SECTION 4: TRANSMISSION

LINES
ESE 470 – Energy Distribution Systems
2 Introduction

K. Webb ESE 470

 Transmission Lines
3

 Transmission and distribution of electrical power occurs

over metal cables
 Overhead AC or DC
 Underground AC or DC

 In the U.S. nearly all transmission

makes use of overhead AC lines
 These cables are good, but not
perfect, conductors
 Series impedance
 Shunt admittance

 In this section of notes we’ll look at

how these are accounted for in
equivalent circuit models
K. Webb ESE 470
 Electrical Properties of Transmission Lines
4

 Series resistance
 Voltage drop (𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼) and real power loss (𝐼𝐼 2 𝑅𝑅) along the line
 Due to finite conductivity of the line
 Series inductance
 Series voltage drop, no real power loss
 Only self inductance (no mutual inductance) in balanced systems
 Shunt conductance
 Real power loss (𝑉𝑉 2 𝐺𝐺)
 Leakage current due to corona effects or leakage at insulators
 Typically neglected for overhead lines
 Shunt capacitance
 Capacitance to other conductors and to ground
 Line-charging currents
K. Webb ESE 470
5 Conductors

K. Webb ESE 470

 Conductors
6

 Before getting into transmission line models, we’ll take

a look at the conductors themselves
 Aluminum is the most common conductor
 Good conductivity
 Light weight
 Low cost
 Plentiful supply

 Most common cable type combines aluminum and steel

 Aluminum-conductor steel-reinforced (ACSR)
 Bare, stranded cable
 Core of steel strands provides strength
 Outer aluminum strands provide good conductivity

K. Webb ESE 470

 ACSR Cables
7

 ACSR cables vary based on number of aluminum conductor strands and

number of steel reinforcement strands
 ACSR variants assigned bird code names, e.g.:
 Dove: 26/7 Al/Steel stranding
 Bluebird: 84/19 Al/Steel stranding

source: Glover, Sarma, Overbye

 Another increasingly popular cable type is all-aluminum-alloy conductor

(AAAC)
 Stronger
 Lighter
 Higher conductivity
 More expensive

K. Webb ESE 470

 Cables
8

 Cables are sized to provide the required current-carrying

capability or ampacity
 Number of individual strands
 Diameter of individual strands
 Strand and cable diameter commonly measured in mils
1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 0.001"
 Cross-sectional area often measured in circular mils or cmil
 Area of a circle with a diameter of 𝑑𝑑 = 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 0.001“
2
0.001
1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝜋𝜋 = 785 × 10−9 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
2
 Area in 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 of a cable with diameter 𝑑𝑑 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚:
𝐴𝐴 = 𝑑𝑑 2
K. Webb ESE 470
 ACSR Cable
9

 Consider, for example, Falcon ACSR cable

 54/19: 54 Al strands with a core of 19 steel strands
 Al strand diameter: 172 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
 Al strand area: 172 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 2 = 29.584 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
 Steel strand diameter: 103 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
2
 Steel strand area: 103 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 10.609 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
 Cable diameter: 1.545“
 Cable area: 1545 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 2 = 2387 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
 Ampacity: 1380 𝐴𝐴
 Weight: 10,777 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙/𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

K. Webb ESE 470

 Bundling
10

 In addition to increasing cable

cross-sectional area, ampacity
can be increased by adding
additional cables to each
phase – bundling

 Two-, three-, and four-cable bundles are common:

K. Webb ESE 470

 Bundling
11

 Typical bundling:
 345 kV: two conductors
 500 kV: three conductors
 765 kV: four conductors

 Advantages of bundling:
 Lower resistance
 Lower reactance (inductance)
 Increased ampacity
 Reduced electric field gradient surrounding phase conductor
 Reduced corona
 Reduced loss, noise, and RF interference
 Improved heat dissipation
K. Webb ESE 470
 Insulators
12

 Cables are supported by towers

 Must connect, while retaining electrical isolation
 Connections are typically made through ceramic or
glass insulators
 High-voltage lines suspended by strings of insulator
discs
 One or two strings
 Two prevents sway
 Number of discs dictated
by line voltage, e.g.:
 4-6 for 69 kV
 30-35 for 765 kV

K. Webb ESE 470

 Transposition
13

 Transmission-line inductance and capacitance determined

by geometry
 Cable size and relative spacing
 Consider three phases laid out side-by-side

 Phases a and c will have similar inductance and capacitance

 Inductance and capacitance of phase b will differ

K. Webb ESE 470

 Transposition
14

 Transposition
 Switch the position of
each phase twice along
the length of the line
 Each phase occupies
each position for one
third of the line length
 Line remains balanced

K. Webb ESE 470

15 Medium- and Short-Line Models

K. Webb ESE 470

 Short-Line Model
16

 How we choose to model the electrical characteristics of a

transmission line depends on the length of the line
 Short-line model:
 < ~80 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
 Lumped model
 Account only for series impedance
 Neglect shunt capacitance

 𝑅𝑅 and 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 are resistance and reactance per unit length, respectively
 Each with units of Ω/𝑚𝑚
 𝑙𝑙 is the length of the line

K. Webb ESE 470

 Medium-Line Model
17

 Medium-line model – nominal-𝝅𝝅 model:

 80 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 < 𝑙𝑙 < 250 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
 Lumped model
 Now include shunt capacitance

𝑧𝑧 = 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 Ω/𝑚𝑚 and 𝑍𝑍 = 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 Ω

𝑦𝑦 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝑆𝑆/𝑚𝑚 and 𝑌𝑌 = 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝑆𝑆

 Still a lumped model

 All impedances and admittances lumped into one or two circuit
components
K. Webb ESE 470
18 ABCD Parameters

