HEALTH

PSYCHOLOGY

Hassan A. Dahie
PhD (Cand), MPH, MED EDUBScN
Table of Contents
UNIT ONE: .............................................................. 1
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY ........................... 1
1.1 Definition and general remark ............................. 1
1.2 What is science? ................................................ 2
1.3 What is behavior? .............................................. 2
1.4 Contributions of Psychology ................................ 3
1.5 Psychology Vs Sociology ..................................... 4
1.6 Psychology and Health ....................................... 5
1.7 Branches of Psychology ...................................... 5
1.7.1 Pure branches: ............................................ 6
1.7.2 Applied branches ......................................... 8
UNIT TWO: ............................................................ 11
HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY ........................................... 11
2.1 Introduction .................................................... 11
2.2 Scope of Health Psychology .............................. 12
2.3 Divisions of Health Psychology .......................... 14
2.4 The purpose of health psychology ...................... 14
2.5 Need and significance of health psychology ......... 14
2.6 What does a health psychologist do? .................. 16
UNIT THREE: ......................................................... 17
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY ............................ 17
3.1 Introduction .................................................... 17
3.2 Developmental psychology as a science.............. 17
3.3 Causes of change ............................................ 18
3.4 Major controversies in developmental psychology 19
3.5 Key concepts in developmental psychology ......... 20
3.6 Stages of Pre Natal Development....................... 21
3.6.1 Environmental influences on the unborn baby 21
3.7 Post-natal Development (after birth) .................. 22
UNIT FOUR: .......................................................... 27

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PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY ................................. 27
4.1 Introduction .................................................... 27
4.2 Factors affecting personality ............................. 27
4.3 Theories of Personality ..................................... 29
4.4 Structure of Mind: Freud's Id, Ego, & Superego 31
4.5 Erik Erikson’s Psycho-Social Stages of
Development ........................................................ 34
4.6 Psychosexual development ............................... 36
Frustration, Overindulgence and Fixation ................. 37
UNIT FIVE: ............................................................ 41
SENSATION, PERCEPTION & MEMORY .................. 41
5.1 Introduction .................................................... 41
5.2 Sensation ....................................................... 41
5.2.1 Types of Sensation ..................................... 41
5.3. Perception ..................................................... 42
5.3.1 Nature of Perception ................................... 42
5.3.2 The Perceptual Process ............................... 43
5.3.3 Factor of perception: .................................. 44
5.3.4 Perceptual Errors: ...................................... 44
5.4 Memory .......................................................... 47
5.4.1 The Memory Process .................................. 47
5.4.2 Types of Memories ..................................... 48
UNIT SIX: ............................................................. 53
DEFENCE MECHANISMS......................................... 53
6.1 Introduction .................................................... 53
6.2 Types of Defence Mechanism ............................ 54
Denial ............................................................... 54
Displacement ..................................................... 54
Projection .......................................................... 55
Rationalization ................................................... 55
Reaction Formation ............................................ 56
Regression ........................................................ 56

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 Sublimation ....................................................... 57
UNIT SEVEN: ......................................................... 59
MOTIVATION ........................................................ 59
77.1 Introduction .................................................. 59
7.2 Nature of Motivation: ....................................... 59
7.3 Components of Motivation ................................ 59
7.4 Theories of motivation: .................................... 60
7.5 Maslow's hierarchy of needs.............................. 62
UNIT EIGHT: ........................................................... 65
STRESS & STRESS COPING MECHANISMS .................. 65
8.1 Introduction .................................................... 65
8.2 Stressors ........................................................ 65
8.3 Relationship between Stressors and Stress ......... 66
8.4 Causes of Stress.............................................. 66
8.5 Warning Signs of Stress ................................... 67
8.5.1 Physical Signs ............................................ 68
8.5.2 Mental Signs ............................................. 68
8.5.3 Emotional Signs ......................................... 68
8.5.4 Behavioral Signs ........................................ 68
8.6 Coping ........................................................... 69
8.6.1 Problem focused coping .............................. 69
8.6.2 Emotion focused coping .............................. 69

III
 PREFACE
This Health Psychology Module is designed for Public
Health Student who are tasked to educate, inform,
and enable patients to mitigate physical health
problems. It consists of eight core units which will
enable the learners to equip themselves with the basic
concepts of the subject.

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 UNIT ONE:

INTRODUCTION TO
PSYCHOLOGY

1.1 Definition and general remark

The word psychology is derived from two Greek
words “psyche” and “logos.” Psyche means soul and
logos means the study.

Thus, originally psychology was defined as the study

of “soul” or “spirit.” But later on philosophers defined
psyche as mind. Because of this, psychology began to
be regarded as the study of an individual’s mind or
mental process.
Through time, this later definition of psychology was
given up because the mind as an object does not exist
and cannot be observed and measured objectively.

The most widely and accepted definition of psychology

is: the science of behavior and mental processes
of both humans and animals.

There are some concepts in this definition which need

further explanations: The terms are “science” and
“behavior.”

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1.2 What is science?
Science is a group of related facts and principles of a
particular subject.

In science we collect related facts by the use of

objective methods to develop a theory to explain
those facts. From a given set of conditions, science
helps us to predict future happenings.
Example
 Biology explains how living things grow and
develop.
 Anatomy describes the structure of human body.
 Physiology deals with the function of various parts
and systems of the body.
 Public Health and the rest of the health sciences
are also founded on science.
 Similarly, Psychology as a science deals
systematically with human behavior, motives,
feelings, emotions, thoughts and actions of men
and women. Like other sciences, Psychology
discovers and explains the underlying laws and
principles of behavior. Its goals are describing,
explaining, predicting and finally modifying human
behavior.

1.3 What is behavior?

Behavior is the reaction of an individual to a particular
environment. Behavior in its broader sense includes
all types of human activities.
Example-

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  Motor activities (Walking, speaking)
 Cognitive activities (perceiving, remembering,
thinking, reasoning)
 Emotional activities (feeling happy, sad, angry,
afraid)
Behavior is both mental and bodily:
 Mental behaviors are thinking, reasoning,
imagination and other mental experiences or
processes.
 Bodily behavior refers to the movements and
actions of the body in response to a situation.
In general there are four major facts proposed in
relation to the nature of behavior. These are:
 Behavior has a bodily basis
 Behavior is dynamic
 Behavior varies from person to person
 Behavior is social

1.4 Contributions of Psychology

Psychology has a contribution to the health professional.
1. It helps to understand oneself
 Helps to make rational decisions on becoming a
health professional;
 To fulfill the need for economic self-sufficiency;
 Helps to assess one’s own abilities and
limitations;
 Enables to control situations in the college and
attain goal through self-discipline.
2. It assists in understanding other people

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  The health professional works with patients,
families, other nurses, doctors and
administrative staffs.
 Equipped with the knowledge of psychology, the
health professional will achieve greater success
in interpersonal relationships.
 Psychology helps the health professional to
learn why others differ from him/her in their
preferences, customs and beliefs or cultural
patterns.
3. It enlightens to appreciate the necessity of
changing the environment and how to bring it
about
 By changing the environment, the health
professional can bring about change in the
patient’s life.

1.5 Psychology Vs Sociology

Psychology Sociology
It is special science It is special science
It is the science of human mind and It studies social relationship, social
mental process institutions or all aspects of society

The primary concern of psychology is Primary concern of sociology is group

individual behavior behavior
It uses experimental method It uses questionnaire method
It is older than sociology It is young science

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1.6 Psychology and Health
The relationship is well articulated in so many health
related books. It is also clearly stated in the WHO’s
preamble as follows:
“Health is a state of complete physical, mental
and social well-being, and not merely the
absence of disease or infirmity.”

