives high scores for the intervention planned for its pub-
lic space: sewage-pipe and road reconstruction, new pavements on the main street and reinforce-
ment of the city-wall. The municipality has started the process to buyout 19 houses, since it has no
ownership in the area. Those houses will be demolished, in order to make place for a public space
and two newly constructed houses: a vigilante house and a house for communal workers. The
community house is at the moment a transformed family house. 7. Environmental safety: although
the municipality contributes with public utility renewals to the safety of the neighbourhood, it has no
possibility to intervene inside the individual households. Sewage of individual houses is not modern
and does not connect to the main pipe as owners cannot afford the installation. This undermines
the already precarious stability of the lands, vulnerable to landslides. Another ecological problem is
the heating with wood, as the smoke culminates in the highest, 3rd row of houses, just below the
city-wall. 8. Economic status: 20 persons (in their active age) received education close-up, followed
by job-training and job-search training. Those who participated, received financial support for the
time of the trainings as a motivation.
Basic difference is that the municipality had little room to intervene at household level as houses are
in individual hands. To compensate this, Siklós has agreed to buy out 19 houses, whose residents
will move out into “integrated setting” in the town. Currently, this involves 14 families of the segre-
gation out of 64. What will happen once the project will have reached its social aim: the community
will be strengthened, and then third of the inhabitants will need to leave? It also raises questions for
the future of the neighbourhood that the municipality’s main reason behind the rehabilitation is to
turn the area attractive for tourists.

CONCLUSION

As the scientific literature on slum-improvement consists mostly of individual case-studies, there

is an unwritten need for comparing these. One key issue in slum-upgrading is whether it works on
the long-run: does it result in social inclusion and community building? UN-Habitat’s Participatory
Slum-Upgrading Program aims at this long-term success: if a community is strengthened via its
individuals and acts as one body, its overall resilience will rise, and the community will leave the
downward spiral of segregation. The developed graphical tool extracts the essence of PSUP down
to 8 evaluation criteria, all qualitative.
Comparing individual case-studies is a risky issue, as contextual differences might make one urban
strategy un-appliable in even a neighbouring area. The aim of creating the index is therefore only
the evaluation of participatory slum-upgrading programs: whether they are socially inclusive for the
residents, and as such might be a guarantee for social sustainability. It leaves contextual differences
for background explanation.
This can be best demonstrated by comparing the two tested case-studies: the index for Pécs-Kelet
covers a larger area, it involved more residents during the urban rehabilitation. They were individu-
ally coached, they helped rebuilding the residential houses and the public space, they participated
in community-building programs. The houses were municipally owned, whereas in Siklós residen-
tial houses are in private hands. For Siklós-Váralja, the index covers a smaller area: residents are
involved in individual coaching, take part in social programs, however, third of the total inhabitants

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will soon need to move out of the neighbourhood, in order for their houses to be turned into public
buildings. This originates in the main motivation of the municipality to slowly transform the area at-
tractive for tourists. Although Siklós has applied the same rehabilitation model for Váralja as Pécs-
Kelet, because of political motivation (and only in part because of tenure issues), the end-result will
be a less socially inclusive one.
The PSUP index is yet in an idea-phase: it now proved context-independent within one country but
for comparison of international case-studies, it needs further research. As well as the exact method
of scoring still needs to be fine-tuned.

REFERENCES

__ Brillembourg, A., Klumpner, Hubert. 2010. “On the road again” In: New Towns for the 21st Century,
edited by Provoost, M. 208-219. Amsterdam: Bertrams.
__ Egedy, T. (Ed.). 2005. Városrehabilitáció és Társadalom. Budapest: MTA Földrajztudományi Ku-
tatóintézet
__ Eurostat: “Income poverty statistics”. Last updated: May 2019. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statis-
tics-explained/index.php?title=Income_poverty_statistics
__ Eurostat: “Social protection statistics”. Last updated: Nov. 2019. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statis-
tics-explained/index.php?title=Social_protection_statistics#Social_protection_expenditure_and_GDP_
rates_of_change
__ Koós, Bálint. 2020. “Városi zsugorodás és lakóhelyi szegregáció Magyarországon”, Tér és Társadalom,
34(1), p. 48-68. doi: 10.17649/TET.34.1.3182
__ Neuwirth, R. 2005. Shadow Cities. New York, NY: Routledge
__ Pirisi, Gábor. 2019. “The interpretation of the concept of resilience for researchers in urban geography”.
In: Tér és Társadalom, 33, no.2.: 62-81. https://doi.org/10.17649/TET.33.2.3080
__ Shields, K. European Green-City Index. 2009. Munich: Simens AG
__ Siklós Project plan for the rehabilitation of Siklós Várlja – received from the Municipality of Pécs in PDF,
2016. Title: Társadalmi együttműködés erősítését szolgáló komplex program Siklós – Váralja szegregá-
tum társadalmi, gazdasági integrációja érdekében. Projektelőkészítő tanulmány.
__ TÁMOP 5.1.3. 2014. Közösségi felzárkóztatás a mélyszegénységben élők felzárkóztatásáért. Zárókiad-
vány. ISBN: 978-963-08-9192-9
__ United Nations: Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/
sustainable-development-goals/
__ UN-Habitat. 2015. Slum Almanac 2015-2016. Tracking Improvement in the Lives of Slum Dwellers.
Retrieved from: http://unhabitat.org/slum-almanac-2015-2016/
__ UN-Habitat. 2015. The Habitat III Issue Papers. 22 – Informal Settlements. http://habitat3.org/
wp-content/uploads/Habitat-III-Issue-Paper-22_Informal-Settlements-2.0.pdf
__ UN-Habitat. 2013. European Cities in Transition. https://unhabitat.org/sites/default/files/down-
load-manager-files/State_of_European_Cities_English_Version.pdf
__ UN-Habitat. 2007. Slum Dwellers to double by 2030: Millennium Development Goal Could Fall Short.
UN-Habitat, Twenty First Session of the Governing Council, April, 3.
__ UN-Habitat: Participatory Slum-Upgrading (PSUP). https://www.mypsup.org/topics/Participation

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PHYSICAL PLANNING INFORMATION SYSTEM OF CROATIA: OVERVIEW

OF THE CONTENTS AND CURRENT STATUS OF DEVELOPMENT
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch62

_ Sunčana Habrun
Head of Sector, Ministry of Construction and Physical Planning,
Institute for Spatial Development, Croatia, HR-10000 Zagreb,
Ul. Republike Austrije 20, suncana.habrun@mgipu.hr

ABSTRACT

The Physical Planning Information System was introduced in 2013 as the Croatian central physical
planning point. It consists of a publicly accessible geoportal and a variety of modules, which are
separate custom-made web applications for entering, uploading and editing alphanumeric and/or
georeferenced graphic data by authorized users. Each module, such as eDozvola (ePermit), ePlanovi
(ePlans), eNekretnine (eProperties) and a few others, supplemented by submodules in some cases,
deals with specific tasks and processes in accordance with the regulations in the field of construc-
tion, physical planning, property appraisal, etc. In this paper we will present the concept of the in-
formation system as a whole, briefly review the functionalities of the recently redesigned geoportal,
as well as some of the key modules, with an emphasis on the eKatalog (eCatalogue) module, which
serves as a platform for discovery of spatial plans in force and other kinds of documents relevant
for physical planning (i.e. territorial monitoring reports, scientific and expert papers, sectorial docu-
ments, etc.) by means of INSPIRE-compliant and custom metadata, and for publishing spatial plans
and documents on the geoportal so as to make them available to the general public. Plans for the
future development of the information system will also be outlined.

KEYWORDS _ physical planning information system, PPIS, ISPU, geoportal, spatial plans

INTRODUCTION

The Physical Planning Information System (hereinafter: ISPU) has been undergoing development
since 2013 by the Ministry of Construction and Physical Planning of Croatia. Along with the Ministry,
in the period from 2014 to 2018 the Croatian Institute for Spatial Development was responsible for
the development of the ISPU components (so-called modules) dedicated to physical planning, i.e.
eKatalog and ePlanovi modules, as well as the ISPU geoportal and the ISPU lokator tool. From the
beginning of 2019, the Institute has continued its activities as an expert organization unit within the
Ministry.
In order to officialize the ISPU and its modules, i.e. precisely define its contents, built-in procedures
and groups of users authorized for entering/uploading/editing data in the modules, the appropri-
ate legal framework has been established. Regulations focusing on the components of the ISPU
related to physical planning include the Physical Planning Act (Official Gazette 153/2013, 65/2017,
114/2018, 39/2019, 98/2019, hereinafter: PPA), the Regulation on the Physical Planning Information
System (Official Gazette 115/2015) and the Ordinance on the State Plan for Spatial Development
(Official Gazette 122/2015). Moreover, as of March 2020, the Ordinance on Spatial Plans, which
shall regulate the form and the content of spatial plans, is in the final drafting phase undergoing
verification and adjustments through simultaneous spatial plans’ test drafting in the ePlanovi editor

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submodule, which shall later on allow direct import in the ePlanovi module and publishing the plans
on the ISPU geoportal. The spatial plans drafted in the ePlanovi editor, employing GIS technologies,
new methodology, prescribed spatial layers’ structure, symbology and topological control, and sub-
sequently imported, verified and published via the ePlanovi module, are called new generation spa-
tial plans, as opposed to the old generation spatial plans drafted in compliance with the “Ordinance
on the content, criteria for map projections, required spatial indicators and the standards of physical
planning studies” issued in 1998.
The ISPU definition and description are set out in Art. 31 of the PPA: “the ISPU shall be established
and maintained for the purpose of developing, adopting, implementing and monitoring spatial plans
and continuous spatial monitoring and monitoring in the field of physical planning, and for the pur-
pose of drafting the territorial status reports, pursuant to the PPA and other regulations. It shall be
established and managed as an interoperable and multiplatform system linking information sys-
tems of individual public law bodies, which pursuant to the PPA and special regulations produce
and/or maintain spatial data and other data relevant for physical planning.” The ISPU concept and
its contents, along with an overview of the ISPU geoportal and the eKatalog module recent redesign
are described more in depth in the following chapters.

