UNIT 1

Computer Network

A network is a set of devices connected by a media link.

Devices often referred to as nodes can be a computer, printer, or any

other devices capable of sending/ receiving data.

A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a

collection of computers and devices interconnected by communications
channels that facilitate communications and allows sharing of resources
and information among interconnected devices. 1
 Goals of Computer Networks
 To provide sharing of resources such as information or processors.
 To provide inter-process communication among users and processors.
 It provides the network user with maximum performance at minimum cost.
 It provides centralized control for a geographically distributed system.
 It provides compatibility of dissimilar equipment and software.
 It provides centralized management and allocation of network resources.
 It provides distribution of processing functions.
Applications of Computer Networks

BUSINESS HOME MOBILE

 Data Communication
Data Communications is the transfer of data or information between a source and a
receiver.

The source transmits the data, and the receiver receives it.

Data Communication is interested in : The transfer of data, the method of transfer and the
preservation of the data during the transfer process.
Types of Internetwork

1. Intranet

2. Internet

3. Extranet
 The effectiveness of a data communication system depends
on the following fundamental characteristics:
 Delivery: The System must deliver data to the correct

destination. Data must be received by the intended

Data
Communication device or user and only by that device or user.
Effectiveness  Accuracy: The system must deliver data accurately.

Data that have been altered in transmission and left

uncorrected are noise.
 Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner.
Data delivered late are useless. In the case of video, audio, and
voice data, timely delivery means delivering data as they are
produced, in the same order that they are produced, and
Data without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called real-
Communic time transmission.
ation Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time.
It is the uneven delay in the delivery of audio or video
packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are
sent every 30 ms. If some of the packets arrive with 30-ms
delay and others with 40-ms delay, an uneven quality in the
video is the result.
Data communication Components

A data communications system has five components:

 Message: The message is the information (data) to
be communicated. Popular forms of information
include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.

Sender: The sender is the device that sends the

data message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, video camera, and so on.

Data Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives

communication the message. It can be a computer, workstation,
Components telephone handset, television, and so on.

Transmission medium: The transmission

medium is the physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of
transmission media include twisted-pair wire,
coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.

Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern

data communications. It represents an agreement
between the communicating devices.
 Data Representation

Information today comes in different forms such as text, numbers,

images, audio, and video.
 Data Representation
Text: In data communications, text is represented as a
bit pattern, a sequence of bits (0s or 1s). Different sets Numbers: Numbers are also represented by
of bit patterns have been designed to represent text bit patterns. However, a code such as ASCII
symbols. Each set is called a code, and the process of is not used to represent numbers; the number
representing symbols is called coding. Today, the is directly converted to a binary number to
prevalent coding system is called Unicode, which uses
32 bits to represent a symbol or character used in any simplify mathematical operations.
language in the world.
 3. Images: Images are also represented by bit patterns. In
its simplest form, an image is composed of a matrix of
pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot.
The size of the pixel depends on the resolution. For
example, an image can be divided into 1000 pixels or
10,000 pixels. In the second case, there is a better
representation of the image (better resolution), but more
Data memory is needed to store the image.
Representa
Each pixel in image has been assigned a bit pattern. For
tion black and white images, 1-bit pattern is used to represent
a pixel. For gray scale images, 2-bit pattern is used i.e. A
black pixel can be represented by 00, a dark gray pixel by
01, a light gray pixel by 10, and a white pixel by 11. For
colour images several methods are used for
representation i.e. RGB (combination of red, green and
blue), YCM (combination of yellow, cyan and magenta).
 4. Audio: Audio refers to the recording or
broadcasting of sound or music. Audio is by
nature different from text, numbers, or images. It
is continuous, not discrete. Even when we use a
microphone to change voice or music to an
Data electric signal, we create a continuous signal.
Representa
tion 5. Video: Video refers to the recording or
broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video can
either be produced as a continuous entity (e.g.,
by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of
images, each a discrete entity, arranged to
convey the idea of motion.
 Data Flow/Transmission Modes
 Simplex: Communication always in one direction e.g. Television

 Half duplex: Communication may in either direction, but only one way
at a time e.g. walky-talky

 Full duplex: Communication may in both directions at the same time

e.g. telephone
 Type of Connection

A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications pathway
that transfers data from one device to another. For communication to occur, two devices must
be connected in some way to the same link at the same time. There are two possible types of
connections: point-to-point and multipoint.
Point-to-Point:
1. Point-to-Point network is a network in which all the computers are linked together with equal privilege
and responsibilities for processing the data.
2. Point-to-Point network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10 computers.
3. Point-to-Point network has no dedicated server.
4. Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the resources, but this can lead to a
problem if the computer with the resource is down.
Advantages Of Point-to-Point Network:
1. It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.
2. If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop working.
3. It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.

Disadvantages Of Point-to-point Network:

1. In the case of Point-To-Point network, it does not contain the centralized system . Therefore, it cannot
back up the data as the data is different in different locations.
2. It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.
Multipoin
A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than two

t specific devices share a single link. In a multipoint environment, the capacity of

the channel is shared. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a

spatially shared connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.

 1. Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users
called clients, to access the resources such as songs, video, etc. from a
central computer known as Server.
2. The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in
the network are called clients.

