Food Processing & Preservation

Food processing is the transformation of cooked ingredients, by physical or chemical means into
food, or of food into other forms. Food processing combines raw food ingredients to produce
marketable food products that can be easily prepared and served by the consumer. Food
processing typically involves activities such as mincing and macerating, liquefaction,
emulsification, and cooking (such as boiling, broiling, frying, or grilling); pickling,
pasteurization, and many other kinds of preservation; and canning or other packaging. (Primary-
processing such as dicing, slicing, freezing or drying when leading to secondary products is also
included.)

History
Food processing dates back to the prehistoric ages when crude processing incorporated
fermenting, sun drying, preserving with salt, and various types of cooking (such as roasting,
smoking, steaming, and oven baking), Such basic food processing involved chemical enzymatic
changes to the basic structure of food in its natural form, as well served to build a barrier against
surface microbial activity that caused rapid decay. Salt-preservation was especially common for
foods that constituted warrior and sailors' diets until the introduction of canning methods.
Evidence for the existence of these methods can be found in the writings of the ancient Greek,
Chaldean, Egyptian and Roman civilizations as well as archaeological evidence from Europe,
North and South America and Asia. These tried and tested processing techniques remained
essentially the same until the advent of the industrial revolution. Examples of ready-meals also
date back to before the preindustrial revolution, and include dishes such as Cornish pasty and
Haggis. Both during ancient times and today in modern society these are considered processed
foods.
Modern food processing technology developed in the 19th and 20th centuries was developed in a
large part to serve military needs. In 1809 Nicolas Appert invented a hermetic bottling technique
that would preserve food for French troops which ultimately contributed to the development of
tinning, and subsequently canning by Peter Durand in 1810. Although initially expensive and
somewhat hazardous due to the lead used in cans, canned goods would later become a staple
around the world. Pasteurization, discovered by Louis Pasteur in 1864, improved the quality of
preserved foods and introduced the wine, beer, and milk preservation.
In the 20th century, World War II, the space race and the rising consumer society in developed
countries contributed to the growth of food processing with such advances as spray drying,
evaporation, juice concentrates, freeze drying and the introduction of artificial sweeteners,
colouring agents, and such preservatives as sodium benzoate. In the late 20th century, products
such as dried instant soups, reconstituted fruits and juices, and self cooking meals such as MRE
food ration were developed. By the 20th century, automatic appliances like microwave oven,
blender, and rotimatic paved way for convenience cooking.
In Western Europe and North America, the second half of the 20th century witnessed a rise in the
pursuit of convenience. Food processing companies marketed their products especially towards
middle-class working wives and mothers. Frozen foods (often credited to Clarence Birdseye)
found their success in sales of juice concentrates and "TV dinners". Processors utilised the
perceived value of time to appeal to the postwar population, and this same appeal contributes to
the success of convenience foods today.
Benefits and Drawbacks
Benefits

 Benefits of food processing include toxin removal, preservation, easing marketing and
distribution tasks, and increasing food consistency.
 It increases yearly availability of many foods, enables transportation of delicate perishable
foods across long distances and makes many kinds of foods safe to eat by de-activating
spoilage and pathogenic micro-organisms.
 Modern supermarkets would not exist without modern food processing techniques, and long
voyages would not be possible.
 Processed foods are usually less susceptible to early spoilage than fresh foods and are better
suited for long distance transportation from the source to the consumer. When they were first
introduced, some processed foods helped to alleviate food shortages and improved the
overall nutrition of populations as it made many new foods available to the masses.
 Processing can also reduce the incidence of food borne disease. Fresh materials, such as fresh
produce and raw meats, are more likely to pathogenic micro-organisms (e.g. Salmonella)
capable of causing serious illnesses.
 The extremely varied modern diet is only truly possible on a wide scale because of food
processing. Transportation of more exotic foods, as well as the elimination of much hard
labour gives the modern eater easy access to a wide variety of food unimaginable to their
ancestors.
 Mass production of food is much cheaper overall than individual production of meals from
raw ingredients. Therefore, a large profit potential exists for the manufacturers and suppliers
of processed food products.
 Processed food freed people from the large amount of time involved in preparing and
cooking "natural" unprocessed foods. The increase in free time allows people much more
choice in life style than previously allowed. In many families the adults are working away
from home and therefore there is little time for the preparation of food based on fresh
ingredients. The food industry offers products that fulfill many different needs: e.g. fully
prepared ready meals that can be heated up in the microwave oven within a few minutes.
 Modern food processing also improves the quality of life for people with allergies, diabetics,
and other people who cannot consume some common food elements. Food processing can
also add extra nutrients such as vitamins.

