Seminar 5.

Typology of Word-Groups
Theory
1. Objects of typological investigation on syntactic level.
The object of typological investigation may be:
a separate language feature or phenomenon pertained to some genealogically close or
genealogically far languages, separate features.
Therefore, the object of typological investigation may be:
a restricted object of investigation or an extensive language material
meaning of "modality“ - used to express the speaker's judgement concerning the
action/event or object in the utterance/ sentence. : certainly, indeed, maybe,
perhaps, possibly, probably, of course, no doubt - певне, напевне, звичайно,
може, можливо, безумовно, безсумнівно and others.
"Yes, certainly they (pigeons) Так, звичайно, вони (голуби)
2. Give the definition of the term ‘phrase’. Speak about the main components: head
and dependants. What is the difference between complements and modifier.
Provide examples.
A phrase is a group of words (or possibly a single word) that functions as a
constituent in the syntax of a sentence, a single unit within a grammatical hierarchy.
A phrase typically appears within a clause, but it is possible also for a phrase to be a
clause or to contain a clause within it. There are also types of phrases like noun phrase
and prepositional phrase.
The syntactic category of the head is used to name the category of the phrase; for
example, a phrase whose head is a noun is called a noun phrase. The remaining words
in a phrase are called the dependents of the head.
In the following phrases the head-word, or head, is bolded:
too slowly - Adverb phrase
very happy - Adjective phrase
the massive dinosaur — Noun phrase
at lunch - Preposition phrase
watch TV - Verb phrase
The above five examples are the most common of phrase types; but, by the logic of
heads and dependents, others can be routinely produced. For instance, the
subordinator phrase:
before that happened — Subordinator phrase (SP); the head is a subordinating
conjunction - it subordinates the independent clauseIn English grammar modifiers are
optional in sentences, while complements are required. Complements depend on the
verb being used. A modifier is a word which gives us more information, such as the
word loudly in the sentence, “They were talking loudly.” The adverb ‘loudly’
modifies the verb ‘were talking’. ie a word or phrase that makes specific the meaning
of another word or phrase. (Merriam-Webster)
Complements are one of five major elements of clause structure. The other four are
Subject, Verb, Object and Adjunct. Examples:- a) Both the brothers became doctors.
b) Have you seen my umbrella? It’s downstairs by the back door.
c) Playing the guitar always makes me happy.
3. What is the main difference between external types of syntactic processes:
extension vs expansion?
Extension is a modification of one member of the sentence by another standing in the
subordinate position to the former. he was given a red carpet welcome. All kinds of
attributes, modifiers is extension. Expansion consists in addition of the same parts of
the sentence to existing ones. It is not obligatory from point of view of the sentence
structure. Any part of the sentence can undergo expansion. I waited & waited. Nice,
nice old woman. He told me everything – his love, his hope, his despair. He pushed
me suddenly & with energy. It produces homogeneous parts of the sentence.
7. Free vs bound word-groups. Provide examples.
Free morphemes" can stand alone with a specific meaning, for example, eat, date,
weak. "Bound morphemes" cannot stand alone with meaning. Morphemes are
comprised of two separate classes called (a) bases (or roots) and (b) affixes. A "base,"
or "root" is a morpheme in a word that gives the word its principle meaning, f.e :
antedate, prehistoric, happily, gardener.
8 Analytical vs synthetic connections and their means in word-groups in the
contrasted languages. Provide examples.
There are two basic types of means with the help of which grammatical forms are
built: synthetical and analytical. Synthetical (synthetic) grammatical forms are built
by means of the morphemic composition of the word. This includes the morphemic
means, which were described in the previous unit: outer inflexion with the help of
adding grammatical suffixes to the stems of the words, e.g.: cat - cats; inner inflexion,
or vowel interchange inside the root, e.g.: goose - geese; and suppletivity, when
different roots are combined within the same paradigm, e.g.: go – went.
Analytical grammatical forms are built by the combination of the notional word with
auxiliary words, e.g.: come - have come. Analytical forms consist of two words which
together express one grammatical meaning; in other words, they are grammatically
idiomatic: the meaning of the grammatical form is not immediately dependent on the
meanings of its parts. Analytical grammatical forms are intermediary between words
and word-combinations. Some analytical forms are closer to a word, because the two
parts are inseparable in their grammatical idiomatism; for example, the forms of the
perfect aspect: come - have come.
9 Co-ordinate word-groups: types of connection, structural types, semantic types.
Provide examples.
All word-groups in the contrasted languages split into the following three types: 1)
co-ordinate word-group 2) subordinate word-groups and 3) predicative word-groups.
I. Co-ordinate word-groups in English and Ukrainian are formed from
components equal in rank which are connected either syndetically (with the
help of conjunctions) or asyndetically (by placement). For example: books
and magazines; to read, translate and retell; neither this nor that, книжки й
журнали; читати, пере-кладати й переказувати, ні те й ні се. Co-ordinate
word-groups are non-binary by their nature; this means that they may
include several IC's of equal rank, though not necessarily of the same
lexico-grammatical nature. Cf. (They were) alone and free and happy in
love. (Abrahams).

Practice
Task 1. A. For each of the following sentences, (1) identify phrases; (2) state which
word you think represents the head of each phrase; and (3) define dependants to the
heads (complements/ modifiers) (4) define the syntactic relations within phrases (pay
attention to case and agreement). How did youreach your conclusions? What
problems, if any, did you encounter?
B. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian. (1) Identify phrases and the headsand
dependants of each phrase; (2) define syntactic relations within phrases (payattention
to case and agreement).
C. Make generalized conclusions about the syntactic relations in both languages and
their connection to the analytical or syntactic nature of the languages.

 Lily is a rocket scientist.