Client/
Server
Network
Advantages Of Client/Server network:
1. A Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore we can back up the data easily.
2. A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the overall performance of the whole
system.
3. Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server administers the shared resources.
4. It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.
Disadvantages Of Client/Server network:
1. Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server with large memory.
2. A server cost is very high.
3. It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the resources.
Network Topology
a) Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components
are interconnected to each other.
b) Each topology is suited to specific tasks and has its own advantages and
disadvantages.
c) The choice of topology is dependent upon type and number of equipment
being used, rate of data transfer required, response time, and cost.
There are two types of topology:
1. physical topology
2. logical topology.
Network Topology
Following points need to remember to select a
topology:
Application S/W and protocols.
Types of data communicating devices.
Geographic scope of the network.
Cost.
Reliability.
 Types of Network Topology
1. Mesh topology.
2. Star topology.
3. Bus topology.
4. Ring topology.
5. Cellular topology
6. Hybrid topology
Note:
7. Ring and mesh topologies are felt convenient for peer-to-peer transmission.
8. Star topology is more convenient for client server.
9. Bus topology is equally convenient for either of them.
 Mesh Topology
 Every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device.
 The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between

the two devices it connects.

 To find the number of physical links in a fully connected mesh

network with n nodes, we first consider that each node must

be connected to every other node.
 If each physical link allows communication in both directions (duplex

mode), we need n(n -1) /2 links.

 Topology
Advantages of a Mesh Topology
a) The use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load, thus eliminating the traffic
problems that can occur when links must be shared by multiple devices.
b) A mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate the entire system.
c) There is the advantage of privacy or security. When every message travels along a dedicated line, only the
intended recipient sees it.

Disadvantages of a Mesh Topology

d) The amount of cabling and the number of I/O ports required.
e) Every device must be connected to every other device, installation and reconnection are difficult.
c) Bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space.
d) The hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) can be expensive.
  A star topology is designed with each device
connected directly to a central network hub.

 Data on a star network passes through the hub or

switch before continuing to its destination.
Star  The hub or switch manages and controls all functions
Topology of the network. It also acts as a repeater for the data
flow.

 This configuration is common with twisted pair cable;

however, it can also be used with coaxial cable or
fiber optic cable.
 Star Topology

Advantages of a Star Topology

• Easy to install and wire.
• No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing
devices.
• Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
• less expensive than a mesh topology.

Disadvantages of a Star Topology

• Requires more cable.
• If the hub or switch fails, nodes attached are disabled.
• More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost
of the hubs.
 Ring Topology
In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two
devices on either side of it.

A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device, until it reaches its
destination.

Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater.

Today, the need for higher-speed LANs has made this topology less popular.
Advantages of a Ring Topology
• A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is linked to only its immediate neighbours.

• To add or delete a device requires changing only two connections.

• Generally, in a ring, a signal is circulating at all times. If one device does not receive a signal within a
specified period, it can issue an alarm. The alarm alerts the network operator to the problem and its location.
Disadvantages of a Ring Topology

Unidirectional traffic
 Bus Topology

Bus Topology: The preceding examples all describe point-to-point connections. A bus topology is
multipoint topology. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network.
 Advantages:
1. Low-cost cable
2. Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly
used in bus-based networks that support upto 10 Mbps.
3. Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on
other nodes.
Disadvantages:

Bus 4. A bus topology is quite simpler, but it requires a lot of cabling.

Topology 5. Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to

determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would
disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
6. If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the signals of
both the nodes collide with each other.
7. Adding new devices to the network would slow down the network.
8. Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication
issues. Repeaters are used to regenerate the signal.
 The cellular topology is applicable only in case of
wireless media that does not require cable
connection.

In wireless media, each point transmits in a certain

geographical area called a cell.
Cellular
topology Each cell represents a portion of the total network
area.

Devices that are in the cell communicate through a

central hub. Hubs in different cells are
interconnected. They route data across the network
and provide a complete network infrastructure.
Cellular Topology
Hybrid
Topology
A network can be hybrid.
For example, we can have a
main star topology with each
branch connecting several
stations in a bus topology.
ISO(International Standard Organization- OSI Reference
Model (Open Systems Interconnection)

 It was first introduced in the late 1970s. An open system is a set of

protocols that allows any two different systems to communicate
regardless of their underlying architecture.
 The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate
communication between different systems without requiring
changes to the logic of the underlying hardware and software. The
OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding and
designing a network architecture that is flexible, robust, and
interoperable.
ISO- OSI Model Layers
 OSI-Layered Architecture
The OSI model is composed of seven ordered layers.

Device A to device B. As the message travels from A to B, it may pass through many intermediate nodes. These
intermediate nodes usually involve only the first three layers of the OSI model.

Each layer defines a family of functions distinct from those of the other layers.

By defining and localizing functionality in this fashion, the designers

created an architecture that is both comprehensive and flexible.

Most importantly, the OSI model allows complete interoperability between otherwise incompatible
systems.
ISO- OSI Model
Layers
 Physical Layer (Bit unit)
Responsibilities
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for the
actual physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in
the form of bits. It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next.
When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s. It
establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
 Functions of Physical Layer
1. Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by providing a clock. This clock
controls both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at bit level.

2. Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e, the number of bits sent per second.
3. Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies the way in which the different devices/nodes are arranged in a
network i.e., bus, star, or mesh topology.
4. Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines the way in which the data flows between the two connected
devices. The various transmission modes possible are: Simplex, half-duplex and full duplex.

* Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables are Physical Layer devices.

Data link Layer Responsibilities
1. Framing: It provides a way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This
can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
2. Physical addressing: After creating frames, Data link layer adds physical addresses of sender and/or receiver
in the header of each frame.
3. Error control: Data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects and retransmits
damaged or lost frames.
4. Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted thus , flow control
coordinates that amount of data that can be sent before receiving acknowledgement.
5. Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, it helps to determine
which device has control over the channel at a given time.
* Packet in Data Link layer is referred as Frame.
** Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices
 Functions of Network Layer
Responsibilities
1. Internetworking: It provides a logical connection between different devices.
2. Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the header of the frame. Addressing is used
to identify the device on the internet.
3. Routing: It determines the best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the destination i.e. it takes care
of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number of routes available.
4. Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into packets. This process is
known as Packetizing. It is achieved by internet protocol (IP).
* Segment in Network layer is referred as Packet.
Transport Layer/Segment unit
Responsibilities
The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the End to
End( process to process) delivery of the complete message. The transport layer also
provides the acknowledgement of the successful data transmission and re-transmits the
data if an error is found.

