Introduction to Vectors: Scalar and Vector, Scalar Multiplication,

Adding Vectors; Parallelogram Method and Component Method

I. Scalars and Vectors

A scalar is a number which expresses quantity. Scalars may or may not have units associated
with them. Examples: mass, volume, energy, money

A vector is a quantity which has both magnitude and direction. The magnitude of a vector is a
scalar. Examples: Displacement, velocity, acceleration, electric field.

Vector Representation

• Vectors are represented by an arrow pointing in the direction of the vector.

• The length of the vector represents the magnitude of the vector.

• WARNING!!! The length of the arrow does not necessarily represent a length.

⃗𝑨
⃗ = 𝟐. 𝟑𝒎/𝒔

Adding Vectors Graphically

Consider adding two vectors A and B graphically. The two vectors are shown below.

A A

1. Select an appropriate scale. (Ex. 20 cm = 5 N)

2. Draw vector A to scale and in the proper direction.
3. Draw vector B to the same scale with its tail at the tip of A and in the proper
direction.
4. The resultant vector R = A + B is the vector drawn from the tail of vector A to the tip
of vector B.
5. Calculate the magnitude of the resultant vector R using the selected scale and
measure its direction with a protractor.
6. This same process applies if you add more than two vectors.
This method of adding vectors graphically is also referred to as the head-to-tail method,
analytical method, and geometric method.

Ex. A jogger runs 2.0 km due east, then 1.0 km at 45o north of east, and finally
0.5 km due north. Calculate the displacement of the jogger.

Scale: 50cm = 2 km

ANS: R ≈ 2.98 km, θ ≈ 24o

II. Scalar Multiplication

Compatible matrices

Two matrices are said to be compatible when they have the same size, that is, the same number
of rows and the same number of columns. When two matrices are compatible, they can be
added (or subtracted).

Here are three matrices.

5 −2 2 −2
4 3
A=( ) B = ( −1 3 ) C = ( 0 1)
0 −1
1 0 4 −1

When working with matrices there are two kinds of multiplication: scalar multiplication
and matrix multiplication. Scalar multiplication is where a matrix is multiplied by a single
number. Matrix multiplication is where a matrix is multiplied by another matrix. - this is
covered in a later leaflet.

To multiply a matrix by a scalar (that is, a single number), we simply multiply each element in
the matrix by this number.

Using the matrices above we have the following:

5 × 5 5 × −2 25 − 10
5B = ( 5 × −1 5 × 3 ) = ( −5 15 )
5 × 1 5 × 0 5 0

−3 × 4 − 3 × 3 −12 − 9
-3A = ( )=( )
−3 × 0 − 3 × −1 0 3
 1 1
𝑥2 𝑥−2 1 −1
2 2 1
= (0
1 1
1/2C = 𝑥0 𝑥1 2)
2 2 1
1
𝑥4
1
𝑥−1 2 −2
(2 2 )

III. Adding Vectors

Parallelogram Method

Resultant - the sum of two vectors (or the resulting vector) when two forces are acted upon
an object Use the components to draw the vector

*Draw in the components *Two Methods

1.) Tip-to-Tail 2.) Parallelogram Method

a.) start at origin a.) start at origin
b.) draw horizontal component b.)draw 1st vector
c.) draw vertical component c.) draw 2nd vector

from the tail of 1st vector d.) make a parallelogram

d.) draw resultant e.) draw diagonal from the origin

Drawing Example: v = 6 (North) and h = 12 (West)

Tip-to-Tail Parallelogram Method

Resultant of 2 vectors

Review Facts:

I. Parallelogram
*opposite sides congruent
*opposite angles congruent
*angles on same-side are supplementary

II. Law of Sines - will not find an obtuse angle

III. Law of Cosines - use when you don't know a side/angle pair (SAS or SSS).

IV. Direction - degrees from positive x-axis to line

Example:
Component Method
In component notations, adding vectors is very easy: The components of a vector sum
C~ = A~ + B~ are simply the algebraic sums

Cx = Ax + Bx ,
(2)
Cy = Ay + By .

Here is the geometric explanation of this rule:

C~ x

B~
B~ y
(3)
B~ x
C~ y
A~ y
C~ A~

x
A~ x

In the same way, we may sum up several vectors: To get the components of a vector sum

, (4)

we separately sum up the x components of all the vectors and the y components of all the
vectors:
Cx = A1x + A2x + A3x + ··· + Anx ,
(5)
 Cy = A1y + A2y + A3y + ··· + Any .

