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PLANT EMPOWERMENT
THE BASIC PRINCIPLES
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This brochure aims to give a first impression of the book.

For further information and the preorder procedure
check: www.plantempowerment.com
 Plant Empowerment
The basic principles

‘Coniunctio physicae botanicaeque

mirabile novos fructus producit’

How an integrated approach based on physics and plant physiology leads to a balanced growing method for
protected crops resulting in healthy resilient plants, high yield and quality, low energy costs and economic
greenhouse concepts.

Authors:

ir. P.A.M. Geelen

ir. J.O. Voogt
ing. P.A. van Weel

About this brochure

This brochure aims to give the reader a first impression of the book by presenting the introduction, the
preliminary table of contents, and the first chapter wherein the principles of Growing by Plant Empowerment
are described in a nutshell. In addition, it offers a sneak preview of the many explanatory drawings and
diagrams with which the book is richly illustrated.
For more information and the procedure to order one or more copies of the book, check this website:
www.plantempowerment.com

Special arrangements can be made for companies, organizations or institutes that consider the opportunity
of ordering a batch of the first printed edition to present a sponsored copy of the book to their partners,
clients, members, or lecturers and students. See also the back page of this brochure.
No rights can be derived from this brochure. The content and appearance of the final book may differ.
Colophon

Copyrights
All rights reserved by LetsGrow.com
Nothing from this publication may be reproduced, stored in a computerized system or published in any form or in any matter, including
electronic, mechanical, reprographic or photographic, without prior written permission from the publisher.

Disclaimer
This publication describes the principles of growing by plant empowerment in a general way and is not to be considered as advice or
guideline for specific situations. Any technical information about materials, installations, sensors, devices, equipment, etcetera, is to be
considered as indicative. Examples and calculations regarding climate conditions are based on the psychometric chart and valid for air
pressure at sea level. Technical information, examples, and calculations are intended exclusively for educational purposes and not as
engineering information for the design of greenhouses or installations.
Letsgrow.com accepts no liability whatsoever for any errors or deviations in the descriptions or calculation methods used.

Keywords:
Plant empowerment, plant physiology, plant balances, plant monitoring, plant health and resilience, balanced growing, horticulture,
greenhouse balances, controlled environment, climate control, data driven cultivation, RTR temperature light ratio, Aircokas, stomatal
behaviour.

Illustrations and cover image: Jan Selen (JAM Visual Thinking, Amsterdam)
Technical drawings: Peter van Weel
Editor: Edward Hardy MEng, Energy Projects Engineer at FEC Energy
Cover design and layout: Mireille van IJperen (DTP-hulp.nl)
Printed by: Drukkerij Van Deventer, ‘s-Gravenzande, The Netherlands
 1 FOREWORD

Modern production agriculture for food and other crops utilizes Controlled Environments which are
represented by millions of hectares of greenhouses, worldwide. Greenhouses are transparent structures
using sunlight to power the growing plants while sheltering them from the outside climate. Throughout
the world, people have benefited from greenhouse crops production with improved crop yields, enhan-
ced quality, and safe to eat foods. The environment has benefited from the elimination of nutrient-rich
water discharge, reduction of chemical pesticide application and more productivity per unit of resour-
ces applied. Labor have benefited from local and consistent job opportunities and improved working
conditions.

Greenhouse crop production is a highly orchestrated combination of complex biological, environmental,

mechanical and managerial systems organized to produce crops to meet market demands. A fundamen-
tal challenge is to maintain the environment to manage the plant growth while efficiently using natural
resources. The control system is based on an array of sensors, software program, and output signals,
that direct the physical environmental control systems (heater, cooler, irrigator) to meet the immediate
plant growth needs in response to the fluctuation of natural outside environment. Computer-controlled
environments initially came to practice in the 1980s - 90s and were programmed to satisfy the basic
growers’ view of plant environmental needs – that is, given a crop, knowing its needs, meet its daytime
and nighttime greenhouse air temperature requirements – continually and consistently – for every hour
of every day from seed until harvest.

And, how were these desired environmental conditions known? Mostly from experience and historical
precedent, and possibly modified from academic research with experimentation that found “optimum”
aerial environmental conditions creating a consistent daily recipe for the lifecycle of the crop. This
practice could never reflect a response to the actual condition of the plant, but only a response to the
greenhouse environment, primarily air temperature, around the plant. Thus, the response had little or no
relationship to the immediate, or soon to be imminent, environmental needs of the plant.

Growing by Plant Empowerment changes this approach. The authors of this book provide direct insight
into the physics of the biomechanisms that energize the plant and direct its responses. They follow a ho-
listic approach from the light photons that power photosynthesis and create growth, to the subsequent
plant responses of gas/water vapor exchange between the leaf and the surrounding air. For example,
these include the very biophysical processes critical to cool the plant by evaporation, to move water/
nutrients from the roots to the biochemical activity within the leaves by transpiration, and to convert
carbon dioxide into life-sustaining oxygen in our atmosphere by photosynthesis. These are several of the
inter-related processes which are modulated by local environmental factors, especially moist air proper-
ties of temperature and humidity.

The authors consider the plant as a biochemical processor and that its activities can be directed. This
is accomplished by monitoring the plant and its environment with sensors that provide information to
a data-driven approach of analysis and plant growth decision models to interpret the plant condition.
Environmental control technology is then operated to relieve an unwanted plant stress situation or to
further enhance an opportune growth situation.
The authors have applied plant biophysical knowledge to establish the control needs of a manufactured
environment for an agricultural practice that has been described as the fastest expanding industry in the
world today. Appropriate and precise control offer energy, water, and nutrient resource savings, thereby
enhancing the profitability of commercial greenhouse crop production, while simultaneously reducing
the environmental impact of food production including soil erosion, nutrient loss into water sources, and
pesticide application while producing high quality and safe food products.

How is this important? The genetic potential of the seed can only be achieved within a proper environ-
ment as it progresses to maturity. Management is crucial and information in real-time, that is, while the
plant is actively growing, is required for good management decisions. With this information flow, plant
systems at any location worldwide, within any controlled environment, can reach their potential, by the
most efficient means.

The legacy of the integrated and data-driven approach of Growing by Plant Empowerment will be its
impact on the combined technologies of CEA and hydroponics. Without precedent in the history of
production agriculture, Controlled Environment Agriculture will evolve to Precision Controlled Environ-
ment Agriculture and contribute worldwide to modern digital agriculture. We can expect improvements
to existing CEA applications of greenhouses, growth rooms and indoor farms of urban agriculture, as well
as opportunities to develop new applications around our world of unpredictable and challenging outdoor
climate conditions, and even into our future worlds beyond the Earth. For those who study Growing by
Plant Empowerment and implement its knowledge and procedures, there exist immediate rewards in
crop production efficiency, while for the rest of us it means a more resilient food future.
Read onward and be empowered!

Dr. Gene A. Giacomelli

Founding Director of the Controlled Environment Agriculture Center
Professor of Agricultural & Biosystems Engineering Department
The University of Arizona
Tucson, Arizona, USA
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Introduction . ..................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Important Information before reading this book................................................................................... 2
1.2 What makes GPE different from traditional practice?.......................................................................... 2
1.3 Suggestions for effective reading.............................................................................................................. 4
1.4 How to use the glossary and definitions.................................................................................................. 5
1.5 The references............................................................................................................................................... 5
1.6 The short history of GPE............................................................................................................................. 6

2 Growing by Plant Empowerment in a nutshell............................................................................................. 9

2.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................................................. 9
2.2 Photosynthesis as the starting point for plant growth.................................................................... 9
2.3 The interaction between physiology and physics..........................................................................10
2.4 The energy balance of the plant.........................................................................................................10
2.5 The water balance of the plant...........................................................................................................11
2.6 Evaporation and uptake of nutrients.................................................................................................12
2.7 The assimilates balance/photosynthesis and dissimilation..........................................................12
2.8 The role of stomata as a bridge between physics and physiology.............................................13
2.9 The shift from controlling air conditions to supporting plant balances.....................................14
2.10 Monitoring the balances......................................................................................................................15
2.10.1 Measurements and sensors...................................................................................................15
2.10.2 Crop monitoring.......................................................................................................................15
2.10.3 The RTR diagram......................................................................................................................16
2.11 Greenhouse equipment for GPE implementation..........................................................................16
2.12 Climate control according to GPE......................................................................................................17
2.13 An integrated strategy for cultivation and climate control..........................................................18