•At sender’s side

Transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers, performs
Segmentation and also implements Flow & Error control to ensure proper data
transmission. It also adds Source and Destination port number in its header and forwards
the segmented data to the Network Layer.
Transport Layer/Segment unit
Responsibilities
At receiver’s side:
Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards
the Data which it has received to the respective application. It also
performs sequencing and reassembling of the segmented data.
Transport Layer/Segment unit
Responsibilities
1. Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer, breaks the message into smaller units.
Each of the segment produced has a header associated with it. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the
message.
2. Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to correct process, transport layer header includes a type of address called
service point address or port address. Thus, by specifying this address, transport layer makes sure that the message is
delivered to the correct process.
3. Error control and Flow control
The services provided by the transport layer:

4. Connection Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process which include

–Connection Establishment -Data Transfer - Termination / disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgement, back to the source after a packet or group of packet
is received. This type of transmission is reliable and secure.
Transport Layer Responsibilities

2. Connection less service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this type of transmission,
the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach allows for much faster communication
between devices. Connection-oriented service is more reliable than connectionless Service.
* Data in the Transport Layer is called as Segments.
Transport Layer is called as Heart of OSI model.
 Session Layer Responsibilities
1. The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction between communicating
devices.
Services
2. Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between two processes that
allows the communication between two processes which can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.
3. Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in a sequence. If some
error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the transmission will take place again from the
checkpoint. This process is known as Synchronization and recovery.
 Presentation Layer
Responsibilities
Presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application layer is extracted here and
manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network. It is concerned with the syntax (format) and semantics
(meaning) of the information exchanged between two systems.

Services provided by presentation layer

 Translation: Converting the data into a common format so that both sender and receiver can accept it.

 Encryption / Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The encrypted data is known
as the cipher text and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as well as
decrypting data.

 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted

on the network.
 Application Layer
Responsibilities
The application layer is the OSI layer that is closest to the user and it enables the user to
access the network resources.

Services provided by Application layer

 File Transfer and Access Management
 Mail Services

Note: HTTP, FTP and SMTP protocols are used.

Functions of OSI Layers
 TCP/IP Model was designed and developed by Department of Defense
(DoD) in 1960s and is based on standard protocols. It stands for
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. The TCP/IP model is a
concise version of the OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike seven

TCP/IP Model layers in the OSI model.

The layers are:
1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer
3. Internet Layer
4. Network Access/Link Layer
 TCP/IP
Model vs
OSI Model
TCP/IP Model
  Transmission medium can be broadly
defined as anything that can carry information from a
source to a destination.

Transmission  The transmission medium is usually free space, metallic

Medium cable, or fiber-optic cable.

 The information is usually a signal that is the result of a
conversion of data from another form.
 Transmission Medium Types
 In telecommunications, transmission media can be divided into two broad categories:
guided and unguided. Guided media include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and
fiber-optic cable. Unguided medium is free space
 Guided Transmission
Media
 Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit (pipeline) form one
device to another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic
cable.
 Twisted-pair and Coaxial cable use metallic conductors that accept and transport
signals in the form of electric current.
 Optical fiber is a glass or plastic cable that accepts and transports
signals in the form of light.
 Twisted-Pair Cable
 Twisted-pair cable is a type of cabling that is used for telephone communications
and most modern Ethernet networks.
 A pair of wires forms a circuit that can transmit data.
 The pairs are twisted to provide protection against crosstalk, the
noise generated by adjacent pairs. (Star topology)
10 to 100 Mbps
 Un-Shielded Twisted-Pair
Cable
1. Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-speed data.
2. Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.
3. Category 3: It can support upto 16Mbps.
4. Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for long-distance communication.
5. Category 5: It can support upto 200Mbps.

Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:

6. It is cheap.
7. Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
8. It can be used for high-speed LAN.

Disadvantage:
9. This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of attenuation.
 Shielded Twisted-Pair
Cable
A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the wire that allows the higher
transmission rate.

Characteristics Of Shielded Twisted Pair:

1. The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very low.
2. An installation of STP is easy.
3. It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
4. It has a higher attenuation.
5. It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.

Disadvantages
6. It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.
7. It has a higher attenuation rate.
 Co-axial Cable
1. Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV wire is usually a coaxial cable.
2. The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to each other.
3. It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
4. The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer conductor is made up of
copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-conductive cover that separates the inner conductor
from the outer conductor.
5. The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper mesh prevents from
the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).
 Co-axial Cable
Coaxial cable is of two types:
1. Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a single signal at
high speed.
2. Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple signals
simultaneously.
Advantages Of Coaxial cable:
3. The data can be transmitted at high speed.
4. It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
5. It provides higher bandwidth.
Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:
6. It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.
7. If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.
 Optical Fiber
Cable
1. Fiber optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication.
2. Fiber optic is a cable that holds the optical fibres coated in plastic that are used to send
the data by pulses of light.
3. The plastic coating protects the optical fibres from heat, cold, electromagnetic
interference from other types of wiring.
4. Fiber optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.
Diagrammatic representation of fiber optic cable:
 Fiber Optical Cable
Advantages
Following are the advantages of fiber optic cable over copper:

1. Greater Bandwidth: The fiber optic cable provides more bandwidth as compared
copper. Therefore, the fiber optic carries more data as compared to copper cable.
2. Faster speed: Fiber optic cable carries the data in the form of light. This allows the
fiber optic cable to carry the signals at a higher speed.
3. Longer distances: The fiber optic cable carries the data at a longer distance as
compared to copper cable.
4. Better reliability: The fiber optic cable is more reliable than the copper cable as it is
immune to any temperature changes while it can cause obstruct in the connectivity
of copper cable.
5. Thinner and Sturdier: Fiber optic cable is thinner and lighter in weight so it can
withstand more pull pressure than copper cable.
Propagation Modes
Multimode Multimode is so named because multiple beams from a light source move through the core in
different paths.