1.7 Branches of Psychology

 Psychology studies and explains the behavior of
entire living organisms.
 The term behavior includes the cognitive, Conative
and affective, conscious, subconscious or
unconscious, implicit or explicit. It also includes the
behavior of people from infancy to old age, the
normal as well as abnormal.

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 Branches of Psychology are broadly divided into
two categories: pure and applied.

1.7.1 Pure branches:

Pure branches provide the theoretical frame work of

the subject. These branches deal with formulation of
principles, theories and suggest different methods for
the assessment of behaviour. The pure branches also
suggest certain techniques for the modification of
problematic behaviour.

General psychology:

This branch deals with the fundamental rules,

principles and theories of psychology in relation to the
study of behaviour of normal adult human beings. It
explains various psychological processes like
sensations, perceptions, emotions, learning,
intelligence, personality, etc.

Physiological psychology:

This branch describes the biological basis of

behaviour. There is a close relationship between body
and mind; the functions of each other are mutually
influenced. The functioning of the brain, nervous
system, endocrine glands and their relation to
cognitive, Conative and affective behaviour is
explained in this branch of psychology.

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Developmental psychology:

Human life passes through various stages of

development from conception to old age. This branch
explains the growth and development of various
processes in relation to behaviour.

Child psychology:

Childhood extends from 2 to 12 years. This is a crucial

period in the life. Future life depends upon
development during childhood. Growth and
development will be rapid during this stage. Child
psychology deals with these aspects.

Animal psychology:

This branch deals with behaviour of animals. Many

psychological experiments are conducted to know the
functioning of mind in animals. Animals like rats,
dogs, chimpanzees, pigeons, guinea pigs, cats are
some of the animals used for experimentation.

Findings of these experiments are many times

generalized to human behaviour also.

Abnormal psychology:

Today the life is complex. The individual is facing a lot

of competition and experiencing frustrations and
conflicts. Constant pressures in life are leading to
psychological abnormalities. Abnormal psychology

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deals with various kinds of mental disorders, their
symptoms and causes.

Social psychology:

Human being is a social animal. Naturally the

behaviour of an individual is influenced by society and
in turn influences the society. Social psychology deals
with interrelationships of people among themselves,
likes and dislikes of people, attitudes and interests,
the prejudices and social distances people have, group
behaviour, group cohesiveness, group conflicts, etc.

1.7.2 Applied branches

Applied branches deal with the application of

psychological principles and techniques for
approaching the problems in different fields of life.

Educational psychology:

This is the most important field where psychological

principles are applied. In the field of education
‘learner’ is the focal point. Other aspects like
management, teachers, teaching and learning aids
are all meant for learners.

Learners differ in their abilities, hence they need

different approaches of teaching, learning material,
etc. This branch addresses to the problems and
improvement in teaching and learning processes.

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Clinical psychology:

This branch deals with the therapeutic aspect of

mental disorders. There are many types of mental
illness requiring varied types of therapies like
chemotherapy, psychotherapy, recreational and
occupational therapies, behaviour therapy, etc.

Industrial psychology:

Human beings are different from machines. They will

have many problems in their work place like
adjustment, safety, security, health, financial and
such other problems. Both the management and
workers need to cooperate in dealing with such
problems. Industrial psychology seeks application of
psychological principles, theories and techniques for
the study of all these problems and the industrial
environment.

Counselling psychology:

Mental disorders may not be completely and easily

cured just by drugs and other physical therapies.

In addition to other therapies, these patients need

counselling also. Counselling is a process in which an
interaction takes place between a trained counselor
and a client. This branch also helps people to
overcome adjustment problems.

Health psychology

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This is the study of psychological and behavioral
processes in health, illness, and healthcare.

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 UNIT TWO:

HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY
2.1 Introduction
Health psychology is an exciting and relatively new
field devoted to understanding psychological
influences on how people stay healthy, why they
become ill, and how they respond when they do get
ill. Health psychologists both study such issues and
promote interventions to help people stay well or get
over illness.

Health psychology is a specialty area within

psychology. Health psychology has been specifically
defined as “the aggregate of the specific educational,
scientific, and professional contributions of the
discipline of psychology to the promotion and
maintenance of health, the prevention and treatment
of illness, and the identification of etiologic and
diagnostic correlates of health, illness and related
dysfunction and to the analysis and improvement of
the health care system and health policy formation”.

Health psychology is the study of psychological

and behavioral processes in health, illness, and
healthcare.

Health psychology is the study devoted to the

understanding of psychological influences on
how people stay healthy, why they become ill
and how they respond when they are ill.

 It represents the educational, scientific, and

professional contributions of psychology to

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 the promotion and maintenance of health and
health policy formation, illness prevention
and treatment.
 E.g.: why people continue to smoke although
they know it is unhealthy for them.

2.2 Scope of Health Psychology

Health psychology is concerned with understanding

the psychological influences on how people stay
healthy, why they become ill, and how they respond
when they do get ill. It has become a burgeoning field
of inquiry over the last 20 years. The field emphasizes
the importance of a biopsychosocial approach to
health and illness. It covers areas of health behaviour
change, patient-practitioner interactions, health
promotion, prevention, and treatment of illness.

It is concerned with understanding how psychological,

behavioral, and cultural factors contribute to physical
health and illness.

 Psychological factors can affect health directly.

For example, chronically occurring environmental
stressors affecting the hypothalamic–pituitary–
adrenal axis, cumulatively, can harm health.
 Behavioral factors can also affect a person's
health. For example, certain behaviors can, over
time, harm (smoking or consuming excessive
amounts of alcohol) or enhance health (engaging
in exercise).

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 The influence of culture on health is vast. For
example, it affects perceptions of health, illness
and death, beliefs about causes of disease,
approaches to health promotion, how illness and
pain are experienced and expressed, where
patients seek help, and the types of treatment
patients prefer.

Health psychology is concerned with all aspects of

health and illness across the life span. Health
psychologists focus on:

 Health promotion and maintenance: This is

the process of enabling people to increase
control over, and to improve their health
 The etiology and correlates of health: The
etiology refers to the origins or causes of illness,
and health psychologists are especially
interested in the behavioral and social factors
that contribute to health or to illness and
dysfunction
 Illness, and dysfunction: This is a behavioral
or mental pattern that causes significant
distress or impairment of personal functioning.
Such factors can include health habits such as
alcohol consumption, smoking, exercise, the
wearing of seat belts, and ways of coping with
stress.

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2.3 Divisions of Health Psychology

Health Psychology has four divisions:

 Occupational health psychology

 Clinical health psychology
 Public health psychology
 Community health psychology, and
 Critical health psychology.

2.4 The purpose of health psychology

 The purpose of health psychology is to

educate, inform, and enable patients to mitigate
physical health problems.
 It is a non-traditional approach to health
through understanding how the mind and body
work together.
 It can help patients manage chronic conditions
or find ways to prevent disease.

2.5 Need and significance of health

psychology
A number of trends within medicine, psychology, and
the health care system have combined to make the
emergence of health psychology inevitable. The
factors led to the development of health psychology
are:

Changing Patterns of Illness

The most important factor giving rise to health

psychology has been the change in illness
patterns.

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Advances in Technology and Research

The field of health psychology is changing

almost daily because new issues arise that
require the input of psychologists.

Role of Epidemiology in Health Psychology

Changing patterns of illness have been charted

and followed by the field of epidemiology,
discipline closely related to health psychology in
its goals and interests.

Expanded Health Care Services

Another set of factors that has contributed to

the rise of health psychology relates to the
expansion of health care services.

Increased Medical Acceptance

Another reason for the development of health

psychology is the increasing acceptance of
health psychologists within the medical
community. Although health psychologists
have been employed in health settings for
many years, their value is increasingly
recognized by physicians and other health care
professionals.