3 The Plant.............................................................................................................................................................38
3.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................38
3.2 Conditions for optimal plant growth.................................................................................................39
3.3 The plant as a physical and physiological object............................................................................42
3.4 The plant’s energy balance..................................................................................................................43
3.4.1 Short-wave radiation and reflection.......................................................................................44
3.4.2 Plant mechanisms to reduce interception of irradiation....................................................44
3.4.3 Heat emission by long-wave radiation...................................................................................45
3.4.4 Convection energy......................................................................................................................47
3.4.5 Energy and evaporation.............................................................................................................49
3.5 The plant’s water balance....................................................................................................................50
3.5.1 Two types of evaporation......................................................................................................50
3.5.2 Convection evaporation (wet bulb evaporation)..............................................................51
3.5.3 Radiation evaporation (tea kettle evaporation)................................................................52
3.5.4 Combined evaporation by convection and radiation energy.........................................54
3.5.5 The role of the stomata..........................................................................................................54
3.5.5.1 Evaporation energy = radiation energy + convection energy..........................54
3.5.5.2 Evaporation energy = radiation energy – convection energy..........................56
3.5.6 Stomatal conductance and vapour pressure difference VPD........................................57
 3.5.7 The range of stomatal control...............................................................................................58
3.5.8 Some backgrounds on the functioning of stomata..........................................................59
3.5.9 The influence of CO2 concentration on stomatal behaviour..........................................61
3.5.10 Stomatal conductivity during the night...............................................................................61
3.5.11 The necessity of air movement.............................................................................................62
3.5.12 The influence of air humidity RH / HD...............................................................................62
3.5.13 Evaporation and heat emission.............................................................................................63
3.5.14 The role of the root system in the water balance.............................................................64
3.5.15 Water balance, water buffer capacity of the plant and growth.....................................67
3.5.16 Summary water balance of the plant...................................................................................70
3.6 The plant’s assimilates balance...........................................................................................................71
3.6.1 The processes: Photosynthesis-assimilation-dissimilation.............................................71
3.6.2 Sources and sinks.....................................................................................................................73
3.6.3 Assimilates balance and optimal climate conditions........................................................74
3.6.4 The influence of CO2 concentration on the CO2 uptake.................................................79
3.6.5 Source size: The influence of the LAI..................................................................................81
3.6.6 Source activity: the influence of light distribution...........................................................81
3.6.7 Sink size: the importance of a controlled plant load........................................................84
3.6.8 Sink activity: temperature profile and plant load..............................................................85
3.6.9 RTR Ratio Temperature / Radiation sum............................................................................87
3.6.10 Summary assimilates balance of the plant.............................................................88
3.7 Plant balance in relation to health and resilience...........................................................................89
3.7.1 Problems related to calcium shortage.................................................................................89
3.7.2 Problems related to crop condensation..............................................................................90
3.7.3 Problems related to high root pressure/guttation............................................................90
3.7.4 Problems related to lack of air movement..........................................................................91
3.7.5 Problems related to heat emission.......................................................................................91

4 Physics.................................................................................................................................................................94
4.1 The three layer model...........................................................................................................................94
4.2 The six balances.....................................................................................................................................94
4.3 Energy and moisture transfer between layers................................................................................95
4.3.1 Energy transfer by shortwave radiation..............................................................................95
4.3.1.1 Direct radiation versus diffuse radiation..............................................................96
4.3.1.2 Solar radiation versus artificial lighting.................................................................98
4.3.2 Energy transfer by long wave radiation / heat emission.................................................98
4.3.3 Energy transfer by thermal conductance and convection..............................................99
4.3.3.1 Thermal conductance................................................................................................99
4.3.3.2 Energy transfer by convection / air movement................................................ 100
4.3.3.3 The effective U-value............................................................................................. 100
4.3.3.4 How to calculate the U-value of multiple layers.............................................. 101
4.3.3.5 Heat delivery of a heating pipe by radiation and convection....................... 101
4.3.4 Moisture transfer by diffusion and air movement......................................................... 102
4.3.5 Moisture reduction by condensation............................................................................... 104
4.3.6 Moisture reduction by ventilation..................................................................................... 106
4.4 The energy balance of the greenhouse......................................................................................... 109
4.4.1 The influence of outdoor conditions................................................................................ 111
4.4.2 How to estimate the effective ventilation rate.............................................................. 111
 4.4.3 The role of heat emission.................................................................................................... 113
4.5 The moisture balance of the greenhouse...................................................................................... 114
4.5.1 Controlling the moisture balance from both sides........................................................ 117
4.5.2 Summary moisture balance of the greenhouse.............................................................. 120
4.6 The interaction between the energy and moisture balance..................................................... 120
4.6.1 The combined effects of ventilation................................................................................. 120
4.6.2 The combined effects of screens....................................................................................... 122
4.7 The CO² balance of the greenhouse............................................................................................... 125
4.7.1 The effect of ventilation on the CO2 concentration..................................................... 126
4.7.2 CO2 distribution horizontally and vertically.................................................................... 127
4.8 The energy and water balance of the crop and the greenhouse............................................. 127
4.8.1 The impact of heat emission.............................................................................................. 128
4.8.2 The influence of screens on heat emission..................................................................... 128
4.8.2.1 A new way of screening against heat emission................................................ 129
4.8.2.2 The effect of a double or triple screen............................................................... 131
4.8.2.3 The influence of screen properties..................................................................... 132
4.8.2.4 The effect of a gap in one of two screens......................................................... 132
4.8.2.5 How to choose the best combination of screens?.......................................... 133

5 The characteristics of humid air................................................................................................................. 135
5.1 Physical basis....................................................................................................................................... 135
5.2 The Mollier diagram........................................................................................................................... 135
5.3 The Psychrometric chart................................................................................................................... 136
5.3.1 Saturation curve.................................................................................................................... 137
5.3.2 Absolute Humidity AH......................................................................................................... 138
5.3.3 Relative Humidity RH........................................................................................................... 139
5.3.4 Humidity Deficit HD............................................................................................................ 139
5.3.5 Dewpoint temperature........................................................................................................ 140
5.3.6 Enthalpy / energy content of air........................................................................................ 141
5.3.7 Adiabatic lines........................................................................................................................ 142
5.3.8 Adiabatic cooling................................................................................................................... 142
5.3.9 Wet bulb temperature......................................................................................................... 143
5.4 Air pressure and specific mass......................................................................................................... 143
5.4.1 Specific mass of dry and moist air..................................................................................... 144
5.5 Vapour pressure difference and vapour pressure deficit........................................................... 144
5.6 Instruments to measure humidity................................................................................................... 145
5.6.1 Hair hygrometer.................................................................................................................... 146
5.6.2 Electronic RH meter............................................................................................................. 146
5.6.3 Dry and wet bulb hygrometer............................................................................................ 147

6 Balanced Growing by Plant Empowerment............................................................................................. 151
6.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 151
6.2 Goals for climate control according to GPE.................................................................................. 151
6.2.1 Goals related to the balances of the greenhouse.......................................................... 151
6.2.2 Goals related to the plant’s assimilates balance............................................................. 152
6.2.3 Goals related to the plant’s energy and water balance................................................ 152
6.2.4 Goals related to keeping the plant in an optimal condition........................................ 152
6.3 How to monitor the balances of greenhouse and plants........................................................... 153
 6.3.1 Something about sensors and the speaking plant......................................................... 153
6.4 Monitoring the energy balance of the greenhouse..................................................................... 154
6.4.1 Ventilation: Temperature versus RH and CO2 concentration..................................... 155
6.4.2 Heat emission and the energy balance............................................................................ 156
6.5 Monitoring the moisture balance of the greenhouse................................................................. 157
6.5.1 How to keep a keen eye on condensation risks............................................................. 160
6.6 Monitoring the plant’s energy balance.......................................................................................... 161
6.6.1 Energy versus photosynthesis............................................................................................ 161
6.6.2 Monitoring average plant leaf temperature and VPD................................................... 161
6.6.3 Monitoring net radiation at crop level............................................................................. 163
6.6.4 Monitoring crop temperature by thermographic images............................................. 164
6.7 Monitoring the plant’s water balance............................................................................................ 165
6.7.1 Monitoring water supply..................................................................................................... 165
6.7.2 Measuring or estimating evaporation.............................................................................. 166
6.7.3 Irrigation based on evaporation energy........................................................................... 166
6.7.4 Monitoring stomatal behaviour......................................................................................... 166
6.7.5 The importance of root temperature................................................................................ 169
6.7.6 How to keep a keen eye on guttation risks..................................................................... 169
6.8 Monitoring the plant’s assimilates balance................................................................................... 170
6.8.1 Monitoring plant development / plant status................................................................ 170
6.8.2 Monitoring the temperature / light sum ratio................................................................ 170
6.8.3 Monitoring plant load.......................................................................................................... 174
6.8.4 Monitoring the vertical temperature profile................................................................... 175
6.8.5 Monitoring the CO2 – Light ratio...................................................................................... 176
6.8.6 The plant‘s assimilates balance and crop treatment..................................................... 177
6.9 How to apply the GPE principles to an integrated crop management................................... 178
6.9.1 Plant architecture management......................................................................................... 178
6.9.2 Root management................................................................................................................. 180
6.9.2.1 The plant’s nutrition balance................................................................................ 180
6.9.3 Plant health and resilience management......................................................................... 182
6.9.3.1 Biological plant protection and greenhouse climate....................................... 185
6.9.3.2 The role of micro-organisms in the plant’s biosphere..................................... 185
6.9.4 Post-harvest quality management.................................................................................... 187