In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core remains constant from the center to the edges. A beam of
light moves through this constant density in a straight line until it reaches the interface of the core and the
cladding. At the interface, there is an abrupt change due to a lower density; this alters the angle of the beam’s
motion. The term step index refers to the suddenness of this change, which contributes to the distortion of the
signal as it passes through the fiber.

A second type of fiber, called multimode graded-index fiber, decreases this distortion of the signal through the
cable. The word index here refers to the index of refraction. As we saw above, the index of refraction is related to
density. A graded-index fiber, therefore, is one with varying densities. Density is highest at the center of the core
and decreases gradually to its lowest at the edge
Single-Mode Single-mode uses step-index fiber and a highly focused source of
light that limits beams to a small range of angles, all close to the horizontal.
The singlemode fiber itself is manufactured with a much smaller diameter
than that of multimode fiber, and with substantially lower density (index of
refraction). The decrease in density results in a critical angle that is close
enough to 90° to make the propagation of beams almost horizontal. In this
case, propagation of different beams is almost identical, and delays are
negligible. All the beams arrive at the destination “together” and can be
recombined with little distortion to the signal.
 Unguided
Media
 Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a
physical conductor.
 This type of communication is often referred to as
wireless
communication.
 Signals are normally broadcast through free space and thus
are available to anyone who has a device capable of receiving
them
Propagation Methods
used in unguided media
 In ground propagation, radio waves travel through the lowest
portion of the atmosphere, hugging the earth. These low-
frequency signals emanate in all directions from the
transmitting antenna and follow the curvature of the planet.
Distance depends on the amount of power in the signal: The
greater the power, the greater the distance.
Propagation
Methods
In sky propagation, higher-frequency radio waves radiate
upward into the ionosphere (the layer of atmosphere where
particles exist as ions) where they are reflected back to earth.
This type of transmission allows for greater distances with
lower output power.
  In line-or-sight propagation, very high-frequency signals are transmitted in
straight lines directly from antenna to antenna. Antennas must be directional,
Propagatio
facing each other, and either tall enough or close enough together not to be
n Methods
affected by the curvature of the earth. Line-of-sight propagation is tricky because
radio transmissions cannot be completely focused.
Wireless Transmission
Waves
Frequency Spectrum of unguided
Media
 Radio Waves

Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are normally called radio waves.

Radio waves, for the most part, are omnidirectional.

When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are propagated in all directions. This means that the sending and receiving antennas do not
have to be aligned.

A sending antenna sends waves that can be received by any receiving antenna.

Used in Radio and Television

 1. The omnidirectional property has a disadvantage, too. The radio
waves transmitted by one antenna are susceptible to
interference by another antenna that may send signals using the
same frequency or band. Radio waves, particularly those waves
that propagate in the sky mode, can travel long distances. This
makes radio waves a good candidate for long-distance
broadcasting such as AM radio.
2. Radio waves, particularly those of low and medium frequencies,
Radio Waves can penetrate walls.
3. It is an advantage because, for example, an AM radio can receive
signals inside a building.
4. It is a disadvantage because we cannot isolate a communication
to just inside or outside a building. The radio wave band is
relatively narrow, just under 1 GHz, compared to the microwave
band. When this band is divided into sub-bands, the sub-bands
are also narrow, leading to a low data rate for digital
communications.
 MICROWAVES

1. Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called
microwaves.
2. Microwaves are unidirectional.
3. When an antenna transmits microwave waves, they can be narrowly focused.
This means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned.
4. The unidirectional property has an obvious advantage. A pair of antennas can
be aligned without interfering with another pair of aligned antennas.
5. Used in Telephone, Satellites and Wireless LAN
 1. Microwave propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with the
mounted antennas need to be in direct sight of each other, towers
that are far apart need to be very tall. The curvature of the earth as
well as other blocking obstacles do not allow two short towers to
communicate by using microwaves. Repeaters are often needed for
long distance communication.
Characteristi 2. Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This
cs of characteristic can be a disadvantage if receivers are inside buildings.

microwave 3. The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz. Therefore,
wider sub bands can be assigned, and a high data rate is possible
propagation 4. Use of certain portions of the band requires permission from
authorities.
 Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz
(wavelengths from 1 mm to 770 nm), can be used for short-
range communication. Infrared waves, having high
frequencies, cannot penetrate walls. This advantageous
characteristic prevents interference between one system
Infrared and another; a short-range communication system in one
room cannot be affected by another system in the next
Waves room. Infrared remote control does not interfere with the
use of the remote by our neighbours. However, this same
characteristic makes infrared signals useless for long-range
communication. In addition, Infrared waves cannot be used
outside a building because the sun’s rays contain infrared
waves that can interfere with the communication.
Computer Network Types
1. LAN(Local Area Network)
2. PAN(Personal Area Network)
3. MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
4. WAN(Wide Area Network)
5.CAN (Campus Area Network)
  LAN is usually privately owned and links the devices in a single office,
building or campus of up to few kilometers in size.
 LAN typically used transmission technology consisting of single cable
to which all machines are connected.
 LANs are restricted in size, which means that the worst-case
transmission time is bounded and known in advance.
 Traditional LANs run at speeds of 100Mbps to 1Gbps.
(but now much higher speeds can be achieved).
 The topology of many wired LANs is built from point-to-point links.
Local Area IEEE 802.3, popularly called Ethernet.
Network
(LAN)
 Metropolitan Area Network
(MAN)

 MAN is designed to extend over the entire city. It may

be a single network as a cable TV

 MAN is wholly owned and operated by a private

company or may be a service provided by a public

company.