Demonstrated Contributions to Health

Health psychology can make substantial

contributions to health. Health psychologists
have developed a variety of short-term
behavioral interventions to address a variety of
health-related problems, including managing
pain, modifying bad health habits such as
smoking, and managing the side effects or
treatment effects associated with a range of
chronic diseases.

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2.6 What does a health psychologist do?

 They study issues and promote interventions

to help people get over illness.
 They focus on health promotion and
maintenance and study psychological aspects of
the prevention and treatment of illness.
 They focus on the etiology and correlates of
health and illness and dysfunction. “Etiology”
means the origins of illness and can refer to
alcohol consumption, smoking, exercise, coping
with stress etc.
 Analyze and attempt to improve the health care
system and formulation of health policy.

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 UNIT THREE:

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
Developmental psychology examines the influences of
nature and nurture on the process of human
development, and processes of change in context and
across time. Many researchers are interested in the
interaction between personal characteristics, the
individual's behavior and environmental factors,
including social context and the built environment.

Developmental psychology is the branch of

psychology that describes, explains, predicts, and
sometimes aims to modify age related behavior from
conception to death.

Qualitative change-occurs in the person's nature of

functioning like achieving efficiency and accuracy in
performance.

Quantitative change-it involves changes in the size

of chest, circumference of the head, length of the
arms and feet.

3.2 Developmental psychology as a

science
Developmental psychology is the scientific study of
how and why human beings change over the course
of their life. Originally concerned with infants and
children, the field has expanded to include
adolescence, adult development, aging, and the entire
lifespan.

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This field examines change across a broad range of
topics including: motor skills, cognitive development,

executive functions, moral understanding, language

acquisition, social change, personality, emotional
development, self-concept and identity formation.

3.3 Causes of change

The three main processes that can cause individual
change across his lifetime are:

Maturation

Maturation is the process of becoming mature; the

emergence of individual and
behavioral characteristics
through growth processes
over time. It can also refer
to any of the following:

 Fetal development
 Developmental biology
 Psychological
development.

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Learning

On the other hand, learning is a relatively permanent

change in behaviour (or potential behaviour) as a
result of experience or practice. For example when
you were a child, your environment and the learning
that occurs as a result of your experiences largely
influence your development. A stimulating
environment and varied experiences allows you to
develop your potentials.

Critical Periods

The critical period is a maturational stage in the

lifespan of an organism during which the nervous
system is especially sensitive to certain environmental
stimuli. If, for some reason, the organism does not
receive the appropriate stimulus during this "critical
period" to learn a given skill or trait, it may be difficult,
ultimately less successful, or even impossible, to
develop some functions later in life.

Functions that are indispensable to an organism's

survival, such as vision, are particularly likely to
develop during critical periods. "Critical period" also
relate to ability to acquire first language. Researchers
found that people who passed "critical period" would
not acquire first language fluently.

3.4 Major controversies in

developmental psychology
There are major controversies in developmental
psychology, which are as follows:

1. Nature-Nurture
a. How much of an individual's development is due
to nature and how much to nurture? For
instance, the development of twins are
sometimes different

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 b. Typically, developmental psychologists are
interested in looking at how these factors
interact, rather than trying to decide which is
more important.
2. Continuity-Discontinuity
a. Whether human development occurs gradually,
or occurs in a series of breakthroughs.
b. The people who believe that development is a
series of stages belong to the continuity camp,
while the people who believe that a child would
have to work through would be in the
discontinuity camp.
3. Universality-Particularity
a. Does everyone go through the same
developmental processes/stages/aspects or
does development vary across people, and
cultures?
b. Although people seem to develop abilities at
approximately the same age this view has been
called too simplistic.
c. Cultural differences, as well as family
differences, may influence development.
Development may be much more multifaceted.

3.5 Key concepts in developmental

psychology
 Maturation-refers to changes in development that
result from automatic,genetically determined
signals. Example: sexual maturity, intellectual
maturity, emotional maturity.

 Conception-the fertilization of the female ovum or

egg by the male sperm.

 Growth-It is a gradual and progressive increase in

size such as height and weight of an individual or
its parts. It is an increase in effectiveness or

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 competence of a function. Growth is differentiation
and refinement of parts and/or functions.

3.6 Stages of Pre Natal

Development

 Germinal stage- The first stage of pregnancy

(conception-2 wks)characterized by rapid cell
division.

 Embryonic stage- The second stage of prenatal

development (from uterine implantation to the 8
wk),characterized by major body organ and
system.

 Fetal stage- The third and final stage of prenatal

development (8 wks-birth),characterized by weight
gain in the fetus and the fine detailing of body
organs and systems.

3.6.1 Environmental influences on the unborn

baby

 Even within the uterus the fetus is not free from

external influences.
 Diet deficiencies in calcium, phosphorus, iodine,
and vitamin B, C, and D are associated with high
frequencies of malformed features.
 Maternal protein deficiency may cause an
irreversible reduction in brain weight, number of
brain cells, and learning ability.

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  Drugs adversely affect fetal development. During
pregnancy, it is advised to take as little medication
as possible.

3.7 Post-natal Development (after

birth)

1. The new born

 Human babies are born with good motor
coordination and highly acute sensory capabilities.
They are born completely helpless, totally
dependent on their parents.
 Though human infants are the most helpless and
immature when they come to this world, their
sensory development is mature and well integrated
even before birth.
 Human infants may not be able to direct their
course of movement in their environment at birth.
But they can perceive and be influenced by that
environment from the moment of birth.
 Different kinds of reflexes and motor activities help
newborn babies to survive after birth.
2. Early Childhood
 In line with biological development, children
progress from immature stages of mental
development to complex stages of mental
development. This developmental aspect is called
cognitive development.
 Definition: Cognitive development is the process
by which a child’s understanding of the

22
 environment changes as a function of age and
experience.
3. Late Childhood
 At about the time children begin school, they enter
the stage of concrete operational stage (7 to 12
years).
 This stage of cognitive development is marked by
mastery of the principle of conservation. They can
think logically though their thought process is
limited to the concrete.
 They can understand simple transformation, like
for example, reversing a ball of clay into a sausage
shape and back to a ball shape.
4. Adolescence
 Adolescence is the development stage between
childhood and adult hood during which many
physical, cognitive, and social changes take place.
 Most dramatic biological changes occur during this
stage. Major physical and sexual changes and their
corresponding average range of ages for both
sexes are shown below.
 The psycho- social development stage during
adolescence is named as the identity versus
confusion stage.

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 Major physical and biological changes during
adolescence
Males Females
Major-sexual Average Major-sexual Average
Changes range of age Changes range of
age
High spurt 12-16 Height spurt 11-14

Penis growth 13-15 Onset of Menarche 11.5-13.5

First Ejaculation 12-16 Breast 11.5-13.5

Development
Pubic hair 12-18 Pubic hair 11-14

5. Puberty
 It is the period during which maturation of the
sexual organs occur.
 For girls 11 or 12 years
 For boys 13 or 14 years
 However, there are wide cultural variations
depending on quality of nutrition and access to
health services.
 Early maturation has an advantage and
disadvantage for both sexes.
 Early maturing boys may do better in athletics
and are generally more popular with peers. This
enhances self-concept.
 Early maturation in girls may expose them to
untimely sexual practices and sexually
transmitted diseases.

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 In general, the impact of early and late maturation
is related to the specific reactions and attitudes of
the society.
6. Adulthood
 It includes the years from 20-60 but usually 20-40.
 Physical changes during this period are less
apparent and occur more gradually than the
preceding stages.
 Although physical strength and status of health are
great at early adulthood period, gradually they
decrease. The body begins to operate less
efficiently and immune system decreases.
 At about late forties and early fifties, women stop
menstruating (Menopause). Except in decline in
the amount of sperm production and frequency of
orgasm, men remain fertile up to old age.
 In general adulthood is a time of peak intellectual
accomplishment. An increase in IQ is observed at
this stage.
 They perform better on any learning or memory
task. They find it easy to accept new ideas and they
can readily shift their strategies for solving
different problems.
 According to Erickson the stage of social
development during early adult hood is termed as
intimacy versus isolation stage.
7. Old age
 Physical changes brought about by the aging
process include skin wrinkling and folding, slight

25
 loss of height due to decrease in the size of disks
between vertebrates in the spines.
 Sensory activities i.e. Vision, hearing, smell and
taste decrease.