K. Webb ESE 470

 Transmission Lines as Two-Port Networks
19

 Before moving on to a model for longer transmission lines,

we’ll look at an alternative tool for characterizing
transmission line networks

 We can treat transmission lines as general two-port

networks

 As two-port networks, we can characterize transmission

lines with their ABCD parameters or chain parameters

K. Webb ESE 470

 ABCD Parameters
20

 ABCD (or chain or transmission or cascade) parameters define the following

two-port relationships
𝑽𝑽1 = 𝐴𝐴𝑽𝑽2 + 𝐵𝐵𝑰𝑰2
𝑰𝑰1 = 𝐶𝐶𝑽𝑽2 + 𝐷𝐷𝑰𝑰2

 In matrix form, the chain-parameter equations are

𝑽𝑽1 𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵 𝑽𝑽2
=
𝑰𝑰1 𝐶𝐶 𝐷𝐷 𝑰𝑰2
 𝐴𝐴, 𝐵𝐵, 𝐶𝐶, and 𝐷𝐷 are, in general, complex numbers
 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐷𝐷 are dimensionless
 𝐵𝐵 is an impedance with units of Ω
 𝐶𝐶 is an admittance with units of 𝑆𝑆

 𝑉𝑉1 and 𝑉𝑉2 are line-to-neutral voltages

 If the network is reciprocal, then 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 − 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 1
 If the network is symmetric, then 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐷𝐷
K. Webb ESE 470
 ABCD Parameters – Short-Line Model
21

 We’ll now derive the ABCD parameters for the short-

transmission-line model

 Applying KVL around the loop gives our first equation

𝑽𝑽𝑆𝑆 − 𝑰𝑰𝑅𝑅 𝑍𝑍 − 𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 = 0
𝑽𝑽𝑆𝑆 = 𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 + 𝑍𝑍𝑰𝑰𝑅𝑅
So,
𝐴𝐴 = 1 and 𝐵𝐵 = 𝑍𝑍

K. Webb ESE 470

 ABCD Parameters – Short-Line Model
22

 Applying KCL gives the second equation

𝑰𝑰𝑠𝑠 = 𝑰𝑰𝑅𝑅
and
𝐶𝐶 = 0 and 𝐷𝐷 = 1
 The short-line ABCD matrix is
1 𝑍𝑍
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 =
0 1

 Note that, due to symmetry and reciprocity,

𝐴𝐴 = 𝐷𝐷 and 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 − 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 1
K. Webb ESE 470
 ABCD Parameters – Medium-Line Model
23

 Next, for the medium-transmission-line model

 Applying KVL around the loop gives our first equation

𝑌𝑌
𝑽𝑽𝑆𝑆 − 𝑰𝑰𝑅𝑅 + 𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 𝑍𝑍 − 𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 = 0
2
𝑌𝑌𝑍𝑍
𝑽𝑽𝑆𝑆 = 1 + 𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 + 𝑍𝑍𝑰𝑰𝑅𝑅
2
 This is the first chain parameter equation, where
𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌
𝐴𝐴 = 1 + and 𝐵𝐵 = 𝑍𝑍
2

K. Webb ESE 470

 ABCD Parameters – Medium-Line Model
24

 For the second equation, apply KCL at the sending end

𝑌𝑌 𝑌𝑌
𝑰𝑰𝑠𝑠 − 𝑽𝑽𝑠𝑠 − 𝑰𝑰𝑅𝑅 − 𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 = 0
2 2
 Substituting in our previous expression for 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆
𝑌𝑌 𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌 𝑌𝑌 𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌
𝑰𝑰𝑆𝑆 = 𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 + 𝑰𝑰𝑅𝑅 + 1 + 𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 + 𝑰𝑰
2 2 2 2 𝑅𝑅
𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌 𝑌𝑌 𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌
𝑰𝑰𝑆𝑆 = 2 + 𝑽𝑽 + 1 + 𝑰𝑰
2 2 𝑅𝑅 2 𝑅𝑅
 This is the second chain-parameter equation, where
𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌 𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌
𝐶𝐶 = 1 + 𝑌𝑌 and 𝐷𝐷 = 1 +
4 2
K. Webb ESE 470
 ABCD Parameters – Medium-Line Model
25

 The medium-line chain parameters are

𝑌𝑌𝑍𝑍
1+ 𝑍𝑍
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 2
𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌 𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌
1+ 𝑌𝑌 1+
4 2

 Again, note that, due to symmetry and reciprocity, 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐷𝐷 and

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 − 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 1
 Also note that allowing 𝑌𝑌 → 0 yields the chain parameters for the
short-line model
K. Webb ESE 470
 Cascading Two-Port Networks
26

 ABCD parameters or chain parameters are also called

cascade parameters
 If we cascade multiple two-port networks, the ABCD
parameter matrix for the cascade is the product of the
individual ABCD parameter matrices

𝐴𝐴1 𝐴𝐴2 + 𝐵𝐵1 𝐶𝐶2 𝐴𝐴1 𝐵𝐵2 + 𝐵𝐵1 𝐷𝐷2

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 =
𝐶𝐶1 𝐴𝐴2 + 𝐷𝐷1 𝐶𝐶2 𝐶𝐶1 𝐵𝐵2 + 𝐷𝐷1 𝐷𝐷2

K. Webb ESE 470

 Cascaded Two-Ports - Example
27

 For example, consider the cascade of the following two two-port

networks

 ABCD parameters for the first network are

𝑌𝑌1 𝑍𝑍1
1+ 𝑍𝑍1 1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗 2Ω
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐷𝐷1 = 2 =
𝑌𝑌1 𝑍𝑍1 𝑌𝑌1 𝑍𝑍1 −4 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑆𝑆 1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗
1+ 𝑌𝑌1 1+
4 2
 And for the second network
1 𝑍𝑍 1 4Ω
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐷𝐷2 = =
0 1 0 1
 So the overall ABCD matrix is
1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗 6 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 Ω
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 =
−4 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑆𝑆 −15 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

K. Webb ESE 470

 Cascaded Two-Ports - Example
28

 If a sending-end voltage of 𝑽𝑽𝑆𝑆 = 120∠0° 𝑉𝑉 is applied,

and no load is connected, what is the receiving-end
voltage?
𝑽𝑽𝑆𝑆 = 120∠0° 𝑉𝑉 and 𝑰𝑰𝑅𝑅 = 0 𝐴𝐴
𝑽𝑽𝑆𝑆 = 𝐴𝐴𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 + 𝐵𝐵𝑰𝑰𝑅𝑅
120∠0° = 1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅
 The no-load receiving-end voltage is
120∠0°
𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 = = 7.06 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗.2 𝑉𝑉
1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 = 29.1∠ − 75.96° 𝑉𝑉
K. Webb ESE 470
29 Voltage Regulation