Лілі - ракетний вчений
 Lily is besotted with George.
Лілі закохана в Джорджа
 George bought Lily a packet of crisps.
Джордж купив Лілі пакет чіпсів.
 Hoping for a diamond ring, Lily was disappointed
• Сподіваючись на діамантове кільце, Лілі була розчарована
синтаксичні відношення між фразами є в прийменниках : for-на.
3
Prepositive
a smart girl
a concrete panel
their instruments
feeble efforts
a telephone talk
рідна мова
комір сорочки
третя година
мої уявлення
велич подвигу
Postpositive
a house of glass
the art of design
reasons to vote
lust for life
уміння слухати
поїздка до театру
переможці у районі
допомога сім’ї
громадянин майбутнього
isomorphic general implicit meaning (the lexico-grammatical nature) of the verb
which serves to convey verbiality, i. e. different kinds of activity (go, read, skate),
various processes (boil, grow, obtain), the inner state of a person (feel, bother, worry),
possession (have, possess), etc.
the verb generally functions in the sentence as predicate going into some
combinations
a) with the nominal parts of speech performing the functions of the subject (or the
object) of the sentence
b) with verbs (to want to know, to want to read; хотіти вчитися/знати) and with
adverbs (to read well гарно читати)
с) with prepositions (to depend on smb/smth. залежати від когось) or with
conjunctions (neither read nor write, to work and rest ні читали, ні писати,
працювати і відпочивати).
Allomorphic is the combinability of English verbs with postpositional particles (cf. sit
down, stand up, put off, read through) which need not be confused or in any way
compared to their ability of being identified with the Ukrainian subjunctive
moodparticles б or би fas in піти б, хотів би, знав би).
10 Subordinate WG’s classification according to the lexico-grammatical nature
of the
head component. Provide examples.
Subordinate word-groups in all languages are binary by their nature. It means that
they consist of a head component, which is the nucleus of the word-group, and of one
or more adjuncts/complements. They may be either a single notional word or a group
of words/word-group functionally equal to it and having the function of a notional
word, eg: my pen, his "oh", your "r", her father and mother, take part in the games,
bad for you, the film "They fought for their Motherland", Peter's brother, etc.
Among the existing classifications of word-groups the morphological (paradigmatic)
classification remains one of the most embracing. It is based on the lexico-
grammatical nature of the head component or on its functional substitute. As a result,
the following seven (according to the number of national parts of speech) common
paradigmatic classes of substantival word-groups are to be singled out in English and
Ukrainian
11. Isomorphic and allomorphic features of predicative WGs in the contrasted
languages.

Typological Characteristics of the English and UkrainianVerb

.isomorphic general implicit meaning (the lexico-grammatical nature) of the verb
which serves to convey verbiality, i. e. different kinds of activity (go, read, skate),
various processes (boil, grow, obtain), the inner state of a person (feel, bother,
worry), possession (have, possess), etc.
the verb generally functions in the sentence as predicate going into some
combinations
a) with the nominal parts of speech performing the functions of the subject (or the
object) of the sentence
b) with verbs (to want to know, to want to read; хотіти вчитися/знати) and with
adverbs (to read well гарно читати)
с) with prepositions (to depend on smb/smth. залежати від когось) or with
conjunctions (neither read nor write, to work and rest ні читали, ні писати,
працювати і відпочивати).
Allomorphic is the combinability of English verbs with postpositional particles (cf.
sit down, stand up, put off, read through) which need not be confused or in any way
compared to their ability of being identified with the Ukrainian subjunctive
moodparticles б or би fas in піти б, хотів би, знав би).
Functions of the verb in English and Ukrainian.
As regards their role in expressing predicativity, verbs in the contrasted languages
may be a) of complete predication or b) of incomplete predication.
Verbs of complete predication on the basis of their implicit dependent grammatical
meanings, are:
1. Subjective verbs (always intransitive) like to act, to go, to sleep, to glisten (діяти,
йти, спати, блищати and others). 2. Objective verbs (only transitive): to give, to
take, to envy (брати, давати, заздрити and others). 3. Terminative verbs,
expressing action having final aims (to close, to open, to come, to find; зачиняти,
приходити, заходити). 4. Durative verbs, expressing action with no final aim: to
like, to love, to hate, to hope, to work (подобатись, любити, ненавидіти). 5.
Mixed- type verbs, which can have both terminative and durative meaning: to sit, to
stand, to know, to remember (сидіти, стояти, знати, пам 'ятати, etc).6. Reflexive
verbs, which are formed in English with the help of reflexive pronouns: oneself,
myself, himself, ourselves: to wash oneself to shave himself; to see herself in the
mirror, etc.
Reflexive verbs in Ukrainian have some peculiar allomorphic features. Regular
equivalents to English verbs can be observed only in the group of the so-called
reflexive verbs proper (to wash oneself, to dress oneself, to shave oneself, to powder
oneself, etc.), which have also corresponding forms in Ukrainian (вмиватися,
голитися, одягатися, пудритися, купатися, etc.).
Other groups of Ukrainian reflexive verbs have no equivalents in English and form an
allomorphic feature in the contrasted languages. These verbs are identified as
follows:
1. Reciprocally reflexive/взаємно-зворотні: зустрічатися, змагатися, вітатися,
листуватись, цілуватись. 2. Indirectly re-flexive/непрямо-зворотні: радитися,
збиратися (в похід), лаштуватися (в дорогу). 3. Generally reflexive/загально-
зворотні: милуватися, дивуватися, злитися, журитися, мучитися and others. 4.
Active-objectless/reflexive verbs (активно-безоб'єктні) кусатися (собака
кусається), хвицатися (корова хвицається), дряпатися (кішка дряпається),
жалитися (кропива жалиться), колотися (стерня колеться). 5. Passively-
qualitative/reflexive пасивно-якісні: гнутися, битися, ламатися, м 'ятися,
колотися (дерево гарно колеться,), кривитися (залізо гнеться, скло б'ється,
дитина кривиться). 6. Impersonal-reflexive verbs/безособово-зворотні: не
спиться, не їсться, погано/гарно живеться, не лежиться (Cf. the Ukrainian folk-
song: І не спиться й не лежиться, І сон мене не бере...).
Verbs of incomplete predication are of isomorphic nature. They are presented in
English and Ukrainian in four common groups, which are as follows:
1. Auxiliary verbs (to be, to do, to have, shall/will)
2. Modal verbs. Their number and nomenclature is larger in English (allomorphism)
than in Ukrainian.
English: can, may, must, should. would, ought (to), have/be, shall
Ukrainian: вміти, могти, мусити, слід/треба, мати (маєш знати, він will, dare,
daresay, need. має бути), сміти, потребувати.

Seminar 6. Parts of Sentenses.