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 UNIT FOUR:

PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY

4.1 Introduction
Personality psychology is a branch of psychology
that studies personality and its variation among
individuals. It looks at the patterns of thoughts,
feelings, and behavior that make a person unique.

Personality is the total quality of an individual’s

behavior as it is shown in his habits of thinking, in his
attitudes, interests, his manner of acting and his
personal philosophy of life. It is the totality of his
being. It includes his physical, mental, emotional and
temperamental makeup and how it shows itself in
behavior.

4.2 Factors affecting personality

There are three basic factors, which have to be
considered in describing personality. These are:

1. The internal aspects: these are feelings, the

physiological systems, glands and inherently
determined physical features.
2. The social situation: they include the influence of
the family and other groups to which one belongs,
the influence of customs, traditions and culture.

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3. The reactions or behavior: they are results from
the interaction of the individual and the stimuli
from the environment.

Personality is a dynamic growing thing. It grows in a

social setup, through social experiences and continual
adjustment to the environment.

There are three main factors that contribute to

differences in personality. These are:

1. The physiological factors. These include:

 The physique of the individual (his size,

strength, looks);
 Physical appearances and deficiencies and how
other people react to these characteristics;
 Endocrine glands production of hormones. For
example: excess insulin secretion may make
the individual fatigued or anxious.
Hypothyroidism may cause sluggishness, inertia
or dullness, slowness or stupidity.
Hyperthyroidism may cause nervous tension,
excitement and over activity.

2. The environmental or social factors

 Reactions of other people and reactions to other

people. For example: relationships in the home
and the family, the influence of school
 An atmosphere of peace, love, mutual
understanding at home develops self-
confidence and security;

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  Repressive home atmosphere will result in
rebellious or dependence as personality traits;
 Personality of the teacher, richness of the
curriculum, the presence or absence of co
curricula activities, methods of teaching affect
the child’s personality.

3. Mental or psychological factors include

 Motives, interests, activities, will and character,

intellectual capacities, reasoning, attention,
perception and imagination.

4.3 Theories of Personality

When we study the field of personality psychology, in
general, four areas are observed. These are theory,
structure, development and dynamics.

1. Theory

It is a body of knowledge, which psychologists use to

explain complex concepts in the study of personality.
Psychologists consider a number of approaches to the
study of personality.

2. Structure

It is anatomy of personality with basic dispositions

and interrelationships of different elements of
personality. These personality structures are enduring
and stable aspects of personality.

29
3. Development

Individuals’ are different from each other even at

birth, in physical appearance or temperament.

The differences become more complex with increasing

age and interaction with the environment.

4. Dynamics

The dynamic aspect of personality is concerned with

the meaning and function of behavior. It looks for the
purpose or the objective of an act, why the individual
behaves the way he/ she does.

General remark

Suppose you were asked to write a letter describing

yourself to stranger. How could you paint an accurate
self-portrait of yourself in words? You may begin with
simple facts.

Example:

 I am a student in the College of health sciences.

 I am a member of the international red cross
society etc.
 I am thick-skinned or sensitive;
 I am out going or shy;
 I am aggressive or timid;
 I am emotional or restrained.

Question:

 Do you think these traits will still describe you in

the coming ten years?
 Do your thinking and acting change in time?

Psychologists who study personality ask two key

questions

30
Question 1: Why don’t all people react in the same
way to the same encounter?

Question 2: Do individual differences have power in

shaping behavior?

4.4 Structure of Mind: Freud's Id, Ego, &

Superego

 Freud came to see personality as having three

aspects, which work together
to produce all of our complex
behaviours: the Id, the Ego
and the Superego.
 All 3 components need to be
well-balanced in order to
have good amount of
psychological energy available and to have
reasonable mental health.

The Id: Meeting Basic Needs

 Functions in the irrational and emotional part of

the mind.
 At birth a baby’s mind is all Id - want want
want.
 The Id is the primitive mind. It contains all the
basic needs and feelings.
 It is the source for libido (psychic energy). And
it has only one rule --> the pleasure principle: I
want it and I want it all now.
 In transactional analysis, Id equates to "Child".

31
  Id too strong = bound up in self-gratification
and uncaring to others

The Ego: Dealing with Reality

 Functions with the rational part of the mind.

 The Ego develops out of growing awareness that
you can’t always get what you want.
 The Ego relates to the real world and operates
via the “reality principle”.
 The Ego realizes the need for compromise and
negotiates between the Id and the Superego.
 The Ego's job is to get the Id's pleasures but to
be reasonable and bear the long-term
consequences in mind.
 The ego functions in both the conscious,
preconscious, and unconscious mind.
 The Ego denies both instant gratification and
pious delaying of gratification.
 In transactional analysis, Ego equates to
"Adult".
 Ego too strong = extremely rational and
efficient, but cold, boring and distant

Superego: Adding Morals

 The last component of personality to develop is

the superego.
 The superego develops last, and is based on
morals and judgments about right and wrong.

32
  It stores and enforces rules. It constantly strives
for perfection, even though this perfection ideal
may be quite far from reality or possibility.
 Superego too strong = feels guilty all the time,
may even have an insufferably saintly
personality

Integration of the three personality structures

 Ego executive agency (highest) structure in a

person mediates to satisfy the constant demands
of id but bound by the constraints of reality and
moderate the ideals of superego.

The following hypothetical example illustrates how the

three personality structures operate in real life
situation.

A six-year-old child Ahmed spots his favorite candy in

a supermarket.

The id shouts - "I want it now! Take it!"

The ego - "I could ask my father Ali to buy it for me,
but he might say no.

The super ego - "Thou shall not steal."

33
 4.5 Erik Erikson’s Psycho-Social
Stages of Development

 The Psychosocial theory of Erik Erikson Erik Erikson

(1902— 1994) recognized
Freud’s contributions but
believed that Freud misjudged
some important dimensions of
human development. For one,
according to Erikson (1950,
1968) we develop in
psychosocial stages, in
contrast to Freud’s psycho-
sexual stages.
 For another, Erikson emphasized developmental
change throughout the human life span, whereas
Freud argued that our basic personality is shaped
in the first five years of life. In Erikson’s theory,
eight psycho-social stages of development unfold
as we go through the life span.
 Each stage consists of a unique developmental task
that confronts individuals with a crisis that must be
faced. According to Erikson, this crisis is a turning
point of increased vulnerability and enhanced
potential. The more an individual resolves the
crises successfully, the healthier her or his
development will be.