THE ISPU CONCEPT

The central point of the ISPU is its publicly accessible geoportal (https://ispu.mgipu.hr). The ISPU
geoportal was first established in 2013 and serves for visualization of data entered via the ISPU
modules or retrieved via network services from external sources. It encompasses typical geoportal
functionalities (positioning, zooming, search, layer management, base map selection, a variety of
tools for drafting, measuring, import/export or sharing of data, etc.).
Other ISPU components are so-called ISPU modules which are custom-made web applications for
entering, uploading and editing alphanumeric and/or georeferenced graphic data by authorized us-
ers. Each one of the modules deals with specific procedures prescribed by law under jurisdiction of
the Ministry, such as permits’ issuance (eDozvola) or real estate appraisal (eNekretnine) and has its
own pool of authorized users.

_ Figure 1: Concept of the ISPU: geoportal & modules

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Furthermore, there is the ISPU lokator, a tool for assigning a spatial component to records in an
alphanumeric database so as to enable their visualization on the geoportal or any interactive map.
It can be connected to any ISPU module or independent application. For instance, the ISPU lokator
is used by the eArhiv submodule, a part of the eDozvola module, which presently contains data on
legalized buildings, but in the future metadata, scans and locations of all kinds of permits issued
since 1968 up to the introduction of the eDozvola in 2015 will also be available.
The ISPU components that are either fully functional or in the high stage of development in March
2020 are shown in Figure 1.

ISPU GEOPORTAL REDESIGN 2019

The first version of the ISPU geoportal was developed in 2013. Featuring a very simple layout, it
was meant to be user friendly to the general public, with no knowledge of advanced functionalities
of geoportals. As such it fulfilled its role rather well for 5-6 years. However, search options were
limited and not self-evident. It was not fully functional on mobile devices and was lacking some
useful tools (measurement, user annotation, sharing of locations, etc.). Over the same time span
some new possibilities for external data retrieval became available as well, such as refreshing of the
digital cadastral plan and the address registry via State Geodetic Administration network services.
For these reasons, the ISPU geoportal was completely redesigned in 2019 and the new version,
shown in Figure 2, was made available to the public in early November 2019.
Besides greatly enhanced performance on both desktop computers and mobile devices due to re-
sponsive design, other improvements encompass the following:

_ Figure 2: The ISPU geoportal after the 2019 redesign

_ navigation: menu reorganization and layer grouping, more easily accessible layer-info tool,
i.e. access to vector layers’ attributes
_ new zooming and positioning options: current user location, retention of last view and map
position, positioning on a search result
_ facilitated and accelerated search: searchable layers and fields predefined and indexed,
search results grouped by topics
_ weekly refreshing of the digital cadastral plan and the address registry

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_ new base maps and spatial layers (digital orthophoto maps, streets, street numbers, per-
mits registry, etc.)
_ cater for multilingualism: Croatian and English versions active, new languages to be intro-
duced in the future.
Additionally, some new technologies were implemented ‘behind the scenes’: open source Angular
by Google for tool-rich responsive user interface, open source .NET Core microservice architecture
by Microsoft, organized by tasks domains for better scalability and management facilitation, open
source Elasticsearch by Elastic NV for search engine and Openshift by Red Hat for containerized
applications’ development, administration and management.

EKATALOG REDESIGN 2019

The eKatalog module is a centralized platform for discovery of spatial plans in force by means of
National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI) metadata profile v.2.0. INSPIRE-compliant (in effect at
the time of its development) along with custom metadata. “Metadata is, obviously, the first call of
duty for an SDI to secure understanding of the diverse datasets – their origin, contents, purpose,
format, and access among others.” (Nedović-Budić, 2011) The introduction of the eKatalog in 2013
enabled for the first time an overview of spatial plans in force in one place. Until that time, infor-
mation on spatial plans as well as plans themselves were scattered over more than 500 county or
local administrative units’ websites. Although some county institutes for physical planning (e.g. the
institutes of Slavonski Brod-Posavina County, Dubrovnik-Neretva County and Primorje-Gorski Kotar
County, etc.) had spatial plans’ registers in place, the registers were not (and are still not) made
interoperable in any way. Therefore, metadata retrieval to the eKatalog is not possible. However,
metadata exchange from the eKatalog to county registers has been possible since 2016 by means of
an .XLSX export that can be generated by authorized users. In the future metadata harvesting from
the eKatalog will be enabled by the catalogue network service (CSW).

_ Figure 3: User interface of the 2019 eKatalog module for authorized users

Metadata entry and verification in the eKatalog are performed by more than 100 authorized users
from the Institute for Spatial Development of the Ministry of Construction and Physical Planning

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and from the institutes for physical planning of the counties and of the City of Zagreb, depending on
the spatial plan levels. All verified metadata is available to the public (almost 6,400 metadata as of
March 2020) and interoperable with the eDozvola.
Besides metadata entry form, the initial 2013 eKatalog release harbours additional rather rudimen-
tary functionalities such as quick and detailed search, filtering and print. It is possible to attach
any kind of documents to a metadata record and in that way publish maps and/or textual parts of
a spatial plan in any format, as well as insert URLs of any relevant data source (a county, city or
municipality website, local geoportal, etc.) (Habrun et al., 2016). Yet the georeferenced raster maps
trimmed to fit plan borders presently accessible on the ISPU geoportal are not published via the
eKatalog, but by way of a separate time-consuming and cumbersome procedure.
The main upgrade in the 2019 version of the eKatalog is the interface for loading of the maps and
joining them to navigation menu items resulting in direct publishing on the ISPU geoportal. That
way the authorized users will assume full control over the map publishing, consequently resulting in
significantly accelerated and simplified publishing procedure.
Other distinctive new functionalities introduced in the new version include generating of predefined
reports, filtering of plans in force for a location of interest by selection on an interactive map, system
for notification of data entry errors and corrections monitoring.
Moreover, in addition to spatial plans, other kinds of documents relevant for physical planning (i.e.
territorial monitoring reports, scientific and expert papers, sectorial documents, etc.) can be upload-
ed and described by means of somewhat truncated metadata, then published on the ISPU geoportal,
therefore made available to the general public.
Furthermore, coding tables’ maintenance has been amended, and data entry automatization and
correctness verification improved. INSPIRE part is now harmonized with NSDI metadata profile v.2.1.
Authorized user interface remains optimized for desktop computers, unlike public interface, which
is responsive.

FURTHER STEPS

Notwithstanding recent upgrades, the development and upgrade of the ISPU and its modules con-
tinue. Some of the new features to be integrated rather soon are: additional maps comparison and
data exchange tools, network services, connecting to additional external data sources (e.g. data on
land owners from the Land Registry) and publishing of new spatial datasets created by the ISPU
modules (e.g. data on brownfields, energy certificates, etc.). There are plans in place to establish the
ISPU geoportal for registered users which will contain some advanced features such as: enlarged
sets of attributes on permits and other documents, reporting system and data export possibilities.
The new modules and submodules will also be developed.
Broaching the subject of external data sources, it is worth saying that availability of spatial datasets
and network services in Croatia proves to be the most pronounced challenge in establishing both
the ISPU and NSDI. Some of the key bodies responsible for datasets essential for physical planning,
such as the Ministry of Culture (protected cultural heritage), the Ministry of State-Owned Assets
(state-owned immovables) or the Ministry of Agriculture (particularly valuable agricultural land,
state-owned agricultural land) until today have not set up any relevant interoperable registers with
a spatial component. Some other key bodies, e.g. the Croatian Roads (Public Roads Register), even
the State Geodetic Administration (cadastre, territorial units) need to upgrade the quality of their
datasets. Therefore, the lack and the rather poor quality of the spatial datasets need to be addressed
urgently on the government level, since it interferes with efficient land management and planning.
Some of the prominent scientific research topics will be tackled in the future as well. Currently the
most elaborated among them is automated analysis of satellite images, both Copernicus and com-
mercial. The findings of several recent case studies covering Croatia and the City of Zagreb (e.g.
Lukić et al, 2016; Valožić, 2017) helped to establish the concept of the eSateliti module, essentially a
tool for monitoring urban sprawl and land use changes in general. Vectorization of satellite images

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is performed on the basis of calculation of various indices such as NDVI, NDBI, etc., which enable
differentiation of built-up areas from non-built-up surroundings, with subsequent manual control.
The development of the eSateliti module is ongoing and will be introduced in 2021.
Other open subjects/concepts related to planning which are being examined for a more advanced
development in the not-so-close future include: use of parametric modelling in urban planning, i.e.
visualization of different scenarios using standardized urban indicators (e.g. Beirão and Arrobas,
2013), integration of building information modelling (BIM) with GIS and introduction of 3D planning.
However, besides a pressing need for additional staff to deal with the development of the ISPU, the
prerequisites for these encompass a more widespread implementation of BIM in Croatia (which is
rather scarce at the moment), high-resolution digital elevation model (presently available resolution
is 25x25 m) and 3D cadastre (non-existent, although some basics have been investigated, e.g. Vučić
et al., 2013; Vučić et al., 2014).

CONCLUSION

The paper describes the history and the concept of the ISPU, introduced in 2013, and some of its
components with the emphasis on the components related to spatial planning. The main upgrades
of the ISPU geoportal and the eKatalog module are outlined as well, along with a brief overview of
development plans in the near future. The new version has facilitated the use of the ISPU geoportal
and greatly improved user experience. Thanks to the eKatalog redesign, i.e. accelerated and sim-
plified publishing procedure of the spatial plans and other types of documents relevant for spatial
planning, the quantity and up-to-dateness of the ISPU geoportal contents are about to be signifi-
cantly enriched.