K. Webb ESE 470

 Voltage Regulation
30

 The voltage at the receiving end of a line will change depending on

the load placed on the line
 Magnitude of this change is quantified as voltage regulation
 Voltage regulation:
 Change in receiving-end voltage from no load to full load, expressed as a
percentage of the full-load voltage

𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 − 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
%𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = ⋅ 100%
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
 Typically, transmission lines are designed to limit voltage regulation to
about 10%
 As we’ve seen, the no-load voltage is given by
𝑽𝑽𝑆𝑆
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 =
𝐴𝐴

K. Webb ESE 470

 Voltage Regulation – Example 5.1
31

 Consider a three-phase, 60 Hz, 345 kV transmission line

with the following properties
 200 km long
 𝑧𝑧 = 0.032 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗.35 Ω/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗.2 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
 Full load is 700 MW at 95% of the rated voltage and a power
factor of 0.99 leading
 Determine:
 ABCD parameters for an appropriate transmission-line
model
 Phase shift between sending- and receiving-end voltages at
full load
 Percent voltage regulation

K. Webb ESE 470

 Voltage Regulation – Example 5.1
32

 Line is 200 km long, so a nominal-𝜋𝜋 model is appropriate

where
𝑍𝑍 = 𝑧𝑧 ⋅ 200 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 6.4 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 Ω
𝑌𝑌 = 𝑦𝑦 ⋅ 200 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇
 The ABCD parameters are
𝑌𝑌𝑍𝑍
1+ 𝑍𝑍 0.971 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗.0027 6.4 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 Ω
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 2 =
𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌 𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌 −1.13 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 0.971 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗.0027
1+ 𝑌𝑌 1+
4 2
0.971∠0.159° 70.3∠84.8° Ω
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 =
828∠90.08° 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 0.971∠0.159°
K. Webb ESE 470
 Voltage Regulation – Example 5.1
33

 At full load the line-to-line receiving-end voltage is

𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 345 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ⋅ 0.95 = 327.8 𝑘𝑘𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
 And the line-to-neutral voltage is
327.8 𝑘𝑘𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = = 189.2 𝑘𝑘𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
3
 Using the receiving-end voltage as the reference, the
receiving-end voltage phasor is
𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 = 189.2∠0° 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
 We know that the load power is given by
𝑃𝑃 = 3𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅 cos 𝜃𝜃
 𝜃𝜃 is the power-factor angle (leading, so it’s negative)
𝜃𝜃 = − cos −1 𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓. = − cos −1 0.99 = −8.1°

K. Webb ESE 470

 Voltage Regulation – Example 5.1
34

 The receiving-end current phasor is

𝑃𝑃 700 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝑰𝑰𝑅𝑅 = ∠ − 𝜃𝜃 = ∠8.1°
3𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 cos 𝜃𝜃 3 ⋅ 189.2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ⋅ 0.99
𝑰𝑰𝑅𝑅 = 1.25∠8.1° 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

 To determine the phase shift from sending to receiving end, use

chain parameters to determine 𝑽𝑽𝑆𝑆 (line-to-neutral)
𝑽𝑽𝑆𝑆 = 𝐴𝐴𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 + 𝐵𝐵𝑰𝑰𝑅𝑅
𝑽𝑽𝑆𝑆 = 0.971∠0.159° ⋅ 189.2∠0° 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
+70.3∠84.8° Ω ⋅ 1.25∠8.1° 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑽𝑽𝑆𝑆 = 199.8∠26.1° 𝑘𝑘𝑉𝑉LN

 So, the phase shift along the line is −26.1°

K. Webb ESE 470

 Voltage Regulation – Example 5.1
35

 The percent voltage regulation is given by

𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 − 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
%𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = ⋅ 100%
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅

 The line-to-neutral no-load voltage is

𝑽𝑽𝑆𝑆 199.8∠26.1°
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = = = 205.8 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝐴𝐴 0.971∠0.159°
 The full-load line-to-neutral voltage was given to be
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 189.2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

 So, the percent voltage regulation is

205.8 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 189.2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
%𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = ⋅ 100% = 8.7%
189.2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

K. Webb ESE 470

36 Exact Transmission-Line Equations

K. Webb ESE 470

 Distributed Transmission Line Model
37

 The medium- and short-line models are lumped models

 All series impedance lumped into one element
 Shunt admittances lumped into two elements
 Real lines are distributed networks
 Lumped models are inaccurate for long lines
 To treat a line as a distributed network, consider the impedance and
admittance of a segment of differential length, Δ𝑥𝑥

K. Webb ESE 470

 Transmission Line Differential Equations
38

 Apply KVL around the differential length of line

𝑽𝑽 𝑥𝑥 + Δ𝑥𝑥 = 𝑽𝑽 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑰𝑰 𝑥𝑥 𝑧𝑧Δ𝑥𝑥
𝑽𝑽 𝑥𝑥+Δ𝑥𝑥 −𝑽𝑽 𝑥𝑥
= 𝑧𝑧𝑰𝑰 𝑥𝑥 (1)
Δ𝑥𝑥

 If we let the length of the line segment, Δ𝑥𝑥, go to zero, we get

𝑑𝑑𝑽𝑽 𝑥𝑥
= 𝑧𝑧𝑰𝑰 𝑥𝑥 (2)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

 A first-order differential equation

 This is a second-order segment, so we need a second first-order
differential equation to describe it completely
 Apply KCL at 𝑥𝑥 + Δ𝑥𝑥
𝑰𝑰 𝑥𝑥 + Δ𝑥𝑥 = 𝑰𝑰 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑽𝑽 𝑥𝑥 + Δ𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦Δ𝑥𝑥
𝑰𝑰 𝑥𝑥+Δ𝑥𝑥 −𝑰𝑰 𝑥𝑥
= 𝑦𝑦𝑽𝑽 𝑥𝑥 + Δ𝑥𝑥 (3)
Δ𝑥𝑥
K. Webb ESE 470
 Transmission Line Differential Equations
39