Trust vs. Mistrust

Infancy (1st year)
If needs are met, infant develops a sense of basic trust
Outward signs of Healthy Growth Outward signs of Unhealthy
Expressions of Trust Growth
1. Invests in relationships Expression of Mistrust
2. Open, non-suspicious attitudes 1. Avoids relationship
3. Let’s mother go 2. Suspicious, closed, guarded
4. Welcomes touching 3. Unwilling to let mother go
5. Good eye contact 4. Loner and unhappy
6. Shares self and possessions 5. Poor eye contact

34
 6. Does not share self or possessions
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Toddler (2nd year)
Toddler strives to learn independence and self-confidence
Expressions of autonomy Expressions of shame and doubt
1. Independent 1. Procrastinates frequently
2. Not easily led 2. Has trouble working alone
3. Resists being dominate 3. Need structure and directions
4. Able to stand on own two feet 4. Has trouble making decisions
5. Works well alone or with others 5. Is easily influenced
6. Assertive when necessary 6. Embarrassed when complimented

Initiative vs. Guilt

Preschooler (3-5 years)
Preschooler learns to initiate tasks and grapples with self-control
Expressions of initiative Expressions of guilt
1. Is a self-starter 1. Gets depressed easily
2. Accepts challenges 2. Puts self-down
3. Assumes leadership roles 3. Slumped posture
4. Sets goals- goes after them 4. Poor eye contact
5. Moves easily, freely with body 5. Has low energy level
Competency vs. Inferiority
Elementary School (6 years to puberty)
Child leans either to feel effective or inadequate
Expressions of industry Expressions of inferiority
1. Wonders how things work 1. Timid, somewhat withdrawn
2. Finishes what starts 2. Overly obedient
3. Likes ‘projects’ 3. Procrastinates often
4. Enjoys learning 4. An observer, not a producer
5. Like to experiment 5. Questions own ability
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Adolescence (teen years)
Teenager works at developing a sense of self by testing roles, then integrating
them to form a single identity.
Expressions of identity Expressions of identity confusion
1. Certain about sex role identity 1. Doubts about sex role identity
2. Active interest in opposite sex 2. Lacks confidence
3. Plans for future 3. Overly hostile to authority
4. Challenges adult authority 4. Overly obedient
5. Tends to be self-accepting 5. Tends to be self-rejection
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Young Adulthood (20-40 years)
Young adult struggles to form close relationships and to gain capacity for intimate
love.
Expressions of Intimacy Expressions of Isolation and Self
1. Maintained friendship Absorption
2. Physical and emotional intimacy 1. Sabotage relationship or withdraws

35
3. Participation in games, groups 2. Avoidance, defensive
4. Open, willing to interact 3. Self-defeating behavior
5. Able to make and keep commitments 4. Maintaining isolation
5. Questions job performance
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Middle Adulthood (40-60 years)
Middle-aged person seeks a sense of contributing to the world, through, for
example family and work.
Expressions of Generativity Expressions of Stagnation
1. Generativity 1. Stagnation
2. Confident 2. Watching
3. Productive work 3. Complaining, blaming
4. Willingness to invest in the next 4. Obesity
5. Generation 5. Fatalist attitude
6. Achievement goals 6. Dissatisfaction with self, job, life,
7. Willing to risk, explore, produce, mate
take charge attitude. 7. Resentful
Integrity vs. Despair
Late Adulthood (65 years and up)
Reflecting on life, the elderly person may experience satisfaction or a sense of
failure.
Expressions of Integrity Expressions of Despair and
1. Proud, content with self and life Distrust
2. Still actively thinking about the future 1. Despair
3. Healthy interaction with self 2. Deep resentment
4. Self-approving 3. Nothing left, uselessness
5. Comfortable giving and sharing with 4. Low self esteem
others 5. Anger at self, other, world, society
6. Likes being an example to others 6. Closed to others
7. Accepts aging process gracefully and 7. Complaints, irritable and anger at
death as part of life cycle aging.

4.6 Psychosexual development

Psychosexual development is the process during

which personality and sexual behavior mature through
a series of stages: first oral stage and then anal stage
and then phallic stage and then latency stage and
finally genital stage.

36
Freud (1905) proposed that psychological
development in childhood takes place in a series of
fixed stages.

These are called psychosexual stages because each

stage represents the fixation of libido (roughly
translated as sexual drives or instincts) on a different
area of the body. As a person grows physically certain
areas of their body become important as sources of
potential frustration (erogenous zones), pleasure or
both.

Freud believed that life was built round tension and

pleasure. Freud also believed that all tension was due
to the buildup of libido (sexual energy) and that all
pleasure came from its discharge.

Frustration, Overindulgence and Fixation

Some people do not seem to be able to leave one

stage and proceed on to the next. One reason for this
may be that the needs of the developing individual at
any particular stage may not have been adequately
met in which case there is frustration.

Or possibly the person's needs may have been so well

satisfied that he/she is reluctant to leave the
psychological benefits of a particular stage in which
there is overindulgence.

Both frustration and overindulgence (or any

combination of the two) may lead to what

37
psychoanalysts call fixation at a particular
psychosexual stage.

Fixation refers to the theoretical notion that a portion

of the individual's libido has been permanently
'invested' in a particular stage of his development.

Stages of Psychosexual Development

Oral Stage (0-1 year)
During the oral stage, the child if focused on oral
pleasures (sucking).

Too much or too little gratification (satisfaction) can

result in an Oral Fixation or Oral Personality which is
evidenced by a preoccupation with oral activities.

This type of personality may have a stronger tendency

to smoke, drink alcohol, over eat, or bite his or her
nails.

Personality wise, these individuals may become overly

dependent upon others, gullible, and perpetual
followers. On the other hand, they may also fight
these urges and develop pessimism and aggression
toward others.

Anal Stage (1-3 years)

 The child’s focus of pleasure in this stage is on
eliminating and retaining feces. Through society’s
pressure, mainly via parents, the child has to learn
to control anal stimulation.

38
 In terms of personality, after effects of an anal
fixation during this stage can result in an obsession
with cleanliness, perfection, and control (anal
retentive).
 On the opposite end of the spectrum, they may
become messy and disorganized (anal expulsive).

Phallic stage (3-6 years)

 The pleasure zone switches to the genitals. Freud
believed that during this stage boy develop
unconscious sexual desires for their mother.
 Because of this, he becomes rivals with his father
and sees him as competition for the mother’s
affection. During this time, boys also develop a fear
that their father will punish them for these feelings,
such as by castrating them. This group of feelings
is known as Oedipus complex (after the Greek
Mythology figure who accidentally killed his father
and married his mother).
 Later it was added that girls go through a similar
situation, developing unconscious sexual attraction
to their father. Although Freud Strongly disagreed
with this, it has been termed the Electra Complex
by more recent psychoanalysts.

Latency Stage (age six to puberty)

 It’s during this stage that sexual urges remain
repressed and children interact and play mostly
with same sex peers.
 Much of the child's energy is channeled into
developing new skills and acquiring new knowledge

39
 and play becomes largely confined to other children
of the same gender.

Genital Stage (puberty onwards)

 The final stage of psychosexual development
begins at the start of puberty when sexual urges
are once again awakened.
 Through the lessons learned during the previous
stages, adolescents direct their sexual urges onto
opposite sex peers, with the primary focus of
pleasure is the genitals.

40
 UNIT FIVE:

SENSATION, PERCEPTION &

MEMORY
5.1 Introduction
The human is at the heart of visual analytics human
interaction, analysis, intuition, problem solving,
memory and visual perception. This unit is entitled to
discuss concepts of sensation, perception & memory.

“WE DON’T SEE THINGS AS THEY WE DON’T SEE

THINGS AS THEY ARE, WE SEE THINGS AS WE ARE”

5.2 Sensation

Sensation refers simply to your contact with the

external world through your sensory receptors. These
are the inputs received via our sensory receptors.

Sensation is an individual’s ability to detect

stimuli in the detect stimuli in the immediate
environment.

Any experience that takes place through a sense

organ is called Sensation.

Sensation is also called as the gate ways of

knowledge, because all our knowledge is based upon
the functioning of sense organs.

Sensation is the simple and most elementary process,

which creates the desire to work for something and
how to know something based on previous
experiences.

5.2.1 Types of Sensation

We can divide easily the sensation process into five
categories on the basis of sense organs.

41
1. Visual Sensation
2. Auditory Sensation
3. Olfactory Sensation
4. Taste Sensation
5. Tactual Sensation

5.3. Perception

Perception - The process of selecting,

organizing, and interpreting raw sensory data
into useful mental representations of the world.