Drawbacks

 Any processing of food can decrease its nutritional density. The amount of nutrients lost
depends on the food and processing method. For example, heat destroys vitamin C.
Therefore, canned fruits possess less vitamin C than their fresh alternatives.
 New research highlighting the importance to human health of a rich microbial environment
in the intestine indicates that abundant food processing (not fermentation of foods) endangers
that environment.
 Using food additives represents another safety concern. The health risks of any given
additive vary greatly from person to person; for example using sugar as an additive
endangers diabetics.
 Food processing is typically a mechanical process that utilizes extrusion, large mixing,
grinding, chopping and emulsifying equipment in the production process. These processes
introduce a number of contamination risks. Such contaminates are left over material from a
previous operation, animal or human bodily fluids, microorganisms, nonmetallic and metallic
 fragments. Further processing of these contaminates will result in downstream equipment
failure and the risk of ingestion by the consumer. Example: A mixing bowl or grinder is used
over time, metal parts in contact with food will tend to fail and fracture. This type of failure
will introduce into the product stream small to large metal contaminants. Further processing
of these metal fragments will result in downstream equipment failure and the risk of
ingestion by the consumer. Food manufacturers utilize industrial metal detectors to detect
and reject automatically any metal fragment. Large food processors will utilize many metal
detectors within the processing stream to reduce damage to processing machinery as well as
risk to consumer health.

Parameters for Food Processing

When designing processes for the food industry the following performance parameters may be
taken into account:

o Hygiene, e.g. measured by number of micro-organisms per mL of finished product

o Energy efficiency measured e.g. by “ton of steam per ton of sugar produced”
o Minimization of waste, measured e.g. by “percentage of peeling loss during the peeling of
potatoes”
o Labour used, measured e.g. by “number of working hours per ton of finished product”
o Minimization of cleaning stops measured e.g. by “number of hours between cleaning stops”

Common Methods of Processing and Preserving Food

Food processing is a way or technique implemented to convert raw food stuff into well-cooked
and well preserved eatables for both the humans and the animals. All these methods are used by
food processing industry to give out processed or preserved foods for our daily consumption.
Best quality harvested, slaughtered and butchered and clean constituents are used by food
processing industry to manufacture very nutritious and easy to cook food products. Following are
some techniques and methods used to convert food into processed or preserved food.
Preservation process: this includes heating or boiling to destroy micro-organisms, oxidation,
toxic inhibition, dehydration or drying, osmotic inhibition, freezing, a sort of cold pasteurization
which destroys pathogens and various combinations of all these methods.
Drying: this is probably the most ancient method used by humans to preserve or process their
food. Drying reduces the water content in the product and lack of water delays the bacterial
growth very much. Drying is the most common technique to preserve or process cereal grains
like wheat, maize, oats, rice, barley, grams and rye etc.
Smoking: many foods such as meat, fish and others are processed, preserved and flavored by the
use of smoke mostly in big smoke houses. This process is very simple as the combination of
smoke to preserved food without actually cooking it and the aroma of hydro-carbons generated
from the smoke processes the food and makes it even tastier to eat.
Freezing: probably, it is the most common technique used in modern world to preserve or
process the food both on commercial and domestic basis. This freezing is conducted in big cold
storages which can stockpile huge amount of food stuffs which can be further used in some
natural emergencies. A very big range of products can be frozen to preserve and process which
includes some which do not need freezing when are in their natural condition. For example
potato chips and potato wafers requires freezing whereas a potato does not.
Vacuum packs: in this method, food is packed in airtight bags and bottles in a vacuum area.
This method is used in processing the food as the air-tight environment does not provide oxygen
needed by germs especially bacteria to survive. This then, prevents food from getting rotted. This
method is very commonly used for preserving processed nuts.
Salting: the method of salting is used in food processing as it sucks out the moisture from the
food. This is done through the process of osmosis. Meat is the best example of the food
processed by salting as nitrates are used very frequently to treat meat.
Sugaring: the method of using sugar to preserve or process food is very frequent where it comes
to preserve fruits. In this method fruits such as apples, peaches and plums are cooked with sugar
until they are crystallized and then it is stored dry. Now days, sugar is also used in combination
of alcohol to make some branded alcohol and spirits.
Pickling: in this method of preserving or processing food, food is cooked in chemicals and
materials which destroy micro-organisms. This is very strictly kept in mind that these chemicals
or materials are fit to eat for humans. Normally, these include brine, vinegar, ethanol, vegetable
oil and many other types of oils. Pickling is very commonly seen in vegetables such as cabbage
and peppers. Corned beef and eggs are the non vegetarian eatables that are pickled.
These are some very common methods of preserving or processing food. These all will work
only when processing and preserving is done under very strict rules and regulation set by the
governments.