 The main reason for distinguishing MANs as a special

category is that a standard has been adopted for them.

 It is DQDB (Distributed Queue Dual Bus) or IEEE
802.6.
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
1. A WAN is a network that extends over a large
geographical area such as states or countries.
2. A WAN is quite bigger network than the LAN.
3. A WAN is not limited to a single location, but
it spans over a large geographical area
through a telephone line, fiber optic cable or
satellite links.
4. The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the
world.
5. A WAN is widely used in the field of Business,
government, and education.
Comparison among LAN MAN WAN
Comparison between LAN & WAN
 PAN(Personal Area Network)
1. Personal Area Network is a network arranged within
an individual person, typically within a range of 10
meters.
2. Personal Area Network is used for connecting the
computer devices of personal use is known as
Personal Area Network.
3. Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to
bring the idea of the Personal Area Network.
4. Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
5. Personal computer devices that are used to develop
the personal area network are the laptop, mobile
phones, media player and play stations.
Wireless Local Area Network
(WLAN)

A wireless local area network (WLAN) provides wireless network communication over short distances using
radio or infrared signals instead of traditional network cabling. A WLAN is a type of local area network (LAN).

A WLAN can be built using any of several different wireless network protocols, most commonly either Wi-
Fi or Bluetooth.

Network security remains an important issue for WLANs. Wireless clients usually must have their identity
verified (a process called authentication) when joining a wireless LAN.

Technologies like WPA raise the level of security on wireless networks to rival that of traditional wired
networks. Standards for WLAN are 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11n, 802.11g
 Pros:
• A large number of devices are supported
• It's easy to set up a WLAN, especially when compared to laying cables
for wired networks
• Accessing a WLAN is easier than a wired LAN since cable length isn't a
factor.
• WLANs are common even when away from a business or home, like in
WLAN public areas
Cons:
• It's easier to hack a WLAN, which is why encryption is necessary
• Wireless interference can hijack the speed and stability of a wireless
network
• More wireless devices, like repeaters, are needed to expand a wireless
network
 BLUETOOTH

Bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology designed to connect devices of different functions such as
telephones, notebooks, computers (desktop and laptop) and so on.
 A Bluetooth LAN is an ad hoc network, which means that the network is formed spontaneously; the
devices, sometimes called gadgets, find each other and make a network called a piconet.
 A Bluetooth LAN can even be connected to the Internet if one of the gadgets has this capability.
A Bluetooth LAN, by nature, cannot be large. If there are many gadgets that try to connect, there is chaos.
Today, Bluetooth technology is the implementation of a protocol defined by the IEEE 802.15 standard. The
standard defines a wireless personal-area network (PAN) operable in an area the size of a room or a hall.
Architecture of
Bluetooth

A Bluetooth network is called a piconet, or a small net. A

piconet can have up to eight stations, one of which is called the
primary; the rest are called secondaries. All the secondary
stations synchronize their clocks and hopping sequence with
the primary. The communication between the primary and the
secondary can be one-to-one or one-to-many.
Scatternet
Piconets can be combined to form what is called a
scatternet. A secondary station in one piconet can be
the primary in another piconet. This station can receive
messages from the primary in the first piconet (as a
secondary) and, acting as a primary, deliver them to
secondaries in the second piconet. A station can be a
member of two piconets.
 CONNECTING LAN

CONNECTING DEVICES
The five categories contain devices which can be defined as
1. Those which operate below the physical layer such as a passive hub.
2. Those which operate at the physical layer (a repeater or an active hub).
3. Those which operate at the physical and data link layers (a bridge or a two-layerswitch).
4. Those which operate at the physical, data link, and network layers (a router or a three-layer switch).
5. Those which can operate at all five layers (a gateway).
 Passive Hubs
A passive hub is just a connector. It connects the wires coming from
different branches. In a star-topology Ethernet LAN, a passive hub is
just a point where the signals coming from different stations collide;
the hub is the collision point.

Hubs Repeaters
A repeater is a device that operates only in the physical layer. Signals
that carry information within a network can travel a fixed distance
before attenuation endangers the integrity of the data. A repeater
receives a signal and, before it becomes too weak or corrupted,
regenerates the original bit pattern. The repeater then sends the
refreshed signal.
Active Hubs
An active hub is actually a multiport repeater. It is normally used to
create connections between stations in a physical star topology.
 Bridges

