CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUER NETWORKING

1.1 Definition of Data Communication

When we communicate, we are sharing information. This sharing can be local or

remote. Between individuals, local communication usually occurs face to face,
while remote communication takes place over distance. The term
telecommunication, which includes telephony, telegraphy, and television, means
communication at a distance (tele is Greek for "far").
The word data refers to information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by
the parties creating and using the data.
Data communication is the exchange of data between two devices via some form
of transmission medium such as a wire or cable. For data communications to occur,
the communicating devices must be part of a communication system made up of a
combination of hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs). The
effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental
characteristics: Delivery, Accuracy, Timeliness, and Jitter.
1. Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must
be received by the intended device or user and only by that device or user.
2. Accuracy: The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been
altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered
late are useless. In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means
delivering data as they are produced, in the same order that they are
produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called real-
time transmission.

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 4. Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven
delay in the delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume
that video packets are sent every 3 ms. If some of the packets arrive with
3ms delay and others with 4ms delay, an uneven quality in the video is the
result.
1.2 Communication Components

A data communications system has five components

1. Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated.

Popular forms of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and

video.
2. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a

computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.

3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a

computer, workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.

4. Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by

which a message travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of

transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic
cable, and radio waves.
5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It
represents an agreement between the communicating devices. Without a
protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating, just as a
person speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only
Japanese.

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1.3. Data representation techniques
Data can be represented in different forms such as text, numbers, images, audio,
and video.
Text: In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of
bits (0s or 1s). Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text
symbols. Each set is called a code, and the process of representing symbols is
called coding. Today, the prevalent coding system is called Unicode, which uses 32
bits to represent a symbol or character used in any language in the world. The
American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) developed some
decades ago in the United States, now constitutes the first 128 characters in
Unicode and is also referred to as Basic Latin.
Numbers: Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. However, a code such as
ASCII is not used to represent numbers; the number is directly converted to a
binary number to simplify mathematical operations.
Images: Images are also represented by bit patterns. In its simplest form, an image
is composed of a matrix of pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is a small
dot. The size of the pixel depends on the resolution. For example, an image can be
divided into 1000 pixels or 10,000 pixels. In the second case, there is a better

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representation of the image (better resolution), but more memory is needed to store
the image. After an image is divided into pixels, each pixel is assigned a bit
pattern. The size and the value of the pattern depend on the image. For an image
made of only black and-white dots (e.g., a chessboard), an I-bit pattern is enough
to represent a pixel.
Audio: refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. Audio is by
nature different from text, numbers, or images. It is continuous, not discrete.
Video: refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video can
either be produced as a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a
combination of images, each a discrete entity, arranged to convey the idea of
motion.
1.4 Definition of Computer Networks

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by

communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device
capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the network.
Computer Network to mean a collection of autonomous computers
interconnected by a single technology. Two computers are said to be
interconnected if they are able to exchange information. The connection need not
be via a copper wire; fiber optics, microwaves, infrared, and communication
satellites can also be used.

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1.4.1 Network Criteria
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of
these are performance, reliability, and security.
Performance
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response
time. Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one
device to another. Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a
response. The performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including
the number of users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the
connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software.
Reliability
In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the
frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the
network's robustness in a catastrophe.
Security
Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access,
protecting data from damage and development, and implementing policies and
procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses.
Type of Connection
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a
communications pathway that transfers data from one device to another. For
visualization purposes, it is simplest to imagine any link as a line drawn between
two points. For communication to occur, two devices must be connected in some
way to the same link at the same time. There are two possible types of connections:
point-to-point and multipoint.

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Point-to-Point: connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The
entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect
the two ends, but other options, such as microwave or satellite links, are also
possible. When you change television channels by infrared remote control, you are
establishing a point-to-point connection between the remote control and the
television's control system.
Multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than two
specific devices share a single link. In a multipoint environment, the capacity of
the channel is shared, either spatially or temporally. If several devices can use the
link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection. If users must take turns, it
is a timeshared connection.

Figure 1.2 Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint

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1.4.2 Physical Topology
The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out
physically: two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a
topology. The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the
relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one
another. There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring (see
Figure 1.3).

Figure 1.3 Categories of topology

Mesh topology
In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other
device. The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two
devices it connects. To find the number of physical links in a fully connected mesh
network with n nodes, we first consider that each node must be connected to every
other node. Node 1 must be connected to n - I nodes, node 2 must be connected to
n – 1 nodes, and finally node n must be connected to n - 1 nodes. We need n (n - 1)
physical links, every device on the network must have n – 1 input/output ports (see
Figure 1.4) to be connected to the other n - 1 stations.