7 Challenging outdoor conditions................................................................................................................. 190
7.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 190
7.2 How to support plants under challenging climate conditions.................................................. 190
7.3 How to adapt to extreme outdoor conditions............................................................................. 191
7.3.1 High solar radiation.............................................................................................................. 191
7.3.2 Hot and Dry............................................................................................................................ 191
7.3.3 Hot and humid....................................................................................................................... 191
7.3.4 Hot, dry and dusty................................................................................................................ 192
7.3.5 Lack of Wind.......................................................................................................................... 192
7.3.6 Very low outdoor temperature.......................................................................................... 193
7.3.7 Low natural light levels........................................................................................................ 193
7.4 Moisture control by ventilation....................................................................................................... 194
7.5 The relation between greenhouse temperature and energy losses........................................ 196
7.6 How to adapt cultivation methods to challenging conditions.................................................. 196
 8 Greenhouse structures and equipment.................................................................................................... 203
8.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 203
8.2 The influence of the greenhouse coverage.................................................................................. 203
8.2.1 Single or double roof............................................................................................................ 203
8.2.2 Far-infrared transparency / thermicity............................................................................. 204
8.2.3 Diffuse or direct light........................................................................................................... 204
8.2.4 The PAR transparency of glass........................................................................................... 205
8.2.5 The PAR transparency of foil.............................................................................................. 205
8.3 Ventilation............................................................................................................................................ 206
8.3.1 Natural ventilation................................................................................................................ 206
8.3.2 Ventilation versus mechanical or adiabatic cooling...................................................... 207
8.3.3 Natural ventilation strategy for GPE................................................................................ 207
8.4 Mechanical Ventilation...................................................................................................................... 208
8.4.1 Starting points for mechanical air circulation/ventilation........................................... 208
8.4.2 What ventilation system capacity is required?............................................................... 209
8.4.2.1 Ventilation capacity based on moisture control............................................... 209
8.4.2.2 Ventilation capacity based on temperature control........................................ 212
8.5 Ventilation by Pad and Fan systems............................................................................................... 214
8.5.1 Pad and Fan combined with air tubes.............................................................................. 215
8.5.1.1 Ventilation system with air tubes during the night.......................................... 216
8.5.1.2 Ventilation system with air tubes for the day................................................... 217
8.6 Ventilation by vertical injection fans.............................................................................................. 218
8.7 Air movement inside the greenhouse............................................................................................ 220
8.7.1 The effect of heating pipes................................................................................................. 220
8.7.2 The effect of horizontal fans.............................................................................................. 221
8.7.3 The effect of horizontal air tubes...................................................................................... 222
8.7.4 The effect of vertical fans................................................................................................... 223
8.8 Temperature uniformity across the greenhouse.......................................................................... 225
8.8.1 Temperature differences caused by slopes..................................................................... 225
8.8.2 Temperature differences caused by wind effects.......................................................... 226
8.8.3 Temperature differences and ventilation......................................................................... 228
8.8.4 Temperature differences and screens.............................................................................. 231
8.9 How to reduce temperature differences....................................................................................... 234
8.10 Mechanical dehydration units.......................................................................................................... 234
8.11 Heating systems.................................................................................................................................. 235
8.11.1 Hot water systems................................................................................................................. 236
8.11.2 Hot Air Systems...................................................................................................................... 237
8.12 Screen systems.................................................................................................................................... 239
8.12.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................ 239
8.12.1.1 How screens affect thermal conductance and convection......................... 239
8.12.1.2 How screens affect heat emission.................................................................... 240
8.12.1.3 How screens affect (unwanted) ventilation.................................................... 242
8.12.1.4 How screens affect the moisture balance of the greenhouse.................... 243
8.12.2 Screens for the night............................................................................................................ 243
8.12.2.1 Reduction of convection and thermal conductance..................................... 243
8.12.2.2 Reduction of heat emission................................................................................ 244
8.12.2.3 Reduction of unwanted ventilation.................................................................. 245
8.12.2.4 The optimal combination of screen properties.............................................. 245
 8.12.2.5 The optimal combination of screens and types of coverage...................... 247
8.12.2.6 Reduction of light emission................................................................................ 248
8.12.3 Screens for the day............................................................................................................... 249
8.12.3.1 Reduction of incoming solar radiation (shading)............................................ 249
8.12.3.2 Screens for energy saving / peak-shaving...................................................... 250
8.12.4 How to choose the best combination of screen types?.................................. 251
8.13 Misting systems.................................................................................................................................. 251
8.14 Roof sprinklers..................................................................................................................................... 253
8.15 Supply and distribution of CO2........................................................................................................ 253

9 Sensors for plant monitoring and climate control.................................................................................. 256
9.1 Sensors for outdoor conditions / weather sensors..................................................................... 256
9.1.1 Outdoor air temperature and humidity sensor.............................................................. 257
9.1.2 Solar radiation sensor........................................................................................................... 258
9.1.3 Wind speed and wind direction sensors.......................................................................... 259
9.1.4 Rain / precipitation detector.............................................................................................. 260
9.1.5 Pyrgeometer........................................................................................................................... 260
9.2 Sensors inside the greenhouse........................................................................................................ 261
9.2.1 Greenhouse air temperature and RH sensor.................................................................. 262
9.2.2 Air temperature and RH sensor above the screen........................................................ 264
9.2.3 CO2 sensor.............................................................................................................................. 264
9.2.4 Plant leaf temperature sensor............................................................................................ 265
9.2.5 Par light sensor...................................................................................................................... 267
9.2.6 Stomata sensor...................................................................................................................... 268
9.2.7 Thermographic camera........................................................................................................ 269
9.2.8 Net radiation sensor............................................................................................................. 269
9.2.9 Weighing scales and slab wetness sensors..................................................................... 270
9.2.10 Wireless sensor systems / networks................................................................................ 271
9.2.11 Special sensors for research purposes............................................................................. 271