THEORY
1. Provide a definition of a sentence as a language unit.
In non-functional linguistics, a sentence is a textual unit consisting of one or more
words that are grammatically linked.
As with all language expressions, sentences might contain function and content words
and contain properties such as characteristic intonation and timing patterns.
2. Isomorphisms and allomorphisms in the structural forms and means of
expressing the Subject in the contrasted languages.
allomorphic features find their expression in the ways of realisation of some
morphological categories in English and Ukrainian. These allomorphic ways are
observed in the following:
In the use of analytical paradigms in English to express tense, aspect and voice forms,
as well as in negative/interrogative forms like: He is read ing now. Is he reading now?
Does/did he speak English? The passage is being translated The article will have been
translated by then, etc.
In the absence in Ukrainian of the continuous aspect, whose durative meaning can be
expressed by the transitive verb stems with the suffixes - сь, -ся and a corresponding
adverb/adverbial phrase identifying the mo ment/period of action. Cf. Петренко
зараз/ще, вже, давно/будується. Школа ще (тоді) будувалась/будуватиметься.
Allomorphism exists in the expression of the category of person in Ukrainian
imperative mood forms which is alien to English. For example: Пиши! (Ти пиши!)
Пишіть! (Ви пишіть!) Іди! Будьмо/ будьте здорові! Встань! Встаньте! Не вір! Не
вірте!
Analytical imperative mood forms may have corresponding personal pronouns in
English with the verb let (Let me say. Let him/us say. Let them come/say it). The
corresponding Ukrainian forms have the particles нум or нумо (for singular or plural
forms respectively) and also person and number inflexions of the notional verb. Cf.
Нум я запитаю. Нумо заспівайте! Нумо до праці, брати! (Б. Грінченко)
3. Isomorphisms and allomorphisms in the structural forms and means of
expressing the Predicate in the contrasted languages.

PREDICATES
TYPE OF
WAYS OF EXPRESSION EXAMPLES
PREDICATE
He works a lot. He has been
The simple verbal 1) a finite verb in a simple or a
working at the project since
predicate compound tense form
summer.
1) word combinations: have a smoke,
have a swim, have a run, give a
The simple laugh, give a push take a look, make     She’ll have a swim with
phraseological a move; 2)a phraseological unit: get pleasure. Soon we lost sight
predicate rid, get hold, take care, pay attention, of the ship.
lose sight, have a wash, give a push
and others;
1) link verbs of being and
remaining: be, remain, keep,
continue, look, smell, stand, sit, lie,
The compound shine, seem, prove, appear, etc. + The girl looks really seek. It
nominal predicate predicative 2) link verbs of grows dark early now.
becoming: become, get, grow, come,
go, leave, run, turn, make, etc. +
predicative
1. A modal verb + an infinitive 2. A
They can helpyou. You are
The compound semi-modal verb + an infinitive 3. A
to cometomorrow. She isn’t
verbal modal modal expression + an infinitive 4.A
able to talk now. We want to
predicate verb with a modal meaning + an
seeher again.  
infinitive or a gerund
A verb (to begin, to start, to
He began working early
commence, to fall, to set about, to go
The compound yesterday. He began to work
on, to keep on, to proceed, to
verbal aspect early They stopped talking at
continue, to stop, to give up, to finish,
predicate once. They used to come
to cease, to come, used to, would+
here rather often.
Inf) + an infinitive or a gerund.
MIXED TYPES
OF
PREDICATES
The compound 3 elements: 1 )a modal verb
modal nominal (expression) 2) a link verb 3) a     You must be tired.
predicate predicative
The compound
3 elements 1) an aspect verb 2) a link
aspect nominal     She began to feel excited.
verb 3) a predicative
predicate
The compound 3 elements 1) a modal verb 2) an
  You should start thinking
modal aspect aspect verb 3) an infinitive or a
about such things.
predicate gerund
The compound 4 elements 1) a modal verb 2) an
    Mary must stop being a
modal aspect aspect verb 3) a link verb 4) a
nuisance.
nominal predicate predicative

4. Isomorphisms and allomorphisms in the structural forms and means of

expressing the Object in the contrasted languages.
As a means of grammatical expression suppletivity is observed in words, word-forms
and morphemes of all Indo-European languages. At the lexical level it helps express,
both in English and Ukrainian, sex distinctions, eg: boy -- girl, bull - cow, man -
woman, cock — hen, хлопець — дівчина, чоловік — жі-нка, півень — курка, etc.
Of suppletive nature are most of nouns denoting kinship. Cf. father - mother, brother -
sis-ter, son - daughter, aunt -uncle; батько - мати, брат - сестра, син - дочка, дядько
-тітка, зять - невістка, дід - баба, etc.

5. Isomorphisms and allomorphisms in the structural forms and means of

expressing the Attribute in the contrasted languages.

English has a much larger number of regular root morphemes, than Ukrainian.
Consequently, the number of inflexions expressing the morphological categories is
much smaller in English than in Ukrainian. Moreover, a lot of notionals in English
lack even the affixes which can identify their lexico-morphological nature. Free root-
morphemed words, though fewer in Ukrainian, are still rep-resented in all lexico-
morphological classes as nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc. of both contrasted languages.
Cf. arm, pen, boy, work, do, red, he, she, it, five, this, ten, here, far, etc. Similarly in
Ukrainian: ніс, лоб, чуб, ти, варт, хто, три, тут, де, він, etc.
Free root morphemes in English and Ukrainian can also be functionals: but, till, on,
not, through, just (a moment), мов, геть, так, певне, може, ох, дзень, гав, не, ні,
від, на, під, etc.
Root morphemes in English can often form part of the stem, which is especially
characteristic of present-day Ukrainian, for example: workers, friendliness,
concerning, beautiful; робітництво, безмеж-ність, переодягнутися, переробивши,
тепленько, теплесенько, etc.

6. Isomorphisms and allomorphisms in the structural forms and means of

expressing the Adverbial Modifier in the contrasted languages.
There are several ways of classifying adverbial modifiers: (1) according to
their meaning; (2) according to their morphological peculiarities; (3) according to
the type of their head word.

Types of the adverbial modifiers used in E. Hemingway’s “Fiesta” According

to their meaning we distinguish the following kinds of adverbial modifiers.
1) 1. The adverbial modifier of time.
a) Adverbial modifiers of definite time usually stand at the very end
of the sentence. (at the very beginning before the subject). On Monday
nights it was closed.
b) Adverbial modifiers of indefinite time usually stand before the
main verb of the predicate. …he never fought except in the gym.
2) The adverbial modifier of frequency. One night a week it was the
dancing — club
3) The adverbial modifier of place and direction. They usually stand after
the predicate or after the object. The dancing — club was in the Roma
4) The adverbial modifier of manner. I drank a beer, standing in the
doorway and getting the cool breath of wind from the street.
5) The adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances. She looked up, very
bright-eyed and trying to talk inconsequentially.
6) The adverbial modifier of cause. As he had been thinking for months
about leaving his wife and had not done it because it would be too cruel
to deprive her of himself, her departure was a very healthful shock.
7) The adverbial modifier of result (consequence). I would like to have it
illuminated to hang in the office.
8) The adverbial modifier of comparison. She looked as though there were
nothing on earth she would not look at like that, and really she was afraid
of so many things.
9) The adverbial modifier of concession.
 10) The adverbial modifier of purpose. The beer was not good and I
had a worse cognac to take the taste out of my mouth.