 Again, letting Δ𝑥𝑥 → 0

𝑑𝑑𝑰𝑰 𝑥𝑥
= 𝑦𝑦𝑽𝑽 𝑥𝑥 (4)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

 Our goal is a single differential equation in 𝑽𝑽 𝑥𝑥 to describe

the segment of transmission line
 Must eliminate 𝑰𝑰 𝑥𝑥
 Solving (2) for 𝑰𝑰 𝑥𝑥 and differentiating gives
𝑑𝑑𝑰𝑰 𝑥𝑥 1 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑽𝑽 𝑥𝑥
= (5)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑍𝑍 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2

 Substituting (5) into (4) yields the single second-order

differential equation for the line segment
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑽𝑽 𝑥𝑥
− 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑽𝑽 𝑥𝑥 = 0 (6)
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2

K. Webb ESE 470

 Transmission Line Differential Equations
40

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑉𝑉 𝑥𝑥
− 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑽𝑽 𝑥𝑥 = 0 (6)
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2

 This is a second-order, homogeneous, linear, constant-coefficient, ordinary

differential equation
 Its characteristic equation is
𝑠𝑠 2 − 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 = 0
 The roots of the characteristic polynomial are
𝑠𝑠 = ± 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 = ±𝛾𝛾
where 𝛾𝛾 = 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 is the propagation constant, with units of 𝑚𝑚−1 (or 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟/𝑚𝑚)
 The solution to (6) is
𝑽𝑽 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐾𝐾1 𝑒𝑒 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 + 𝐾𝐾2 𝑒𝑒 −𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 (7)
where 𝐾𝐾1 and 𝐾𝐾2 are unknown constants to be determined through
application of boundary conditions
K. Webb ESE 470
 Transmission Line Differential Equations
41

 We can get an expression for current by differentiating

(7) and substituting back into (2)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥
= 𝛾𝛾𝐾𝐾1 𝑒𝑒 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 − 𝛾𝛾𝐾𝐾2 𝑒𝑒 −𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 = 𝑧𝑧𝑰𝑰 𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

 Solving for 𝑰𝑰 𝑥𝑥
𝐾𝐾1 𝑒𝑒 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 −𝐾𝐾2 𝑒𝑒 −𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾
𝑰𝑰 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑧𝑧⁄ (8)
𝛾𝛾

 The term in the denominator of (8) is the characteristic

impedance of the line, 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 , with units of ohms (Ω)
𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧
𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 = = = (9)
𝛾𝛾 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 𝑦𝑦

K. Webb ESE 470

 Transmission Line Differential Equations
42

 Using (9), (8) becomes

𝐾𝐾1 𝑒𝑒 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 −𝐾𝐾2 𝑒𝑒 −𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾
𝑰𝑰 𝑥𝑥 = (10)
𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐

 We can now apply boundary conditions to determine

the two unknown coefficients, 𝐾𝐾1 and 𝐾𝐾2
 At the receiving end of the line, which we’ll define to be
𝑥𝑥 = 0, we have
𝑽𝑽 0 = 𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 and 𝑰𝑰 0 = 𝑰𝑰𝑅𝑅
So,
𝑽𝑽 0 = 𝐾𝐾1 + 𝐾𝐾2 = 𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅
𝐾𝐾1 − 𝐾𝐾2
𝑰𝑰 0 = = 𝑰𝑰𝑅𝑅
𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐
K. Webb ESE 470
 Transmission Line Differential Equations
43

 Solving each equation for 𝐾𝐾2

𝐾𝐾2 = 𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 − 𝐾𝐾1 = 𝐾𝐾1 − 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 𝑰𝑰𝑅𝑅
 Solving for 𝐾𝐾1 , then back-substituting to solve for 𝐾𝐾2
gives
𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 +𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 𝑰𝑰𝑅𝑅
𝐾𝐾1 =
2
𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 −𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 𝑰𝑰𝑅𝑅
𝐾𝐾2 =
2

 Substituting into (7) and (10)

𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 +𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 𝑰𝑰𝑅𝑅 𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 −𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 𝑰𝑰𝑅𝑅
𝑽𝑽 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒𝑒 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 (11)
2 2
𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 +𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 𝑰𝑰𝑅𝑅 𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 −𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 𝑰𝑰𝑅𝑅
𝑰𝑰 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒𝑒 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 (12)
2𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 2𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐

K. Webb ESE 470

 Transmission Line Differential Equations
44

 Collecting 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 and 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅 terms in (11) and (12)

𝑒𝑒 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 +𝑒𝑒 −𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 𝑒𝑒 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 −𝑒𝑒 −𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾
𝑽𝑽 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 + 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 𝑰𝑰𝑅𝑅 (13)
2 2

1 𝑒𝑒 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 −𝑒𝑒 −𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 𝑒𝑒 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 +𝑒𝑒 −𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾

𝑰𝑰 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 + 𝑰𝑰𝑅𝑅 (14)
𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 2 2

 The terms in parentheses can be represented as

hyperbolic functions
𝑽𝑽 𝑥𝑥 = cosh 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 + 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 sinh 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 𝑰𝑰𝑅𝑅 (15)
1
𝑰𝑰 𝑥𝑥 = sinh 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 + cosh 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 𝑰𝑰𝑅𝑅 (16)
𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐

K. Webb ESE 470

 Transmission Line Differential Equations
45

 Equations (15) and (16) give the chain parameters for the
two-port network between a point at location 𝑥𝑥 along the
line and the receiving end

cosh 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 sinh 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑥𝑥 = 1
sinh 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 cosh 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾
𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐

 For chain parameters between sending and receiving ends,

we set 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑙𝑙

cosh 𝛾𝛾𝑙𝑙 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 sinh 𝛾𝛾𝑙𝑙

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 1
sinh 𝛾𝛾𝑙𝑙 cosh 𝛾𝛾𝑙𝑙
𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐

K. Webb ESE 470

 Propagation Constant
46

 We defined the propagation constant as

𝛾𝛾 = 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧
 This is, in general, a complex value
𝛾𝛾 = 𝛼𝛼 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 (17)

 The real part, 𝛼𝛼, is the attenuation constant

 Represents loss along the line
 Due to series resistance and/or shunt conductance

 The imaginary part, 𝛽𝛽, is the phase constant

 Represents change in phase along the line
 Due to series reactance and/or shunt susceptance