Food Irradiation
Food irradiation is the process of exposing foodstuffs to ionizing radiation. Ionizing radiation is
energy that can be transmitted without direct contact to the source of the energy (radiation)
capable of freeing electrons from their atomic bonds (ionization) in the targeted food. This
treatment is used to preserve food, reduce the risk of food borne illness, prevent the spread of
invasive pests, and delay or eliminate sprouting or ripening. Irradiated food does not become
radioactive. The radiation can be emitted by a radioactive substance or generated electrically.

Uses

 Irradiation is used to reduce or eliminate the risk of food-borne illnesses, prevent or slow
down spoilage, arrest maturation or sprouting and as a treatment against pests. When
targeting bacteria, most foods are irradiated to significantly reduce the number of active
microbes, not to sterilize all microbes in the product. In this respect it is similar to
pasteurization.
 Irradiation is used to create safe foods for people at high risk of infection, or for conditions
where food must be stored for long periods of time and proper storage conditions are not
available. Foods that can tolerate irradiation at sufficient doses are treated to ensure that the
product is completely sterilized. This is most commonly done with rations for astronauts, and
special diets for hospital patients.
 Irradiation is used to create shelf-stable products. Since irradiation reduces the populations of
spoilage microorganisms, and because pre-packed food can be irradiated, the packaging
prevents recontamination into the final product.
 Irradiation is used to reduce post-harvest losses. It reduces populations of spoilage micro-
organisms in the food and can slow down the speed at which enzymes change the food, and
therefore slows spoilage and ripening, and inhibits sprouting (e.g., of potato, onion, and
garlic).
 Food is also irradiated to prevent the spread of invasive pest species through trade in fresh
vegetables and fruits, either within countries, or trade across international boundaries.

Fermentation
Fermentation is a metabolic process that consumes sugar in the absence of oxygen. The products
are organic acids, gases, or alcohol. It occurs in yeast and bacteria, and also in oxygen-starved
muscle cells, as in the case of lactic acid fermentation. The science of fermentation is known as
zymology.
In microorganisms, fermentation is the primary means of producing ATP by the degradation of
organic nutrients an aerobically. Humans have used fermentation to produce drinks and
beverages since the Neolithic age. For example, fermentation is used for preservation in a
process that produces lactic acid as found in such sour foods as pickled cucumbers, yogurt, as
well as for producing alcoholic beverages such as wine and beer. Fermentation occurs within the
gastrointestinal tracts of all animals, including humans.
Fermentation in food processing is the process of converting carbohydrates to alcohol or organic
acids using microorganisms—yeasts or bacteria—under anaerobic conditions. Fermentation
usually implies that the action of microorganisms is desired.