Ways of expressing the adverbial modifier

Adverbial Modifier can be expressed by:
1. An adverb. He cared nothing for boxing, in fact he disliked it, but he
learned it painfully and thoroughly to counteract the feeling of inferiority and shyness
he had felt on being treated as a Jew at Princeton.
2. A noun with or without accompanying words. That winterRobert Cohn
went over to America with his novel, and it was accepted by a fairly good publisher.
3. A prepositional phrase By that time, though, he had other things to worry
about.
4. A noun, pronoun, adjective, infinitive, participle, or prepositional phrase
with a subordinating conjunction.
5. A participle or a participial phrase. As they went in, under the light I saw
white hands, wavy hair, white faces, grimacing, gesturing, and talking.

Adverbial Modifier of Attendant Circumstances may be observed mainly in English.

Its equivalent in Ukrainian is a modifier of manner expressed by adverbs,
prepositional noun phrases or diyepryslivnyks.

Ukrainian linguist Zhluktenko U.O. considered the main distinguished feature of the

English language as compared with Ukrainian is the availability of complex adverbial
modifiers. It may be expressed with the help of predicative construction + preposition
«with» or so called «absolute participial construction».

We saw a thick forest with the red sun hanging over.

The lesson being over, I decided to speak to the professor. 
Also widely used are adverbial modifiers expressed by gerundial constructions. Their
equivalents in Ukrainian are subordinate sentence.

The most exciting thing was his entering the class through the blackboard.
(Rowling J.K.). Найбільш захоплюючим було те, як він входив у класну кімнату
через дошку.
In Ukrainian there are widely used adverbial modifiers expressed by different case
forms of nouns without a prepositions. Most of them have as their equivalents in
English prepositional constructions.

PRACTICE
Task 1.A. Define parts of sentences.
 Lily(subject) thought(predicate) George(object) was genuine(attribute).
 Eating(predicate) her(object) toast(object), she(subject) read(predicate)
his(object) letters(object) avidly(adverbial modifier).
 She(subject) slept(predicate) with his(object) letters(object) under(adverbial
modifier) her(object) pillow(object).
 Those(attribute) lovely(attribute) letters(subject) resembled(predicate)
poetry(object).
 She(subject) sprinkled(predicate) his(object) aftershave(object) over her(object)
pillow(object).
 She(subject) wanted(predicate) to marry him(object).
 She(subject) walked(predicate) through the park(object) in a dream(adverbial
modifier).
B. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian. Analyze them in the same way.
• Лілі вважала, що Джордж справжній.
• З’ївши свої тости, вона завзято читала його листи.
• Вона спала з його листами під подушкою.
• Ці милі листи нагадували поезію.
• Вона посипала його подушку після гоління.
• Вона хотіла вийти за нього заміж.
• Вона уві сні гуляла парком.
C. Point out isomorphisms and alomorphisms and make generalized conclusions.
Task 2. A. Find nouns in the given sentences and determine their syntactic
functions.
 We walked a mile.- subject
 My friend kept me company.- Nominal part of a complex predicate
  The corner of the room was dimly lit by the candle light.- Noun in the common
case with the preposition (mostly with of). The following definition is placed
after the conditioned noun
 The cat climbed to the top of the tree. - subject
 The sea was rough.- subject
 She became an interpreter. - Nominal part of a complex predicate
B. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian, define the functions of the nouns.
Ми пройшли милю. - іменник
Мій друг складав мені компанію. – іменник
Кут кімнати був слабо освітлений світлом свічок.-
Кіт піднявся на верхівку дерева. - іменник
Море було бурхливим. – іменник
Вона стала перекладачем.- іменний додаток
C. Do the functions coincide? Make generalized conclusions.
Task 3. A. Define Subjects and Predicates in the following sentences and define
their syntactic nature.
B. Translate the sentences. Make generalized conclusions.
It is cold. - Холодно.

It rains heavily. - Йде сильний дощ.

There is a hole in the carpet. - У килимі дірка

Мені хочеться їсти.

Темно. –It is dark.

У килимі дірка.- There is a hole in the carpet.

. Subject
. Predicate
Task 4.A. Perform Syntactic analysis of the following sentences.
A. Define the Subject, its characteristics
(simple/expanded/extended/formal/quotation expression/complex) and its means of
expression;
B. Define the Predicate, its characteristics (simple verbal/nominal/phraseological;

compound verbal: modal, aspective, double verbal/ compound nominal/ compound

nominal double) and means of its expression;
C. Define the Objects, their characteristics (simple/ simple
prepositional/expanded/extended; direct/indirect/formal/complex) and means of
expression;
D. Define the Attributesand means of expression;
E. Define the Adverbial Modifiers, their typesand means of expression.
1. “I’ve been so happy here,” she said, looking round. 
I’ve been so happy here,– subject quotation expression
Said - predicate
Happy – attribute adj.
looking round – adv. Modifier of manner
2. —  Мені тут так подобалося, — сказала вона, оглядаючись навколо.
Her eyes rested on the writing table behind him. 
Eyes, table – subject simple
Rested – predicate
Her, him – attribute pronoun
rested on the writing table behind him - adv. Mod of concession
Її очі зупинилися на письмовому столі, що був позаду нього. 
3. For Angela had her share of the duties that fall to the lot of a prominent
politician’s wife. 
Duties, politician`s wife – subject expended
Fall - predicate
Prominent – attribute adj.
share of the duties – adv. mod. of purpose
І Анджела мала свою частку обов’язків, які мусила виконувати як
дружина видатного політика.
4. She had been the greatest help to him in his career. 
Greatest, his – attr. adj. and pronoun
Help - predicate
the greatest help to him - adv. mod. of degree and measure
Вона була найбільшою підтримкою в його кар’єрі. 
5. Now all he had to do was to give her the brooch his wife had left her. 
He, brooch, wife – subject simple
Was to give - predicate
To do – attr. infinitive
to give her the brooch – adv. mod. of result (consequence)
Тепер усе, що він мав зробити, це віддати їй брошку, яку його дружина
лишила їй. 
6. It might have been better to have left her a sum of money, or even the typewriter. 
It, money, typewriter – subject simple
To have left - predicate
Even – attr. adverb
a sum of money – adv. mod. of degree and measure
Вона мала б залишити їй певну суму грошей або ж друкарську
машинку. 
Task 5. Inthesentencesgiven in the previous taskdeterminesemanticrolesofAGENT,
RECEPIENTANDEXPERIENCER.
Make conclusions which syntactic functions of members in sentences they tend to
coincide with. Find out the consistency between syntactic function, semantic role and
case.
Seminar 7. Homogeneous, Detached and Independent Parts of
Sentences.Communicative types of sentences

THEORY
1. Typological characteristics of the detached parts of the sentence in the
contrasted languages.
The existence of the detached parts- isomorphic feature of both languages. They have
relatively free preposed and postposed position, have a loose connection with their
head components, an implicit predicative meaning, can be only object (direct),
attribute (the most frequently detached) and adverbial parts. The detached attributes:
in both languages may refer to nouns and to pronouns, usually express some
additional adverbial meaning (cause, condition, comparison, concession, time etc.)
Ex: Very white, he turned back to the balcony. Зовсім блідий, він повернувся на
балкон. (the subject “he” is not simply “white” (attribute), but “very white” – white
to some degree; similarly in Uk. Наскільки блідий – зовсім блідий) Sometimes
Ukrainian equivalents of English loose attributes may have no synthetic agreement
with their head components –
Ex: There were two figures, middleaged and young. Там було дві постаті,
середнього віку й молодшого віку.
A detached attribute can be also expressed by a prepositional noun.
The detached apposition – identifies or explains the head component which may
noun or pronoun. Ex: In the east mountain peaks – fingers of snow – glittered above
the mist. А на сході гірські шпилі ... снігові пальці ... виблискували понад
туманом. In Uk detached opposition may often be joined with the subordinating part
wit the help of the conjunctions – або, чи, тобто, як by specifying words – як от, а
саме, особливо, навіть, переважно, родом, на ймення тощо. The Eng. specifies are
semantically similar – quite, almost, namely, by name etc. Uk. detached oppositions
can often be in partial agreement (in number only) with the head component –
Інженер-синоптик Марина Гриндерево. (Which weather forecasting engineer?)
The detached object – is mostly expressed by prepositional pronouns or nouns, in
Eng the main prepositions are – except/except for, with the exception of, in Uk
крім/окрім, опріч, за винятком, замість; in the sentence they are structurally
optional and always marked by commas or by dashes. Ex: Anybody else, except Alice,
would’ve taken the goddam hint. Будь-хто, крім Еліс, зрозумів би його проклятий
натяк.
The detached adverbial complements – adverbial complements of time, place,
condition, concession, manner, comparison and attendant circumstances. The means
of their expressing are isomorphic and allomorphic. Isomorphic – expression by
means of an adverb, an adjective, a participle, a prepositional noun/pronoun; the
implicit predicative meaning; distribution (in front, in midposition, in postposition to
the modified component) Allomorphic means – gerund and the nominative absolute
participial constructions in Eng. and in Uk дієприкметникові/дієприслівникові
звороти, the nominals governed by prepositions; in Eng. the secondary predication
constructions are joined by analytical connection, in Uk. the nominal components –
with the help of synthetic or analytical-synthetic means.
Ex: Slowly, very slowly, she went. Повільно, дуже повільно йшла вона.
(manner) Because of my age, I could not be persecuted. Через моє неповноліття,
мене не змогли судити. (cause/reason)
Close to detached parts of the sentence are specifying parts – used postposed to the
ordinary parts of the sentence to specify their meaning; are joined to their preceding
components asyndetically/syndetically; most aof them are of adverbial meaning. Ex:
He liked people, especially children. Він любив людей, а особливо дітей.

2. Typological characteristics of the homogeneous parts of the sentence in the

contrasted languages.
In Uk. And in Eng. Homogeneous parts are of identical functions, structure and
nomenclature. In the sentence homogeneous may be:
Coordinate Subjects (extended/unextended)
Example: The captain, George and I slowly turned our heads.
Капітан, Джордж та я повільно повернули голови.
Coordinate homogeneous Predicates (simple/extended/unextended)
Ex. He lighted his cigarette, said good night, and went away.
Він прикурив, сказав надобраніч, і пішов геть.
Isomorphic in both languages are homogeneous compound verbal and compound
nominal predicates
Ex: The dead fingers could neither touch nor clutch.
Замерзлі пальці не могли ні відчути, ні взяти (сірника).
One evening she came home low-spirited and very tired.
Одного вечора вона прийшла додому у поганому настрої та дуже втомлена.
Homogeneous coordinate objects (extended/unextended/prepositional)
Ex: His parents used to present him books, notebooks and small souvenirs.
Його батьки зазвичай дарували йому книжки, записники та невеличкі сувеніри.
Allomorphic feature of English – homogeneous objects expressed by gerunds (In
Uk they are translated with the help of nouns and infinitives)
Ex: I simply love riding. Я просто обожнюю їздити верхи.
Coordinate homogeneous Attributes
In both languages the functioning of homogeneous attributive adjuncts manifests
itself n the distribution (preposed/postposed) and in structural forms
(extended/unextended/prepositional).
Allomorphism – in their connection with the head components – in Uk – mainly
synthetic or analytical and synthetic; in Eng. – analytical
Ex: He seems a very silent, awkward, bashful lad. Він виглядає мовчазним,
незграбним, соромливим хлопцем.
Homogeneous coordinate Adverbial Modifiers
Isomorphism – in their functions and are often identical n the grammatical means
and ways of their expression. The most frequently occurring are:
time and frequency ex: We shall try it tomorrow – Ми спробуємо це завтра
place and direction ex: Tom had spies everywhere – У Тома скрізь були шпигуни.
Manner or attendant circumstances ex: He so obviously adored his wife – Він
так явно обожнював свою дружину
purpose ex: Ham sometimes walked with us to show us the boats and ships. – Хем
інколи йшов з нами, для того щоб показати нам човни та кораблі.
result ex: She is too fond of the child to leave it – Вона занадто любить
дитину, щоб залишити її.

3. Typological characteristicsof the independent parts of the sentence in the

contrasted languages.

The existence of the independent parts is the isomorphic feature. Independent

elements in both languages re presented by interjections, words/phrases of direct
address, parenthetic words and inserted words or sentences that serve to express
corresponding attitudes of the speaker to the content of the utterance.
  Elements of direct address – words/word-groups denoting a person/non-
person to whom the rest of the sentence is addressed. The may occupy the
initial, the mid, the closing position.

Ex: Go and eat, Tom. – Піди і поїж сам, Томе.

In Uk they are mostly marked by a vocative case inflexion (Томе, Дейве), but some

nouns in the vocative case do not have a morphological
expression (слово, небо, міс Філіпс)

In both languages they are often preceded by emphatic particles or motives: Oh,

George, don’t be so generous! – О, Джордже, не будь таким щедрим!

 Parenthetic elements

In both languages have identical structural forms (words/word-groups/sentences) and

are used to perform such 2 main functions as:

 the modal function – express the hypothetical or reported indirect modality

(using modal words/phrases/sentences – certainly, maybe, no doubt, it seems
etc. – мабуть, безсумнівно, як здається тощо)
 the subjective and evaluative function

They may refer to the sentence as a whole or to a secondary part of it; may occupy the
initial, the mid, the closing position.

They are used to express the general assessment of the action or fact on the part of the
speaker (in fact, truth to tell, really
etc. певна річ, правду казати, як відомо тощо); subjective and evaluative
modality (in my opinion, I should say
etc. кажуть, на мою думку, смію гадати тощо)

 inserted elements – give additional information about a part of a sentence/its

general content. Isomorphic by their linguistic nature and structural forms; are
marked by commas, dashes, brackets; are used only in the mid and closing
position.

Ex. Mr. Darsy, once again interrupted, turned his eyes on him. А це вміння
(розмовляти і слухати) дуже важливе для письменника

4. One-Member Sentences in English and Ukrainian

Unlike two-member sentences, which have a larger quantitative representation of
paradigmatic/structural types in English, one-member sentences, on the contrary, have
a larger number of paradigmatic classes in Ukrainian. This is due to the
morphological nature of Ukrainian as a mainly synthetic structure language.
Nevertheless, there exist common types of one-member sentences in both contrasted
languages. The latter, naturally, are not devoid of some divergent features in English
or Ukrainian either. Common in English and Ukrainian are the following
paradigmatic types of one-member sentences:

Nominal sentences. Being typologically isomorphic, this paradigmatic type of

sentences, however, is characterised in English and Ukrainian both by some common
or isomorphic or by some allomorphic/divergent features. Isomorphic common is the
structural form of nominal sentences which can be either extended or expanded. The
former consist of one or two nominal components which may be nouns or other parts
of speech. Expanded nominal sentences consist of two or more nominal components
connected by means of co-ordinate conjunctions. The components in extended
English nominal sentences may be connected both syndetically (usually with the help
of prepositions) or asyndetically, whereas in Ukrainian the synthetic and analytic-
synthetic connection prevails.
Other types of one-member sentences in English and Ukrainian
may have both common and divergent features. The latter usually pertain to the
structural form of sentences as well as to the means of grammatical connection of
their component parts. These one-member sentences are as follows:

A. Imperative (or inducive) sentences containing a verb and having a V or VP

pattern structures: Keep aside, keep aside! Pass on, pass on! (M. R. Anand) Open the
door! (Ibid.) He підходь, не підходь! Проходьте, проходьте! Відчиніть двері!

Note. Imperative sentences in English and Ukrainian may sometimes be two-

membered, eg: Don't you do that again! Don't anybody switch the light! Mary and
Pete, open the windows! He робіть ви більше цього! Ніхто не вмикайте світла!
Маріє і Петре, відчиніть вікна!

B. Exclamatory sentences may structurally often coincide in En glish and Ukrainian

with nominal and infinitival sentences, eg: Thieves! Fire! How funny! To think of it!
Damn your money! (Maugham) Злодії! Вогонь! Як гарно! Подумати тільки! К
бісу твої гроші!

C. Infinitival sentences in both contrasted languages have practical ly identical

structural forms. They may be unextended or extended. Eg: To be or not to
be? (Shakespeare) To be alive! To have youth and the world before
one! (Dreiser) Бути чи не бути? Бути живим! Бути молодим і мати весь світ
попереду. Матір ні купити, ні заслу жити. (Saying).
Impersonal proper (власне безособові) one-member sentences with the principal
part expressed by the finite (predicate) verb, eg: Світає. Край
неба палає. (Шевченко) І світає й не світає. (Тичина) Весніє вже. (Гончар)
Тепер тобі одразу полегшає. (Ibid.) The principal part in impersonal one-member
sentences may sometimes be expressed by a personal verb form. Eg: Мело,
крутило, скаженіло,
огортаючи присмерковий край. (Гончар) По правді роби, по правді
й буде. Вік живи, вік учись. (Нар. творчість)
5. Quasi-Sentences in English and Ukrainian

Among other features and phenomena testifying to the existence of isomorphism in

the syntactic systems of the contrasted languages are the so-called one-word or quasi-
sentences. [15, 174] They are speech units devoid of the binary S — P (or a single S
or P) structure. They may consist of a single word or of a functionally equivalent
phrase expressing affirmation, negation, an address or some emotive/incentive
meanings. One-word sentences serve to establish or to disjoin the speech contact, they
may sometimes perform a meta-communicative function. As to their
communicative direction and meaning, one-word/quasi-sentences may be:

1. Affirmative,i. e. expressing affirmation. These are usually short answers to the

preceding questions or to an interrogative inquiry/one's consent to an inquiry, eg:
"Think it?" — "All right". (Collier) "A real beauty?" — "Indeed". (Bates) "Do you
love me?" — "Uh huh ". (Hemingway) "Excellent!" said Stickly-Pickly. (Kipling)
"House?" — "Of course". (Bates.) "Yes", said her host. "Yes, indeed". (Parker)
— Аякже... Гріх казати... — гуділи мужики. (Коцюбинський) І Ольга
усміхнулась. — Гаразд. — "Ото народу збереться".
— "Еге". .. (Микитенко) Так! Я буду крізь сльози сміятись. (Л. Українка)
2.Negativequasi-sentences/one-word sentences express nega tion. Their most
common components in English and Ukrainian are neg ative particles and
phrases not, no, not yet, not at all, ні, зовсім ні, не так, та ні, ще ні, eg: Oh, по, по,
по", said her host. 'No, no ". (Parker) „Got a cigarette, Root?" "No". (Steinbeck)
"Hear anything?" — 'Wo. Not a thing". (Ibid.) "You can't help us at all?" - "Not at
all". (G.Greene) "You don't mind if I do" — "Wo, no, of course, not". (Ibid.)
Similarly in Ukrainian: "Hi. Сьогодні він не хоче спогадів". (Головко) "Не
хочеш?" — Ні! — Так ні! — Ні!! (Шумило) Ні, ні! Що ти кажеш? Може, й
випадково. Ні. (Кочерга)
3.Interrogativeone-word/quasi-sentences convey questions, inquiry, doubt and are
expressed in the contrasted languages by separate com ponents or by phrases. For
example: "...what on earth's the matter?" — Nothing. Why? (Maugham.) Her voice
trembled a little. "Well?" (Ibid.) "Just a Lucy?" "Yes? " (Trevor) "I congratulate you"
— "Eh?" (Christie). "От і добре". — "Добре?" "Здоровенькі були, діду!" — "Ля?"
(Вишня) "В мене екзамен був". — Ну і як?.. (Гончар)