A bridge operates in both the physical and the data link layer. As a physical layer device, it
regenerates the signal it receives. As a data link layer device, the bridge can check the physical (MAC)
addresses (source and destination) contained in the frame.
Two-Layer Switches
The two-layer switch performs at the physical and data link layers.A two-layer switch is a bridge, a
bridge with many ports and a design that allows better (faster) performance. A bridge with a few
ports can connect a few LANs together. A bridge with many ports may be able to allocate a unique
port to each station, with each station on its own independent entity. This means no competing
traffic.
Routers
A router is a three-layer device that routes packets based on their logical addresses (host-
to-host addressing). A router normally connects LANs and WANs in the Internet and has a
routing table that is used for making decisions about the route. The routing tables are
normally dynamic and are updated using routing protocols.
Three-Layer Switches
A three-layer switch is a router, but a faster and more sophisticated. The switching fabric in
a three-layer switch allows faster table lookup and forwarding.
Gateway
A gateway is normally a computer that operates in all five layers of the Internet or seven layers of OSI
model. A gateway takes an application message, reads it, and interprets it. This means that it can be
used as a connecting device between two internetworks that use different models. For example, a
network designed to use the OSI model can be connected to another network using the Internet
model. The gateway connecting the two systems can take a frame as it arrives from the first system,
move it up to the OSI application layer, and remove the message.
 Multiplexing &
Switching Techniques
Multiplexing
What is it?
Its a method by which multiple analog or digital
signals are combined into one signal over a shared
medium.
A technique through which low-speed signals are
converted into high-speed signals.
Many to one*.
Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the
simultaneous transmission of multiple signals
across a single data link.
Why Multiplexing

Media Sharing
◦ Medium Transmission Capacity
◦ High bandwidth media (coax cable, optical fiber)
Cost-effective
◦ Medium Transmission Capacity > data rate
required
Terminology
Multiplexer/MUX is the device which does all this
function (many to one) i.e., at source end.
Demultiplexer/DEMUX is a device which performs
functions reverse to that of MUX (one to many) i.e.,
at destination end.
Multiplexing vs. Non-Multiplexing
Multiplexing in operation
How?
Types of Muxing
 Frequency Division
Multiplexing
Total bandwidth available is divided
into a series of non-overlapping
frequency sub-bands, each of
which carries a separate signal.
• All signals are transmitted at the
same time, each using different
frequencies.
Bandwidth = data transfer rate i.e.
Kbps, Mbps etc.
Physical medium = Coaxial cable,
fiber optic
Frequency Division
Multiplexing
Frequency Division
Multiplexing
Analog signaling is used to transmit signals.
Broadcast radio and television, cable television,
and AMPS cellular phone systems use frequency
division multiplexing.
Oldest multiplexing technique.
Involves analog signaling  more susceptible to
noise.
 Wavelength Division
Multiplexing
Wavelength is the distance
(measured in meter) b/w consecutive
corresponding points of same phase,
such as crests, troughs or zero
crossings & is denoted by λ (read as
lambda).
In simple English, it’s the distance over
which the wave’s shape changes.
Frequency is the no. of cycles per
second & is denoted by f.
λ & f are inversely proportional to each
other.
Wavelength Division
Multiplexing
A method of combining multiple signals on laser beams
at various infrared (IR) wavelengths for transmission
along fiber optic media.
WDM is similar to FDM but instead of taking place at
radio frequencies (RF), WDM is done in the IR portion of
the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum.
Physical medium = Fiber optics.
Different wavelengths (i.e. colors) of laser light are
muxed onto a single optical fiber.
Good to know!
Electromagnetic waves spectrum
Wavelength Division
Multiplexing
Time Division Multiplexing
TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for combining
several low-rate channels into one high-rate one.
Sharing signal is accomplished by dividing available
transmission time into time segments on a medium
among users.
Instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth as in FDM,
time is shared.
Digital signaling is used exclusively.
TDM comes in two basic forms:
◦ Synchronous time division multiplexing (STDM).
◦ Statistical, or asynchronous time division multiplexing
(ATDM).
Synchronous TDM
The original TDM.
Multiplexor :-
◦ Accepts input from attached devices in a round-robin
fashion.
◦ Transmits data in a never ending pattern.
The multiplexer allocates exactly the same timeslot to
each device at all times, whether or not a device has
anything to transmit.
Synchronous TDM
If one device generates data at a faster rate than other
devices, the multiplexor must either;
• Sample incoming data stream from that device more
often than it samples other devices.
OR
• Buffer faster incoming stream.
If a device has nothing to transmit,
◦ Multiplexor must still insert a piece of data from that
device into the multiplexed stream.
Synchronous TDM