Perception is the way sensory information is

organized, interpreted, and consciously

Perception=Sensation + Meanings +Thinking+ Memory

Perception is the process of receiving information

about and making Perception is the process of
receiving information about and making sense of the
world around us. It involves deciding which
information sense of the world around us. It involves
deciding which information to notice, how to
categorize this information and how to interpret it to
notice, how to categorize this information and how to
interpret it within the framework of existing
knowledge.

5.3.1 Nature of Perception

 Perception is meaningful
 Perception is selective
 Perception is based on sensation
 Perception is preventive and representative
process of mind
 Perception needs observation / experience
 Perception makes use of images
 Perception is both analytic and synthetic
 In perception sensory data gets enriched

42
5.3.2 The Perceptual Process
1. Sensation

An individual’s ability to detect stimuli in the detect

stimuli in the immediate environment.

2. Selection

The process a person uses to eliminate some uses to

eliminate some of the stimuli that have of the stimuli
that have been sensed and to been sensed and to
retain others for further retain others for further
processing

3. Organization

The process of placing The process of placing selected

perceptual selected perceptual stimuli into stimuli into
a framework for framework for “storage.”

4. Translation

The stage of the perceptual process at perceptual

process at which stimuli are which stimuli are
interpreted and given interpreted and given meaning

43
5.3.3 Factor of perception:
There are 3 factors of perception, namely:

Subjective Factor

Subjective factors are related to the perceiver's own

self. There are stated as the internal state or
psychological state. Some subjective are:

 Fitness
 Interest
 Past experience and Knowledge
 Mental Capacity

Objective factor

Objective factor are found in the physical environment

know as stimuli. There stimuli are so strong that an
individual is attracted to attend to them and perceive
them.

Social F actor

Social factors are related to need and interest of the

group in society to which an individual belongs. Men
is a social animal. He can’t live alone

 Social value
 Attitudes
 Stereotype
 Suggestion

5.3.4 Perceptual Errors:

A perceptual error is the inability to judge humans,
things or situations fairly and accurately.

 It is quite possible that the same object may be

perceived differently by different people or by the
same person on different occasions.
 There are six errors of perception namely

44
  Illusion

 Hallucination

 Halo Effect

 Stereotyping

 Similarity

 Horn Effect

 Contrast

Illusion

The illusion is a false perception. Here the person will

mistake a stimulus and perceive it wrongly. For example, in
the dark, a rope is mistaken as a snake or vice versa. The
voice of an unknown person is mistaken as a friend’s voice.
A person standing at a distance who is not known may be
perceived as a known person.

Hallucination

Sometimes we come across instances where the individual

perceives some stimulus, even when it is not present.

This phenomenon is known as a hallucination. The person

may see an object, person, etc. or he may listen to some
voice though there are no objects and sounds in reality.

Selective Perception

Selective perception means the situation when people

selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their
interests, background, experience, and attitudes.

It means any characteristics that make a person, object, or

event stand out will increase the probability that it will be
perceived.

Because it is impossible for us to assimilate everything we

see, only certain stimuli can be taken in.

45
Halo Effect

The individual is evaluated on the basis of perceived positive

quality, feature or trait. When we draw a general impression
about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic,
such as intelligence, sociability, or appearance, a halo effect
is operating.

In other words, this is the tendency to rate a man uniformly

high or low in other traits if he is extraordinarily high or low
in one particular trait: If a worker has few absences, his
supervisor might give him a high rating in all other areas of
work.

Stereotyping

People usually can fall into at least one general category

based on physical or behavioral traits then they will be
evaluated. When we judge someone on the basis of our
perception of the group to which he or she belongs, we are
using the shortcut called stereotyping.

For example, a boss might assume that a worker from a

Middle East country is lazy and cannot meet performance
objectives, even if the worker tried his best.

Similarity

Often, people tend to seek out and rate more positively

those who are similar to themselves. This tendency to
approve of similarity may cause evaluators to give better
ratings to employees who exhibit the same interests, work
methods, points of view or standards.

Horn Effect

When the individual is completely evaluated on the basis of a

negative quality or feature perceived. This results in an overall
lower rating than an acceptable rate.

He is not formally dressed up in the office, that’s why he may

be casual at work too.

Contrast

46
 The tendency to rate people relative to other people rather
than to the individual performance he or she is doing. Rather
will evaluate an employee by comparing that employee’s
performance with other employees.

5.4 Memory

Definition

Memory is the ability to take in information, store it,

and recall it at a later time. In psychology, memory is
broken into three stages: encoding, storage, and
retrieval.

5.4.1 The Memory Process

1. Encoding (or registration):
The process of receiving, processing, and combining
information. Encoding allows information from the outside
world to reach our senses in the forms of chemical and
physical stimuli. In this first stage we must change the
information so that we may put the memory into the
encoding process.
2. Storage:
The creation of a permanent record of the encoded
information. Storage is the second memory stage or process
in which we maintain information over periods of time.
3. Retrieval (or recall, or recognition):
The calling back of stored information in response to some
cue for use in a process or activity. The third process is the
retrieval of information that we have stored. We must locate
it and return it to our consciousness. Some retrieval
attempts may be effortless due to the type of information.

Problems can occur at any stage of the process, leading to

anything from forgetfulness to amnesia. Distraction can
prevent us from encoding information initially; information

47
might not be stored properly, or might not move from
short-term to long-term storage; and/or we might not be
able to retrieve the information once it’s stored.

5.4.2 Types of Memories

Sensory Memory

The part of memory where any information is first registered

is called Sensory Memory. Although sensory memory has a
large capacity, it corresponds approximately to the initial
200-500 milliseconds after an item is perceived. A simple
example of sensory memory is to look at an item, and
remember what it looked like with just a second of
observation, or memorization. Degradation of this kind of
memory is remarkably quick, as this type of memory stores
information as it senses, regardless of the body’s
consciousness.

Short-Term Memory

It’s a primary or active memory that is capable of holding

small amount of information for a brief period of time. This
form of memory is capable of storing information for 30
seconds or even less without rehearsal. Rehearsal and
Chunking are two basic methods that can be used to prevent
the eradication of information, and the information can be
then switched from Short-Term Memory (STM) to Long-
Term Memory.

48
 Long-Term Memory

This form of memory is a memory store capable of storing

large quantities of information for potentially unlimited
duration.

Basic idea of memory in a mass is usually mistaken with

Long-Term Memory alone. Going deeper into the topic,
there are different characteristics that affect the long term
memory. A classic example of LTM is being able to
remember incidents from our childhood.

Explicit Memory

When we assess memory by asking a person to consciously

remember things, we are measuring explicit memory.

Explicit memory refers to knowledge or experiences that

can be consciously remembered.

 A recall memory test is a measure of explicit memory that

involves bringing from memory information that has
previously been remembered. We rely on our recall memory
when we take an essay test, because the test requires us to
generate previously remembered information.

 A multiple-choice test is an example of a recognition

memory test, a measure of explicit memory that involves
determining whether information has been seen or learned
before.

49
 A third way of measuring memory is known as relearning.
Measures of relearning (or savings) assess how much
more quickly information is processed or learned when it is
studied again after it has already been learned but then
forgotten.

There are two types of explicit memory: episodic and

semantic.

 Episodic memory refers to the firsthand experiences that

we have had (e.g., recollections of our high school
graduation day or of the fantastic dinner we had in New York
last year).
 Semantic memory refers to our knowledge of facts and
concepts about the world (e.g., that the absolute value of
−90 is greater than the absolute value of 9 and that one
definition of the word “affect” is “the experience of feeling
or emotion”).

Implicit Memory

While explicit memory consists of the things that we can

consciously report that we know, implicit memory refers to
knowledge that we cannot consciously access. However,
implicit memory is nevertheless exceedingly important to us
because it has a direct effect on our behaviour.