Uses
Food fermentation is the conversion of sugars and other carbohydrates into alcohol or
preservative organic acids and carbon dioxide. All three products have found human uses. The
production of alcohol is made use of when fruit juices are converted to wine, when grains are
made into beer, and when foods rich in starch, such as potatoes, are fermented and then distilled
to make spirits such as gin and vodka. The production of carbon dioxide is used to leaven bread.
The production of organic acids is exploited to preserve and flavor vegetables and dairy
products.
Food fermentation serves five main purposes:
 to enrich the diet through development of a diversity of flavors, aromas, and textures in
food substrates;
 to preserve substantial amounts of food through lactic acid, alcohol, acetic acid, and
alkaline fermentations;
 to enrich food substrates with protein, essential amino acids, and vitamins;
 to eliminate antinutrients; and
 to reduce cooking time and the associated use of fuel.
Pasteurization in Food Industry
Heat treatment of products is one of the main techniques in the food industry for food
conservation. Heat treatment stops bacterial and enzyme activity; thus preventing a loss of
quality and keeping food non-perishable. Pasteurization is a controlled heating process used to
eliminate any dangerous pathogens that may be present in milk, fruit-based drinks, some meat
products, and other foods which are commonly subjected to this treatment. Pasteurization
inactivates most viable vegetative forms of micro-organisms but not heat-resistant spores. As
well as the application to inactivate bacteria, pasteurization may be considered in relation to
enzymes present in the food, which can be inactivated by heat.

Application
Pasteurization is used to treat all types of food products. These include milk, juices, beer and
many others:

Description of Techniques, Methods and Equipments

Principal
Both pasteurization and blanching are based on the use of the minimum heat requirement needed
to deactivate specific micro-organisms or enzymes, thus minimizing any quality changes in the
foods themselves. In pasteurization, generally a heating temperature below 100 °C is applied.

Temperature and contact time in pasteurization

In heat treatment processes, various time/temperature combinations can be applied, depending on
the product properties and shelf-life requirements. Pasteurization temperatures commonly range
from 62 to 90°C, and pasteurization times vary from seconds to minutes.
 Batch wise pasteurization: 62 – 65°C, up to 30min
 High Temperature Short Time (HTST) pasteurization: 72 – 75°C, 15 - 240sec
 High Heat Short Time (HHST) pasteurization: 85 – 90oC, 1 - 25sec
Dairy Food Processing
Dairy processing includes businesses that deal in the packaging, treating, cutting or
manufacturing of dairy products, and the packing and storing of those products on the premises
where they are processed.
Dairy products include milk and any food that contains at least 50% milk or any substance
produced from milk (by weight measurement). These include:
 liquid milk products, buttermilk, concentrated buttermilk
 dairy blend
 cream, thickened cream
 butter, butter concentrate, ghee, anhydrous milk fat (butter oil)
 cheese
 yoghurt, cultured milk
 icecream, icecream mix
 casein, caseinate, whey, whey cream, concentrated whey cream
 buttermilk powder, lactose powder, milk sugar, powdered milk, skim milk powder, whey
powder, milk protein powder
 other milk and concentrates.

Construction & Facilities

Construction and layout of a food premise must be designed to minimize the opportunity for
food contamination.
Dairy processing facilities must ensure that their fixtures, fittings, equipment and transport
vehicles are designed and constructed in a manner that means they can be easily cleaned and,
where necessary, sanitised.
Businesses must also ensure that the premises are provided with the necessary services of water,
waste disposal, light, ventilation, cleaning and personal hygiene facilities, storage space and
access to toilets.
A food handler must take all reasonable measures not to handle food or surfaces likely to come
into contact with food in a way that is likely to compromise the safety and suitability of food.