4.Emotional and exclamatoryone-word/quasi-sentences may be expressed by

interjections and other functional words together with some notionals. Such sentences
are mostly evaluative though they may be purely exclamatory as well, as in this
sentence: Honk! Honk! The horn of a lorry barked... (M. R. Anand) Emotional and
exclamatory meanings are expressed in the following sentences: Hypolito. Alas!
Alas! See you are in love. O, God! My evil genius. (Longfellow). Goodness
sakes! Would a runaway nigger run south?" (Twain). Not time yet! (Caldwell). Кайло
враз спинилось. Бах! (Будько) Го-го! Як танцювати, то танцювати.
(Коцюбинський) "Ах, он як! Розумію". (Довженко) "Господь з вами! Моя дочка
удовиця..." "Хай йому цур!" (Коцюбинський)
5.Incentive and evaluativequasi-sentences present one more com mon sybtype of
one-member sentences. They are also formed from in- terjections or from their
functional equivalents, which may be phrases or notional words by nature,
eg: Bosh! Don't be moral. (B. Shaw) Pooh! In what way? (Ibid.) "Ssh!" said the
Daddy, and frowned to himself... (Kipling) "Good Lord, ma'am! What is it... a baby?"
(J. K. Jerome) "Stuff! stealing cattle and such things ain't robbery... (Twain) Той ще
стояв, огинався. "Ну!" (Загребельний) "їй-богу ж ні!" (Кочерга) "Овва. То вже
мені й погуляти не вольно..." "Хі-хі... І з географії п'ять." "Ф'ю-ю/Нема вже в
барона маєтку." (Коцюбинський) Хома услід Віталієві: "Тьфу!" (К.-Карий)
Свічка: "Геть!" (Кочерга) "Весела дівчина! — Вогонь!" (С. Чорнобривець)
Софія (до Гната): "Прощай!" "Батьківщина гине, а вони..." (С. Скляренко)
6. Vocativequasi-sentences/one-word sentences in both contrasted languages express
direct address. Their main component is usually a noun which may often be preceded
or followed by an interjection or an attributive adjunct. Vocative quasi-sentences are
more meta-communicative in the contrasted languages, than any other of the above-
given one-member sentences. They mostly require a response. For example: "Tom!
Tom!" — No answer. (Twain) "Hullo Pyle". (Greene) Trench (hotly). "Cokane!" (B.
Shaw) "Eal Chrispa! Chrispa!" Padre. "Hypolito!". (Longfellow) "Good Lord,
ma'am. What is it... a baby?" (J. K. Jerome) "Чіпко! Чіпко!" — Чіпка лежить на
полу, мовчить. (Мирний) "Браво, Жан, браво!" "Кумонько, кумо...
" (Коцюбинський) "Мамо! — Соромились би..." (Тулуб) "Тітко
Клаво! Фашист!" (Донченко) Україно! Ти для мене диво! (Симоненко).

6. Communicative types of sentences in English and Ukrainian and their

pragmatic functions.
According to the role in the performance of communication and due to the
modality/intention expressed, all sentences in the contrasted languages fall into the
following five common semantic types: 1) declarative sentences (statements); 2)
interrogative sentences; 3) imperative and inducive sentences; 4) sentences of
hypothetic modality; 5) exclamatory sentences. Interrogative sentences include some
common paradigmatic classes which may be in English and Ukrainian either
affirmative or negative.

Consequently, the communicative types of sentences and their paradigmatic classes

are absolutely isomorphic/common in English and Ukrainian. As will be shown
further there still exist some minor structural divergences, however, in some of these
classes of sentences in both contrasted languages.
Declarative sentences in both their paradigmatic classes (the affirmative and the
negative statements) may be in English and Ukrainian of real, wishful or conditional
modality. Equally common are also the structural forms of the affirmative and
negative statements which may be either two-member sentences or one-member
sentences in each of the contrasted languages.

Practice
Task 1. In the Appendix A find 5 sentences with detached parts of the sentence.
Compare the sentences with their translation into Ukrainian (Appendix B). Does
the structure of the sentences differ. If so, try to explain why.
1) ” Gilbert Clandon, taking up the pearl brooch that lay among a litter of rings
and brooches on a little table in his wife’s drawing-room, read the inscription:
“For Sissy Miller, with my love.”

Гілберт Клендон, беручи брошку з перлиною, яка лежала серед купки

коштовностей на столику у вітальні його дружини, прочитав напис: “Для
Сісі Міллер, з любов’ю”.

In these cases we may observe participial construction.

2) Fifteen little volumes, bound in green leather, stood behind him on her
writing table.

П’ятнадцять маленьких томів, у шкіряних обкладинках зеленого

кольору, лежали позаду на її письмовому столі.

In this case we may observe apposition

3) She was gazing at the table, where she had sat at her typewriter, where the
diary lay.
 Вона задивилася на стіл, де вона сиділа за друкарською машинкою і
де тепер лежав щоденник.

In this case we may observe detached adverbial modifier of place.

4) But Angela, with her genius for sympathy, had discovered all sorts of
qualities in Sissy Miller.

Проте Анджела, з її дивовижним умінням симпатизувати, побачила в Сісі

Міллер усі можливі чесноти.

In this case we may observe a detached adverbial modifier that is

expressed by a the construction introduced by with

5) How often, when they dined out somewhere, he had looked at her across the
table and said to himself, She is the loveliest woman here!

Часто, коли вони обідали не вдома, він задивлявся на неї з-за столу і
думав: “Вона найпрекрасніша жінка серед усіх присутніх!”

In this case we may observe detached adverbial modifier of time.

Conclusion:

The existence of the detached secondary parts (unextended/extended) –

isomorphic feature of both languages. They have relatively free preposed and
postposed position, have a loose connection with their head components, an implicit
predicative meaning, can be only object (direct), attribute (the most frequently
detached) and adverbial parts.

The detached attributes: in both languages may refer to nouns and to pronouns,

usually express some additional adverbial meaning (cause, condition, comparison,
concession, time etc.) As in examples 3 and 5

Allomorphic means – gerund and the nominative absolute participial

constructions in Eng. and in Ukдієприкметникові/дієприслівникові звороти, the
nominals governed by prepositions; in Eng. the secondary predication constructions
are joined by analytical connection, in Uk. the nominal components – with the help of
synthetic or analytical-synthetic means.