10 Roadmaps for the implementation of GPE.............................................................................................. 274
10.1 Roadmap 1: Improving the climate uniformity............................................................................. 275
10.1.1 Basic principles...................................................................................................................... 275
10.1.2 Improved measurements..................................................................................................... 275
10.1.3 Monitoring and interpreting............................................................................................... 276
10.1.4 Take small steps / Implement improvements................................................................. 276
10.2 Roadmap 2: protecting the crop against heat emission............................................................. 278
10.2.1 Basic principles...................................................................................................................... 278
10.2.2 Improved measurement....................................................................................................... 278
10.2.3 Monitoring and interpreting............................................................................................... 280
10.2.4 Take small steps in adjusting the screen control strategy............................................ 281
10.2.4.1 Prevent heat emission during the night........................................................... 281
10.2.4.2 Reduce heat emission in the early morning.................................................... 282
10.2.4.3 Reduce heat emission in the afternoon........................................................... 282
10.3 Roadmap 3: controlling the moisture balance of the greenhouse........................................... 284
10.3.1 Basic principles...................................................................................................................... 284
10.3.2 Improved measurement....................................................................................................... 284
10.3.3 Monitoring and interpreting............................................................................................... 285
 10.3.4 Take small steps..................................................................................................................... 286
10.3.4.1 Adjust the heating strategy during the night.................................................. 286
10.3.4.2 Adjust the ventilation strategy.......................................................................... 287
10.3.4.3 Adjust the screening strategy focused on moisture control....................... 287
10.4 Roadmap 4: Supporting the assimilate balance via the RTR strategy..................................... 289
10.4.1 Basic principles...................................................................................................................... 289
10.4.2 Monitoring and interpreting............................................................................................... 289
10.4.3 Improved registration of the RTR...................................................................................... 290
10.4.4 Taking small steps................................................................................................................. 291
10.5 Roadmap 5: Supporting the water balance of the crop............................................................. 293
10.5.1 Basic principles...................................................................................................................... 293
10.5.2 Improved measurement....................................................................................................... 294
10.5.3 Monitoring and interpreting............................................................................................... 294
10.5.4 Taking small steps................................................................................................................. 295
10.6 Improved ventilation by lee side and wind side vents................................................................ 296
10.7 Integrated adjustment of the Cultivation strategy...................................................................... 297

11 LetsGrow on-line tools for monitoring and analysis............................................................................. 300

11.1 Module Psychrometric chart............................................................................................................ 301
11.2 Module Greenhouse process simulation / calculation............................................................... 302
11.3 Module Radiation monitor (Heat emission simulation).............................................................. 303
11.4 Module Meteo data............................................................................................................................ 304
11.5 Module Picture upload App.............................................................................................................. 305
11.6 Module Energy balance of the greenhouse.................................................................................. 306
11.7 Module Moisture balance of the greenhouse.............................................................................. 307
11.8 Module Thermoview (thermographic camera)............................................................................. 308
11.9 Module Heat map............................................................................................................................... 309
11.10 Module Climate monitor................................................................................................................... 310
11.11 Module Plant conditions basis......................................................................................................... 311
11.12 Module Plant conditions extended................................................................................................. 312
11.13 Module Stomata conductivity.......................................................................................................... 313
11.14 Module Root zone conditions.......................................................................................................... 314
11.15 Module Root zone nutrients............................................................................................................ 315
11.16 Module Plant balance (RTR = Ratio Temperature / Radiation)................................................. 316
11.17 Module Crop registration.................................................................................................................. 317
11.18 Module Crop planning....................................................................................................................... 318
11.19 Module Harvest prognosis / yield prediction............................................................................... 319

12 References....................................................................................................................................................... 322

13 Appendixes / Attachments.......................................................................................................................... 324

13.1 Appendix 1 Glossary and Definitions............................................................................................. 324
13.2 Appendix 2 Climate control system “Aircokas”............................................................................ 343
13.3 Appendix 3: The basics of thermal heat emission by long wave radiation............................ 352
13.4 Appendix 4: Relative Photosynthetic Efficiency of light............................................................ 354
 1. INTRODUCTION
Sustainable Growing by Plant Empowerment

Growing by Plant Empowerment

 INTRODUCTION
1 Sustainable Growing by Plant Empowerment

The agricultural and horticultural industry worldwide faces the enormous challenge to feed the fast-gro-
wing population of our planet while resources like fresh water, nutrients and fossil energy are rapidly be-
coming scarcer. Greenhouses offer a great chance to play a key role in the search for solutions, not only
in the regions where greenhouse production is quite common but also in areas where traditional open
field production is impossible or limited.
During the last decades, we observed that the greenhouse industry focuses on putting in more and more
technology towards a fully closed greenhouse. Recently, growing plants in closed chambers with multi-
ple layers under LED lighting and entirely controlled conditions has attracted much attention. However,
is this the only real answer to create a large sustainable greenhouse industry worldwide? The authors
of this book believe that sustainable cultivation is possible in many areas on our planet. Of course, this
requires technological means to some extent, depending on local conditions. There is no reason, though,
to build expensive closed greenhouses or closed chambers everywhere. If we learn to make better use of
the natural growing power and resilience of plants, simpler and cheaper technologies can be applied.

1
Typically, traditional plant production methods are based on a mix of blueprints, best practices, common
knowledge of plant physiology, as well as the ‘green fingers’ and ‘emotional perception’ of the growers.
This approach has been successful, but also has several limitations:

❶ Blueprints are valid only under specific (outdoor) climate conditions

❷ The human sensory perception provides false information about the plant status
❸ Sensor-based climate control is not directly related to plant growth or plant status
❹ Most of the physiological knowledge is based on mono-factorial plant research

Growing by Plant Empowerment (GPE) brings the different pieces of experience and knowledge together
in an integrated approach. Its starting point is the natural behaviour of plants related to the greenhouse
environment described by six balances concerning energy, water, CO2 and assimilates. Monitoring these
balances utilizing sensors, combined with crop measurements in a coherent framework based on physical
and plant physiological knowledge and insights, provides hard facts required to control and improve the
cultivation process.

It has been proven already that this approach can deliver significant advantages regarding production and
quality, plant health and energy savings for many different crops without extra investments in green-
house equipment. Furthermore, GPE can provide the tools for further innovations based on knowledge
and experience rather than on trial and error.

Hopefully, this book will contribute to sustainable cultivation by helping the interested reader to under-
stand and implement the principles of Plant Empowerment.

Peter Geelen
Jan O. Voogt
Peter van Weel

Introduction
 1.1. Important Information before reading this book

This book may surprise the reader when it comes to the role of greenhouse temperature, relative
humidity (RH), humidity deficit (HD) and water vapour pressure difference (VPD) on plant behaviour. A
good grasp of the laws of physics will help the reader to understand the ideas behind “Growing by Plant
Empowerment”, as well as how and why to implement these in favour of some of the more traditional
and generally accepted principles.

1.2. What makes GPE different from traditional practice?

In recent years, many people have already asked us: what makes GPE different from traditional growing
based on blueprints and human feeling / green fingers?
Hopefully, the shortlist below will give rise to further interest in studying GPE.

✔ In general, it is true that a well-balanced plant by nature is a healthy and robust plant. In contrast, an
unbalanced plant is more vulnerable to pests and diseases. GPE focuses on growing a balanced crop
2
in the first place to prevent problems rather than curing them.

Optimization of plant growth and climate control must be based on a balanced approach of energy,
✔ 
water, and assimilates rather than focusing on one or more single factors like temperature or humi­
dity.

Optimization of growing conditions should always start with the elimination of factors and influen-
✔ 
ces that create temperature and humidity differences across the greenhouse. As long as the climate
is non-uniform, any attempt to optimize growing conditions is more or less futile.

✔ In practice, plant balance is often controlled by performing so-called “vegetative actions” and “gene-
rative actions” according to plant status. However, it is much more efficient to keep the plant balan-
ced by maintaining a steady temperature/light ratio.

The ventilation rate of a greenhouse should be based on realizing the right evaporation rate of the
✔ 
crop instead of maintaining a specific RH or HD. Especially during the night this is important for
uptake of nutrients like Calcium.

✔ F
 or removing moisture by ventilation, it is not the outside RH that is important, but the absolute hu-
midity (AH). As long as the outdoor temperature is lower than the greenhouse temperature, even at
100% RH (mist), the absolute humidity of this air can be lower than inside, and ventilation will have a
positive effect on moisture reduction. A graph of the AH yields surprising insights into the producti-
on and exhaust of moisture in the greenhouse.

For effective climate control and to prevent problems with high moisture levels, it is very beneficial
✔ 
to keep both temperature and absolute humidity inside the greenhouse well above the outdoor le-
vels. A cultivation strategy that allows high crop temperatures is much easier to accomplish than one
that asks for low temperatures.

Growing by Plant Empowerment


✔ W
 ith a high-temperature cultivation strategy combined with lower plant load, it is easier to maintain
the correct plant balance according to the GPE principles. This also leads to better utilization of solar
energy, lower CO2 emission, and lower demand for additional (fossil) energy.

✔ It is often assumed that the Vapour Pressure Difference (VPD) is the driving force of evaporation
and that a high VPD is required under high radiation conditions. That is a misunderstanding. Stomata
control their opening and thus plant evaporation and photosynthesis, based on water availability
inside the leaf related to intercepted energy. In this sense, VPD is only a result of evaporation of the
crop and ventilation of the greenhouse. When stomata close because of lack of available water insi-
de the plant, a high VPD will be the result, at the cost of CO2 uptake and photosynthesis efficiency.

