Module 01. Introductory Topics 1 yd = 91.

44 cm
1.1 Measurements 1 mi = 5280 ft = 1.609 km
Unit 1 Å (angstrom) = 10-10 m = 10-8 cm = 10-1 nm
- used to specify a definite magnitude of a quantity that 1 nautical mile = 6080 ft
defines a measurement 1 light year = 9.461 x 1015 m
- there are standards that define a use of a unit of measurement
Ex. Driving on the autobahn
Three Systems of Units Although there is no maximum speed limit on the German
1. SI or Système International autobahn, signs in many areas recommend a top speed of 130
- uses meter for length, kilogram for mass, & seconds for time km/h. Express this speed in meters per second and in miles per
- in the scientific field, this is the standard system hour.
2. CGS System Sol 1. m/s
130 km 1000 m 1h
- short for centimeter-gram-second system 130 km/hr = ( )( )( ) = 36.1 m/s
1h 1 km 3600 s
3. British Engineering System
• 1 km = 1000 m
- uses foot for length, pound for force, and seconds for time
• 1 h = 60 min. 60 x (60s) = 3600 s
SI Base Units and Quantities
Sol 2. mi/h
Quantity Unit Unit 130 km 1 mi
Abbreviation 130 km/hr = ( 1 h ) (1.609 km) = 80.8 mi/h
length meter m • 1 mi = 1.609 km
time second s
mass kilogram kg Why do we need to find the equivalent of a kilometer to 1000
electric current ampere A m and such? Because we would like to, what we call as
temperature kelvin K dimensional analysis, cancel out the units to have a final form
amount of substance mole mol of the units we intend to have.
luminous intensity candela cd
Dimensional Analysis
As SI being the standard unit for all measurements and quantity sought = (given quantity)(conversion factor); where
quantities, it’s important that we need to return all units in the conversion factor should always be equal to 1 for
terms of SI consistency

Why do we use kelvin? because it is absolute. Zero ang lowest Ex. Suppose you leave the autobahn and reduce your speed to
possible temperature 55km/h. What is the speed in m/s and in mi/h?
Sol 1. m/s
55 km 1000 m 1h
Prefixes for Powers of 10 55 km/h = ( 1 h ) ( 1 km ) (3600 s) = 15.3 m/s
- used to simplify representation of values that has units in
them that are either very big or very small Sol 2. mi/h
1. Yotta (Y) = 1024 11. Yocto (y) = 10-24 55 km 1 mi
23 55 km/h = ( 1 h ) (1.609 km) = 34.2 mi/h
2. Zetta (Z) = 10 12. Zepto (z) = 10-21
18
3. Exa (E) = 10 13. Atto (a) = 10-18
4. Peta (P) = 10 15
14. Femto (f) = 10-15 Scientific Notation
5. Tera (T) = 10 12
15. Pico (p) = 10-12 - way of describing very large & very small numbers for
6. Giga (G) = 109 16. Nano (n) = 10-9 consistency & uniformity purposes
7. Mega (M) = 106 17. Micro (μ) = 10-6 - nos. are represented by the product of a base number and a
8. Kilo (k) = 10 3
18. Milli (m) = 10-3 power of ten
9. Hecto (h) = 10 2
19. Centi (c) = 10-2 a x 10b; if b is (+), it is very large & if b is (-), it is very
10. Deka (da) = 10 1
20. Deci (d) = 10-1 small

Example. 1 Gb = 1x109 byte = 1 000 000 000 Recall: Laws of exponents

Conversion of Units Ex. (8.43 x 108)(2.21 x 10-5)

- official basis for our conversion factors: Appendix D of = (8.43 x 2.21)(108 x 10-5)
textbook = (18.6)(108+(-5))
= 18.6 x 103
Length = 1.86 x 104
1 m = 100 cm = 1000 mm = 106 μm = 109 nm
5.6 x 10−3
1 km = 1000 m = 0.6214 mi Ex. 2.8 x 10−6
1 m = 3.281 ft = 39.37 in 5.6 10−3
1 cm = 0.3937 in =(2.8) (10−6) = 2.0 x 10-3-(-6) = 2.0 x 103
1 in = 2.540 cm
1 ft = 30.48 cm
Represent the quantities in proper SI units, correct scientific Computation of Errors
notation, & appropriate unit with prefix Percent Error
- measures the accuracy of the measurement
Ex. 200 000 inches - it tells the closeness of the results to the theoretical/accepted
cm m value
= (200 000 in)(2.54 in ) (0.01 cm) = 5080 m
- should be less than 10%. If > 10%, we repeat the experiment
= 5.08 x 103 m = 5.08 km
E−T
1.2 Uncertainties Percent Error % = | | x 100%
T
Uncertainties and errors occur in almost all observable where E = experimental/measured value, and
phenomena. Variations and deviations from the expected may T = theoretical/accepted value
happen and be observed. And so, we make sense of these
uncertainties and errors. Why is it in absolute value form? Because we only mind the
magnitude. We don’t mind if it’s coming from the left or the
Precision and Accuracy right of the value
Precision
- nearness of the values with each other Percent Difference
Accuracy - compares two experimental values
- nearness of the values with the accepted or true value - somehow a measurement of precision because they compare
two experimental values. Not against a theoretical value, but
against each other