Task 2. In the Appendix A find 5 sentences with homogeneous parts of the

sentence. Compare the sentences with their translation into Ukrainian
(Appendix B). Does the structure of the sentences differ. If so, try to explain
why.
1) He had asked her to come; he owed her, he felt, after all the years she had been
with them, this token of consideration.

Він попросив її прийти, відчуваючи, що після всіх років, які вона була з ними,
він мусить виявити якийсь знак поваги.

2) Every ring, every necklace, every little Chinese box — she had a passion for little
boxes — had a name on it.

Кожен перстень, кожне намисто, кожна маленька китайська скринька 

(маленькі скриньки були її пристрастю) мали на собі дарчий напис і щось йому
нагадували.

3) When he came in and found her writing, she always shut it or put her hand over it.

Коли він заходив у той час, як вона писала, вона завжди згортала його і
прикривала рукою.

4) She was wearing the little black coat and skirt that seemed the uniform of her
profession.

Вона була вдягнена у чорне пальто та спідницю, яка мала вигляд уніформи.

5) She had stepped off the kerb to rejoin her lover.

Вона зійшла з тротуару, щоб приєднатися до свого коханця.

Conclusion: In most situations the homogeneous parts of the sentence traslates in the
same way in Ukrainian. They are enumerated. But as we can see in the third example,
such homogeneous verb can be transformed into another.

Task 3. In the Appendix A find sentences with the independent parts of the
sentence (elements of direct address, parenthetic and inserted elements).
Compare the sentences with their translation into Ukrainian (Appendix B). Does
the structure of the sentences differ. If so, try to explain why.
“I’ve been so happy here” - "Я був такий щасливий тут"
“Oh, that’s all right, Mr. Clandon” – "О, це добре, містере Кландон"
The initials B.M., B. M., B. M., recurred repeatedly. - Ініціали Б.М., Б. М., Б. М.
повторювались неодноразово.
But why never the full name? - Але чому ніколи повного імені?
“Nothing!” he cried. “Nothing!” - Нічого! — крикнув він. — Нічого!
“Who,” he thundered, “is B. M.?” - Хто, - прогримів він, - це Б. М.?"
In this examples the structure of the sentences doesn’t differ.

Seminar 8. Typology of Sentence Structure: Simple, Complex and Compound

Sentences.
THEORY
1. Isomorphic and allomorphic features in the structural forms of English
and Ukrainian one- and two-member sentences.
According to the way in which the expressed content correlates with reality, there are
distinguished in the contrasted languages the following common structural types of
sentences: 1) two-member sentences; 2) one member sentences. Two-member
sentences in the contrasted languages may be of two sub kinds: 1) conventionally
complete; 2) properly complete. The former are elliptical sentences in which some
parts of the sentence are deleted: And when are you going? On Monday. – The same
in Ukrainian: І коли ви від’їжджаєте? – В понеділок. Many English sentences,
traditionally qualified as elliptical, are structurally close to Ukrainian definite personal
sentences. But whatever the nature of these sentences, they can be easily replenished
completed which is a convincing testimony to the existence of typologically common
sentence structures in the system of simple utterances of the contrasted languages.
The only two-member sentences, which are non-existent in Ukrainian, are the
following: 1) Impersonal sent. which are introduced by the impersonal
pronoun/subject it: It is thundering. It is drizzles; 2) Indefinite personal, in which the
subject is expressed by the indefinite personal pronouns one, they, you. E.g One says.
They say etc; 3) Sentences with the implicit agent and passive predicate verb followed
by a preposition like He was sent for; 4) Sentences with the above-mentioned
introductory ‘it’ or ‘there’ like It is time to start. There is nothing to say; 5) Sentences
with the above-mentioned secondary predication constructions as following: I thought
him to be a teacher. We saw her to cross the street.
Common in the contrasted languages are two-member sentences with the simple
nominal predicate expressed by a noun, an adjective, a numeral, a participle, an
infinitive or a phrase. Such a predicate may follow the subject or proceed it. Hence,
there may be a) the S – P model sentences E. g the Future, how, how uncharted! –
Майбутнє, як, як невизначене!; b) the P –S model sentences E.g Poor little thing! –
Бідна вона.
2. Composite sentence: Compound and semi-compound sentences in English
and Ukrainian.
Clauses in compound sentences of the contrasted languages are mostly joined by
means of co-ordinate conjunctions which provide parataxal relations between them.
Conjunctions joining clauses in compound sentences of the contrasted languages are
practically of the same semantic nature: copulative, adversative, and causal/or (in
English only). Equally common in the contrasted languages are various connectives
that join coordinate clauses. These are as follows: therefore, consequently,
accordingly, then, hence, so, while, as well as and some explanatory connective words
(that is to say, such as, like, let me say and others), which have corresponding
functional (and semantic) equivalents in Ukrainian (отже, та, а саме, звідси, тобто,
тоді, як-то, так-як, ...так, скажімо, то...то).
Co-ordinate conjunctions, as well as various connectives, realize their functional and
semantic meaning in structurally and semantically identical English and Ukrainian
compound sentences. This is to be explained by the existence of common relations
that are created between the coordinate clauses of compound sentences and to a large
degree by the semantic meanings of conjunctions/connectives that join these clauses.
As a result, isomorphism, if not exact likeness, is observed in the nature of some
subtypes of English and Ukrainian compound sentences. These isomorphic features
find their expressions in the existence of the following subtypes of them:
1)compound sentences with free/ netral Interrelation between their clauses ( when you
transform the coordinate clauses in the sentence, the meaning is not changed)
2)compound sentences with adversative interrelation between their clauses ( but, still,
yet), the placement of clauses is fixed and predetermined because the second part is
semantically dependent, the nature of the conjunction or connective word requires
such an order, there are more then one conjunction, there are can be another sentences
joined with the following, the existence of extension or expansion of component
clauses.
3)Contrastive and adversative compound sentences ( and in the meaning of “ a” )
transformation of this kind is impossible in both languages when their clauses are
semantically bound to one object or action
4)compound sentences with asyndetically adjoined classes.

3. The composite sentence is formed by two or more predicative lines, i.e. it

consists of two or more clauses.

Composite sentences display two principal types of construction: hypotaxis

(subordination) and parataxis (coordination).

+Within a composite sentence clauses may be joined by means of coordination or

subordination, thus forming a compound or a complex sentence respectively.

Coordination is a way of linking grammatical elements to make them equal in rank.

Subordination is a way of linking grammatical elements that makes one of them

dependent upon the other (or they are mutually dependent).

The means of combining clauses into a polypredicative sentence are divided into
syndetic, i.e. conjunctional, and asyndetic, i. e. non-conjunctional.