REFERENCES

__ Beirão, José and Arrobas, Pedro. 2013. “Interactive Urban Parametric Design”. In Stouffs, R. and Sari-
yildiz, S. (eds.), Computation and Performance – Proceedings of the 31st eCAADe Conference – Volume
1. Faculty of Architecture, Delft University of Technology. Delft, The Netherlands
__ Directive 2007/2/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 March 2007 establishing an
Infrastructure for Spatial Information in the European Community (INSPIRE). 2007. Accessed March 8,
2020. https://inspire.ec.europa.eu/inspire-directive/2
__ Dubrovnik-Neretva County. 2020. “Prostorni planovi”. Accessed March 8, 2020.
__ http://www.zzpudnz.hr/PROSTORNIPLANOVI.aspx
__ Habrun, Sunčana; Škec, Lidija and Meštrić, Danijel. 2016. “An Introduction to the Physical Planning
Information System of Croatia and New Generation of Spatial Plans”. In Vaništa Lazarević, E.; Vukmirović,
M.; Krstić-Furundžić, A.; Đukić, A. (eds.) Places and Technologies 2016, Conference Proceedings of the
3rd International Academic Conference on Places and Technologies. University of Belgrade - Faculty of
Architecture. Belgrade, Serbia
__ Lukić, Aleksandar; Cvitanović, Marin; Radeljak Kaufmann, Petra; Valožić, Luka. 2016. “Land Cover
Change and Diversified Rural Development – A Croatian Case Study”. 33rd International Geographical
Congress, Shaping Our Harmonious Worlds, Book of Abstracts. Peking, China
__ National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI). 2014. Specifikacija metapodataka NIPP-a v.2.1.
http://www.nipp.hr/UserDocsImages/dokumenti/Specifikacija_metapodataka_NIPP-a_v2.1_20150202.
pdf
__ Nedović-Budić, Zorica. 2011. “SDI for ePlanning”. In Salvemini, M.; Vico, F.; Iannucci, C. Interoperability
for Spatial Planning. Plan4all Project. Accessed March 8, 2020. https://vdocuments.mx/plan4all-book.
html

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__ Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC). 2020. “Catalogue Service”. Accessed March 8, 2020.. https://
www.ogc.org/standards/cat
__ “Ordinance on the content, criteria for map projections, required spatial indicators and the standards
of physical planning studies”. 1998. Official Gazette 106/1998, 39/2004, 45/2004, 163/2004, 9/2011. Za-
greb, Croatia
__ “Physical Planning Act” (PPA). 2013. Provisional Translation. Accessed March 8, 2020. https://
mgipu.gov.hr/access-to-information/regulations-126/regulations-in-the-field-of-physical-plan-
ning-8641/8641.
__ Primorje-Gorski Kotar County. 2020. “Registar prostornih planova”. Accessed March 8, 2020. https://
zavod.pgz.hr/planovi_i_izvjesca/registar-prostornih-planova
__ Slavonski Brod-Posavina County. 2020. “Prostorni planovi” Accessed March 8, 2020. https://bpzzpu.
hr/index.php/dokumenti/cat_view/5-prostorni-planovi.html
__ Valožić, Luka. 2017. “Drawing the fringe – GIS-supported mapping of the rural-urban fringe in the city
of Zagreb”. In Heindl, A.-B.; Steinführer, A.; Fick, J.; Breeck, I.; Kohring, J.; Küpper, P.; Neumeier, S. (eds.).
New rural geographies in Europe: actors, processes, policies. European Rural Geographies Conference.
Braunschweig, Germany
__ Vučić, Nikola; Roić, Miodrag; Markovinović, Danko. 2014. “Towards 3D and 4D Cadastre in Croatia”. In
van Oosterom, P.; Fendel, E. (eds.). Proceedings 4th International Workshop on 3D Cadastres. Internation-
al Federation of Surveyors (FIG). Copenhagen, Denmark
__ Vučić, Nikola; Tomić, Hrvoje; Roić, Miodrag. 2013. “Registration of 3D Situations in Croatian Land Ad-
ministration System”. In Rahman, A.; Boguslawski, P.; Anton, F.; Omar, K. (eds.). Proceedings of the Inter-
national Symposium & Exhibition on Geoinformation ISG 2013. Johor Bahru. Faculty of Geoinformation
and Real Estate, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CHANGES IN TECHNOLOGICAL

CULTURES AND SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT OF CITIES
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch63

_ Dmitrii Klimov
Director, State Autonomous Institution of the Moscow region «Research and
Design Institute of urban planning», 47 Gilyarovskogo street, Moscow, 129110,
Russian Federation, dmcompass@mail.ru; Ph.D. (economical), Associate
Professor, Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (National Research)
(MGSU), 26 Yaroslavskoe shosse, Moscow, 129337, Russian Federation

_ Sofiia Feofanova
Master student of the Department of Urban Development, Moscow State University
of Civil Engineering (National Research University) (MGSU), 26 Yaroslavskoe shosse,
Moscow, 129337, Russian Federation, sonyafeofanova@mail.ru

ABSTRACT

The article is devoted to the relationship between changes in technological cultures and the spatial
development of cities. To study the relationship between changes in technological cultures and spa-
tial development of cities, the authors use the following methods: theoretical, including analysis and
modelling; general scientific method, including literature analysis, generalization, comparison, sys-
tematization of empirical and theoretical data; practical method based on the experience of urban
planning. The purpose of this study is to identify, formulate, and parameterize patterns of interaction
between changes in technological cultures and spatial development of cities. The authors reveal the
basics of the interaction between participants in urban development activities in the same territory.
Special attention is paid to the issue of forecasting and creating a high-quality spatial organization
of the urban environment.
The significance of this study for the professional community is to determine, organize, and describe
the patterns of interaction between changes in technological cultures and spatial development of
cities. The practical significance of this work is forecasting the spatial development of cities in con-
nection with changes in technological cultures, the increase of the quality of life of the population
by urban planning means.

KEYWORDS _ technological culture, spatial development,

urban planning, quality of life of the population

INTRODUCTION

The city, being a complex urban-planning formation, successfully functions due to its systematic
structure. For the population, it consists of functionally different parts that complement each other,
and are interconnected and interdependent, e.g., housing - work - recreation (leisure, entertainment).
The city is a unique socio-cultural phenomenon that has influenced the entire course of world civ-
ilization. Cities have given birth to the forms of self-organization of citizens by place of residence
and various types of self-government. The city is undergoing changes in the process of social de-
velopment. Cities have grown at the intersection of trade routes or developed from religious centers

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and have undergone changes in the course of the evolution of society. At first, the housing in the
cities of traditional feudal-agrarian society performed a defensive function and had the appropriate
appearance. At the same time, trade was carried out mainly on the basis of barter, and leisure and
entertainment could be any outdoor activities – all kinds of more or less mass events – from games,
and any competitions to the shows of stray artists, and a variety of musical performances with
singing and dancing, etc.
During the industrial revolution, new cities have grown out of enterprises. The isolation of production
and, as a consequence, trade functions is a key feature of the city at a certain stage of its develop-
ment, as the German sociologist Max Weber wrote [1]. Another German researcher Friedrich Ratzel
confirmed the decisive role of trade in the genesis of the modern city, adding other features to the
attributes of the trade – the concentration of housing and minimum population size [2]. However,
the selection of these features was uncertain and lacked sufficient scientific justification. Apartment
buildings providing comfortable living conditions for the population near the places of employment
have appeared. Trade and monetary relations are actively developing in the process of the produc-
tion and sale of goods. The industrial society makes a step forward in terms of leisure and enter-
tainment. It develops a network of cultural, entertainment, and sports facilities, building amusement
parks as well as adding touristic and recreational components.

_ Figure 1: Сhanges in the functional content of cities

At present, intensive urbanization going worldwide is steadily increasing the trend towards the com-
paction of urban development and, consequently, the more efficient use of space. Along with the

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housing of comfort and business class, small apartments, created to meet the needs of contem-
porary society, appear in modern cities’ new residential complexes. Almost all services are now
becoming remote.
The rapid transition of consumers to the electronic format of trade is due to the fact that Internet
commerce has developed, in part, to compensate for the inadequate development of physical re-
tail formats. The low level of the development of financial institutions and banking infrastructure
also contributed to the rapid spread of online financial services. The virtual reality that has recently
emerged was created in response to the demands of the digital society. Thus, according to modern
requirements, the need to spend leisure time without leaving one’s home is realized - with the help of
a computer, VR glasses or a helmet you can find yourself at the premiere of a theatrical performance
or a show, in a movie theater, take a trip or find yourself in an exciting game.
In the future, the reduction of living space will reach the size of a capsule - 2.5 x 1.5 m. Population
density will increase even further, and work will take on a remote character globally. The tools of
augmented reality that are already being created will speed up the acquisition of information. Digi-
talization, robotization, cybernetization are the qualitative definitions of future life in a digital society.
Thus, digital processes have already challenged the traditional sphere of education and traditional
jobs, making the conception of life-long learning in order to accelerate changes in professional ac-
tivity, the most important trend of our time.
Information technologies have led not only to the digitization of business processes and social life
but also to a radical transformation of the very essence of the city. Digitalization processes in many
areas of urban planning have already become total and irreversible.
The described processes are schematically shown in Figure 1.

_ Figure 2: The Diagram showing the pyramid of the city’s functions

In order to visualize the changes in the city’s functions within the historical perspective, the authors
of the publication [3] created a pyramid of the city’s functions analogous to the Maslow’s pyramid of
human needs (Fig. 2). Thus, the fundamental functions of the cities of all types are residential, pro-
tective, engineering, and trade. They are the starting point for the “city of the traditional economy”.
The next stage of development - “the city of the industrial economy”, becomes such due to the
creation of the places of employment in the form of manufactures; at this point, administrative and
command management appears.
At the next stage - the “cities of the service economy” develop culture, science, including monitoring
of environmental welfare, as well as tourism and recreation activities.
In its turn, the “city of the digital economy” combines all historically established functions and man-
ages them with the help of the cybernetic principle that states that the management system should

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correspond to the level of the complexity of the managed natural-technical system.