Implicit memory refers to the influence of experience on

behaviour, even if the individual is not aware of those
influences.

50
 There are three general types of implicit memory:
procedural memory, classical conditioning effects, and
priming.

 Procedural memory refers to our often unexplainable

knowledge of how to do things. When we walk from one
place to another, speak to another person in English, dial a
cell phone, or play a video game, we are using procedural
memory. Procedural memory allows us to perform complex
tasks, even though we may not be able to explain to others
how we do them.
 A second type of implicit memory is classical conditioning
effects, in which we learn, often without effort or
awareness, to associate neutral stimuli (such as a sound or
a light) with another stimulus (such as food), which creates
a naturally occurring response, such as enjoyment or
salivation. The memory for the association is demonstrated
when the conditioned stimulus (the sound) begins to create
the same response as the unconditioned stimulus (the food)
did before the learning.
 The final type of implicit memory is known as priming, or
changes in behaviour as a result of experiences that have
happened frequently or recently. Priming refers both to the
activation of knowledge (e.g., we can prime the concept of
kindness by presenting people with words related to
kindness) and to the influence of that activation on
behaviour (people who are primed with the concept of
kindness may act more kindly). One measure of the
influence of priming on implicit memory is the word

51
fragment test, in which a person is asked to fill in missing
letters to make words.

52
 UNIT SIX:

DEFENCE MECHANISMS
6.1 Introduction
In order to deal with conflict and problems in life,
Freud stated that the ego employs a range of defense
mechanisms that handle conflict between the Id, Ego
and Superego. Defense mechanisms operate at an
unconscious level and help ward off unpleasant
feelings (i.e. anxiety) or make good things feel better
for the individual.

When anxiety occurs, the mind first responds by an

increase in problem solving thinking, seeking rational
ways of escaping the situation. If this is not fruitful
(and maybe anyway), a range of defense mechanisms
may be triggered.

All Defense Mechanisms share two common

properties:

 They often appear unconsciously.

 They tend to distort, transform, or otherwise
falsify reality.

In distorting reality, there is a change in perception

which allows for a lessening of anxiety, with a
corresponding reduction in felt tension.

53
6.2 Types of Defence Mechanism
Denial
 Denial is simply refusing to acknowledge that an
event has occurred.
 The person affected simply acts as if nothing has
happened, behaving in ways that others may see
as strange.

Examples

 A man hears that his wife has been killed, and yet
refuses to believe it, still setting the table for her
and keeping her clothes and other accoutrements
in the bedroom.
 A person having an affair does not think about
pregnancy or sexually transmitted diseases.

Displacement
 Displacement is the shifting of actions from a
desired target to a substitute target when there is
some reason why the first target is not permitted
or not available.
 Displacement may involve retaining the action and
simply shifting the target of that action.

Examples

 The boss gets angry and shouts at me. I go home

and shout at my wife. She then shouts at our son.
With nobody left to displace anger onto, he goes
and kicks the dog.

54
 A woman, rejected by her boyfriend, goes out with
another man 'on the rebound'.

Projection
 When a person has uncomfortable thoughts or
feelings, they may project these onto other people,
assigning the thoughts or feelings that they need
to repress to a convenient alternative target.
 Projection may also happen to obliterate attributes
of other people with which we are uncomfortable.

Examples

 I do not like another person. But I have a value

that says I should like everyone. So I project onto
them that they do not like me. This allows me to
avoid them and also to handle my own feelings of
dislike.
 An unfaithful husband suspects his wife of
infidelity.

Rationalization
 When something happens that we find difficult to
accept, then we will make up a logical reason why
it has happened.
 The target of rationalization is usually something
that we have done, such as being unkind to
another person. It may also be used when
something happens independent of us which
causes us discomfort, such as when a friend is
unkind to us.

55
Examples

 A person evades paying taxes and then rationalizes

it by talking about how the government wastes
money (and how it is better for people to keep what
they can).
 A man buys an expensive car and then tells people
his old car was very unreliable, very unsafe, etc.

Reaction Formation
 Reaction Formation is the converting of unwanted
or dangerous thoughts, feelings or impulses into
their opposites.
 For instance, a woman who is very angry with her
boss and would like to quit her job may instead be
overly kind and generous toward her boss and
express a desire to keep working there forever.
She is incapable of expressing the negative
emotions of anger and unhappiness with her job,
and instead becomes overly kind to publicly
demonstrate her lack of anger and unhappiness.

Regression
 Regression involves taking the position of a child in
some problematic situation, rather than acting in a
more adult way.
 This is usually in response to stressful situations,
with greater levels of stress potentially leading to
more overt regressive acts.
 Regressive behavior can be simple and harmless,
such as a person who is sucking a pen or may be

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 more dysfunctional, such as crying or using
petulant arguments.

Example

 A wife refuses to drive a car even though it causes

the family much disorganization. A result of her
refusal is that her husband has to take her
everywhere.

Sublimation
 Sublimation is simply the channeling of
unacceptable impulses, thoughts and emotions
into more acceptable ones.
 For instance, when a person has sexual impulses
they would like not to act upon, they may instead
focus on rigorous exercise.
 Refocusing such unacceptable or harmful impulses
into productive use helps person channel energy
that otherwise would be lost or used in a manner
that might cause the person more anxiety.
 Sublimation is probably the most useful and
constructive of the defense mechanisms as it takes
the energy of something that is potentially harmful
and turns it to doing something good and useful.

Example

 A person who has an obsessive need for control

and order becomes a successful business
entrepreneur.

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 A person with strong sexual urges becomes an
artist.
 A man who has extra-marital desires takes up
household repairs when his wife is out of town.

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 UNIT SEVEN:

MOTIVATION
7 7.1 Introduction
Motivation is defined as the process that initiates,
guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors.
Motivation is what causes us to act, whether it is
getting a glass of water to reduce thirst or reading a
book to gain knowledge.

Motivation is derived from the Latin word ‘movere’

which means ‘to move’ or ‘to energize’ or ‘to
activate’.

7.2 Nature of Motivation:

 Based on motives

 Affected by motivating

 Goal directed behavior

 Related to satisfaction

 Person is motivated in totality

 Complex process

7.3 Components of Motivation

Anyone who has ever had a goal (like wanting to lose
ten pounds or wanting to run a marathon) probably
immediately realizes that simply having the desire to
accomplish something is not enough.

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Achieving such a goal requires the ability to persist
through obstacles and endurance to keep going in
spite of difficulties.

There are three major components to motivation:

activation, persistence, and intensity.

Activation involves the decision to initiate a

behavior, such as enrolling in a psychology class.

Persistence is the continued effort toward a goal

even though obstacles may exist. An example of
persistence would be taking more psychology courses
in order to earn a degree although it requires a
significant investment of time, energy, and resources.

Intensity can be seen in the concentration and vigor

that goes into pursuing a goal. For example, one
student might coast by without much effort, while
another student will study regularly, participate in
discussions and take advantage of research
opportunities outside of class. The first student lacks
intensity, while the second pursues his educational
goals with greater intensity.

7.4 Theories of motivation:

 Drive theory

 Incentive theories

 Maslow theory of human motivation

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Drive theory

We all have needs which lead to internal stimuli

prodding us into action, driving us to reduce those
stimuli by satisfying the relevant needs. Drive theory
is consequently also known as Drive Reduction
Theory.

These drives are necessary, otherwise needs would

not be satisfied. It is also important for the person to
perceive the stimulus and response in order to learn.

Primary drives are those related to basic survival and

procreation. Secondary drives are related to social
and identity factors which are less important for
survival.

As we act to satisfy needs we become conditioned and

acquire habits and other unconscious forms of
response or reaction. Behavior is changed only if
habits no longer satisfy needs, such that drives
remain.

Incentive theories

Incentive theories of motivation shift the emphasis

from the internal "pushes" to external "pulls." They
state that motivation acts by making goal objects
more attractive.