K. Webb ESE 470

47 Long-Line Equivalent Circuit

K. Webb ESE 470

 Long-Line Equivalent 𝜋𝜋 Circuit
48

 Now that we have exact ABCD parameters for a distributed

transmission line, we can create an equivalent 𝜋𝜋 circuit

 Here we’re using 𝑍𝑍𝑍 and 𝑌𝑌𝑌 to distinguish from 𝑍𝑍 = 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 and 𝑌𝑌 = 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 of
the lumped, nominal 𝜋𝜋-circuit model
 Equating the ABCD parameters with those for the equivalent 𝜋𝜋
circuit above
𝑌𝑌 ′ 𝑍𝑍 ′
cosh 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 sinh 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 1+ 𝑍𝑍𝑍
2
1 = ′ ′
sinh 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 cosh 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 ′
𝑌𝑌 𝑍𝑍 𝑌𝑌 ′ 𝑍𝑍 ′
𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 𝑌𝑌 1 + 1+
4 2
K. Webb ESE 470
 Long-Line Equivalent 𝜋𝜋 Circuit
49

 Equating the 𝐵𝐵 parameters, we see that

𝑍𝑍 ′ = 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 sinh 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 (18)
 Using (18) in the 𝐴𝐴-parameter equation gives
𝑌𝑌 ′
1 + 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 sinh 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 = cosh 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾
2
𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾
𝑌𝑌′
cosh 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 − 1 tanh
2
= =
2 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 sinh 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐

 The equivalent 𝜋𝜋 circuit for long transmission lines (>250 km) is

K. Webb ESE 470

 Long-Line vs. Medium-Line Models
50

 We can compare this equivalent 𝜋𝜋 circuit with the nominal 𝜋𝜋 circuit

used for medium-length lines, where
𝑌𝑌 𝑙𝑙
𝑍𝑍 = 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 and = 𝑦𝑦
2 2

 Rewriting (18) using the definition for characteristic impedance,

𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧 sinh 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾
𝑍𝑍 ′ = sinh 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 = 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧
𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧

sinh 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾
𝑍𝑍 ′ = 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧
𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 𝑙𝑙
sinh 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾
𝑍𝑍 ′ = 𝑍𝑍 (20)
𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾

 We see that the series impedance of the long-line model is equal to

that of the medium-line model, multiplied by a correction factor

K. Webb ESE 470

 Long-Line vs. Medium-Line Models
51

 Doing the same for the shunt admittance, we have

𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾
𝑌𝑌 ′ 𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦 tanh �2
= tanh 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾�2 = 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦�
2 𝑧𝑧 2 𝑧𝑧 2

𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾
𝑌𝑌 ′ 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 tanh �2
= 𝑙𝑙
2 2 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧
2

𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾�
𝑌𝑌 ′ 𝑌𝑌 tanh 2
= 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾�
2 2 2

 Again, we see a similar correction factor relating the

admittance, 𝑌𝑌, of the lumped, nominal 𝜋𝜋 circuit to the
admittance of the distributed, equivalent 𝜋𝜋 circuit, 𝑌𝑌𝑌
K. Webb ESE 470
52 Lossless Lines

K. Webb ESE 470

 Lossless Lines
53

 Transmission line models can be simplified significantly

if we neglect loss
 Sacrifice accuracy for the sake of simplicity
 Series resistance, 𝑅𝑅, and shunt conductance, 𝐺𝐺, are the
model parameters accounting for loss
 Let 𝑅𝑅 → 0 and 𝐺𝐺 → 0 – (we’ve already assumed 𝐺𝐺 = 0)
 Propagation constant for a lossless line is
𝛾𝛾 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
 The attenuation constant is now zero, 𝛼𝛼 → 0

𝛾𝛾 = 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 ⋅ 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

𝛽𝛽 = 𝜔𝜔 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
K. Webb ESE 470
 Lossless Lines – ABCD Parameters
54

 Using the propagation constant for a lossless line, the distributed

model chain parameters become
𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝐴𝐴 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐷𝐷 𝑥𝑥 = cosh 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 =
2
𝐴𝐴 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐷𝐷 𝑥𝑥 = cos 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽
𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝐵𝐵 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 sinh 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐
2
𝐵𝐵 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑗𝑗𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 sin 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽
1 1 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝐶𝐶 𝑥𝑥 = sinh 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 =
𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 2
sin 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽
𝐶𝐶 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑗𝑗
𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐

K. Webb ESE 470

 Lossless Lines – ABCD Parameters
55

 Chain parameters at a distance 𝑥𝑥 from the end of a lossless line are

cos 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 𝑗𝑗𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 sin 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑥𝑥 = sin 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽
𝑗𝑗 cos 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽
𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐

 And at the sending end of a line of length 𝑙𝑙, 𝑥𝑥 → 𝑙𝑙, and we have
cos 𝛽𝛽𝑙𝑙 𝑗𝑗𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 sin 𝛽𝛽𝑙𝑙
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = sin 𝛽𝛽𝑙𝑙
𝑗𝑗 cos 𝛽𝛽𝑙𝑙
𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐

 The characteristic impedance of the lossless line is called the surge

impedance

𝑧𝑧 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝐿𝐿
𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 = = =
𝑦𝑦 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝐶𝐶

K. Webb ESE 470

 Equivalent 𝜋𝜋 Circuit – Lossless Line
56

 For the lossless line

𝛾𝛾 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
so,
𝐿𝐿
𝑍𝑍 ′ = 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 sinh 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 = 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋 ′
𝐶𝐶

and,
𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽
𝑌𝑌′ tanh tan
2 2
= = 𝑗𝑗
2 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐

K. Webb ESE 470

 Wavelength
57

 The voltage along the lossless line is

𝑽𝑽 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐴𝐴 𝑥𝑥 𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 + 𝐵𝐵 𝑥𝑥 𝑰𝑰𝑅𝑅
𝑽𝑽 𝑥𝑥 = cos 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 sin 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 𝑰𝑰𝑅𝑅

 A wavelength, 𝜆𝜆, is the distance required for a phase shift of 360°

along the line
 There is a 360° phase shift when 𝑥𝑥 = 𝜆𝜆 and
𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 = 2𝜋𝜋