The presented pyramid illustrates the appearance of functions in cities. The traditional society’s
city had only half of the existing functions. The industrial revolution added administrative and labor
components to this system. The scientific and cultural activities of the population brought addition-
al functions to the city. The resort towns are the typical representatives of the “service economy”.
The digitalization of these functions will be the final stage in the formation of a digital city. The city
space with objects whose development, implementation, and further operation meet the criteria of
“4E” - ecology, economic efficiency, effectiveness, and ergonomics is perspective [4]. Figure 3 pres-
ents a comparative analysis of the functions of cities with different modes of the economy. The
pictograms show the fundamental technological changes in society.

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_ Figure 3: Comparative analysis of the functions of cities with different economic patterns

The balance of functions helps to compare objects of similar purpose - urban spaces of the cities
of different economic modes in this case - by the number of functions and assess their changes
(Fig. 4).

_ Fig. 4 The diagram of the balance of functions of the cities of different economic models.

The purpose of digitalization is to formulate and implement the best practices of digital develop-
ment in the subjects of the Russian Federation. Among them is the effective urban policy and repli-
cation of technologies and solutions in the field of information and communication technologies to
improve the quality of life [5].
Digital urban planning
_ The digital economy makes it possible to create a single hierarchy at all levels of urban
planning.
_ All functions of urban planning - analytics, research, and forecasting - are based on struc-
tured digital information. Accurate calculations, the formation of data banks, and the de-
velopment of information systems make it possible to create digital topographic maps and
digital city plans. Digital modelling methods in the field of public transport communications,
based on mass high-quality data collection and analysis, are essential for the development
of effective urban management systems.
_ By 2025, 50 “smart cities” will appear in Russia.
The digitalization of the city covers the following areas: education, health care, management,
housing and communal services, transport, recreation and leisure, environmental control.

CONCLUSIONS

Let’s forecast the possible consequences of the development of the region, the municipal entity, the
city. The digital city does not attach importance to the location of the employee, which contributes
to the spread of the polycentric model of territorial management. Remote jobs allow people to work
from anywhere in the world. Globalization will increase competition between people in the labor
market. There will be an outflow of population from existing cities. The population will be distributed
on the Pareto 80/20 principle.

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The functions of the existing cities will be distributed in their respective territories. Only super-cen-
ter cities, with 20% of the population, such as Moscow, Tokyo, New York, etc. will remain. The rest
of the population will be evenly distributed over the territory, which eliminates the need for admin-
istrative boundaries. The mobility of the population will decrease, which will lead to a decrease in
the intensity of the use of all types of transport. Uniform settlement ensures a comfortable living
environment proportionate to the person’s needs. Coworking centers for remote work and entertain-
ment centers for leisure activities will be built. The society will return to the traditional city but in a
different quality...

REFERENCES

__ Maslow, Abraham. 2014. Motivation and Personality. Saint-Petersburg: Piter. https://www.livelib.ru/

author/16596/top-abraham-harold-maslou
__ Presidential Grants Fund. The “Digital Region” Project.
__ https://президентскиегранты.рф/public/application/item?id=38634631-1efe-43e2-bd4a-
574e80f09272
__ Ratzel, Friedrich. Ethnology. In 2 Volumes. 1903. Saint-Petersburg: Printing House of the “Enlighten-
ment” Partnership. https://www.geopolitica.ru/article/fratcel
__ Roderick, Y. A. et al. Comparative Study of Building Energy Efficiency Assessment Between LEED,
BREEAM, and Green Star schemes. Integrated Environmental Solutions Limited, Kelvin Campus, West of
Scotland Science Park, Glasgow, G20 0SP, United Kingdom
__ Weber, Max. The City. Selected Works. 1990. Translated from German and edited by Y. N. Davydov.
Moscow: Progress. pp. 309-446. Electronic publication: Centre for Humanitarian Technologies. https://
gtmarket.ru/laboratory/basis/3597

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IMPROVEMENT OF LIFE QUALITY USING NATURE BASED

SOLUTIONS - CASE STUDY SETTLEMENTS
IN SOUTH-EASTERN SERBIA
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch64

_ Milica Igić
PhD student, Assistant, University of Niš, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture,
Aleksandra Medvedeva street 14, 18000 Niš, Serbia, milica.igic989@gmail.com

_ Petar Mitković
PhD, Full Professor, University of Niš, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture,
Aleksandra Medvedeva street 14, 18000 Niš, Serbia, petar.mitkovic@gaf.ni.ac.rs

_ Milena Dinić Branković

PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Niš, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture,
Aleksandra Medvedeva street 14, 18000 Niš, Serbia, milena.dinic@gaf.ni.ac.rs

_ Jelena Đekić
PhD student, Assistant, University of Niš, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture,
Aleksandra Medvedeva street 14, 18000 Niš, Serbia, jelena_djuric@ymail.com

_ Ivana Bogdanović Protić

PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Niš, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture,
Aleksandra Medvedeva street 14, 18000 Niš, Serbia, ivana.bogdanovic@gaf.ni.ac.rs

_ Milica Ljubenović
PhD student, Assistant, University of Niš, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture,
Aleksandra Medvedeva street 14, 18000 Niš, Serbia, milica.stj@gmail.com

_ Mihailo Mitković
PhD student, Assistant, University of Niš, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture,
Aleksandra Medvedeva street 14, 18000 Niš, Serbia, mihailo.mitkovic@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT

Due to ongoing urbanization process and uncontrolled migration from rural to urban areas, city
territory is spreading constantly without proper infrastructure development. This is one of the global
problems and one of the main characteristics of post-socialist cities in the region. During Socialism,
and later transition period, earlier rural settlements became part of city urban territory, but still re-
mained rural in character - both spatially and functionally. On the other hand, because of expressed
depopulation and degradation processes in villages and small rural settlements, quality of living
conditions is significantly decreased and they became less attractive for living. Another threat to
modern society and quality of life, is certainly climate change (CC) which affects both urban and
rural areas. This paper discusses possibilities of life quality improvement by using nature based
solutions (NBS). Different type of rural settlements in south-eastern Serbia will be analysed in order
to determine possibilities for improvement of life quality and wellbeing of the residents. The aim of
this paper is to investigate current state and problems these settlements are facing, and to discuss
possibilities for use of NBS in order to create better places for residents. In order to improve quality
of life, increase resilience of rural settlements and implement adequate and efficient NBS, it is im-

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portant to have multidisciplinary and comprehensive approach. Because life quality improvement
is a long term process, analyses must take into account spatial, functional and social dimensions
of one settlement and consider all the opportunities and all possible setbacks. Analyses and im-
plementation plans must be conducted for each settlement locally - must be customized for every
settlement depending on the specific spatial, development and natural context. Because all the
settlements are facing increasing negative impacts of CC, use of NBS can be efficient “tool” for CC
mitigation and adaptation.

KEYWORDS _ quality of life, nature based solutions, rural settlements, climate change

INTRODUCTION

Rapid process of urbanization led to uncontrolled spreading of city’s territory and as a result of this
process, many rural settlements became parts of the suburbia, during time received the status of
suburban settlements but remained with rural character - without proper infrastructure and low
life quality. These former rural settlements are characterized by completely unconstrained territory
spreading, narrow and irregular street network, densely constructed objects and no green areas,
which have negatively influenced life quality, health of residents and wellbeing in general. Other rural
settlements which are not adjacent to the urban territory, and those which are remote, are not over-
populated and still characterized by very rich natural resources, but because of intensive depopula-
tion process and lack of basic infrastructure, life quality decreased significantly. Because of spatial
and physical characteristics of rural settlements, there is a great impact of CC which is also having
negative effects on the life quality. Overheating of surfaces without greenery has negative impact on
thermal comfort, river streams are causing floods which can be contagious because of unregulated
sewage and atmospheric runoff water systems, and represent great threat both to human lives and
agriculture crops. This paper discusses use of NBS in rural settlements within area of south-eastern
Serbia - large village: Gornji Matejevac, suburban settlement: Donja Vrežina and rural settlements
seats of the municipalities: Trgovište and Gadžin Han. Use of these solutions would benefit in terms
of increasing life conditions and also in terms of adapting to the one of the greatest threats - CC.
The aim of this paper is to investigate current state in these settlements and to analyse possible
improvement of life quality and human wellbeing by using NBS. The methodological framework is
based on an analytical approach which relies on description and observation of current state in
these settlements, analysis and suggestions for possible solutions. Rural settlements were chosen
because about 2/3 of Serbian territory is rural, these areas have rich natural resources and they are
facing negative impacts of CC which is much expressed. One of the criteria for case studies was
population size - chosen settlements are categorized as medium and large. Another criteria was
spatial and functional structure - all are community centres of the surrounding settlements. They
differ in term of their location toward urban area and they are in different districts within south-east-
ern Serbia. Based on the analysis of their spatial characteristics, different solutions are proposed
and future environmental and social impacts - benefits were highlighted.