|E1 −E2 |
Percent Difference % = (E1 +E2 ) x 100%
2

where E1 and E2 are the experimental values for two different

measurements
True value
- accepted value in w/c all sources of errors are eliminated - there is no minimum in a sense that there is no set standard,
from the measurement but we still aim for small values of percent difference
- it does not refer exactly to the standard or textbook value, but
the value that we consider as acceptable. However, in Ex. In an experiment of finding the density of a liquid, the
experimentations, measured values are compared with these hydrometer submerged in water needs 995.6 kg/m3 as its
true values density. The theoretical density of water is 997 kg/m 3. The
- ex. acceleration due to gravity (g = 9.8m/s2) percent error can be calculated as follows:
E−T
Percent Error % = | T | x 100%
Experimental discrepancy 995.6 kg/m3 −997 kg/m3
- comparison to true value wherein discrepancy does not =| 997 kg/m3
| x 100%
equate with error or uncertainty = 0.14%

For uniformity purposes, the uncertainty in making a 1.3 Vectors

measurement is taken to be at least ±1 of the smallest unit of - have both direction and magnitude
the instrument. Example, for a ruler with mm marking, Scalar
precision of ±1 mm should be accounted in the measurement - have no direction, only magnitude

Errors Some quantities in Physics identified as Vector or Scalar

Random Error Quantity Unit Scalar or Vector
- from unknown or unpredictable changes in the environment Displacement Meter (m) Vector
- errors we can’t control Distance Meter (m) Scalar
- may stem from the natural environmental changes like Mass Kilogram (kg) Scalar
interference and drag force, instrument operation errors, etc.
Time Second (s) Scalar
- ex. dribbling a ball; di constant yung height na maaachieve
Speed Meter per second (m/s) Scalar
ng bola
Velocity Meter per second (m/s) Vector
Systematic Error Acceleration Meter per second Vector
- from identified and particular instrument or technique squared (m/s2)
- may stem from misreading of scale, uncalibrated
instruments, or errors in computation Vector Representation
In written form, vectors are noted in the ff ways:
• Bold faced, italicized letter like V
• Bold faced letter with arrow above like ⃗𝑽
For the magnitude of a vector, it can be noted in the ff ways: Vector Composition
• Italicized letter like V - finding the components or the length of ur vector along the
• Bold faced letter with arrow above in absolute value form x- and y-axes
⃗|
like |𝑽 - it’s not always the case that along x is cos & along y is sin

Vectors are also represented as arrows lying on a cartesian Recall: SOH-CAH-TOA

plane or as relative to an axis. Vector A on the right can be
named as follows: Components rely on trigonometric
functions and relations of the vector
• 25 km, 45° N of E
• 25 km, E 45° N • Component of vector A along x
Ax = 25 cos(45°) km = 17.68 km
• 25 km, 45° counterclockwise from adjacent
the +x-axis cosΘ = hypotenuse
• 25 km, 315° clockwise from the Ax
cos(45) = 25 km
+x-axis A
x
25[cos(45) = 25 km ]25
Why “N of E” or “E 45° N”? Because it means that the arrow 25cos(45°) km = Ax
A started from the east going to the north
• Component of vector A along y
The direction of the vector is often expressed as an angle of Ay = 25 sin(45°) km = 17.68 km
rotation of the vector about the tail from north, south, east, or opposite
sinΘ = hypotenuse
west. This notation is best applied if the given angles are <
Ay
90°. If the angle is > 90°, you must sin(45) = 25 km
find the equivalent angle in the Ay
quadrant corresponding to the given 25[sin(45) = 25 km]25
angle. 25sin(45°) km = Ay