 The wavelength is
2𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋 1 𝜈𝜈
𝜆𝜆 = = = =
𝛽𝛽 𝜔𝜔 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑓𝑓 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑓𝑓

where 𝜈𝜈 = 1/ 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 is the propagation velocity along the line

K. Webb ESE 470

 Wavelength
58

 For overhead transmission lines,

𝜈𝜈 ≈ 𝑐𝑐 ≈ 3 × 108 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
 That is, electrical waves propagate along the line at roughly
the speed of light
 At 60 Hz, the wavelength is
𝜈𝜈 3 × 108
𝜆𝜆 = = = 5000 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑓𝑓 60
 This is approximately the distance across the U.S.
 Most transmission lines are significantly shorter than a
wavelength

K. Webb ESE 470

59 Surge Impedance Loading

K. Webb ESE 470

 Surge Impedance Loading (SIL)
60

 Surge impedance loading (SIL)

 The power delivered by a transmission line to a resistive load whose impedance
is equal to the surge impedance, 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 , of that transmission line
 At SIL, the load current is
𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅
𝑰𝑰𝑅𝑅 =
𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐
 The voltage along the line is
𝑽𝑽 𝑥𝑥 = cos 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 sin 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 𝑰𝑰𝑅𝑅
𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅
𝑽𝑽 𝑥𝑥 = cos 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 sin 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽
𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐
𝑽𝑽 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 cos 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽
𝑽𝑽 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 ∠𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽

 Note that at SIL, the magnitude of the voltage is constant along the line
 A flat voltage profile
K. Webb ESE 470
 Surge Impedance Loading (SIL)
61

 At SIL, the current along the line is given by

sin 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅
𝑰𝑰 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑗𝑗 𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 + cos 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽
𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐
𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅
𝑰𝑰 𝑥𝑥 = cos 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽
𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐
𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅
𝑰𝑰 𝑥𝑥 = ∠𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽
𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐
 The complex power along the line is
∗
∗
𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅
𝑺𝑺 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑽𝑽 𝑥𝑥 𝑰𝑰 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 ∠𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 ∠𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽
𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐
𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 2
𝑺𝑺 𝑥𝑥 = = 𝑃𝑃 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑥𝑥
𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐
 At SIL
 Power flow is independent of position along the line
 Reactive power is zero
K. Webb ESE 470
 Surge Impedance Loading (SIL)
62

 Surge impedance loading is typically defined in terms of a

transmission line’s rated voltage
2
𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 =
𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐

 At SIL, we’ve seen that the voltage profile along a transmission line
is flat
 At no load, 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅 = 0, and the voltage is given by
𝑽𝑽 𝑥𝑥 = cos 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
 The source voltage is
𝑽𝑽𝑆𝑆 = cos 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
 So the receiving-end voltage in terms of the sending-end voltage is
𝑽𝑽𝑆𝑆
𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 =
cos 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽
K. Webb ESE 470
 Surge Impedance Loading (SIL)
63

 The no-load receiving-end voltage is

𝑽𝑽𝑆𝑆
𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 =
cos 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽
 As long as 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 ≤ 𝜋𝜋/2, i.e. 𝑙𝑙 ≤ 𝜆𝜆/4,
 Voltage will increase along
the length of the line
 No-load receiving-end
voltage is greater than the
sending-end voltage
 Voltage regulation worsens
with increasing line length

source: Glover, Sarma, Overbye

K. Webb ESE 470
64 Steady-State Stability Limit

K. Webb ESE 470

 Real Power vs. Voltage Angle
65

 Assume a voltage angle between the sending and receiving ends of a

lossless line of 𝛿𝛿
𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 = 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 ∠0° and 𝑽𝑽𝑆𝑆 = 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 ∠𝛿𝛿
 Using the equivalent 𝜋𝜋 network for the lossless line, we can
determine the receiving-end current

 Applying KCL at the receiving end

𝑽𝑽𝑆𝑆 − 𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 𝐵𝐵′
𝑰𝑰𝑅𝑅 = − 𝑗𝑗 𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅
𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋 ′ 2
𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 ∠𝛿𝛿 − 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 ∠0° 𝐵𝐵′
𝑰𝑰𝑅𝑅 = − 𝑗𝑗 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 ∠0°
𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋 ′ 2

K. Webb ESE 470

 Real Power vs. Voltage Angle
66

 The complex power at the load is

2 ′
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉
𝑆𝑆 ∠ − 𝛿𝛿 − 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 𝐵𝐵
𝑺𝑺𝑅𝑅 = 𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅 𝑰𝑰∗𝑅𝑅 = + 𝑗𝑗 𝑉𝑉 2
𝑅𝑅
−𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋 ′ 2
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 ∠ − 𝛿𝛿 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅2 𝐵𝐵′ 2
𝑺𝑺𝑅𝑅 = 𝑗𝑗 − 𝑗𝑗 ′ + 𝑗𝑗 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅
𝑋𝑋 ′ 𝑋𝑋 2
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅2 𝐵𝐵′ 2
𝑺𝑺𝑅𝑅 = 𝑗𝑗 ′ cos −𝛿𝛿 + 𝑗𝑗 sin −𝛿𝛿 − 𝑗𝑗 ′ + 𝑗𝑗 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅
𝑋𝑋 𝑋𝑋 2
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅2 𝐵𝐵′ 2
𝑺𝑺𝑅𝑅 = ′ sin 𝛿𝛿 + 𝑗𝑗 ′
cos 𝛿𝛿 − ′ + 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅
𝑋𝑋 𝑋𝑋 𝑋𝑋 2

 The real power delivered is

𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆
𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅 = 𝑃𝑃𝑆𝑆 = ℛℯ 𝑆𝑆𝑅𝑅 = ′ sin 𝛿𝛿
𝑋𝑋

K. Webb ESE 470

 Power Flow – Lossless Lines
67

 The delivered power is a function of the voltage phase shift

along the line, 𝛿𝛿
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆
𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅 = ′ sin 𝛿𝛿
𝑋𝑋

 For the lossless line the series reactance is

𝑋𝑋 ′ = 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 sin(𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽)

so,
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆
𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅 = sin 𝛿𝛿 = sin 𝛿𝛿
𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 sin(𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽) 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 sin
𝜆𝜆