BACKGROUND: NATURE BASED SOLUTIONS AND CLIMATE CHANGE

Nature and the city were always connected through history and there were many ideas of bringing
the nature into the cities. One of these ideas was Howards (1898) utopian - garden city which rep-
resents intermediate form which takes the best from the city and countryside and promotes “ideal”
place for living surrounded with nature. Concept of NBS “emerged” after 2000, and nature solutions
were considered as a “tool” for helping society to face great challenges caused by negative impact

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of CC. NBS were further addressed and developed by International Union for Conservation of Nature
(IUCN) and European Commission (EC). There are two widely used definitions of NBS: a) definition
by IUCN (Cohen-Shacham, 2016) “actions to protect, sustainably manage and restore natural or
modified ecosystems that address societal challenges effectively and adaptively, simultaneously
providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits”; b) definition by EC (2015) “actions inspired
by, supported by or copied from nature; both using and enhancing existing solutions to challeng-
es, as well as exploring more novel solutions, for example, mimicking how non-human organisms
and communities cope with environmental extremes. Nature-based solutions use the features and
complex system processes of nature, such as its ability to store carbon and regulate water flows, in
order to achieve desired outcomes, such as reduced disaster risk and an environment that improves
human well-being and socially inclusive green growth”. According to Maes and Jacobs (2015),
NBS can be also defined as “any transition to a use of ecosystem services with decreased input of
non-renewable natural capital and increased investment in renewable natural processes”. Beside
IUCN reports, NBS solutions were part of the World Bank report (MacKinnon et al, 2008), and they
represent a core of EU R&I Programme for H2020. NBS solutions were part of the IUCN Programme
for 2013-2016 (IUCN, 2013).
Depending on the level of the involvement of engineering of biodiversity and ecosystems, and num-
ber of ecosystem services and stakeholders groups that are targeted by NBS, 3 types of NBS solu-
tions are defined: 1- use of NBS with minimal intervention; 2- use of NBS for sustainability and
multifunctionality of managed and restored ecosystems and for innovative planning of farming land;
3- for designing and managing new or existing ecosystems on very “intrusive” way (Eggermont et
al, 2015). These 3 types are overlapping and clear division cannot be defined. Use of NBS is often
related to innovative solutions, but it should also rely on traditional knowledge and local resources.
NBS represent one of the human scaled solutions which are aimed to improve human wellbeing on
different levels. NBS are defined with 8 principles and they are considered as “umbrella” for other
ecosystem-related approaches. These concepts can be divided into 2 groups - those that represent
problem solving techniques and concepts that are “approaches to management”. All concepts relat-
ed to NBS are interrelated, they are characterized by similar principles of multifunctionality and par-
ticipation, but they differ in terms of implementation in planning processes and practice solutions,
and in terms of coverage - comprehensiveness of principles (Pauleit et al, 2017; Nesshöver, 2017).
NBS can be used to help humans to face major societal challenges of today, and it is considered as
an efficient tool for CC mitigation and adaptation at various scales (EC, 2015). Using NBS, grey, blue
and green infrastructure could be integrated, which could result in improving natural components,
social wellbeing and economy. Use of NBS for mitigation and adaptation can also contribute to pos-
itive effects of health outcomes and in improving of wellbeing in general and it can improve mental
health and help in reducing stress of residents (Kabisch & Annerstedt van den Bosch, 2017; Vujčić
et al, 2017). NBS has also positive impact on social cohesion, implementing some of the NBS can
contribute to increasing of social contacts and cohesion and to create more climate-resilient cities
(Rutt & Gulsrud, 2016). NBS can have role in making urbanisation process more “sustainable” and
in effectiveness of responsible facing ongoing challenges of modern society, and can contribute in
creating more resilient cities and landscapes (Lafortezza et al, 2018; Lafortezza & Sanesi, 2019). It
can also improve food security - manage agriculture land in rural areas and ensure healthy - unpol-
luted environment, reduce risk disaster of natural hazards caused by CC and improve water security.
After the industrialisation period, beside the problems of overpopulated neighbourhoods, high den-
sity, lack of infrastructure in all suburban settlements, city also started facing negative impacts of
CC. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change was adopted in 1992 (UN, 1992) and
so far held 25 conferences on climate change, and at 21st conference Paris Agreement was adopt-
ed. Within this Agreement, importance of the ecosystems for the society and for adaptation and mit-
igation to CC was recognized. One of the obligations of the “member” countries was to define their
post 2020 actions and targets for mitigation to CC as Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC).
More than 1/2 member countries recognized and suggested NBS within their NDCs as a method for
adaptation and mitigation. According to researchers, NBS could contribute to cost effective mitiga-

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tion with about 30% for reaching a goal set for reducing warming by 2030 (Seddon et al, 2019). CC is
considered as one of the greatest threats of the 21st century, and both urban and rural areas are fac-
ing it, and it represents direct threat to human lives (health), ecosystems, life quality and wellbeing.
Connection of NBS and CC is kind of partnership with nature (Naumann, 2014), and NBS should be
part of all strategic and planning documents as an efficient way of CC adaptation and improvement
of life quality. There are 2 approaches: use of NBS as a way of CC mitigation where ecosystems are
used for GHG emission reduction, and NBS as a way of CC adaptation where focus is on preserving
ecosystems which are necessary for human wellbeing and which could help with reducing negative
impacts of CC (overheating, extreme weather - rainfalls…).
Considering all above mentioned, analyses of demographic, spatial and functional structure of the
chosen settlements were conducted first, in order to determine their current state, natural resources
they possess and their natural hazards vulnerability. Depending on the settlement characteristics
and results of previous analyses, possible NBS are defined for each settlement, as well as ade-
quate on site intervention depending on their spatial characteristics. These data are presented both
graphical and tabular. Because aim of the use of NBS is to improve life quality in settlements, impact
and area of improvement regarding environmental and social wellbeing was also discussed.

CONTEXT: SETTLEMENTS IN SOUTH-EASTERN PART OF SERBIA

According to OECD classification, more than 2/3 of the Serbian territory is rural, and this paper
discusses NBS impact on life quality improvement in rural settlements. In order to analyse possi-
bilities for improvement of life quality in rural settlements, territory of south-eastern part of Serbia,
which is also territory of the Region of Southern and Eastern Serbia was chosen. This area is mainly
mountainous and hilly and it is characterized by great natural diversity. It occupies about 33% of
total country territory, it is home to about 1/4 of total Serbian population. According to data from
Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia (2019), there are total 1,973 settlements within 9 districts,
and from this number only 46 are classified as “urban” while 1,927 are classified as “other”, by de-
fault rural . Unfortunately, because of very diverse structure, characterized by negative demographic
growth, and underdeveloped economy, share of this Region in national GDP is only 14,1%, which
makes it the least developed Region. There are 38 Municipalities in total, 10 cities and beside Niš
and Bor all other are economically underdeveloped. This area is very diverse in terms of morphology,
nature and ethnic structure. According to the classification of the settlements according to the per-
centage of their mountainous territory (Malobabic, 2003), within this area there are 4 municipalities
whose territory is 100% in mountainous area, there are 10 municipalities and 2 cities whose over 50
% of territory surface is in mountainous area, and there are 5 cities and 10 municipalities whose ter-
ritory surface is less than 50 % in the mountainous area. Also, there is classification of settlements
with aggravated conditions for agriculture production which is main activity in them (Ministry of
Agriculture, Forestry and Water Management, 2018). First criterion is location in mountainous area,
and according to it there are 7 cities and 33 municipalities, and according to two other criterions -
location on the outskirts of national parks or within them and location within devastated areas, there
are 16 municipalities whose all settlements are facing this problem. Main problems that are faced
by these settlements are certainly uneven economic and spatial development, especially high-hilly
and marginalized settlements, negative demographic structure is much expressed because of lack
of basic infrastructure, lack of job positions and lack of other services and activities for young peo-
ple. All these problems affect quality of life which in case of these settlements is on a very low level.
Other type of settlements that became suburbs are facing similar problems regarding economic
development and infrastructure, but on the other hand they are overpopulated, with high density of
built areas. These settlements are also facing negative impact of CC which has huge effect on life
quality and wellbeing (Igic et al, 2020). For the purpose of this research, four different type of settle-
ments were analysed: two settlements - seats of the municipalities: Gadžin Han and Trgovište, and
two rural settlements in the Municipality Pantelej (city of Niš): Donja Vrežina - suburban settlement

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and Gornji Matejevac - large village. Gadžin Han (Nišava district) and Trgovište (Pčinja district) are
seats of the same named municipalities, and they are classified as underdeveloped municipalities in
hilly areas. In socialist period Donja Vrežina was rural village and during last decade of 20th century
its territory “merged” with city’s territory and became suburban settlement. Gornji Matejevac is a
large village with 2,513 inhabitants and it is classified as hilly settlement. Main spatial, functional
and demographic characteristics of analysed settlements are shown in Table 1.

_ Table 1: Spatial, functional and demographic characteristics of analysed settlements (source: Statisti-
Table 1: Spatial, functional
cal Office of the and demographic
Republic characteristics
of Serbia, census 2011;of analysed settlements
data collected by(source:
author Statistical
on site) Office of
the Republic of Serbia, census 2011; data collected by author on site)

suburban
seat of municipality rural village
settlement
Settlement:
Gadžin
Trgovište Han Donja Vrežina Gornji Matejevac
District Pčinja Nišava Nišava Nišava
Population in
settlement:
census 2002 1.864 1.245 4.088 2.647
census 2011 1.767 1.223 6.758 2.513
Number of "other"
35 34 13 13
settlements within M
Nature and water
stream,
resources in the stream, river, forest stream, river stream, forest
forest
settlement
Protected nature
Areas of exceptional
resources in the district
qualities, General and
(According to the Law
special nature reserves, Park of nature, Areas of exceptional qualities, General and special
on nature protection of
Monuments of nature nature reserves, Monuments of nature and 2 spa settlements with
Republic of Serbia,
and 2 spa settlements geothermal springs
(Official Gazette of
with geothermal
Republic Serbia
springs
14/2016)
park with monument, public square in public square in front of
no public square - front of no square, community culture centre,
monument in front of municipality football court, squares around drinking
the church, arranged building, green unregulated fountains, park with
Public spaces/squares and equipped part of areas in front of greenery along monument, football court,
river banks, football public library and stream, park around spring,
court, existing plans for within health riverbanks of unregulated greenery
sports-recreational centre, football Nišava along stream, greenery in
centre court ambulance yard
"Old" part:
narrow streets,
Narrow streets,
Wide main street high density of
unregulated river dividing
Standard wide streets, and few "side" built; "New" part:
settlements, three
linear type of streets, all public wide streets,
"squares" around drinking
Spatial characteristics settlement located on buildings attached unbuilt surface.
fountains, canals along
banks of stream and a to main road, Edge of the
the road for atmospheric
river, low density, seat unregulated river settlements is
water, devastated
of municipality and banks, low density river Nišava with
greenery
"largest" settlement in overbuilt
Municipality riverbanks
*Natural hazards ff, l, tf, hw, е,sа f, tf, e, l, ff, hw, d, f, tf, hw, d, e f, tf, l, ff, hw, d, e
vulnerability sa
* f- Floods; tf- Torrential Floods; l- landslides; ff- Forest Fires; hw- Heat Waves;
f- Fires; d-Drought; sa- Seismic Activity; e- Erosion