The real driving force of evaporation is energy absorption by the plant leaves. Even when RH is very
✔ 
high or HD extremely low, evaporation is possible as long as energy is supplied. If energy supply by
radiation stops, for example when the sun goes down, energy supply by convection must take over
to keep evaporation going. Evaporation does not depend on leaf temperature as such, but on the
difference between leaf temperature and air temperature.

There are many misunderstandings about the role of air movement in the greenhouse. In general, it is
✔ 
3
thought that air movement by horizontal fans is an effective way to neutralize temperature differen-
ces. In reality, this has only minor effects or may even be counterproductive. The new GPE approach,
based on physical insights, shows that moderate air movement is an essential prerequisite for a good
microclimate around the plant. Preferably this air movement is obtained by vertical fans.

✔ In most cases, fungal diseases are not due to high RH, but to free water caused by plant cell damage
or condensation as a result of heat emission. Plant cell damage is caused by weak cells in combina-
tion with a high turgor as a result of an imbalance between water supply and evaporation. Energy
supply can control evaporation rate even at high RH values. A high RH stimulates only the germinati-
on of spores. Fungal diseases indicate a disturbance of the plant balances.

✔ A
 t night, energy exchange between the warm crop and a cold roof or screen through heat emission
will result in a lower temperature of the canopy. That means that the measurement of air tempera-
ture and humidity using an aspirator box is misleading regarding estimating crop evaporation and
assessing the risks of condensation on the crop. This insight has given rise to an entirely different
screen strategy for many crops

✔ R
 adiation energy from the sun or artificial light causes higher temperatures in those parts of the
plant that have little or no evaporation, like flower buds and fruits. Air movement can lower that
temperature to greenhouse air temperature. The aspirated and insulated air temperature sensor of
the climate control does not show those differences in temperature.

✔ In the past, 100% closure of the screen(s) resulted in problems with fungal diseases. The increase in
RH and temperature was believed to be the cause of this problem, but the real reason is a lack of air
movement. That is why GPE methods advise to always combine a 100% screen closure with mecha-
nical air movement.

Ventilation by increasing the heating pipe temperature in combination with a screen gap will in-
✔ 
crease evaporation and energy consumption more than necessary. The screen gaps also introduce

Introduction
 unwanted horizontal and vertical temperature differences across the greenhouse, resulting in fungal
diseases, product quality problems and extra energy demand to prevent cold spots. Air movement
within the canopy in combination with ventilation above a 100% closed screen solves most of these
problems.

✔ C
 limate control should be geared to supporting plant balances. However, it is advisable not to over-
do or over optimize this. The plant is perfectly equipped and able to correct small disturbances of
the equilibrium itself. That also has the advantage that the self-protecting mechanisms of the plant
remain active.

The different aspects as indicated above should not be treated as separate issues. These are all pieces
of the same puzzle and therefore should be incorporated in a coherent new strategy for cultivation and
climate control.

1.3. Suggestions for effective reading

Although we have tried to explain it in a simple way, we cannot deny that for a good understanding of
the principles of GPE a thorough knowledge of physics and plant physiology is required. Readers with
4
sufficient background knowledge may start reading chapter 2 “GPE in a nutshell” for a first impression,
and then decide how to find their way through the rest of the book, also depending on their specific inte-
rest and involvement in horticulture.

For other readers, it may be wise to start with chapter 3 about “The plant” and work that through with
the help of the glossary and definitions.

However, some readers may prefer to first read chapters 4 and 5 on physics and characteristics of humid
air to enhance or refresh their knowledge about these subjects.

Chapter 6 describes the basics of balanced growing and how to monitor the different balances. This is
the first step towards applying plant empowerment in practice.

Chapter 7 explains how to deal with challenging outside conditions and how cultivation methods can be
adapted to solve temperature/light ratio issues, rather than exclusively apply technical installations to
modify and control greenhouse conditions.

Chapter 8 is dedicated to greenhouse equipment and how to create a good growth climate. Furthermore,
it describes the background of commonly encountered issues like temperature differences and methods
on how to avoid them.

In chapter 9, the different sensors for plant monitoring and climate control are described in more detail,
but mainly from a functional point of view. Tips are also given for practical use.

For those who want to put the principles of GPE into practice, chapter 10 is primarily dedicated to this
topic and includes detailed roadmaps. It gives guidelines and considerations to gradually implement the
GPE methods in small steps, following a well-designed route from theory to practical experience.

Chapter 11 gives a short overview of online tools that have been developed by LetsGrow.com to support

Growing by Plant Empowerment

the practical implementation of balanced growing by plant empowerment.
For additional recent information and practical experiences regarding growing by plant empowerment
check this website: www.plantempowerment.com.

1.4. How to use the glossary and definitions

The authors are aware of the fact that some parts of this book can be tricky to understand without suf-
ficient background knowledge on plant physiology, physics, climate control, sensor technology, psychro-
metric relations, etc. If the reader encounters unfamiliar terms and concepts, he or she is encouraged
to consult the glossary and definitions. Typically, a glossary contains only concise descriptions of words
and terms used in the text. However, for the sake of a better understanding, we have chosen to enhance
these descriptions with a somewhat more detailed explanation and sometimes additional formulas and
calculation examples. Hopefully, this will help the reader in mastering the principles of GPE.

1.5. The references

If one wants to write a serious book, it is a good practice to include a long list of references to scientific
5
research reports and articles to support and confirm the credibility of the presented theories and results.
However, the reader of this book will seek such a list in vain, because we have decided for several rea-
sons not to include explicit references.

Many existing considerations about plant behaviour in relation to climate conditions in green-
✔ 
houses are difficult to interpret from the perspective of GPE, because they do not take the plant
balances as a starting point.
Most of the existing knowledge about plant behaviour originates from research projects that had
✔ 
a strict mono-factorial character. For example, one single growth factor is varied, such as a higher
or lower temperature, and the results are compared to a reference situation with the usual tempe-
rature strategy while all other conditions are kept the same. However, from the perspective of the
plant balances, it is evident that only the optimal combination of several growth factors yields the
best result. Most likely, regarding plant behaviour, the term “mono factorial research” is indeed a
contradiction in terms. Let us assume, for example, that we want to study the influence of higher
or lower temperature on fruit set. Then we have to be aware that this higher or lower temperature
not only affects the process of fruit set alone, but also the water balance and the assimilates balan-
ce of the plant as a whole. Without taking these plant balances entirely into account, our research
may easily give rise to misinterpretations and non-repeatable results.
Most of the research on plant behaviour is focused on plant physiological processes while the
✔ 
physical laws are being ignored. For example, concerning stomatal behaviour, the relation between
stomatal conductance and VPD is commonly described as if a high VPD causes the stomata to clo-
se. However, from the analysis of the water balance and energy balance from a physical perspec-
tive, it is obvious that this interpretation is incorrect. In reality, the stomata close because of water
shortage inside the leaf, and as a result leaf temperature rises and the measured VPD increases.

Of course, this does not mean that existing literature would not contain valuable and interesting informa-
tion. On the contrary, the reader is strongly advised and encouraged to read and study existing docu-
mentation to learn more about the subjects discussed in this book. However, for a good understanding
and interpretation, it may be advisable to first validate this additional information against the physiologi-

Introduction
 cal and physical based principles of GPE.
Where text or illustrations are cited from written literature or are taken from the internet, references are
included.

1.6. The short history of Growing by Plant Empowerment

Around 2004 the first fully closed greenhouse was built in the Netherlands. Surprisingly, in this closed
greenhouse plants appeared to behave quite differently from what was expected based on existing the-
ories and experiences in usual open greenhouses. For example, the evaporation rate of the crop depen-
ding on solar radiation and air humidity didn’t match the usual evaporation models. Also unexpectedly,
higher greenhouse temperatures sometimes delivered better results than lower temperatures.

This was the trigger to start a new research project on plant behaviour in relation to greenhouse climate.
The research project was initiated by Hoogendoorn Growth Management and Wageningen University
and Research (WUR) under the name of “Aircokas”. It revealed that existing theories on plant behaviour
and climate control were partly incorrect and in contradiction with basic physical and plant physiological
laws and principles. Step by step the Aircokas cultivation concept has been developed, based on the six
balances of the plant and the greenhouse environment in terms of energy, water, CO2 and assimilates.
6
This has resulted, amongst others, in a paper on “Climate control based on stomatal behaviour in a se-
mi-closed greenhouse system Aircokas” published by the ISHS in 2008.

In the fall of 2009, a new innovation stimulation project was introduced in the Dutch agricultural industry
under the name “Het Nieuwe Telen” (HNT). That was part of the programme “Kas als energiebron” (KaE),
under the supervision of the Dutch Cooperative Growers Organisation LTO and the Ministry of Econo-
mic Affairs. In short, HNT was a 7-step roadmap to achieve semi-closed cultivation. These seven steps
were a summary of a report written by WUR (E.H. Poot et al.), commissioned by KaE, as an evaluation of
the practical experiences with semi-closed cultivation so far. In this report, the new insights of “Airco-
kas” were incorporated together with the findings from various other studies on the subject. During that
period, the emphasis was mainly on dehumidifying the greenhouse air with outside air injection and air
conditioning units.

From the end of 2013, the focus of the HNT programme has been shifted towards knowledge transfer, to
stimulate the application of the new insights to optimize cultivation in existing greenhouses, with exis-
ting equipment without significant investments.

In 2015, LTO / KaE published the book “De basisprincipes van Het Nieuwe Telen”, written by P.A.M
Geelen, J.O. Voogt, and P.A. van Weel, to support and speed up the knowledge transfer process. This
book is now the basis of an extensive education and training programme for Dutch growers, crop con-
sultants, and specialists working in the supply industry. In addition, there is increasing interest from the
horticultural institutes to incorporate the principles of HNT in their curriculum.

The name Het Nieuwe Telen has been translated in English to “Next Generation Growing” for the inter-
national marketplace. However, Next Generation Growing must be considered as a first implementation
of the new concept, primarily aimed at the Dutch way of cultivation, the Dutch climate conditions and
the Dutch standards of greenhouse technology. Furthermore, it is often mainly associated with energy
savings, which is incorrect and frequently gives rise to misinterpretations.

Growing by Plant Empowerment

Over the years, the basic principles of the balanced growing method have been further developed,
refined and extended towards a complete, coherent philosophy on the cultivation of greenhouse crops,
focused on optimal growth in a sustainable way.

In 2016 the authors chose the new name “Growing by Plant Empowerment” to express better how the
concept takes the natural behaviour and the growing power of plants as a starting point. In addition, it
underlines that the GPE philosophy is applicable worldwide for many different types of crops, a wide
range of climate conditions, and divergent levels of greenhouse technology.

Introduction
8

Growing by Plant Empowerment

 GROWING BY PLANT EMPOWERMENT
2 IN A NUTSHELL

2.1. Introduction

Growing by Plant Empowerment can be distinguished from the general theoretical and practical views on
cultivation methods with the following characteristics:

The plant is considered not only as a bio-physiological organism but also as a physical object that is subject
✔ 
to physical laws.
These physical laws are summarized in three balances: the energy balance, the water balance and the
✔ 
assimilate balance.
That allows the growth and development of plants to be analysed from these three balances.
✔ 
All bio-physiological processes inside the plant are mainly considered as mechanisms or instruments to
✔ 
maintain equilibrium of the balances, rather than self-evident phenomena.
The greenhouse conditions should be controlled in such a way that the plant is protected against distur-
✔ 
9
bances from outside and is effectively supported in maintaining its balances.
This also provides the requirements for effective greenhouse structures and equipment.
✔ 
Climate control must be based on physical knowledge and measurements rather than assumptions and
✔ 
rules of thumb. Furthermore, the process should be approached from the energy balance and moisture ba-
lance of the greenhouse instead of using separate, independent set points for temperature and humidity.
This also includes that optimization of growth can never be accomplished by changing only one para-
✔ 
meter, for example, the amount of PAR light or temperature. It has been shown in research and practice
that a so-called mono factorial approach does not work correctly. That is why GPE is based on a system
approach: all growth factors must constantly be kept in balance to achieve the optimal result.
Sensors are applied to monitor the conditions inside and outside the greenhouse and also plant behaviour.
✔ 
Cultivation methods should focus on optimizing plant growth and development. Although substantial
✔ 
energy savings are achievable with GPE methods, this is regarded as a bonus rather than a goal.

In this book, we try to explain the basic principles of Growing by Plant Empowerment in such a way that
they become understandable and usable for growers worldwide to optimize their cultivations in a wide
range of greenhouse structures covered with glass or plastic, and with or without high tech equipment.
However, since GPE is all about plant growth, these principles are also applicable in advanced fully Con-
trolled Environment Agriculture also known as Vertical Farming or Indoor Farming.

2.2. Photosynthesis as the starting point for plant growth

Photosynthesis is the starting point to optimize plant growth. In the photosynthesis process, CO₂ and
water are photo-chemically converted into assimilates and oxygen. Assimilates are also referred to as
carbohydrates or sugars. Assimilates are the building blocks for growth and provide the energy to keep the
biochemical processes inside the plant going. Therefore, the first step for optimal growth is the optimal
production of assimilates, thus maximum utilization of available PAR light from the sun or supplemental
lighting like SON-T lamps or LEDs.

Growing by Plant Empowerment in a nutshell

 The best way to maximize photosynthesis is to supply PAR light as much as possible and to support the
plant in keeping its energy and water balances in equilibrium. In general, this means high CO₂ levels, high
humidity (e.g., 75% as a minimum depending on the type of crop) to keep the stomata open and also a
high temperature, because this speeds up the photosynthesis process.

Of course, there are limitations. Each type of plant has its maximum photosynthesis capacity expressed
in micromole / m².sec PAR light level. Higher PAR levels cannot be processed efficiently and can even
bring damage to the chlorophyll. Besides that, each type of plant has a maximum evaporation capacity
expressed in grams / m².hour. Forcing the plant to a higher evaporation rate will cause crop damage.
However, it has been proven that for many plant types, photosynthesis capacity can be stretched to-
wards much higher levels than is usually assumed, just by keeping a high humidity under high radiation
conditions.

In short, in many cases photosynthesis and assimilates production can be increased by merely keeping
the ventilation windows of the greenhouse at a lower opening angle, and sometimes applying additional
misting, instead of bringing over the shading screen or applying whitewash to temper the sunlight.

2.3. The interaction between physiology and physics

10

A plant must not be considered exclusively as a bio-physiological organism. It is also a physical object
that has to obey physical laws, like the Law of Conservation of Energy, and the Law of Conservation of
Mass.
The influence of these physical laws on plant behaviour can be summarized in three balances: the energy
balance, the water balance and the assimilate balance.

2.4. The energy balance of the plant

The energy balance is the balance between the energy flows towards (input) and from (output) the plant.
We can distinguish four different types of energy flows:
✔ Shortwave radiation - this is sunlight or light from lamps or LEDs;
✔ Longwave radiation - also Figure 2.4-1 Energy balance of the plant
called heat radiation or heat
emission;
✔ Convective energy - transfer-
red by moving air around the
leaves;
✔ Evaporation energy

Since plants cannot produce heat

of their own, the energy balance
consists exclusively of external
energy flows. If the energy balance
is made up by counting all separa-
te flows, the result must be zero,
according to the physical Law of
Conservation of Energy.

Growing by Plant Empowerment

Typically, shortwave radiation is only towards the plant and thus always on the input side.
Longwave radiation can be towards the plant, but also from the plant depending on the temperature
difference between the plant and the surrounding objects like the soil and greenhouse roof.

Convective heat transfer plays a decisive role in the balance and underlines the importance of air move-
ment around the plant. The direction of the transfer depends on the temperature difference between the
plant and the air, so it can contribute either positively or negatively to the balance. Air movement also
prevents a static microclimate. Evaporation is only possible when the balance has a surplus of energy.
Evaporation is also the link between the energy balance and the water balance because evaporation is
the essential factor for cooling the plant under high radiation conditions.