K. Webb ESE 470

 Power Flow – Lossless Lines
68

 Converting 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 and 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 to per unit

2
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅 = sin 𝛿𝛿
𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 sin
𝜆𝜆
2
𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 sin 𝛿𝛿
𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅 = 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
sin
𝜆𝜆
 The term in parentheses is SIL, so

sin 𝛿𝛿
𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅 = 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
sin
𝜆𝜆

 This provides a relationship between:

 Power delivered over a transmission line
 Voltage drop along the line
 Power angle

K. Webb ESE 470

 Maximum Power Flow – Lossless Lines
69

𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 sin 𝛿𝛿

𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅 = sin 𝛿𝛿 = 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 sin sin
𝜆𝜆 𝜆𝜆

 The delivered power is a function of the voltage

phase shift along the line
 Maximum power occurs when 𝛿𝛿 = 90°
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = =
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 sin sin
𝜆𝜆 𝜆𝜆

 The steady-state stability limit of a line

K. Webb ESE 470
 Steady-State Stability Limit
70

𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆

𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = =
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 sin sin
𝜆𝜆 𝜆𝜆

 This maximum power is the steady-state stability limit

of a transmission line
 Loads exceeding this limit will result in a loss of
synchronism at the receiving end
 Synchronous machines at the sending and receiving ends
will fall out of synchronization
 Steady-state stability limit proportional to
 Inverse of line length
 Square of the line voltage

K. Webb ESE 470

71 Line Loadability

K. Webb ESE 470

 Transmission Line Loadability
72

 Three primary factors limit power flow over transmission

lines:
 Phase shift
 Voltage drop
 Thermal limit
 Relevant limit depends on line length

 Phase shift:
 Proportional to line length and power flow
 Phase shift places a stability limit on power flow
 Exceeding 𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (𝛿𝛿 = 90°) results in loss of synchronism
 For satisfactory transient stability, typically 𝛿𝛿 ≤ 30° … 35°
 Stability limits the loadability of long transmission lines (>150 mi)
K. Webb ESE 470
 Transmission Line Loadability
73

 Voltage drop:
 Voltage drop along a line is also proportional to line length
and power flow
 Typically, voltage drop limited to 5% – 10%
 Voltage drop limits power flow on medium-length lines
(50mi – 150 mi)

 Thermal limits
 As power flow increases, line temperature increases
 As temperature increases, lines sag and loose tensile
strength
 A line’s thermal limit is independent of line length
 Thermal limits dominate for short lines (<50 mi)

K. Webb ESE 470

 Transmission Line Loadability
74

 Comparison of
theoretical and
practical
loadability limits
 Practical limit
assumes:
 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 /𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠
≥ 0.95
 𝛿𝛿 ≤ 30° … 35° source: Glover, Sarma, Overbye

K. Webb ESE 470

 Practical Line Loadability – Example
75

 Determine how much power that can be transmitted over a 400 km,
500 kV transmission line, given the following:
 Voltage drop along the line limited to 10%
 Power angle limited to 𝛿𝛿𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 30°
 The characteristic impedance of the line is 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 = 280Ω
 Assume 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 1.0 𝑝𝑝. 𝑢𝑢.

 Power delivered to the receiving end of the line is

sin 𝛿𝛿
𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅 = 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
sin
𝜆𝜆
sin 30°
𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅 = 0.9 ⋅ 1.0 ⋅ 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
2𝜋𝜋 ⋅ 400 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
sin
5000 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

K. Webb ESE 470

 Practical Line Loadability – Example
76

 In terms of SIL, the power the line can deliver is

𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅 = 0.934 ⋅ 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆

 Surge impedance loading for the line is

2 2
𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 500 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = = = 892.9 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 280 Ω
so,
𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅 = 0.934 ⋅ 892.9 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅 = 834 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

K. Webb ESE 470

 Example Problems

K. Webb ESE 470

A 180 km, three-phase transmission line delivers 80 MW at
115 kV and a power factor of 0.96, lagging. The series
impedance of the lines is z = 0.03 + j0.3 Ω/km, and the shunt
admittance is y = j4 𝜇𝜇S/km.
a) Determine the appropriate set of chain parameters for the line.
b) How much power is delivered to the sending end of the line?

K. Webb ESE 470

K. Webb ESE 470
K. Webb ESE 470
A 500 km transmission line with surge impedance of
𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 = 270 Ω is used to deliver 1800 MW from a power
plant to a load center. If the voltage drop along the line is
limited to 6%, and the power angle is limited to 33°,
what is the minimum rated voltage for the line?

K. Webb ESE 470

K. Webb ESE 470
A 400 km, 500 kV transmission line has a series impedance of 𝑧𝑧 =
0.03 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗.35 Ω/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 and a shunt admittance of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗.4 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘. At
full load, it delivers 1000 MW at 475 kV and unity power factor.
Determine:
a) ABCD parameters
b) Sending-end voltage, current, power, and power factor
c) Full-load line losses

K. Webb ESE 470

K. Webb ESE 470
K. Webb ESE 470
K. Webb ESE 470
87 Reactive Compensation

K. Webb ESE 470

 Reactive Compensation
88

 Voltage profile and loadability of a transmission line depend

on relative line and load impedances
 By varying line impedance, we can affect voltage regulation and
line loadability
 Add shunt or series reactance to the line – reactive compensation
 Types of reactive compensation
 Shunt reactors (inductors)
 Absorb reactive power
 Reduce receiving-end voltage under light load
 Must be removed under higher-load conditions
 Shunt capacitors
 Supply reactive power
 Increase receiving-end voltage at full load
 Removed under light-load conditions

K. Webb ESE 470

 Reactive Compensation
89

 Types of reactive compensation (cont’d)

 Series capacitors
 Reduce series line impedance
 Reduce line voltage drops
 Increase steady-state stability limit

 Static VAR compensators (SVCs)

 Thyristor-controlledshunt reactors and capacitors
 Automatically adjust compensation depending on load

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 Reactive Compensation
90

 Amount of reactive compensation is typically expressed as a

percentage of line impedance

 For example, the circuit above shows a transmission line

with 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 shunt reactive compensation