DISCUSSION

According data in table 1, except Donja Vrežina, all other settlements are facing depopulation. Com-
mon for all the settlements is that they have irregular street network, except new part of Donja

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Vrežina. All the settlements are surrounded by diverse nature areas, of course except suburban set-
tlement. They all have streams or rivers in their “centres” which are not used for recreation, except
in case of Trgovište where part of the stream banks is regulated. All these settlements have some
“public spaces” which are not used in an adequate manner and which are almost without greenery.
Common for all of them is that there is a river flow on their territory and except of Gadžin Han, in
other settlements it flows through densely populated areas. Regarding public squares which, except
Gadžin Han where it was recently redesigned, are in bad condition and not used frequently. These
areas could be equipped with urban furniture and water permeable paving, abandoned areas and
neglected urban streams can be renatured and “revived”. Public spaces could be redesigned in order
to satisfy all microclimate demands and to provide adequate thermal comfort. Regarding surround-
ing forests and nature, it could be protected, and “peri-urban” parks along streams and on the forest
outskirts could be designed. It is evident that these settlements are characterized by existing eco-
systems that need to be preserved and “restored” and that there is a need for better management of
them and rural land in general. Based on spatial and functional analyses of settlements, maps with
spatial distribution of possible on-site NBS are presented (Fig 1).

_ Figure 1: Possible NBS within analysed settlements (source: https://geosrbija.rs/, maps edited by au-
thors)

Use of NBS in order to restore and manage existing ecosystems has huge impact on environmental
and social well-being and it helps in increasing life quality. Based on proposed on-site NBS in all
settlements, area of improvement regarding environmental and social benefits that tackles directly
life quality and wellbeing is also presented (table 2).

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_ Table 2: Possibilities for use of NBS in analysed settlements and areas of improvement (source: by
authors)
Table 2: Possibilities for use of NBS in analysed settlements and areas of improvement (source: by authors)

area of improvement regarding residents

possibilities for apllying NBS
settlement: wellbeing and quality of life in settlement
NBS on site intervention environmental social
greening "square" around
greening and managing thermal
monument in front of the
equipping public comfort, improving air
church, use of porous improving
Trgovište spaces, using quality, managing rain
pavement, greening street mental and
porous runoff, reducing noise of
with larger regulation physical health
pavement motor traffic
width of the residents,
Managing thermal improving social
park with monument, comfort, improving air interactions and
re-naturing
empty devastated green quality, managing rain public
existing parks
areas runoff, reducing noise of connectivity,
motor traffic promoting
regeneration and "renewal" improving water quality, healthy lifestyles
activation of
of river Pčinja and stream managing water cycle and and recreation,
waterfront /
Tripušnica banks, preventing floods, creating safe
restoration of
adjusting them for safe preventing erosion and social
existing
use of residents and also management of soil, environment by
landscape and
regulation for flood improving air quality in the arranging and
ecosystems
prevention settlement equipping public
management spaces,
formation of "peri-urban improvement of soil
and connection promoting social
parks" and better quality, reduce of GHG
with surrounding cohesion among
connection and emissions - decrease of
nature and residents
management of air pollution conserving
agriculture
surrounding biodiversity
landscape
greening and managing thermal
equipping public comfort, managing runoff
Gadžin main square in front of
spaces , using in public spaces, creating
Han Municipality building
porous place with satisfying improving
pavement micro-climate ambience mental and
Managing thermal physical health
park in front of the library,
comfort, improving air of the residents,
re-naturing park within healthcare
quality, managing rain improving social
existing parks centre, area of football
runoff, reducing noise of interactions and
court
motor traffic public
activation of connectivity,
regeneration and
waterfront / improving water and air promoting
activation of Kutinska river
restoration of quality, managing water healthy lifestyles
banks, adjusting them for
existing cycle and preventing and recreation,
safe use and regulation for
landscape and floods, preventing erosion creating safe
flood prevention
ecosystems and management of soil, social
There are few streets with managing thermal environment by
greening street large regulation width comfort, improving air arranging and
corridors where it is possible to quality, collect runoff equipping public
create "green" corridors water from traffic network spaces,
management formation of "peri-urban improvement of soil promoting social
and connection parks" and better quality, reduce of GHG cohesion among
with surrounding connection and emissions - decrease of residents
nature and management of air pollution conserving
agriculture surrounding nature and biodiversity, activation of
landscape agriculture land outskirts greenery belt
managing thermal improving
greening and space around bus stop
Donja comfort, improving air mental and
equipping public where few stores are
Vrežina quality, reducing noise of physical health
spaces located
traffic of the residents,
greening area around improving social
football court, greening managing thermal interactions and
re-naturing
empty lots and creating comfort, improving air public
existing parks
parks (creating "urban quality connectivity,
forests") promoting
regeneration stream healthy lifestyles
Matejevečka reka banks, and recreation,
this river flows within built improving water quality creating safe
core of the settlement, and prevent future social,
activation and bringing pollution, managing water promoting social
activation of back to the residents cycle and preventing cohesion among
waterfront / banks of the river Nišava ( floods, preventing erosion residents,
restoration of banks are overconstructed and management of soil, greening street
existing and there are lot of illegally improving air quality in the corridors affects
landscape and built objects that enable settlement, preventing makes streets
ecosystems access to the river), future illegal construction more safer
activation for recreation and inadequate land use, because of
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(bicycle and trim tracks) renaturing river banks and traffic
and regulation of river bringing people to nature differentiation,
banks for preventing other modes of
 regeneration stream healthy lifestyles
Matejevečka reka banks, and recreation,
this river flows within built improving water quality creating safe
core of the settlement, and prevent future social,
7TH INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC CONFERENCE
activation and bringing pollution, managing water promoting social
activation of back to the residents cycle and preventing cohesion among
waterfront / banks of the river Nišava ( floods, preventing erosion residents,
restoration of banks are overconstructed and management of soil, greening street
existing and there are lot of illegally improving air quality in the corridors affects
landscape and built objects that enable settlement, preventing makes streets
ecosystems access to the river), future illegal construction more safer
activation for recreation and inadequate land use, because of
(bicycle and trim tracks) renaturing river banks and traffic
and regulation of river bringing people to nature differentiation,
banks for preventing other modes of
floods transport -
greening street within "new" part of the managing thermal bicycle transport
corridors settlement where streets comfort, improving air can be also
have large regulation quality, collect runoff introduced in
width and where is low water from traffic network order to improve
rise housing and promote
management of Irrigation of agriculture healthy lifestyles
better connection and
surrounding land and prevention of soil
management of
agriculture erosion, preventing impact
surrounding nature
landscape of floods on crops
public space in front of managing thermal
cultural centre, 3 public comfort, improving air
greening and
Gornji spaces with drinking quality, managing rain improving
equipping public
Matejevac fountains: "Bunarište", runoff, reducing noise of mental and
spaces
"Old fountain", and "Other motor traffic, protecting physical health
side" fountains water quality of the residents,
parks: in front of the managing thermal reducing
school with monument, at comfort, improving air pollution in built
re-naturing
spring Banjica, within quality, managing rain areas by
existing parks
ambulance, around runoff, reducing noise of filtrating runoff
football court motor traffic and waste water
regeneration of banks of from the streets
activation of
stream Matejevečka reka improving water and air which could
waterfront /
which divides village into 2 quality, managing water affect human
restoration of
parts, activation for cycle and preventing health, improving
existing
recreation and regulation floods, preventing erosion social
landscape and
for preventing torrential and management of soil interactions and
ecosystems
floods public
greening existing canals connectivity,
(creating bioswales) for preventing floods, promoting
use of linear healthy lifestyles
atmospheric runoff along collecting and filtration of
elements for and recreation,
main road - where runoff water from the main
collecting waters creating safe
possible because of - very busy road
regulation width social
arrangement of periurban environment by
parks - around Latin improvement of soil arranging and
management equipping public
church, and on the road to quality, reduce of GHG
and connection spaces,
Monastery, preserving emissions - decrease of
with surrounding promoting social
surrounding forest and air pollution conserving
nature and cohesion among
streams, improvement of biodiversity, activation of
agriculture residents
management of outskirts greenery belt of
landscape
agriculture and rural the rural settlement
landscape

Analysed settlements have diverse ecosystems on their territory but they are not managed in good
manner and they are often completely neglected, and in some situation devastated. Use of NBS
could help to improve - restore existing ecosystems and their management and management of
rural land in general. Challenges that are facing urban are the same for the rural areas but because of
lack of knowledge, initiative and both strategic and planning documents this problem has not been
overcome adequately. These settlements are all characterized as other - rural but they have different
structure. Even though Trgovište and Gadžin Han are seats of municipalities, they face problems of
depopulation and unfavourable life conditions for residents. Suburban settlement has other problem
- increase in population which is not followed by infrastructure development and which led to usur-
pation of public spaces along the river banks of Nišava. Rural village Gornji Matejevac, has inherited
narrow street network with small “squares” from Ottoman period which are completely paved and
there are no green areas, and those squares that are located around some of the public buildings
and drinking fountains are neglected.
Suggested intervention with implementation of NBS on the territory of these settlements could have
huge impact on life quality in them. Greening and redesigning of public spaces and spaces in front