A synchronous TDM system that samples device A

twice as fast as other devices.
 Synchronous TDM
To keep the
receiver
synchronized with
the incoming data
stream, the
transmitting
multiplexor can
insert alternating
1s and 0s into the
data stream.
Synchronous TDM
Frame Synchronization
Frame synchronization is needed at the TDM receiver
so that the received data can be sorted and directed
to appropriate output channel.
Frame sync is provided to the receiver in two different
ways:
◦ Provided to the demux by sending a frame sync
signal from the transmitter over a separate
channel.
◦ Derive the frame sync from the TDM signal itself.
 Good to know!
A frame is a digital data transmission unit i.e., a sequence of bits
making it possible for the receiver to detect the beginning & end
of the packet in the stream of bits (e.g. start stop bits).
If receiver is connected in the middle of frame txn, it ignores the
data until it detects a new frame synchronization sequence.
Synchronous TDM
Frame Synchronization
Frame synchronization is needed at the TDM receiver
so that the received multiplexed data can be sorted
and directed to appropriate output channel.
Frame sync is provided to the receiver in two different
ways:
◦ provided to the de-multiplexer circuit by sending a
frame sync signal from the transmitter over a
separate channel.
◦ derive the frame sync from the TDM signal itself.
Synchronous TDM
There are further 3 types of STDM namely;
• T1 (24 frames, 1.544 Mbps) adopted by America &
European countries.
• SDH – Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (63 T1’s,
155 Mbps) vastly used in GSM network.
• ISDN – Integrated Services Digital Network.
Asynchronous TDM
Statistical multiplexor - transmits only the data
from active workstations.
• If a workstation is not active, no space is wasted
on the multiplexed stream.
A statistical multiplexor
• Accepts incoming data streams.
• Creates a frame containing only the data to be
transmitted.
Asynchronous TDM
• Timeslots are allocated as needed dynamically
rather than pre-assigned to specific transmitters.
• ATDM is more intelligent and has better bandwidth
efficiency than TDM.
Asynchronous TDM
STDM is often used for managing data being transmitted
via a local area network (LAN) or a wide area network
(WAN).
An STDM adds an address field to each time slot in the
frame and does not transmit empty frames.
STDM uses dynamic time slot lengths that are variable.
Communicating devices that are very active will be
assigned greater timeslot lengths than devices that are
less active.
Asynchronous TDM
STDMs have buffer memory for temporary data storage.
STDM uses intelligent devices capable of identifying
when a terminal is idle.
Each STDM transmission carries channel identifier
(sender’s address) information.
Which includes source device address and a count of
the number of data characters that belong to the listed
source address.
Channel identifiers are extra and considered as
overhead.
Switching
It describes how data is forwarded across an inter network.
Determines when and how packets/messages are forwarded
through the network.
It comes under the functionality of ‘Network layer’ in 7-layer
OSI model which performs Path determination & logical
addressing.
Specifies the granularity and timing of packet progress.
There are 4 types of Switching techniques;
◦ Circuit Switching
◦ Packet Switching
◦ Message Switching
◦ Cell Switching
 Circuit Switching
Its a technique that directly connects the sender
and the receiver in an unbroken path.
Telephone switching equipment, for example,
establishes a path that connects the caller's
telephone to the receiver's telephone by making a
physical connection.
Network nodes establish a
dedicated communications channel (called circuit)
through the network before the nodes may
communicate.
Two phase protocols = Path Setup + Data transfer.
Circuit Switching
3 simple steps
1. Establish: End-to-end dedicated circuits
between clients
◦ Client can be a person or equipment (router or
switch).
2. Transfer: Source sends data over the circuit
◦ No destination address, since nodes know path.
3. Teardown: Source tears down the circuit after
sending data.
Circuit Switching
 Circuit Switching : Multiplexing a
link
Circuit switching networks require:
◦ Multiplexing & switching of circuits
◦ Signaling & control for establishing
circuits

Time-division Frequency-division
– Each circuit – Each circuit
allocated certain allocated certain
time slots frequencies
Circuit Switching : Advantages

Guaranteed bandwidth
◦ Predictable communication performance.

Simple abstraction
◦ Reliable communication channel between hosts
◦ No worries about lost or out-of-order packets

Simple forwarding
◦ Forwarding based on time slot or frequency
◦ No need to inspect a packet header
Circuit Switching : Disadvantages
Connection Set-up delay
◦ No communication until the connection is set up
◦ Unable to avoid extra latency for small data transfers

Network state
◦ Network nodes must store per-connection information

Blocked connections
◦ Connection refused when resources are not sufficient

Costly
◦ More expensive than any other switching techniques,
◦ because a dedicated path is required for each
connection.
Message Switching
No need to establish a dedicated path between two
stations.
When a station sends a message, the destination
address is appended to the message.
The message is then transmitted through the network,
in its entirety (in whole network), from node to node.
Each node receives the entire message, stores it, & then
transmits it to the next node.
This type of network is called a store-and-forward
network
Message Switching
Packet Switching
PSNs move data in separate, small blocks called
packets.
When received, packets are reassembled in the proper
sequence to make up the message.
Packet switching combines advantages of both message
& circuit switching.
There are two methods in Packet Switching:
◦ Datagram.
◦ Virtual Circuit (VC).
Packet Switching
In both methods, a message is broken into small parts,
called packets.
Each packet is tagged with appropriate source and
destination addresses.
Since packets have a strictly defined maximum length,
they can be stored in main memory instead of disk,
therefore access delay and cost are minimized.
Also the transmission speeds, between nodes, are
optimized.
Packet Switching : Datagram
Definition : “A self-contained, independent entity of data
carrying sufficient information to be routed from the
source to the destination computer without reliance on
earlier exchanges”.
Similar to message switching in that each packet is a self-
contained unit with complete addressing information
attached.
This fact allows packets to take a variety of possible paths
through the network.
So the packets, each with the same destination address,
do not follow the same route, and they may arrive out of
sequence at the exit point node (or the destination).
Reordering is done at the destination point based on the
sequence number of the packets.
Packet Switching : Virtual
Circuit
A preplanned route is established before any data
packets are sent.
A logical connection is established when a sender sends
a "call request packet" to the receiver & the receiver
sends back an acknowledgement packet "call accepted
packet" to the sender if the receiver agrees.
The conversational parameters can be maximum packet
sizes, path to be taken, and other variables necessary to
establish and maintain the conversation.
Virtual circuits imply acknowledgements, flow control,
and error control, hence, are reliable.
Packet Switching : Virtual
Circuit
In virtual circuit, the route between stations does not
mean that this is a dedicated path, as in circuit
switching.
A packet is still buffered at each node and queued for
output over a line.
Difference between virtual circuit and datagram
approach:
◦ With virtual circuit, the node does not need to make a routing
decision for each packet.
◦ It is made only once for all packets using that virtual circuit.
Packet Switching
Switching Techniques

147
 Switching Techniques
 In large networks there might be multiple paths linking sender and receiver. Information
may be switched as it travels through various communication channels. There are three
typical switching techniques available for digital traffic.
• Circuit Switching
• Message Switching
• Packet Switching

148
 Circuit Switching
 Circuit switching is a technique that directly connects the sender and the receiver in
an unbroken path.
 Telephone switching equipment, for example, establishes a path that connects the
caller's telephone to the receiver's telephone by making a physical connection.
 With this type of switching technique, once a connection is established, a dedicated
path exists between both ends until the connection is terminated.
 Routing decisions must be made when the circuit is first established, but there are no
decisions made after that time

149
 Circuit Switching
 Circuit switching in a network operates almost the same way as the telephone system
works.

 A complete end-to-end path must exist before communication can take place.