The GPE research has revealed at least five crucial new insights related to the energy and water balance
of plants.
❶ The driving force for evaporation is energy absorption of the plant leaves and not the RH, HD or
VPD as such.
❷ By distinguishing two different sources of evaporation energy (radiative and convective heat trans-
fer), the behaviour of stomata can easily be explained by the energy and water balance of the plant.
❸ Air movement can stimulate plant activity or evaporation, as moving air supplies convective heat
input. On the other hand, air movement helps the plant to stay cool if water availability is not suffi-
11
cient for evaporation.
❹ Low air humidity or high humidity deficit causes unnecessary extra evaporation under high radiation
conditions, thus limiting photosynthesis by stomata closing.
❺ Heat emission has a significant negative impact on the plant’s energy balance during night time, but
also at the beginning and end of the day when the roof of the greenhouse is cold compared to plant
leaf temperature. In that situation evaporation, and thus uptake of vital nutrients, especially Calci-
um, may drop under the critical minimum value. That causes many different problems for the plant’s
growth and development.

2.5. The water balance of the plant

Figure 2.5-1 Water balance of the plant
The water balance is the balance bet-
ween the input and output of water from
the plant.
The output of water is mainly determined
by evaporation. Only a little portion of
the total water uptake is stored in the
plant and the fruits. In practice, evapora-
tion is primarily driven by radiation from
the sun and supplemental lighting and
also from the heating pipes. If there is no
radiation at all, the only source of energy
is convective heat transfer by air move-
ment.
In that case, evaporation mainly depends
Normally, the water input must closely follow the output.
on relative humidity (RH) / humidity
Small temporary disturbances of the balance can be solved by dehydration and
deficit (HD). rehydration of leaves and fruits.

Growing by Plant Empowerment in a nutshell

 The plants need to evaporate and therefore take up water from the root zone for three reasons: the
uptake of nutrients, for growth, and for cooling. To keep the water balance in equilibrium, the uptake of
water from the root zone must be equal to at least the evaporation rate. For the short term, the plant can
also extract water from the fruits which thus work as a buffer. That explains why the water balance reacts
differently in the morning compared to the afternoon. The same goes for sunny days versus dark days.
However, to ensure sufficient water availability for the longer term, irrigation needs to be aligned with
evaporation energy received by the plant.

2.6. Evaporation and uptake of nutrients

As already stated above, evaporation is necessary for uptake of nutrients. Therefore, growers prefer their
plants to be active at all times, with good reason. Consequently, it is essential that evaporation is not
interrupted for too long to prevent a lack of nutrients especially Calcium. Calcium is an indispensable
building material for young growing cells, and a lack of Calcium can cause various types of problems.
Furthermore, a surplus of Calcium at one moment does not mean that it is still available afterwards. An
overdose of Calcium is rapidly and irreversibly implemented in chemical compounds making this element
unusable for further processing. This means that evaporation, especially in the top of the plant around
the growing tip, should not drop below the critical value depending on the type of crop. And again, pro-
12
tection of the plant against heat emission is an essential measure to prevent Calcium related problems.

2.7. The assimilates balance/photosynthesis and dissimilation

The assimilates balance indicates the degree of the equilibrium between the production and consump­
tion of assimilates also called dissimilation. To optimize growth, it is essential that the production of
assimilates is as high as possible and that the use of assimilates for growth and development of the
plant is stimulated to a maximum. In general, a higher PAR sum results in a higher assimilates production,
under the assumption that sufficient CO₂ is available and stomata are open. The consumption rate of
assimilates within the plant depends mainly on average temperature.

Figure 2.7-1 Assimilates balance of the plant (climate conditions)

Growing by Plant Empowerment

To balance the production and consumption of assimilates, a steady ratio between PAR light sum and the
average temperature is required, preferably on a daily basis. Another new insight is that a low plant load
is the starting point for optimal light use efficiency.

2.8. The role of stomata as a bridge between physics and physiology

As explained above, the growth process of a plant is mainly determined by its three plant balances. But
how can a plant keep these three balances in equilibrium at the same time? For this, plants are equipped
with wonderful instruments, named stomata.

Stomata are the little microscopic pores in the leaves that let water vapour out and absorb CO₂ gas. The
opening of stomata is mainly driven by increasing water pressure, also called turgor, under the influence
of light. The closing of stomata is driven by three different mechanisms: a physical mechanism based
on decreasing turgor in the so-called guard cells, and two biochemical mechanisms. One is triggered by
stress hormones that are produced in every part of the plant if water availability becomes too low. The
other is based on internal CO2 availability.

This way, the stomata enable the plant to make the right trade-off between different goals depending on
13
circumstances. It is fascinating to discover how this complex functioning of the stomata can be influen-
ced by air humidity and can be monitored in a relatively simple way via the energy balance.

Figure 2.8-1 Stomata influence three plant balances

Growing by Plant Empowerment in a nutshell

 2.9. The shift from controlling air conditions to supporting plant balances

Typically, climate control in greenhouses is mainly targeting the

realization of the desired set points of air temperature and air
humidity.
However, the GPE approach reveals that the real art of good
growing is to support the plant in maintaining its balances in such
a way that all factors for growth are optimal at the same time.

This can be compared to a barrel that is built of wooden ribs. If an

individual rib is lower than the others, the barrel can only be filled
with water to precisely that level. Therefore, it is the lowest fac-
tor that determines the total result, and it is no use increasing the
other factors as long as this lowest factor has not been improved.

The following control factors have a considerable influence on the plant balances.

❶ Too low relative humidity (RH) may cause water stress. RH is recognized as an essential growth
factor besides PAR, CO₂, and temperature. The combination of high radiation and low RH causes
14
the stomata to close, thus decreasing photosynthesis. Therefore, the RH level needs to be kept high
at high levels of radiation for that type of plant. This can be controlled by minimizing the opening of
the ventilation windows, sometimes in combination with additional misting.

❷ Absolute humidity (AH) provides insight into the transport of water vapour and the moisture
balance of the greenhouse. Besides RH, AH should also be a factor in humidity control. Measured
RH and HD (humidity deficit) do not illustrate correctly the increase or decrease of moisture. For
example, it is well possible that RH decreases while the value of AH increases. One could be reassu-
red with the thought that the humidity is under control while in reality, the risk of condensation has
increased. The difference between AH outside and inside the greenhouse determines the rate of
moisture exchange through the vents.

❸ Measuring plant leaf temperature and calculating the vapour pressure difference (VPD) is a vital
instrument to recognize and prevent water stress. A too high VPD indicates water stress. This could
be caused by too much light, but also by a too low RH level or by hampered water supply. If water
stress occurs, it is important to take the right measures.

❹ Air movement around the plant is necessary to keep the evaporation and plant activity at a suffi-
cient level, especially under low radiation conditions and during night-time. Furthermore, air mo-
vement improves the microclimate near the plant and contributes to a homogeneous temperature
distribution throughout the greenhouse. Vertical ventilators can be used to stimulate air movement
instead of heating up the pipes.

❺ A good (energy saving) screen reduces heat emission. Heat emission, caused by a cold greenhouse
roof or a cold screen above the crop has a significant negative influence on the growth process.

❻ A constant ratio of PAR light sum and average temperature, preferably on a day to day basis is the
primary key to a good plant balance, a steady plant load, and a healthy resilient crop.

Growing by Plant Empowerment

2.10. Monitoring the balances

2.10.1. Measurements and sensors

All sensors inside and outside the greenhouse must contribute to monitoring the six balances that
determine the greenhouse climate and the plant’s internal status. To support the plant in maintaining its
balances, we need to have at least a rough idea of the different energy flows around the plant. Further-
more, we have to realize that air temperature and air humidity inside the greenhouse are the results of
these energy flows in combination with energy and moisture exchange between the greenhouse and the
outdoor environment, rather than independent phenomena.

To monitor what is going on inside the greenhouse, we need the following set of sensors near the crop:
Air temperature sensor
✔ 
Humidity RH sensor
✔ 
CO2 concentration sensor
✔ 
Plant leaf temperature sensor (Infra-Red sensor)
✔ 
Thermographic camera
✔ 
PAR light sensor (especially in combination with whitewash and/or shading screens and/or supple-
✔ 
15
mental lighting)

Above the (energy saving) screen we need an additional set of sensors:

Air temperature sensor
✔ 
Humidity RH sensor
✔ 

To be able to monitor and to anticipate what is going on outdoors we need to measure:

✔ Air temperature
✔ Relative Humidity
✔ Solar radiation (Pyranometer)
✔ Wind speed and wind direction
✔ Rain (Detector or sensor)
✔ Heat emission (Pyrgeometer)

With the information provided by these sensors, we can control the greenhouse climate in such a way
that optimal growing becomes achievable.