Cleaning & Sanitation

Dairy processors must implement a documented cleaning schedule that identifies:
 all fixtures, fittings and equipment used in the processing of dairy products
 the frequency of cleaning
 how all fixtures, fittings and equipment are cleaned and sanitised
 how food contact surfaces and utensils are sanitised (where applicable)
 chemical usage (eg. strength, contact times, temperature).
All fixtures, fittings and equipment must be adequate for the production of safe and suitable
food, and fit for their intended use.
Routine internal cleaning and sanitation inspections must be undertaken, and records maintained
for corrective action taken on any identified issues.
Cleaning chemicals must be suitable for contact with food and used in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions.
Processing of milk and dairy products:
(1) Milk must be pasteurized by –
a) heating to a temperature of no less than 72°C and retaining at such temperature for no
less than 15 seconds; or
b) heating, using any other time and temperature combination of equivalent or greater lethal
effect on any pathogenic micro-organisms in the milk; or
c) using any other process that provides an equivalent or greater lethal effect on any
pathogenic micro-organisms;
(2) Milk processed under paragraph (1)(a) must be cooled immediately in a way that ensures that
the growth of microbiological hazards in the milk is prevented or reduced.
(3) Dairy products, other than cheese and cheese products, must be processed using –
a) a heat treatment that uses a combination of time and temperature of equal or greater lethal
effect on any pathogenic micro-organisms in the milk product achieved by paragraphs
(1)(a) or (1)(b); or
b) using any other process that provides an equivalent or greater lethal effect on any
pathogenic micro-organisms.
(4) Dairy products processed under paragraph (3)(a) must be cooled immediately in a way that
ensures that the growth of microbiological hazards in the product is prevented or reduced.
(5) To avoid doubt, sub clause (3) does not apply to the processing of dairy products that have
been made using milk already processed in accordance with sub clause (1).

Processing of dairy products to make cheese and cheese products

Milk or dairy products used to make cheese or cheese products must be processed –
(a) in accordance with subclause (1); or
(b) by being held at a temperature of no less than 62°C for a period of no less than 15 seconds,
and the cheese or cheese product stored at a temperature of no less than 2°C for a period of 90
days from the date of processing; or
(c) such that –
i) the curd is heated to a temperature of no less than 48°C; and
ii) the cheese or cheese product has a moisture content of less than 36%, after being
stored at a temperature of no less than 10°C for a period of no less than 6 months
from the date of processing; or
Infant Formula
Infant formula, or baby formula, is a manufactured food designed and marketed for feeding to
babies and infants under 12 months of age, usually prepared for bottle-feeding or cup-feeding
from powder (mixed with water) or liquid (with or without additional water). The U.S. Federal
Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA) defines infant formula as "a food which purports to be
or is represented for special dietary use solely as a food for infants by reason of its simulation of
human milk or its suitability as a complete or partial substitute for human milk".
Manufacturers state that the composition of infant formula is designed to be roughly based on a
human mother's milk at approximately one to three months postpartum; however, there are
significant differences in the nutrient content of these products.
The most commonly used infant formulas contain purified cow's milk whey and casein as a
protein source, a blend of vegetable oils as a fat source, lactose as a carbohydrate source, a
vitamin-mineral mix, and other ingredients depending on the manufacturer. In addition, there are
infant formulas using soybean as a protein source in place of cow's milk and formulas using
protein hydrolysed into its component amino acids for infants who are allergic to other proteins.
An upswing in breastfeeding in many countries has been accompanied by a deferment in the
average age of introduction of baby foods (including cow's milk), resulting in both increased
breastfeeding and increased use of infant formula between the ages of 3- and 12-months.