Note: the sums here are algebraic, so please mind the ± signs of the components.
For the 3D vectors, there are similar formulae, but there is one more algebraic sum for the
z components:

Cx = A1x + A2x + A3x + ··· + Anx ,

Cy = A1y + A2y + A3y + ··· + Any , Cz = A1z + (6)

A2z + A3z + ··· + Anz .

Vector subtraction in components works similar to vector addition. To get

(7)
B~ = C~ − A~

in components, subtract the components of A~ from the components of C~,

Bx = Cx − Ax ,
By = Cy − Ay , (8)

in 3D also Bz = Cz − Az .
Conversion from magnitude and direction to components.

A vector quantity V~ has magnitude and direction. On a graph the magnitude is shown by
the length of the arrowed line; algebraically, the magnitude is a non-negative number |V~ |. In
a 2D plane, the direction of a vector can be specified by the angle φv it makes with the x axis,
for example y

V~
(9)
φv
x

Now let us draw a similar diagram which also includes the components (Vx,Vy) of the vector
V~ :
 y

V~ ~y
V
(10)
φv
x
~
V x

Note the right triangle made by the three red lines; taking the ratios of this triangle’s sides and
applying basic trigonometry, we immediately obtain

, , (11)
and therefore

Vx = |V~ | × cosφv , Vy = |V~ | × sinφv . (12)

The triangle on the diagram (10) is drawn for direction of V~ in the first quadrant of the
coordinate system (between the positive x and positive y direction, φv < 90◦), but the formulae
(12) for the components work for all possible directions, provided we always measure the
angle φv counterclockwise from the positive x axis. For example, for V~ in the second
quadrant

y
90 ◦ <φ v < 180 ◦ ,

V x = |V~ |× cos φv < 0,

V y = |V~ |× sin φv > 0 ,

~y
V
V~
φv
x
V~ x
(13) Likewise, for V~ in the third quadrant

y 180◦ < φv < 270◦,

 Vx = |V~ | × cosφv < 0,

Vy = |V~ | × sinφv < 0,

φv
x
V~ x
~
V
~y
V

(14)

φv

~x
V
~
V
V~ y

or for V~ in the fourth quadrant

y 270◦ < φv < 360◦,

Vx = |V~ | × cosφv > 0,

Vy = |V~ | × sinφv < 0,

(15)
Conversion from components to magnitude and direction.

Now supposed we know the (Vx,Vy) components of a vector V~ ; how do we find the
vector’s magnitude and direction?
 The magnitude |V~ | follows from the Pythagoras theorem for the right triangles on any of
the diagrams on the last two pages:

|V~ |2 = Vx2 + Vy2 — (16)

regardless of the signs of the Vx and Vy — and therefore

. (17)

To find the direction of V~ , we need a bit of trigonometry. Let’s take the ratio of the two
equations (12) for the components (Vx,Vy):

. (18)

Thus the ratio Vy/Vc gives us the tangent of the angle φv, so naively we may calculate the
angle φv itself as the arc-tangent (the inverse tangent) of this ratio,

. (19)

However, the formula may be off by 180◦, so it might give us precisely the opposite direction.
Indeed, the vectors V~ and −V~ have opposite directions but similar ratios

. (20)
This ambiguity is related to the trigonometric identity

for any angle ϕ, tan(ϕ) = tan(ϕ ± 180◦). (21)

Therefore, given the components of a vector, its direction is

φv = eitheror,
(22) depending on the signs of the Vx and Vy.

Finding resultant force using Component Method

1. Express each force F1, F2, and F3 in unit vector notation. Take the origin to be at the
center of the force table (at pivot point) with the +x axis along 0 o and +y-axis along
90o.
 2. Use the component method to obtain the resultant force vector Fcomp in unit vector
notation. Calculate the magnitude and direction.

Finding resultant force using Graphically

1. Add the vectors F1, F2 and F3 graphically using an appropriate scale and coordinate
system.
2. Obtain the resultant vector Fgrap. Calculate the magnitude and direction.
3. Calculate the % error between the graphical method, component method, and the
expected value.