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This approach attempts to explain motivation in terms
of the nature of the external stimuli; incentives that
direct and energize behavior.

Motivations are commonly separated into two

different types based on the nature of the motivator:
intrinsic (arising from internal factors) or extrinsic
(arising from external factors).

7.5 Maslow's hierarchy of needs

 Motivation theory which suggests five

interdependent levels of basic human needs

(motivators) that must be satisfied in a strict

sequence starting with the lowest level.

Physiological needs for survival (to stay alive and

reproduce) and security (to feel safe) are the most

fundamental and most pressing needs.

 They are followed by social needs (for love and

belonging) and self-esteem needs (to feel worthy,

respected, and have status). The final and highest

level needs are self-actualization needs (self-

fulfillment and achievement).

The levels are in order of importance.

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1. Physiological needs: These include things

breathing, food, water, sex, and sleep.

2. Safety: This includes things such as feeling

physically safe in your environment. It includes

feeling healthy. It includes feeling that you have

enough money and supplies to keep you alive

and well.

3. Love and belonging: People need to feel love,

and they need to feel that they belong in

society. Partners could include husbands, wives,

girlfriends, or boyfriends.

4. Esteem: To have esteem, you need to be

confident in yourself. Also, you feel like others

think that you are important.

5. Self-actualization: This complicated idea is

expressed as “What a man can be, he must be”.
This level is about a person having the

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 opportunity to use their talent, and a chance to
go where those talents might lead.

Fig: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Specific examples of these types are given below, in

both the work and home context. (Some of the
instances, like "education" are actually satisfiers of
the need.)

Need Home Job

education, religion,
training, advancement, growth,
Self-actualization hobbies, personal
creativity
growth
approval of family, recognition, high status,
Esteem
friends, community responsibilities
teams, depts, coworkers, clients,
Belongingness family, friends, clubs
supervisors, subordinates
freedom from war, work safety, job security, health
Safety
poison, violence insurance
Physiological food water sex Heat, air, base salary

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 UNIT EIGHT:

STRESS & STRESS COPING

MECHANISMS
8.1 Introduction
Stress is normal parts of life that can help us
either learn and grow or can cause us significant
problems.

Stress is a part of our everyday life. The word

stress is used very commonly and many people use
this term without knowing really what it means. In
our daily lives, we are exposed to situations that
produce stress like relationship issues, work
overload, family issues, health related problems etc.

Due to individual differences each one interprets and

reacts to events that make stress differently. Stress is
simply a fact of nature forces from the inside or
outside world affecting the individual. The individual
responds to stress in ways that affect the individual as
well as their environment. Because of the excess of
stress in our modern lives, we usually think of stress
as a negative experience, but from a biological point
of view, stress can be a neutral, negative, or positive
experience. Any event or circumstance that strains or
exceeds an individual ability to cope is called stress.

8.2 Stressors
While stress is the feeling we have when we are under
pressure, stressors are the things in our environment

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that we are responding to. Stressors can be as simple
as background noise in our environment or as
complex as a social situation such as going out on a
date. Stressors can involve physical threat such as a
car speeding toward you or an emotional threat such
as being rejected by your boyfriend or girlfriend.

8.3 Relationship between Stressors

and Stress
The relationship between stressors and our
experience of stress is not one to one. On average,
the more stressors we experience in our life, the
more stressed we will feel. What is stressful for
one person may not necessarily be stressful for
another.

8.4 Causes of Stress

The situations and pressure that cause stress are
known as stressors. We usually think of stressors
as being negative, such as an exhausting work
schedule or a rocky relationship. Anything that puts
high demands on us or forces us to adjust can be
stressful.

This includes positive events such as getting married,

buying a house, going to college, or receiving a
promotion. Not all stress is caused by external
factors. Stress can also be self-generated, for
example, when we worry excessively about
something that may or may not happen, or have
irrational, pessimistic thoughts about life. What

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causes stress depends, at least in part, on our
perception of it. Something that's stressful to us may
not faze someone else; they may even enjoy it.
For example, exam may be stressful for some but
few may enjoy facing the challenge given by exams.
For some individuals journey may be tiring and
irritating others may find the trip relaxing because
they allow more than enough time and enjoy listening
to music while they drive.

Common external causes of stress

Common external causes of stress include major life

changes, relationship difficulties, work and school,
financial problems, being too busy and children and
family.

Common internal causes of stress

Common internal causes of stress include chronic

worry, pessimism, negative self-talk, unrealistic
expectations, perfectionism, rigid thinking and lack of
flexibility.

8.5 Warning Signs of Stress

When a person is exposed to long periods of stress,
their body gives warning signals that something is
wrong. These physical, cognitive, emotional and
behavioral warning signs should not be ignored. They
tell us that we need to slow down. If we continue to
be stressed and if we don't give our body a break, we

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are likely to develop health problems like heart
disease. We could also worsen an existing illness.

Below are some common warning signs and

symptoms of stress.

8.5.1 Physical Signs

This include dizziness, general pains or aches,
headaches, grinding teeth, clenched jaws,
indigestion, muscle tension, difficulty in sleeping,
increased heart rate, sweaty palms, tiredness,
weight gain and loss and upset stomach.

8.5.2 Mental Signs

Mental signs of stress include constant worry,
difficulty in making decisions, forgetfulness, inability
to concentrate, lack of creativity, loss of sense of
humor and poor memory.

8.5.3 Emotional Signs

Some of the examples of emotional signs of stress
include anger, anxiety, crying, depression, feeling
powerless, frequent mood swings, irritability,
loneliness, negative thinking, nervousness and
sadness.

8.5.4 Behavioral Signs

This include compulsive eating, critical attitude to
others, explosive actions, frequent job changes,
impulsive actions, increased use of alcohol or
drugs, withdrawal from relationships or social
situations and bossy behavior.

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8.6 Coping
Coping can be defined as the actual effort that is made
in the attempt to render a perceived stressor more
tolerable and to minimize the distress induced by the
situation.

There are two types of coping strategies. They include

problem-focused and emotion-focused coping.

8.6.1 Problem focused coping

Problem-focused coping aims at problem solving or
doing something to alter the source of stress.
Problem-focused coping tends to predominate when
people feel that something constructive can be done.

problem focused coping involves active coping

(taking steps to remove the stressor), social supports
for instrumental reason (seeking an advisor),
restraint coping (waiting until appropriate
opportunity comes), acceptance (accepting the reality
of a stressful situation), planning (coming up with
active strategies), suppression of competing activities
(putting other projects aside to avoid becoming
distracted by the other events) and positive
reinterpretation and growth (seeing things in a
positive manner and learning from experiences).

8.6.2 Emotion focused coping

Emotion focused coping tend to predominate when
people feel that the stressor is something that must
be endured. This includes:

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a) Social supports for emotional reasons -
Seeking social support for emotional reasons
is getting moral support, sympathy or
understanding.
b) Denial or avoidance – Denial here means
refusal to believe that the stressor exists.
c) Venting of emotions- Here the individual has
the tendency to focus on whatever distress or
upset one is experiencing and to ventilate those
feelings.
d) Turning to religion- One might turn to
religion when under stress for widely varying
reasons. Religion might serve as a source of
emotional support.
e) Mental disengagement- This includes using
alternative activities to take one’s mind off a
problem a tendency opposite to suppression
of competing activities), day dreaming,
escaping through sleep or escape by immersion
in T.V etc.
f) Behavioral disengagement: In behavioural
disengagement one reduces one’s effort to deal
with the stressor even giving up the attempt to
attain goals with in which the stressor is
interfering.
g) Alcohol disengagement – Here one reduces
their effort to deal with a stressor by using
alcohol as a means to forget their stress

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element. Individuals who use alcohol and drugs
are high on using this strategy.

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