K. Webb ESE 470

 Reactive Compensation – Example 1
91

 Consider a 300 km, 765 kV, three-phase transmission

line with the following chain parameters:
 𝐴𝐴 = 0.9313∠0.209°
′
 𝐵𝐵 = 𝑍𝑍 = 97∠87.2°

 Shunt reactors, switched in during light-load conditions only,

provide 75% compensation
 Full-load current is 1.9 kA at 730 kV with unity power factor

 The sending-end voltage, 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 , is constant

 Determine:
 %𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 of the uncompensated line
 %𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 of the compensated line
K. Webb ESE 470
 Reactive Compensation – Example 1
92

 Full-load, line-to-neutral, receiving-end voltage, using it as the 0° phase reference:

730
𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = ∠0° 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 421.5∠0° 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
3
 Use chain parameters to determine the sending-end voltage, 𝑽𝑽𝑆𝑆
𝑽𝑽𝑆𝑆 = 𝐴𝐴𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝐵𝐵𝑰𝑰𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑽𝑽𝑆𝑆 = 0.9313∠0.209° (421.5∠0° 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘) + 97∠87.2° Ω 1.9∠0° 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑽𝑽𝑆𝑆 = 442.3∠24.8° 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
 The no-load, line-to-neutral, receiving-end voltage is
𝑽𝑽𝑆𝑆 442.3∠24.8° 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = = = 474.9∠24.6° 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝐴𝐴 0.9313∠0.209°
 Percent voltage regulation for the uncompensated line is
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 − 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 474.9 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 421.5 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
%𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = ⋅ 100% = ⋅ 100%
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 421.5 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

%𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = 12.7%

K. Webb ESE 470

 Reactive Compensation – Example 1
93

 For the compensated line, we need to calculate new chain

parameters
 Shunt admittance of the uncompensated line can be determined
from the known chain parameters
𝑌𝑌 ′ 𝑍𝑍 ′
𝐴𝐴 = 0.9313∠0.209° = 1 +
2
where
𝑍𝑍 ′ = 𝐵𝐵 = 97∠87.2 Ω
So,
′
𝐴𝐴 − 1 2 0.9313∠0.209° − 1 2
𝑌𝑌 = =
𝑍𝑍 ′ 97∠87.2° Ω
𝑌𝑌 ′ = 1.418 × 10−3 ∠89.97° 𝑆𝑆

𝑌𝑌 ′ = 759 × 10−9 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗.42 × 10−3 𝑆𝑆

K. Webb ESE 470

 Reactive Compensation – Example 1
94

 After adding compensation, the equivalent shunt

susceptance decreases by 75%
𝑌𝑌𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 759 × 10−9 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗.42 × 10−3 𝑆𝑆 ⋅ 0.25
𝑌𝑌𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 759 × 10−9 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 × 10−6 𝑆𝑆

 Use 𝑌𝑌𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 to calculate the 𝐴𝐴 parameter for the

compensated line
𝑌𝑌𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑍𝑍 ′
𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 =1+ = 0.983∠0.05°
2
 Note that shunt reactive compensation does not affect
the series impedance, 𝑍𝑍𝑍, and therefor does not affect 𝐵𝐵
K. Webb ESE 470
 Reactive Compensation – Example 1
95

 The no-load receiving-end voltage for the compensated line:

𝑽𝑽𝑆𝑆 442.3∠24.8° 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = =
𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 0.983∠0.05°
𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 = 449.9∠24.8° 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

 Percent voltage regulation for the compensated line is

𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 − 𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
%𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = ⋅ 100%
𝑽𝑽𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅

449.9 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 421.5 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

%𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = ⋅ 100%
421.5 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

%𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = 6.8%

 Reactive compensation has improved voltage regulation from 12.7% to

6.8%

K. Webb ESE 470

 Reactive Compensation – Example 2
96

 In this example we will use phasor diagrams to illustrate the

relationship between reactive power flow and line voltage
 Consider a the following per-phase circuit
 Could loosely represent a 69 kV subtransmission line
 Values exaggerated for illustration purposes

 We will look at the effect of adding shunt capacitive

compensation at the receiving end
K. Webb ESE 470
 Reactive Compensation – Example 2
97

 Three scenarios considered:

1. PR = 145 MW; no compensation; pf = 0.707, lagging
2. PR = 145 MW; -j35 Ω shunt C; pf = 0.99, lagging
3. PR = 145 MW; -j15 Ω shunt C; pf = 0.95, leading

 Note that real power to the load is held constant

 Equivalent load impedance adjusted to accomplish this
 Again, power is exaggerated for illustration purposes

K. Webb ESE 470

 Reactive Compensation – Example 2
98

 Scenario #1:
 No reactive
compensation
 𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅 = 145 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 0.707, lagging

 Lagging current:
𝐈𝐈 = 6.98∠ − 52° 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
 Receiving end voltage:
𝐕𝐕𝑅𝑅 = 29.6∠ − 7.1° 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

K. Webb ESE 470

 Reactive Compensation – Example 2
99

 Scenario #2:
 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 Ω shunt
compensation
 𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅 = 145 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 0.99, lagging

 Current magnitude and

phase reduced:
𝐈𝐈 = 3.97∠ − 14.5° 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
 Receiving end voltage
increased:
𝐕𝐕𝑅𝑅 = 36.8∠ − 8.2° 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
K. Webb ESE 470
 Reactive Compensation – Example 2
100

 Scenario #3:
 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 Ω shunt
compensation
 𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅 = 145 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 0.95, leading

 Current now leads the

source:
𝐈𝐈 = 3.9∠8.4° 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
 Receiving end voltage
increased further:
𝐕𝐕𝑅𝑅 = 39.2∠ − 8.9° 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
K. Webb ESE 470
 Example Problems

K. Webb ESE 470

Draw a phasor diagram indicating 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 , 𝐼𝐼, 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 , and 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 for
the following circuit for a source power of
a) 𝐒𝐒𝑠𝑠 = 10∠ − 45° 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
b) 𝐒𝐒𝑠𝑠 = 10∠0° 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
c) 𝐒𝐒𝑠𝑠 = 10∠45° 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

K. Webb ESE 470

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