2.10.2 Plant monitoring

Of course, the reactions of the plants to changing circumstances also have to be monitored and inter-
preted. First, this includes immediate responses especially plant leaf temperature. The calculated vapour
pressure difference (VPD) indicates stomatal behaviour. Second, the longer term reactions like fruit set,
growth, plant load, production, etc. must be registered on a regular basis.

Growing by Plant Empowerment in a nutshell

 Figure 2.10.3-1 Temperature / light ratio

2.10.3. The RTR diagram

Since the production of assimilates de-

pends on the total light sum per day, and
the growth rate depends on average daily
temperature, the development of a plant is
largely determined by the ratio of these two
values.

This is illustrated in the diagram. Let us

assume that the plant in the bottom left
corner is well balanced. What would be the
influence of more light or higher temperature?
If more light is being received while the temperature is kept the same, this results in a plant that is too
strong (sometimes also referred to as too vegetative) because the produced assimilates are only part-
ly converted to new leaves and fruits. So the stem and present fruits and leaves will grow thicker and
heavier. If the temperature is increased, but no more light is received, then the plant becomes too weak
(sometimes also referred to as too generative) because there is a constant lack of assimilates. If both light
sum and average temperature are increased at the right ratio, then the plant will develop faster while
16
keeping the desired balance.

By aligning the average daily temperature to the light sum on a daily basis, the crop receives maximum
benefit from the available light, producing high yield and quality while remaining continuously in opti-
mal shape. This is called the Ratio Temperature Radiation (RTR) strategy. See chapter 3 and 6 for further
explanation.

2.11. Greenhouse equipment for GPE implementation

First of all, the GPE principles apply to any type of greenhouse structure. However, to achieve most of
the benefits, also depending on climate zone and type of crop, the following features should be present:

✔  Screen(s) to protect the crop against heat emission during the
night.
✔  Air circulation system to create air movement preferably in the
vertical direction, especially under a closed screen.
✔  Ventilation system with roof windows that allows windside and
leeside venting, or a forced ventilation system that is based on air
exchange in a vertical direction to ensure proper temperature and
humidity distribution across the greenhouse.
✔  Some basic means to control the humidity to prevent the climate
from becoming too dry under high irradiation, such as a misting
or sprinkler system, and to prevent climate from becoming too
humid during the night, for example by heating or outdoor air
injection.
✔  Sensors to measure and register outdoor conditions, greenhouse
climate and plant conditions.

Growing by Plant Empowerment

2.12. Climate control according to GPE

This section contains some practical tips on how to optimize the green-
house climate, based on GPE insights.

Familiarise yourself with the Psychrometric chart

To efficiently control greenhouse climate, knowledge of the psychrometric
chart is indispensable. The psychrometric chart shows all characteristics
of humid air inside and outside the greenhouse. With this information,
we know which measures to take for a good water and energy balance of
the greenhouse and for the plants, when it comes to heating, ventilation,
humidi­fication or shading.

Focus on the energy balance and water balance of the crop and the greenhouse
Most climate control systems react exclusively to the greenhouse temperature and RH values. However,­it
is much more apparent to focus on the energy balance and the water balance of the crop and the green-
house. This also means that the focus is on the cause of changes in greenhouse temperature and RH values
instead of the consequences. A steady balance of the energy and water input and output will result in a
good growth climate for the crop, without strong fluctuations in temperature and humidity. In practice, it
17
appears that on sunny days RH is a much better control factor than temperature.

Try to anticipate changing outdoor conditions

Greenhouse conditions are strongly influenced by outdoor conditions: solar radiation, temperature,
humidity, wind speed and direction, heat emission, rain, etc. For example, if outdoor temperature drops
or wind speed increases, do not wait until greenhouse temperature and humidity drop as well. It is much
better to take immediate measures to stabilize the greenhouse conditions.

Ensure sufficient air movement

Air movement is vital for healthy plant growth. A commonly used instrument to promote air movement
is a hot heating pipe also referred to as “minimum pipe”. However, a well-designed air circulation system
with (vertical) fans is a much more effective instrument to achieve the same goal.

Avoid energy loss by heat emission by closing the screen(s)

When the greenhouse roof is colder than the plants, plants radiate heat towards it, losing a lot of energy
in the process. This decreases plant growth and uptake of nutrients. If screens are closed at the right
time, heat emission is (largely) prevented. This can be achieved by closing the screens 80-90%, without
causing troublesome consequences for RH and temperature under the screen.

The temperature of the greenhouse roof is determined by outdoor temperature, but also by heat emissi-
on to the sky. This can be measured by a Pyrgeometer. If outgoing radiation is high, the greenhouse roof
temperature will cool down below outdoor air temperature. Therefore, keeping the energy screens closed
sufficiently is even more critical.

Apply screens without moisture gaps for a homogeneous climate

Gaps in the screens cause temperature differences in the greenhouse if the cold air from above the
screen drops into the greenhouse. The temperature differences will cause cold heads of the plant and
possibly condensation on the crop. Screening without moisture gaps (as much as possible) is advised to
realize a more homogeneous climate.

Growing by Plant Empowerment in a nutshell

 Ventilate above a closed screen for better humidity control
It has been proven that ventilation above a closed screen can realize better humidity control than incre-
asing the minimum pipe temperature. If the RH rises, it is better to increase the transport of water vapour
through the screens than to increase the evaporation of the plants. This requires a screen with good
humidity transfer properties.

Ventilate with leeside and windside vents for a more homogeneous climate
When using only leeside ventilation, the lee windows often have to be opened to a large extent to obtain
the desired effect. If we also use the windside vents, relatively small openings can do the job because
blowing outdoor air into the greenhouse is more efficient than only sucking greenhouse air out of the
leeside vents. As a result, ventilation with both leeside and windside vents gives better control and ensu-
res a more homogeneous climate.

2.13. An integrated strategy for cultivation and climate control

The different aspects as indicated in this summary must not be treated as separate issues. These are all
pieces of the same puzzle and therefore should be incorporated in a coherent strategy for cultivation and
climate control.
18
This includes, amongst other things: much more attention to a homogeneous greenhouse climate and air
movement, a screening strategy focused on prevention of heat emission, a ventilation strategy aimed at
improved photosynthesis and avoidance of water stress, and a steady temperature to light ratio (RTR) for
optimal growth and plant health and resilience.

Growing by Plant Empowerment

 19

Growing by Plant Empowerment in a nutshell

 PLANT EMPOWERMENT
THE BASIC PRINCIPLES
How an integrated approach based on physics and plant physiology
leads to a balanced growing method for protected crops resulting in
healthy resilient plants, high yield and quality, low energy costs and
economic greenhouse concepts.

ir. P.A.M. Geelen

Ir. P.A.M. (Peter) Geelen studied horticulture at the University of Wageningen. He started his
career as a lecturer of plant physiology at HAS University and later on gained 16 years of practical
experience in the cultivation of cut roses as a consultant. Since 2007 he has owned the inde-
pendent training and consultancy bureau Plantmonitoring.NL. His research into the relationships
between plant balance and greenhouse climate from a physiological perspective significantly
contributed to the development of the Basic Principles of Growing by Plant Empowerment.

ir. J.O. Voogt

Ir. J.O. (Jan) Voogt studied electronics and sensor technology at the Technical University, Delft,
The Netherlands. During the past 40 years, he has been involved in the development of green-
house climate control systems at Hoogendoorn Growth Management and since 2000 he has
also been working for LetsGrow.com. His particular fields of interest are the physical back-
grounds of plant behaviour and the interactions between macro and microclimate conditions
in greenhouses. He believes that cultivation methods based on plant empowerment form the
primary key to sustainable horticulture.

ing. P.A. van Weel

Ing. P.A. (Peter) van Weel had a rich 42-year career as a researcher at Wageningen University &
Research developing various innovative systems that are common in today’s greenhouses, such as
ebb and flood watering, roof cleaning, movable benches and aquaponics systems. Together with Jan
Voogt, he developed the climate control strategy ‘Aircokas’ based on monitoring stomatal behaviour
and optimizing photosynthesis that is described in a patent and an ISHS publication (2008). After
his retirement in 2016, he started the private company Weel.Invent to develop integrated, robust,
low-investment and uncomplicated production systems for greenhouse cultivation.

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