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Figure 1.4 Mesh topology connected five stations

A mesh offers several advantages over other network topologies. First, the use of
dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load, thus
eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when links must be shared by
multiple devices. Second, a mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable,
it does not incapacitate the entire system. Third, there is the advantage of privacy
or security. When every message travels along a dedicated line, only the intended
recipient sees it. Physical boundaries prevent other users from gaining access to
messages. Finally, point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation
easy.
The main disadvantages of a mesh are related to the amount of cabling and the
number of I/O ports required. First, every device must be connected to every other
device, installation and reconnection are difficult. Second, the sheer bulk of the
wiring can be greater than the available space (in walls, ceilings, or floors) can
accommodate. Finally, the hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and
cable) can be prohibitively expensive.

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Star Topology
In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central
controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another.
Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic between
devices. The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to
another, it sends the data to the controller, which then relays the data to the other
connected device (see Figure 1.5).
Figure 1.5 star topology connecting four stations
Hub

A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology. In a star, each device needs
only one link and one I/O port to connect it to any number of others. This factor
also makes it easy to install and reconfigure. Far less cabling needs to be housed,
and additions, moves, and deletions involve only one connection: between that
device and the hub. Other advantages include robustness. If one link fails, only that
link is affected. All other links remain active. This factor also lends itself to easy
fault identification and fault isolation. As long as the hub is working, it can be used
to monitor link problems and bypass defective links.

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One big disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency of the whole topology
on one single point, the hub. If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead.
Bus Topology

A bus topology is multipoint connections. One long cable acts as a backbone to

link all the devices in a network (see Figure 1.6). Nodes are connected to the bus
cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a connection running between the
device and the main cable. A tap is a connector that either splices into the main
cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic
core. As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is transformed into
heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it travels farther and farther. For
this reason there is a limit on the number of taps a bus can support and on the
distance between those taps.
Figure 1.6 bus topology connecting three stations

Advantages of a bus topology include ease of installation. Backbone cable can be

laid along the most efficient path, connected to the nodes by drop lines of various
lengths. In this way, a bus uses less cabling than mesh or star topologies.

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Disadvantages include difficult reconnection and fault isolation. A bus is usually
designed to be optimally efficient at installation. It can therefore be difficult to add
new devices. Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality. This
degradation can be controlled by limiting the number and spacing of devices
connected to a given length of cable. Adding new devices may require
modification or replacement of the backbone. In addition, a fault or break in the
bus cable stops all transmission, even between devices on the same side of the
problem. The damaged area reflects signals back in the direction of origin, creating
noise in both directions.
Ring Topology
In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only
the two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one
direction, from device to device, until it reaches its destination. Each device in the
ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a signal intended for another
device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along (see Figure 1.7).
Figure 1.7 ring topology connecting six stations

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A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is linked to only its
immediate neighbours. To add or delete a device requires changing only two
connections. The only constraints are media and traffic considerations (maximum
ring length and number of devices). In addition, fault isolation is simplified.
Generally in a ring, a signal is circulating at all times. If one device does not
receive a signal within a specified period, it can issue an alarm. The alarm alerts
the network operator to the problem and its location.
However, unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage. In a simple ring, a break in
the ring (such as a disabled station) can disable the entire network. This weakness
can be solved by using a dual ring or a switch capable of closing off the break.
Hybrid Topology
A network can be hybrid. For example, we can have a main star topology with
each branch connecting several stations in a bus topology as shown in Figure 1.8.

Figure 1.8 A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks

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 1.4.3 Categories of Networks
The category into which a network falls is determined by its size. A LAN normally
covers an area less than 2 mi; a WAN can be worldwide. Networks of a size in
between are normally referred to as metropolitan area networks and span tens of
miles.
Local Area Network
A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and links the devices in a
single office, building, or campus. Depending on the needs of an organization and
the type of technology used, a LAN can be as simple as two PCs and a printer in
someone's home office; or it can extend throughout a company. Currently, LAN
size is limited to a few kilometres. LANs are designed to allow resources to be
shared between personal computers or workstations. The resources to be shared
can include hardware (e.g., a printer), software (e.g., an application program), or
data.
In addition to size, LANs are distinguished from other types of networks by their
transmission media and topology. In general, a given LAN will use only one type
of transmission medium. The most common LAN topologies are bus, ring, and
star. Early LANs had data rates in the 4 to 16 megabits per second (Mbps) range.
Today, however, speeds are normally 100 or 1000 Mbps.
Wide Area Network
A wide area network (WAN) provides long-distance transmission of data, image,
audio, and video information over large geographic areas that may comprise a
country, a continent, or even the whole world.

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Metropolitan Area Networks
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size between a LAN and a
WAN. It normally covers the area inside a town or a city. It is designed for
customers who need a high-speed connectivity, normally to the Internet, and have
endpoints spread over a city or part of city.

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