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of their important public buildings could make more attractive spaces for gathering of residents
and could improve their social contacts and ensure social cohesion. On the other hand, it could
help to manage thermal comfort because of overheating during summer, to create micro-climate
friendly ambience which could be used by residents frequently even during summer months and
it could help in reduction of air pollution. Existing parks could be re-natured and regenerated with
more greenery in order to provide more environment friendly areas for recreation and gathering of
residents. All of the settlements are located on the banks of rivers or streams which are completely
neglected and devastated, even though they flow through “central” areas of the settlements. These
flows are a great threat for floods and torrential floods which cause soil erosion and represent great
threat to human lives, health of residents and built environment. Regeneration of “waterfronts” and
regulation of flows could have positive impact on both environment in terms of improvement of
water and air quality, improvement of green areas and creation of recreational areas. From social
point of view, this could improve both mental and physical health of residents and recreation could
promote healthy lifestyles. This flows could represent green corridors within settlements provid-
ing attractive ambiences and places for gathering on one hand and preventing possible negative
impacts of floods on their surrounding territory on the other. In settlements with streets that have
larger street regulation width (Donja Vrežina and Gadžin Han) greenery can be planted in order to
create kind of “green barrier” between pedestrian and motor traffic, to reduce air and noise pollution.
In Gornji Matejevac there are a canals for atmospheric and waste water which could be transformed
into bioswales in order to reduce pollution.
Implementation of NBS could also improve management of agriculture and rural land. Main activity
of the residents in most of the rural areas is agriculture and food production. CC has negative impact
on crops because of overheating, extreme rainfalls and floods caused by surrounding streams and
river. Use of these NBS and concepts related to nature could ensure better conditions for agricul-
ture land and reduce vulnerability to natural hazards. Management of rural land can be improved,
which would affect economy and could create job positions which could prevent depopulation and
improve quality of life. According to the analyses, it is obvious that implementation of NBS can have
multiple benefits on environment, social cohesion and economy which directly improves life quality
in devastated rural areas.

CONCLUSION

After the industrialization process, and in the second half of the 20th century during socialism pe-
riod, cities were seen as a “better” place for living and their territory started spreading and merging
with surrounding settlements. As a negative consequence, some rural settlements faced negative
trend of depopulation and marginalization, which led to decrease of life quality in them. These set-
tlements are characterized by very rich and diverse natural resources which are often neglected.
Because of reduced life quality in these settlements, unemployment rate and lack of infrastructure,
there are constant migrations of population from them. In order to improve life quality in rural settle-
ments, use of NBS is discussed and benefits of implementation were analysed.
According conducted analysis, it is obvious that NBS could be applied also in rural settlements as in
the urban, and that they could improve life quality. For the purpose of this analysis, four settlements
were chosen and potentials for NBS were explored within their territory. Results of the analysis
show that these interventions can be applied in order to restore existing ecosystems, preserve ex-
isting natural resources and to implement innovative solutions in creating micro-climate friendly
ambiences of neglected public spaces in the analysed settlements. Implementation of NBS would
certainly have impact on life quality, wellbeing and both mental and physical health of residents.
With these interventions neglected areas are regenerated, and settlements become less vulnerable
to natural hazards caused by CC. In order to raise awareness of residents of benefits of NBS im-
plementation, it is necessary that NBS become part of planning and strategic documents on local
level, and to organize educational courses within residents. Many of these solutions can be applied

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locally and they are not large “burden” for the budget. For all of Municipalities on whose territories
are located analysed settlements, spatial plans, plans of general regulation and local strategies for
sustainable development are adopted and within them “natural” potential is recognized. None of
these documents is recognizing possibilities for use of NBS as efficient and cost effective solution
for increasing life quality and facing CC negative impacts. In order to improve planning and strategic
documents on local level, departments within local authorities could be organized with aim to pro-
mote NBS and to raise awareness of residents. Workshops and on-site actions could be organized
in order to involve local residents in decision making processes and to empower local communi-
ty. Possibilities of NBS implementation and their impact on life quality can be further investigated
and expanded to other type of rural settlements and different simulations can be made in order to
choose adequate solution to implement in every settlement.

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DESIGN OF CULTURAL TRAILS - AS A RESULT OF

BELGRADE’S GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE CONCEPT
DOI: 10.18485/arh_pt.2020.7.ch65

_ Suzana Gavrilović
PhD student and Research assistant, University of Belgrade, Faculty of
Forestry, Kneza Višeslava 1, 11030 Belgrade, suzana.gavrilovic@sfb.bg.ac.rs

_ Nevena Vasiljević
Associate professor, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Forestry,
Kneza Višeslava 1, 11030 Belgrade, nevena.vasiljevic@sfb.bg.ac.rs

_ Boris Radić
Associate professor, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Forestry,
Kneza Višeslava 1, 11030 Belgrade, boris.radic@sfb.bg.ac.rs

_ Dejan Skočajić
Assistant professor, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Forestry,
Kneza Višeslava 1, 11030 Belgrade, dejan.skocajic@sfb.bg.ac.rs

_ Nevenka Galečić
Assistant professor, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Forestry,
Kneza Višeslava 1, 11030 Belgrade, nevenka.galecic@sfb.bg.ac.rs

ABSTRACT

In the system of spatial planning of the Republic of Serbia there are gaps in understanding of mod-
ern trends of greenway planning and other linear corridors. One of the problems is the lack of per-
ception of multifunctionality of greenways and of the possibilities of their integration in development
projects of tourism, agriculture, nature protection, biodiversity management, water resources, recre-
ation, and cultural/historic resource protection. The Strategy of reforestation of Belgrade represents
a significant step, defining the bases for establishment of a network of protected natural areas con-
necting them with ecological and green corridors, namely, defining the concept of green infrastruc-
ture of Belgrade. Since the goal of the Strategy was to prepare the plan of reforestation, it focused
on ecological functions of corridors; however, spreading of cultural influences often coincides with
boundaries of regional natural characteristics, woven into the character of landscape being the ex-
ponent of cultural identity. Namely, in the process of landscape characterization and creation of the
basis for reforestation plan of a City municipality Mladenovac in Belgrade, it was noticed that the
courses of green corridors coincided with cultural influences and material elements of the land-
scape character referring to the history of Serbia during the rule of the Despot Stefan Lazarević. This
fact gave reason to consider the possibilities of integration of newly planned corridors into a broader
spatial context. By application of landscape character assessment method and landscape metrics
in software ArcGIS 10, an analysis of the researched area was made and stability of landscape as
a resource was established for each separate type of landscape character. The identification of the
landscape character and of the elements being the exponents of landscape identity defined the di-
rection in which the path should be developed and provided the guidelines for its rerouting, material-
ization, form, length and width, position of new and supporting facilities and stylistic characteristics.

KEYWORDS _ green infrastructure, cultural trails, landscape character, greenway planning

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INTRODUCTION

The green infrastructure is relatively new in spatial planning in Serbia and still has a weak legal
basis; the only exception is the Plan for General Regulation of Green Areas of Belgrade, which was
adopted with numerous amendments that almost gave an advisory level instead of an executive.
However, concept of the Spatial Plan of the Republic of Serbia 2020 (SPRS 2020) is based on pres-
ervation and improvement of landscape characters, as well as on the principle of structural and
functional connectivity on different spatial levels (local, regional, national ecological and cultural
networks) (Law on the Spatial Plan of the Republic of Serbia, „Official Gazette of the Republic of Ser-
bia”, No. 88/10). А significant step is the study entitled “Belgrade Afforestation Strategy” elaborated
according to the guidelines and principles of SPRS 2020. The Strategy creates the framework for
establishment of a network of natural areas connecting them with ecological and green corridors,
namely defining structural and functional support to the concept of green infrastructure of Belgrade
(„Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia”, No. 20/2011).
In the process of landscape character assessment and creation of the basis for afforestation plan of
the City municipality of Mladenovac in Belgrade, it was noticed that the courses of green corridors
coincided with cultural influences and material elements referring to the history of Serbia during the
rule of the Despot Stefan Lazarević. Since the goal of the Strategy was to prepare the plan of af-
forestation, it focused on ecological functions of green infrastructure system and establishment of
new forest patches and corridors of all categories without considering potential cultural purposes.
This fact gave us reason to consider the possibilities of integration of newly planned corridors into
a broader spatial context.
The objectives of this paper are to develop thematic cultural trail and link cultural resources and
its related green infrastructure of City municipality of Mladenovac, and to illustrate how landscape
character assessment method can be incorporated into a greenway design and planning process.
This paper presents the planning and design of the thematic cultural trail “Paths of the Despot
Stefan Lazarević” on the territory of the City municipality of Mladenovac, as a cultural greenway
concept, by integrating the newly planned links being elements of the green infrastructure system of
Municipality (and of Belgrade at the regional level), and the cultural and historical resources (hubs).
Mladenovac is characterized by the typical landscape of Šumadija, being the expression of diversity
of cultural and natural heritage where it is possible to recognize the traditional way of land culti-
vation, the artefacts testifying about the history and tradition of this area and about the authentic
vernacular architecture.

METHODOLOGY

The first section of the paper discusses creation and designing of a thematic cultural trail as the way
of connection of natural and cultural values in a landscape, namely, as cultural greenway concept.
The second section of the paper presents the project of the final design of the thematic cultural trail
“Paths of the Despot Stefan Lazarević” on the territory of the City municipality of Mladenovac, as a
cultural greenway concept, by integrating the newly planned corridor (links) being a part of the green
infrastructure of Belgrade, and the cultural and historical resources (hubs).
In the conclusion, a case study is presented as a model of how to design and plan greenways in
the context of Serbia and recommendations and guidelines are given to frame their further devel-
opment. Survival and development of the cultural landscape of Mladenovac depends on the spatial
development that should enable establishment of a characteristic relation and connection between
agricultural, forest and other land uses, including cultural resources which are key to multiple use
and public support.