 The computer initiating the data transfer must ask for a connection to the destination.

 Once the connection has been initiated and completed to the destination device, the
destination device must acknowledge that it is ready and willing to carry on a
transfer.

150
Circuit Switching

151
 Circuit Switching
Advantages:
 The communication channel (once established) is dedicated

152
 Circuit Switching
Disadvantages:
 Possible long wait to establish a connection, (10 seconds, more on long- distance or
international calls.) during which no data can be transmitted.

 More expensive than any other switching techniques, because a dedicated path is
required for each connection.

 Inefficient use of the communication channel, because the channel is not used when
the connected systems are not using it.

153
 Message Switching
 With message switching there is no need to establish a dedicated path between two
stations.

 When a station sends a message, the destination address is appended to the message.

 The message is then transmitted through the network, in its entirety, from node to node.

 Each node receives the entire message, stores it in its entirety on disk, and then transmits
the message to the next node.

 This type of network is called a store-and-forward network.

154
Message Switching

 A message-switching node is typically a

general-purpose computer. The device
needs sufficient secondary-storage
capacity to store the incoming messages,
which could be long. A time delay is
introduced using this type of scheme due
to store- and-forward time, plus the time
required to find the next node in the
transmission path.

155
 Message Switching
Advantages:
 Channel efficiency can be greater compared to circuit-switched systems, because more
devices are sharing the channel.

 Traffic congestion can be reduced, because messages may be temporarily stored in route.

 Message priorities can be established due to store-and-forward technique.

 Message broadcasting can be achieved with the use of broadcast address appended in the
message.

156
 Message Switching
Disadvantages:
 Message switching is not compatible with interactive applications.
 Store-and-forward devices are expensive, because they must have large disks to hold
potentially long messages.

157
 Packet Switching
 Packet switching can be seen as a solution that tries to combine the advantages of message
and circuit switching and to minimize the disadvantages of both.
 There are two methods of packet switching: Datagram and virtual circuit.

158
 Packet Switching
 In both packet switching methods, a message is broken into small parts, called packets.
 Each packet is tagged with appropriate source and destination addresses.
 Since packets have a strictly defined maximum length, they can be stored in main memory
instead of disk, therefore access delay and cost are minimized.
 Also the transmission speeds, between nodes, are optimized.
 With current technology, packets are generally accepted onto the network on a first-come,
first-served basis. If the network becomes overloaded, packets are delayed or discarded.

159
 Packet Switching
 In packet switching, the analog signal from your phone is converted into a digital data
stream. That series of digital bits is then divided into relatively tiny clusters of bits, called
packets. Each packet has at its beginning the digital address -- a long number -- to which it
is being sent. The system blasts out all those tiny packets, as fast as it can, and they travel
across the nation's digital backbone systems to their destination: the telephone, or rather the
telephone system, of the person you're calling.

160
 Packet Switching

 They do not necessarily travel together; they do not travel sequentially. They don't even all
travel via the same route. But eventually they arrive at the right point -- that digital address
added to the front of each string of digital data -- and at their destination are reassembled
into the correct order, then converted to analog form, so your friend can understand what
you're saying.

161
 Packet Switching: Datagram
 Datagram packet switching is similar to message switching in that each packet is a self-
contained unit with complete addressing information attached.
 This fact allows packets to take a variety of possible paths through the network.
 So the packets, each with the same destination address, do not follow the same route, and they
may arrive out of sequence at the exit point node (or the destination).
 Reordering is done at the destination point based on the sequence number of the packets.
 It is possible for a packet to be destroyed if one of the nodes on its way is crashed momentarily.
Thus all its queued packets may be lost.

162
 Packet Switching : Virtual Circuit
 In the virtual circuit approach, a preplanned route is established before any data packets
are sent.
 A logical connection is established when
 A sender send a "call request packet" to the receiver and
 The receiver send back an acknowledge packet "call accepted packet" to the sender if
the receiver agrees on conversational parameters.

163
 Packet Switching : Virtual Circuit
 The conversational parameters can be maximum packet sizes, path to be taken, and other
variables necessary to establish and maintain the conversation.
 Virtual circuits imply acknowledgements, flow control, and error control, so virtual
circuits are reliable.
 That is, they have the capability to inform upper-protocol layers if a transmission problem
occurs.

164
 Packet Switching : Virtual Circuit
 In virtual circuit, the route between stations does not mean that this is a dedicated path, as
in circuit switching.
 A packet is still buffered at each node and queued for output over a line.
 The difference between virtual circuit and datagram approaches:
 With virtual circuit, the node does not need to make a routing decision for each packet.
 It is made only once for all packets using that virtual circuit.

165
 Packet Switching : Virtual Circuit
 Virtual Circuits offer guarantees that
 the packets sent arrive in the order sent
 with no duplicates
 with no errors

regardless of how they are implemented internally.

166
 Advantages of packet switching
 Packet switching is cost effective, because switching devices do not need massive amount
of secondary storage.
 Packet switching offers improved delay characteristics, because there are no long messages
in the queue (maximum packet size is fixed).
 Packet can be rerouted if there is any problem, such as, busy or disabled links.
 The advantage of packet switching is that many network users can share the same channel at
the same time. Packet switching can maximize link efficiency by making optimal use of link
bandwidth.

167
 Disadvantages of packet switching

 Protocols for packet switching are typically more complex.

 It can add some initial costs in implementation.
 If packet is lost, sender needs to retransmit the data.

168