Use of infant formula

In some cases, breastfeeding is medically contraindicated. These include:
 Mother's health: The mother is infected with HIV or has active tuberculosis. She is extremely
ill or has had certain kinds of breast surgery, which may have removed or disconnected all
milk-producing parts of the breast. She is taking any kind of drug that could harm the baby,
including both prescription drugs such as cytotoxic chemotherapy for cancer treatments as
well as illicit drugs.
 Baby is unable to breastfeed: The child has a birth defect or inborn error of metabolism such
as galactosemia that makes breastfeeding difficult or impossible.
 Baby is considered at risk for malnutrition such as due to iron deficiency, vitamin
deficiencies (e.g. vitamin D which may be less present in breast milk than needed at high
latitudes where there is less sun exposure), or inadequate nutrition during transition to solid
foods.
 Personal preferences, beliefs, and experiences: The mother may dislike breast-feeding or
think it is inconvenient. In addition, breastfeeding can be difficult for victims of rape or
sexual abuse; for example, it may be a trigger for posttraumatic stress disorder. Many
families bottle feed to increase the father's role in parenting his child.
 Absence of the mother: The child is adopted, orphaned, abandoned, or in the sole custody of
a man or male same-sex couple. The mother is separated from her child by being in prison or
a mental hospital. The mother has left the child in the care of another person for an extended
period of time, such as while traveling or working abroad.
 Food allergies: The mother eats foods that may provoke an allergic reaction in the infant.
 Financial pressures: Maternity leave is unpaid, insufficient, or lacking. The mother's
employment interferes with breastfeeding. Mothers who breastfeed may experience a loss of
earning power.
 Societal structure: Breastfeeding may be forbidden at the mother's job, school, place of
worship or in other public places, or the mother may feel that breastfeeding in these places or
around other people is immodest, unsanitary, or inappropriate.
 Social pressures: Family members, such as mother's husband or boyfriend, or friends or other
members of society may encourage the use of infant formula. For example, they may believe
that breastfeeding will decrease the mother's energy, health, or attractiveness.
 Lack of training and education: The mother lacks education and training from medical
providers or community members.
 Lactation insufficiency: The mother is unable to produce sufficient milk. In studies that do
not account for lactation failure with obvious causes (such as use of formula and/or breast
pumps), this affects around 2 to 5% of women. Alternatively, despite a healthy supply, the
woman or her family may incorrectly believe that her breast milk is of low quality or in low
supply. These women may choose infant formula either exclusively or as a supplement to
breastfeeding.
 Fear of exposure to environmental contaminants: Certain environmental pollutants, such as
polychlorinated biphenyls, can bioaccumulate in the food chain and may be found in humans
including mothers' breast milk.
 Lack of other sources of breast milk:
 Lack of wet nurses: Wet nursing is illegal and stigmatized in some countries, and may not
be available. It may also be socially unsupported, expensive, or health screening of wet
nurses may not be available. The mother, her doctor, or family may not know that wet
nursing is possible, or may believe that nursing by a relative or paid wet-nurse is
unhygienic.
 Lack of milk banks: Human-milk banks may not be available, as few exist, and many
countries cannot provide the necessary screening for diseases and refrigeration.

Food Packaging
Food packaging is packaging for food. A package provides protection, tampering resistance, and
special physical, chemical, or biological needs. It may bear a nutrition facts label and other
information about food being offered for sale.

Functions
Packaging and package labeling have several objectives:

 Physical protection - The food enclosed in the package may require protection from, among
other things, shock, vibration, compression, temperature, bacteria, etc.
 Barrier protection - A barrier from oxygen, water vapor, dust, etc., is often required.
Permeation is a critical factor in design. Some packages contain desiccants or oxygen
absorbers to help extend shelf life. Modified atmospheres or controlled atmospheres are also
maintained in some food packages. Keeping the contents clean, fresh, and safe for the
intended shelf life is a primary function.
 Containment or agglomeration - Small items are typically grouped together in one package to
allow efficient handling. Liquids, powders, and granular materials need containment.
 Information transmission - Packages and labels communicate how to use, transport, recycle,
or dispose of the package or product. Some types of information are required by
governments.
 Marketing - The packaging and labels can be used by marketers to encourage potential
buyers to purchase the product. Aesthetically pleasing and eye-appealing food presentations
can encourage people to consider the contents. Package design has been an important and
constantly evolving phenomenon for several decades. Marketing communications and
graphic design are applied to the surface of the package and (in many cases) the point of sale
display.
 Security - Packaging can play an important role in reducing the security risks of shipment.
Packages can be made with improved tamper resistance to deter tampering and also can have
tamper-evident features to help indicate tampering. Packages can be engineered to help
reduce the risks of package pilferage; some package constructions are more resistant to
pilferage and some have pilfer-indicating seals. Packages may include authentication seals to
help indicate that the package and contents are not counterfeit. Packages also can include
anti-theft devices, such as dye packs, RFID tags, or electronic article surveillance tags, that
can be activated or detected by devices at exit points and require specialized tools to
deactivate. Using packaging in this way is a means of retail loss prevention.
 Convenience - Packages can have features which add convenience in distribution, handling,
stacking, display, sale, opening, reclosing, use, and reuse.
 Portion control - Single-serving packaging has a precise amount of contents to control usage.
Bulk commodities (such as salt) can be divided into packages that are a more suitable size for
individual households. It also aids the control of inventory: selling sealed one-liter bottles of
milk, rather than having people bring their own bottles to fill themselves.