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BACKGROUND

Green infrastructure has a form of coherent ecological network and different types of landscape
links can go into creating a system of green infrastructure (Fig. 1). Trail Corridors – different types
of landscape links can go into creating a system of green infrastructure and one of them are desig-
nated routes, such as rail-trails and greenways, provide access to and appreciation of the values of
natural areas and other green spaces and enhance the understanding of historical sites and cultural
diversity (McMahon, 2000). Greenways with historical heritage and cultural values attract tourists
and provide recreational, educational, scenic and economic benefits (Fabos, 1995). Flink and Searns
(1993) emphasize the importance of the greenway theme and of the vision of its future functioning.

_ Figure 1: Project “Particulate matter mitigation through urban green infrastructure: Research on optimi-
zation of block-scale green space” (Author: Bo Yang, 2020)

Greenways are defined as ”networks of land containing linear elements that are planned, designed
and managed for multiple purposes including ecological, recreational, cultural, aesthetic or other
purposes compatible with the concept of sustainable land use” (Ahern, 1995). They can be local,
urban and interurban, connected with other corridors, historical routes, rivers and railway lines (Cen-
tral and Eastern Greenways /CEEG/).
Greenways create green infrastructure to link people and places (Fabos, 1995). Spreading of cul-
tural influences often coincides with boundaries of regional natural characteristics (Kurtović-Folić,
2009; SPRS, 2010) woven into the character of landscape being the exponent of cultural identity
(Vasiljević, 2012). Greenways with historical heritage and cultural values attract tourists and offer
the framework for local initiatives and projects which aim to protect and promote the nature, cultural
heritage and sustainable forms of tourism (Central and Eastern Greenways /CEEG/).
Landscape character represents an holistic interpretation of physical, ecological and cultural land-
scape patterns and integrates natural and cultural elements, scientific with practical knowledge, and
at the same time it is the level at which problems are noticed and solved (Vasiljević, 2012). Land-
scape character assessment method is used in early phases of planning and design. The obtained
results and data provide valuable and determining information for bringing decisions regarding the
scope and nature of future development (define planning and building regulations, make assess-
ment for different land uses, create programs and special development plans), also provides forming
of guidelines and policies in the field of green infrastructure planning, environmental protection,
tourism, agriculture, forestry, protection of natural and cultural heritage (Vasiljević, 2012).

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MATERIALS AND METHODS

City municipality Mladenovac (area of 33 904 ha) is situated in south, suburban part of the adminis-
trative area of the city of Belgrade. The area within the municipality boundaries is located in the val-
ley on the mildly undulated terrain consisting of flat parts between wider and narrower alluvial plains
of watercourses. Parts of this diverse area are everyday landscapes, but parts are rather particular,
such as Kosmaj, landscapes with traditional way of land cultivation, villages with the authentic ver-
nacular architecture. Kosmaj, the area of exceptional characteristics on the north of the Municipality,
is a part of the ecological network of Serbia and represents an Emerald and a Prime Butterfly Area.
Numerous cultural facilities and the history of this area are connected with the Serbian despotate.
Despot Stefan Lazarević (1377–1427) was a medieval ruler of Serbia and one of the finest knights
and military leaders in Europe. During this period, Belgrade became, for the first time, the capital
of Serbia. He was also known as one of the best Serbian writers in the Middle Ages and during
the time of reign of Despot, Serbia was experiencing cultural progress and renewal of statehood.
Unfortunately, these cultural resources are discontinuous and not recognized on the tourist map of
Mladenovac and at the wider level, on the tourist map of Belgrade.
The methodological procedure that was applied on the study area is landscape character assess-
ment method based on the Guidelines for the assessment of landscape character of England and
Scotland (Swanwick, 2002).
Applying landscape character assessment method and landscape metrics in software ArcGIS, an
analysis of the Municipality was made and stability of landscape as a resource was established for
each separate type of landscape character on the basis of:
1) The state of general landscape character and of the individual elements being the char-
acter exponents;
2) landscape structure: composition and configuration;
3) functioning of corridors and connectivity of landscape elements;
4) landscape heterogeneity and edge structure. This process also identified the key forces
for change within each landscape character type.
The next step defined the direction in which the path should be designed according to land-
scape character types and the elements being the exponents of landscape identity. The
guidelines for path design are provided for rerouting, materialization, form, length and width,
position of new and supporting facilities and stylistic characteristics.

RESULTS

Based on the results of landscape character assessment of the municipality of Mladenovac, the
guidelines for the development and design of the trail “Paths of the Despot Stefan Lazarević” were
formed and relations between natural and cultural elements of the landscape structures established
in the manner which promotes and increases the level of recognition of landscape character types.
Composition and configuration of the landscape structure indicate a relatively stable and recog-
nizable landscape pattern of Mladenovac formed by transformation of the wooded landscape. The
Plan of Afforestation makes connection between the “lost” landscape elements but not between
their cultural function.
In this paper, the concept of planning and design of cultural trail is based on the connection between
newly planned corridors formed as a result of afforestation plan of Municipality (Fig. 2), with values
and elements which are connected with the period of reign of the Despot Sefan Lazarević. Cultural
properties related to the period of Despotate are: Monastery Pavlovac (cultural property of great
importance), monastery Tresije, Kastaljan and the monument at the place of death of the Despot in
Crkvine (cultural property of exceptional importance). The cultural heritage that does not have the
protected property status, such as mountain Kosmaj (Despot’s hunting ground), villages with tra-
ditional way of cultivation (Koraćica, Velika Ivanča, Amerić), facilities of the vernacular architecture

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and other elements of biophysical landscape structure as well represent identity of the medieval
Mladenovac.

_ Figure 2: Landscape character assessment and draft afforestation plan of the municipality of Mlade-
novac

Realization of the concept of cultural trails in the territory of Municipality requires formation of clear-
ly defined connections (walk path and bike routes) which include field paths, beaten tracks, deserted
drive roads and railway tracks and other linear elements of the landscape structure. Possibility of
integrating trail with cultural routes at the regional and national levels (routes of Morava heritage
and routes of medieval Serbia), enables forming of a coherent cultural network respecting the prin-
ciples of SPRS 2020.
Cultural trail designed in the form of a circular route which links major components of the trail (Fig.
3) is broken down into several sub-thematic and shorter itineraries. The trail starts in the city of
Mladenovac which is, at the same time, the centre of the municipality, forming support for traffic
and railway communications with Belgrade. The important traffic directions are state highway (Bel-
grade – Niš), international railway (Belgrade – Niš), state roads (No. 23, No. 107, No. 200) achieving
transport links with Belgrade as well as with neighbouring municipalities Smederevo, Smederevska
Palanka, Topola.
The main information points and hospitality establishments are located in the centre of the tradi-
tional villages Crkvina, Velika Ivanča and Koraćica with widespread facilities of vernacular archi-
tecture (old houses, barns, stables, fences) and with typical patterns of the traditionally cultivated
fields (Fig. 3).
Trail routes are designed on the basis of newly planned corridors, analysis of the existing infra-
structure, and terrain morphology in the process of landscape characterization. There are three dis-
tinct path types: Trails in flat terrain which enable direct and shortest connections, trails in slightly
sloping terrains and trails in terrains with greater slopes, which directed their design (length, width,
materials) and types of the accompanying contents (observation deck, viewpoint, bench, sign, bike
paths) (Fig. 4).
Locations and extent of the accompanying contents and facilities are defined in such a way as not
to distort characteristic outline of the fields, unique view and not to make conflict between various
ways of land use. New contents include medieval park, amphitheatre and summer theatre, museum

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of Serbian medieval culture, camp, resting places. Proposed cultural trails maximize the connectivi-
ty, elevate the quality of life and revive cultural and historical identity of Mladenovac.

_ Figure 3: The concept of cultural trail “Paths of the Despot Stefan Lazarević”- linking cultural resources
and GI corridors (photo credits: 1./2./3.4./8. Zavod za zaštitu spomenika, 5./6.9. Autors)

_ Figure 4: Design of cultural trail and of supporting facilities and elements

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CONCLUSIONS

Existence and development of the landscape character types of Mladenovac can be improved by
creating the cultural trail “Paths of the Despot Stefan Lazarević” which links cultural resources and
its related green infrastructure. The green infrastructure concept is multifunctional and provides a
variety of ecosystem services and considers to combine ecological, social and abiotic, biotic and
cultural functions (Hansen and Palueit, 2014).
Identification of landscape character types and analyses of its natural and cultural values defined
planning and design concept of cultural trail as functional and structural element of green infra-
structure of Mladenovac. Greenway development at the area of municipality of Mladenovac also
supports development of sustainable forms of tourism, recreation, engagement of local communi-
ties, and heritage preservation according to landscape character types.
The greenways promote and increase the recognisability of landscape character where they are
formed. Since forming of greenway planning refers to the character of the landscape where they
are created, active participation is required in further landscape management. Conservation and
protection of the unique landscape character are set as an imperative of future development and
new initiatives.
In the context of Serbia, greenways development strategy should be based on the landscape char-
acter, their preservation and enhancement, and involving active participation of local communities,
as well as principles of SPRS 2020. The essential elements of greenway project include a high level
of community and user involvement, development of strategy and action plan.

REFERENCES

__ Ahern, Jack. 1995. “Greenways as a Planning Strategy“. Landscape and Urban Planning 33: 131–155.
__ Fabos, Julius Gy. 1995. “The Greenway Movement, Uses and Potentialities of Greenways“. In Green-
ways: The beginning of an international movement, edited by Julius Gy. Fabos and Jack Ahern. Elsevier.
__ Hansen, Rieke and Pauleit, Stephan. 2014. “From Multifunctionality to Multiple Ecosystem Services?
A Conceptual Framework for Multifuncionality in Green Infrastructure Planning for Urban Areas“. AMBIO,
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__ Kurtović‐Folić, Nadja. 2009. “Cultural Heritage Protection, Management and Exploitation and Regional
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governance, Thematic Conference Proceedings Vol. 1: 215–238. IAUS: Belgrade.
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__ SPRS 2010. Prostorni plan Republike Srbije, ʺSlužbeni glasnik RSʺ 88/10.
__ Swanwick, Carys. 2002. “Landscape Character Assessment Guidelines for England and Scotland“. The
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