Ex (from the N going to the E). Vector Addition

25 km, 45° E of N - is not the same as scalar addition
wherein 1+1 = 2
The given angle is 135°. The reference - considers the direction of the vectors
angle for 135° would be 45° and so you - vector sum: aka resultant; can be
may name this direction now as 45° N represented by vector R
of W, following the vector first pointed
in the west direction going to the north. Three Methods in Vector Addition
Can also be named as follows: • Parallelogram falls under graphical methods
• 5 m/s, 135° counterclockwise from • Polygon
the +x-axis Graphical Methods – use drawings of vectors that are properly
• 5 m/s, 225° clockwise from the +x-axis scaled. The definite resultant is obtained using rulers for the
magnitude & protractors for the direction
Drawings of vectors should be scaled • Analytical – uses mathematics
for proper representation. In the
example on the right, you can’t draw 1. Parallelogram Method
25 km to represent that length. What - method wherein two vectors are added at the same time
you do is scale it to fit a certain - vectors to be added should come from the same origin
space. Example of a scale is 5 km: 1
cm. That is, 5 km in quantity Step 1. Plot vectors in a cartesian plane.
corresponds to 1 cm in the ruler. Both vectors should originate from the
same origin. Remember to scale correctly.
Ex. Name the following vectors with the appropriate
magnitude and direction. Note: Not to scale Step 2. From the heads of the
vectors, draw a projection of the same vectors.
• 4 kph, 70° N of W Projection means drawing the same vectors in a
• 4 kph, 20° W of N different position, in this case on the heads of the
• 4 kph, 110° original vectors. Aproj is the projection of vector
counterclockwise from the +x- A, and so on.
axis
Step 3. Draw an arrow towards the
intersections of the projections. This
would be the resultant vector.
2. Polygon Method Negative si 500 because it lies on the negative x-axis
- aka Head-to-Tail method or Tail-to-Tip
- multiple vectors can be added at a time |𝑹| = √(∑𝑥)2 + (∑𝑦)2 = √(156.65)2 + (699.28)2
- vectors should be placed head to tail, meaning one tail of the = 716.61 m
vector shall originate from the head of another
∑𝑦 699.28
Θ = tan−1 | | = tan−1 | | = 77.37°
Step 1. Plot the first vector in a cartesian ∑𝑥 156.65
plane with the tail originating from the
origin. Remember to scale correctly. Positive value for ∑𝑦 & ∑𝑥, so north & east
R = 716.61 m, 77.37° N of E
Step 2. Place the 2nd vector on the plane
w/ the tail of the latter (2nd) vector on the Ex. Eliza, Michael, & Andrea are playing triple tug-of-war.
head of the former (1st) vector. This They are pulling forces of 300 N, 20°N of W, 250 N, 35° W of
should repeat until all the vectors being S, & 200 N, E, respectively. In what direction will the rope
added is placed tail-to-tip. move?
Analytical:
Step 3. Draw an arrow from the origin
to the last (2nd) head of the vector. This
would be the resultant vector.

3. Analytical Method
- uses components of the vectors & formulas
- there will be no need for drawings of the vectors
- can add multiple vectors simultaneously

Step 1. Identify the components along x-

axis and y-axis of the individual vectors Vector x-axis y-axis
being added ⃗
E -300cos(20°) N 300sin(20°) N
⃗M
⃗⃗ -250sin(35°) N -250cos(35°) N
Step 2. Tabulate all components. ⃗
A 200 N 0N
Add all components along x- and
Sum -225.30 N -102.18 N
y-axes. You may use this format.
Be mindful of the signs
|𝑹| = √(∑𝑥)2 + (∑𝑦)2 = √(−225.30)2 + (−102.18)2
Step 3. Compute for the magnitude of the resultant vector = 247.39 N
using this equation:
∑𝑦 −102.18
|𝑹| = √(∑𝑥)2 + (∑𝑦)2 Θ = tan−1 |∑𝑥 | = tan−1 |−225.30| = 24.4°

Step 4. Compute for the direction of the resultant vector using: ∑𝑦 & ∑𝑥 are both negative, so S of W
∑𝑦 ⃗R = 247.39 N, 24.4° S of W
Θ = tan−1 |∑𝑥 |
It is the absolute value because we are looking for magnitude
of the direction

Step 5. All angles measured using this formula are w/ respect

to the +x-axis. This means that all directions will be in terms
of N of E, N of W, S of E, and S of W.
∑𝑥 ∑𝑦
+ East North
- West South

Find the resultant vector using the indicated methods. Use

scale 50 units: 1 cm.
Ex. 400 m, 35° N of E; 500
m, 20° W of N
Analytical: