SCIENCE OF DENTAL MATERIALS • BOND PERMANENTLY TO TOOTH STRUCTURE OR

• Broad (terminology, composition, microstructure and BONE

properties) • MATCH NATURAL APPEARANCE OF TOOTH
• Predict clinical performance (end user) STRUCTURE AND OTHER VISIBLE TISSUES
• Analyze causes of structural degradation and failure • EXHIBIT PROPERTIES SIMILAR TO TOOTH ENAMEL,
• No longer Serve their intended functions DENTIN AND OTHER TISSUES
• CAPABLE OF INITIATING REPAIR/ REGENERATION OF
GENERAL CATEGORIES OF BIOMATERIALS MISSING OR DAMAGED TISSUES
PROPERTIES
• CHEMICAL (oral environment) CLASSIFICATION OF DENTAL MATERIAL
• PROPERTIES OF IMPORTANCE IN MANUFACTURING • PREVENTIVE
OR FINISHING PROCESS -pit and fissure sealant
• MECHANICAL PROPERTIES (external pressure and -liners, bases ,cements
forces) -glass ionomers and hybrid ionomer
• OPTICAL PROPERTIES (metamerism) • RESTORATIVE
• THERMAL PROPERTIES AND PARAMETERS -composites
(Orthodontics and Prosthodontics) primer/bonding agent
-amalgam, denture polymers
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES -direct or indirect
• Any measurable parameters that describes the state • AUXILLIARY
of physical system (physics and algebra) -impression materials, gypsum, trays,
• Changes or transformations of the material when polishing abrasives
subjected to external influences (force, pressure,
temperature or light) • TEMPORARY RESTORATIVE
• Chapter 3 (chemical and physical properties of solids) -subcategory of restorative materials
• Biomaterials and auxiliary materials used in dental -dental restorations and appliances that are not
clinics and dental laboratories intended for moderate or long term applications
-temporary fillings, orthodontic wires, acrylic
APPLICATIONS OF DENTAL MATERIALS resin for temporary crowns
• Practice of Dentistry dependent on current and
future developments in dental materials GOAL OF DENTISTRY
• Preservation and enhancement of oral health • Maintain or improve the quality of life of
• Rehabilitation of missing and damaged hard and soft dental patient (PSEROP)
tissues • Prevent disease, relieve pain, enhance speech
• Need to restore exist because of time- dependent and improve appearance
failure or degradation of restorative material and oral • Withstand adverse condition of the oral
tissues environment

• CLASSES OF DENTAL MATERIAL Pierre Fauchard (1678 – March 22, 1761)

A. METALS • Father of modern Dentistry
-pure metal/alloy • widely known for writing the first complete
B. CERAMICS scientific description of dentistry
-inlays, onlays, crowns • Described the many types of dental restorations,
C. POLYMERS OR COMPOSITES including artificial dentures made of ivory
-can be used as preventive and auxiliary • Stone chips, ivory, human teeth, cork and metal foil
Material (fluoride release) • 1903 (Practice of Dentistry in The Philippine Islands
-organo-silane coupling agent (resin) • 1915 (Holding of Dental Boards)
*BISGMA
HISTORICAL EVOLUTION
• PURE METALS ARE RARELY USED FOR DENTAL • Pfaff (1715-1767)- gold foil employed for dental
APPLICATION restoratives
• Fonzi (1880)-individual porcelain tooth with an embedded
• CERAMICS CAN BE USED TO PRODUCE INLAYS, ONLAYS, pin
CROWNS AND MULTIPLE UNIT FIXED DENTAL PROSTHESIS • Evans (1836)-refined the method of making accurate
measurements in the mouth
QUALITIES OF AN IDEAL RESTORATIVE • Charles Goodyear (1839)-a low-cost vulcanized rubber
MATERIAL allowed dentures to be molded accurately to fit the
• BE BIOCOMPATIBLE mouth
• G.V. Black (1895)- pioneer of restorative dentistry TC 106/SC 2/WG 14 Dental brazing materials
• Taggert (1907)- refined method for producing cast inlays TC 106/SC 2/WG 16 Polymer veneering and die
materials
STANDARDS FOR DENTAL MATERIALS TC 106/SC 2/WG 18 Dental waxes and baseplate
• National Bureau of Standards (1919) waxes
-now known as National Institute of Standards and TC 106/SC 2/WG 19 Wear test methods
Technology TC 106/SC 2/WG 20 Artificial teeth
-establish specification of dental amalgams for use TC 106/SC 2/WG 21 Metallic materials
in Federal Service TC 106/SC 2/WG 22 Magnetic attachments
-taken over by American Dental Association in 1928
-Food and Drug Administration under the TC 106/SC8: DENTAL IMPLANTS
Department of Health (DOH) The five working groups in SC 8 are as follows:
TC 106/SC 8/WG 1 Implantable materials
ADA SPECIFICATION PROGRAM TC 106/SC 8/WG 2 Preclinical biological
• Measures clinically significant physical and chemical evaluation and testing
properties of dental materials and development of TC 106/SC 8/WG 3 Content of technical files
new materials, instruments and test method TC 106/SC 8/WG 4 Mechanical testing
1.The serial or lot number TC 106/SC 8/WG 5 Dental implants—
2.The composition terminology
3.Physical properties as obtained by standard test
method HOW SAFE ARE DENTAL RESTORATIVE
4.Biocompatibility data MATERIALS?
5.Data supporting the specific specifications • ISO (International Organization for
Standardization)
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR • CE Marking (European Countries)
STANDARDIZATION STANDARDS, • selection and use of dental devices or
SUBCOMMITTEES, AND WORKING materials are based on the assumption that
GROUPS the benefits of such use far outweigh the
• ISO - International Organization for known biological risks
Standardization
• Fédération Dentaire Internationale (FDI) WHY DO DENTAL STUDENTS, DENTISTS, AND
• PACUCOA, CHED, PAASCU DENTAL EDUCATORS NEED TO UNDERSTAND THE
PRINCIPLES OF DENTAL MATERIALS SCIENCE?
TC 106/SC1: FILLING AND RESTORATIVE MATERIALS • a challenge remains for end users to critically
The following 10 working groups are included: evaluate the claims made on the reported
• TC 106/SC 1/WG 1 Zinc oxide/eugenol cements and performance of dental materials and to relate
noneugenol cements these claims carefully to well-established
• TC 106/SC 1/WG 2 Endodontic materials physical principles for the specific classes of
• TC 106/SC 1/WG 5 Pit and fissure sealants materials
• TC 106/SC 1/WG 7 Amalgam/mercury • Evidence-based Dentistry
• TC 106/SC 1/WG 9 Resin-based filling materials
• TC 106/SC 1/WG 10 Dental luting cements, bases, THE FUTURE NEED FOR DENTAL
and liners BIOMATERIALS
• TC 106/SC 1/WG 11 Adhesion test methods • Future developments and the requirement for
• TC 106/SC 1/WG 13 Orthodontic products delivering optimal oral health
• TC 106/SC 1/WG 14 Orthodontic elastics • use of dental amalgam will continue to decline
• TC 106/SC 1/WG 15 Adhesive components until it is eliminated because of environmental
restrictions on mercury release
TC 106/SC2: PROSTHODONTIC MATERIALS • laser applications, imaging procedures, lowshrinkage
TC 106/SC 2/WG 1 Dental ceramics composites, smart ceramics, and
TC 106/SC 2/WG 2 Dental base alloys minimally invasive dental procedures. CAD-CAM
TC 106/SC 2/WG 6 Color stability test methods technology
TC 106/SC 2/WG 7 Impression materials
TC 106/SC 2/WG 8 Noble metal casting alloys
TC 106/SC 2/WG 10 Resilient lining materials
TC 106/SC 2/WG 11 Denture base polymers
TC 106/SC 2/WG 12 Corrosion test methods
TC 106/SC 2/WG 13 Investments
STRUCTURE OF MATTER SECONDARY BONDS
• DO NOT SHARE ELECTRONS
AND PRINCIPLES OF • INDUCED DIPOLE FORCES
ADHESION • WEAK BOND
• PHYSICAL IN NATURE
460 BC • DEMOCRITUS -A GREEK PHILOSOPHER
PROPOSED THAT MATTER WAS COMPOSED OF 2 TYPES OF SECONDARY BONDS
INVISIBLE PARTICLES CALLED 1)VAN DER WAALS FORCES
ATOMS (A- UN ; TEMNO – TO CUT ) UNCUTTABLE • ARISES FROM DIPOLE ATTRACTION
• WEAK FORCES
ATOMS • 2 CASES
• (A- UN ; TEMNO- CUT) UNCUTTABLE POLAR MOLECULES - DIPOLES ARE INDUCED BY AN UNEQUAL
• IT IS THE SMALLEST PARTICLE OF ANY ELEMENT THAT SHARING OF
SHOWS THE ELECTRON
CHEMICAL BEHAVIOR OF THAT ELEMENT NON POLAR MOLECULES - RANDOM MOVEMENT OF
• CONSIST OF CENTRAL NUCLEUS SURROUNDED BY SHELL OF ELECTRONS WITH IN THE
ELECTRONS MOLECULES,
• SHELLS ARE NAMED AS K,L,M,N,O,P,Q CREATES A FLUCTUATING DIPOLES
• K IS THE INNERMOST SHELL AND Q IS THE OUTERMOST
2) HYDROGEN BOND
MOLECULES • SPECIAL CASE OF DIPOLE
• TWO OR MORE ATOMS FORMED AN ATTRACTION OF POLAR
ELECTRICALLY NEUTRAL ENTITY COMPOUND
• MATERIALS WE CAN SEE AND TOUCH • H2O MOLECULE
• EX. WATER (H20) • EX. SORPTION OF WATER BY
SYNTHETIC DENTAL RESIN
MATTER • ANYTHING THAT OCCUPIES SPACE AND HAS
WEIGHT ATOMIC ARRANGEMENT
• SOLID, LIQUID AND GAS • SPACE LATTICE
• ANY ARRANGEMENT OF ATOMS IN SPACE IN WHICH
CHANGE OF STATE EVERY ATOM SITUATED SIMILARLY TO
• TRANSFORMATION BETWEEN SOLID, LIQUID AND EVERY OTHER ATOM
GAS • CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE AND NON CRYSTALLINE
STRUCTURE
INTERATOMIC BONDS
• BONDING OF ATOMS WITH IN MOLECULES CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE
• PRIMARY BOND AND SECONDARY BOND • HAS 14 TYPES OF LATTICE
• CUBIC – SIMPLIEST AND MOST REGULAR
PRIMARY BOND LATTICE
• STABLE AND STRONG BOND
• CHEMICAL IN NATURE NON CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE
• HAS 3 TYPES ( IONIC , COVALENT AND METALLIC BONDS • ATOMS TEND TO BE ARRANGED IN NONREPEATING
UNITS
3 TYPES OF PRIMARY BONDS • GLASS
1) IONIC BOND • POLYMERIC- BASED MATERIALS
• NACL (SODIUM CHLORIDE) • AMORPHOUS
• TRANSFER OF NA VALENCE ELECTRON TO CL
• IN DENTISTRY : GYPSUM PRODUCTS AND PHOSPHATE INTERATOMIC BOND AND DISTANCE AND THERMAL
BASED CEMENTS ENERGY
• FORCES BETWEEN TWO ATOMS
2) COVALENT BOND • FORCES OF ATTRACTION
• TWO VALENCE ELECTRONS ARE SHARED BY ADJACENT • FORCES OF REPULSION
ATOMS
• DENTAL RESIN BOND DISTANCE AND BONDING ENERGY
3) METALLIC BOND • THE POSITION AT WHICH BOTH FORCES ARE EQUAL IN
• ELECTRON SHARING AND FORMATION OF CLOUD OF MAGNITUDE
ELECTRONS THAT BUT OPPOSITE DIRECTION
BONDS TO THE POSITIVELY CHARGED NUCLEUS IN A LATTICE
• EQUILIBRIUM POSITION - DISTANCE BETWEEN THE CENTER ANOTHER CAN ALSO BE ACCOMPLISHED BY THIS
OF THE MEANS RATHER THAN BY MOLECULAR ATTRACTION
TWO ADJACENT ATOMS. • USING OF SCREWS, BOLTS OR UNDERCUTS
• ENERGY IS THE PRODUCT OF INTERATOMIC FORCE AND • RESTORATIVE DENTISTRY – MICROMECHANICAL
DISTANCE BONDING

THERMAL ENERGY BONDING TO TOOTH STRUCTURE

• ATOMS ARE IN CONSTANT STATE OF VIBRATION AT • MECHANICAL BONDING
TEMPERATURE ABOVE ZERO • LEAVE ROUGH SURFACE AND FREE OF DEBRIS
• AMPLITUDE DEPENDS ON TEMPERATURE
• INCREASE IN TEMPERATURE, ATOMIC AND
MOLECULAR VIBRATION INCREASES
• THERMAL EXPANSION

DIFFUSION
• WHEN WE PLACE A DROP OF INK IN A BOWL
OF WATER, WE OBSERVED THE SPREAD OF
INK IN THE WATER
ADHESION AND BONDING
• ADHESION – ATTRACTION OF TWO UNLIKE
MOLECULES
• COHESION – ATTRACTION OF TWO LIKE
MOLECULES

SURFACE AND SURFACE ENERGY

• SURFACE IS THE OUTMOST LAYER OF AN OBJECT
• SURFACE ENERGYIS THE ENERGY THAT QUANTIFIES
THE WORK NEEDED TO DISRUPT INTERMOLECULAR
BONDS.
• ATOM AT THE SURFACE OF A SOLID ARE NOT
EQUALLY ATTRACTED IN ALL DIRECTION THUS
CREATING A PHENOMENON OF SURFACE TENSION
• EXAMPLE: SILVER,PLATINUM AND GOLD ABSORB
OXYGEN READILY

CHEMISORPTION
• THE ADHESION CREATED WHEN SILVER FORMS A
PRIMARY BOND WITH OXYGEN FORMING SILVER
OXIDE

WETTING • TO PRODUCE ADHESION ON ANY TARGETED

SURFACE, THE LIQUID MUST FLOW EASILY
OVER THE ENTIRE SURFACE AND ADHERE TO
THE SOLID
• LOW SURFACE ENERGY OF LIQUID AND HIGH
SURFACE ENERGY OF SOLID IS THE
PREREQUISITE OF GOOD WETTING AND
STRONG ADHESIVE JOINTS

CONTACT ANGLE OF WETTING

THE TANGENT LINE AND THE SOLID SURFACE CONSTITUTE
AN ANGLE THAT DEFINES THESHAPE OF THE LIQUID
• COMPLETE WETTING OCCURS AT A CONTACT ANGLE OF 0
DEGREES AND
NO WETTING OCCURS AT AN ANGLE OF 180 DEGREES

MECHANICAL BONDING
• STRONG ATTACHMENT OF ONE SUBSTANCE TO
PHYSICAL AND of a material under a static load or constant stress.
CHEMICAL • The term creep implies a relatively small deformation
PROPERTIES OF produced by a relatively large stress over a long
DENTAL MATERIALS period of time.
• Flow implies a greater deformation produced more
What are rapidly with a smaller applied stress.
Physical • The term flow is generally been used in dentistry to
Properties? describe the rheology of amorphous material such as
• It is Based on the laws of mechanics, waxes
acoustics, optics, thermodynamics,
elasticity, magnetism, radiation, atomic Color and
structure, or nuclear phenomena. Perception
• is any property that is measurable, • Color is a sensation induced from light of varying
whose value describes a state of wavelengths reaching the eye.
a physical system. The changes in • Cone cells of retina are responsible for spectral
the physical properties of a system sensitivity.
can be used to describe its changes • The phenomenon of vision can be explained by
between momentary states. considering the response of the human eye to
light reflected from an object.
Abrasion: is the process of • Light from an object that is incident on the eye is
scraping or wearing focused in the retina and is converted into nerve
Hardness: a property of being impulses, which are transmitted to the brain.
difficult to indent, cut or scratch
Simply resistance to plastic Thermophysical Properties
deformation or permanent Thermophysical Properties can
deformation of material be simply defined as material
Used within a given classification properties that vary with
as an index of the ability of a temperature without altering
material to resist abrasion or the materials chemical identity.
wear. However, it has become
customary to limit the scope of
Viscosity Resistance of a liquid to the term to properties having a
flow bearing on the transfer and
Viscosity is controlled by storage of heat.
internal frictional forces These are:
and is measured in poise or Thermal
centipoise Conductivity
Study of deformation and Thermal
flow characteristics of Diffusivity
matter, whether liquid or Coefficient of
solid is RHEOLOGY thermal
expansion
Structural and
Stress Relaxation • When force applied on a body, Tarnish and
internal resistance to load is Corrosion
stress. Tarnish – a surface discoloration of the
• The value of stress which metal or even a slight loss of the luster.
causes an object to give way This surface discoloration is due to
or break is called strength of either, the formation of hard and soft
material. deposits on the surface, or the
• Strain can be defined as formation of thin films of oxides,
change in length per unit sulfides or chlorides.
length of the body when Tarnish is often the first step of
subjected to stress corrosion
Corrosion – is not only a surface
Creep and discoloration but is a disintegration of a
Flow metal by reaction of its environment.
• Creep is defined as the time dependent plastic strain Dry and Wet Corrosion
 and lustrous. A polished,
Electrochemic smooth surface provides easier
al Corrosion cleaning and prevents
• Corrosion occurs in accumulation of debris.
presence of water or
some other liquid Clinical Significance of Galvanic
electrolyte. Currents • As long as metallic dental restoration materials are
employed there
Dissimilar seems to be little possibility that the galvanic currents can be
Metals eliminated.
• Galvanism is a result • Galvanic Shock – A pain sensation caused by electric current
of difference in generated by a contact between two dissimilar metal forming
potential between a
dissimilar restoration galvanic cell in oral environment.
in opposing or • It can be a real source of discomfort to an occasional
adjacent tooth. patient. Such
post operative pain usually occurs immediately after insertion
Heterogenous Surface of a
Composition new restoration and generally is gradually subsides and
• A second type of electrolytic disappears in
corrosion is that due to a few days.
heterogenous compositions of the
metal surface. Example of this
type may be the eutectic and
peritectic alloys.
• When such an alloy is immersed is
an electrolyte, the metallic grains
with the less electrode potential
are attacked and corrosion result.
• A common situation for this type
of corrosion would be an amalgam
restorations with polished and
unpolished.

Stress Corrosion
• Degradation by the combined
effect of mechanical stress and
corrosive environment, usually in
form of cracking.

Concentrati
on Cell
Corrosion
• Example: A metallic
restoration which is partly
covered by food debris
will differ from that of
saliva, and this can
contribute to the
corrosion of the
restoration.

Protection
against
Corrosion
Avoid using dissimilar metals.
The surface of any dental
restoration should be smooth
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
DENTAL MATERIAL • The atoms or molecules respond in
• developed a conceptual foundation of the reasons for some way at and below the area of
fracture of restorative materials loading, but the applied force has an
• basic framework of design features that enhance ability to equal and opposite reaction at the area
increase the fracture resistance of restorative materials in at some other point in the structure
the oral environment • Stress decreases with distance
• Failures (design features, patient , dentist, biting • Force is increased further, atoms
magnitude… displaced permanently or their bonds
etc rupture
•Measured in units of stress and strain (yielding or plastic deformation)
• as the average level of stress at which it
WHAT ARE MECHANICAL exhibits a certain degree of initial plastic
PROPERTIES? deformation (yield strength) or at which
• the physical science dealing with forces that act on bodies fracture occurs (ultimate strength)
and the resultant motion, deformation, or stresses that those
bodies experience STRENGTH DEPENDS ON THE FF
• Chapter focuses mainly on static bodies (those at rest) FACTORS
• Dynamic bodies (in motion) –due to cyclic loading 1.Stressing rate (500 to 700 newtons )
•Measures of the resistance of a material to deformation, 2.Shape of the test specimen (carrot- 70 to 150 newtons)
crack growth, or fracture under an applied force and the 3.Size of the specimen
induced stress 4.Surface finish (stress concentration)
5.Number of stressing cycle (number of teeth, consistency of
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES food)
IMPORTANT TO DENTISTRY 6.Environment in which the material is tested (salivary
1. Compressive Strength amylase, gastric acids)
2. Brittleness
3. Ductility NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF
4. Elastic modulus MOTION
5. Flexural strength • for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction
6. Fracture toughness • when an external force acts on a solid, a reaction occurs to
7. Malleability oppose this force which is equal in magnitude but opposite
8. Percent elongation in direction to the external force
9. Shear, tensile and yield strength • The stress produced within the solid material is equal to the
applied force divided by the area over which it acts
STRENGTH •May be tensile, compressive and shear stress or a
• A mechanical property which ensures prosthesis serves its combination of all three
intended functions effectively and safely over an extended
periods of time THREE TYPES OF SIMPLE
• An important factor in the design of dental prosthesis STRESSES
• The ability of the prosthesis to resist induced stress without • 1.Tensile
fracture or permanent deformation • -a load that tends to stretch or elongate a body
• Not reliable property for brittle material (stress cycle, 2.Compressive
surface • a load that tends to compress or shorten it
processing damage) 3.Shear
• Fracture after a few years or many years of service • -produced by a twisting or torsional action on a
Material (cantilever type)
STRESS AND STRAIN -debonding of orthodontic bracket
• Stress
-the force per unit area acting on millions of atom or COMPLEX STRESS
molecules in given plane of material 1.Flexural stress
-not uniform, decreases with distance -produced by applied forces that causes flexural or torsional
-stress distribution or stress gradient deformation
• Develop according to the nature of applied forces and the -bending
objects shape
• Strain ELASTIC PROPERTIES
-deformation (elastic and plastic) 1.Elastic modulus (Young’s Modulus)
-describes the relative stiffness or rigidity of a material
• -induced stress has not exceeded the proportional limit, it • is not a measure of individual atom-to-atom attraction or
straightens repulsion but rather of
back to its original shape as the force is decreased to zero the interatomic forces collectively over an entire structure
• Orthodontic wires (NITI) 1.proportional limit, the stress above which stress is no
• Burnishing of a metal crown longer proportional to
• elastic modulus of enamel is about three times greater than strain
that of 2. elastic limit, the maximum stress a material can withstand
dentin before it becomes
• Constant, is independent of the ductility of a material plastically deformed
3. yield strength or proof stress, the stress required to
2. Dynamic Young’s Modulus produce a given amount of
-measurement of elasticity when materials are in motion or plastic strain
active 4. ultimate tensile strength, shear strength, compressive
3.Flexibility strength, and flexural
-a high value for the elastic limit strength, each of which is a measure of stress required to
-inlay or impression material fracture a material
4.Resilience
-the amount of energy absorbed within a unit volume of a PERMANENT (PLASTIC)
structure when DEFORMATION
it is stressed to its proportional limit • If the material is deformed by stress at a point above the
-springiness proportional limit before fracture, removal of the applied
force
STRESS AND STRAIN INSIDE THE will reduce the stress to zero, but the plastic strain
PT MOUTH (deformation)
• When a dental restoration is deformed during mastication, remains
the • Thus the object does not return to its original dimension
chewing force may act on the tooth structure, the when
restoration, or both the force is removed It remains bent, stretched, compressed,
• the magnitude of the structure’s strain (deformation) is or
determined otherwise plastically deformed
by the induced stress
• In most dental restorations, large strains are precluded COLD WORKING (STRAIN
because of HARDENING OR WORK
the proprioceptive response of neural receptors in the HARDENING) • most metal alloys have been stressed beyond
periodontal their proportional
ligament limits, their hardness and strength increase at the area of
• The pain stimulus causes the biting force to be decreased deformation, but their ductility decreases
and the • repeated plastic deformation of the metal, as occurs during
induced stress to be reduced, thereby preventing damage to the
the bending of orthodontic wire or adjustment of a clasp arm on
teeth or restorations a
(occlusal and proximal overhang) removable dental prosthesis, can lead to embrittlement of
the
POISSON’S RATIO deformed area of the wire, and it may fracture when further
• Because of the conservation of mass, an object, such as a permanent adjustment is attempted (small increments)
cylinder, becomes longer and thinner when a tensile force is
applied to it FLEXURAL STRENGTH
• Conversely, a compressive force acts to make such an • also called transverse strength and modulus of rupture, is
object essentially a strength test of a bar supported at each end or a
shorter and thicker thin disk supported along a lower support circle under a static
load
STRENGTH PROPERTIES
• is equal to the degree of stress necessary to cause either FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR
fracture (ultimate • determined by subjecting a material to a cyclic stress of a
strength) or a specified amount of plastic deformation (yield maximum known value and determining the number of cycles
strength) required to cause fracture
• often referring to the maximum stress that is required to • Some materials or prosthetic appliances exhibit static
cause fracture fatigue, a
phenomenon attributed to the interaction of a constant -is the ability of a material to sustain considerable permanent
tensile deformation
stress with structural flaws over time (surface flaws) without rupture under compression, as in hammering or
rolling into a sheet
IMPACT STRENGTH
• may be defined as the energy required to fracture a 6.Hardness
material under an impact force -relative hardness of a substance is based on its ability to
• impact is used to describe the reaction of a stationary resist
object to a scratching
collision with a moving object -resistance to indentation
• If the struck object is not permanently deformed, it stores (Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers, Knoop)
the energy of
the collision in an elastic manner (resilience) STRESS CONCENTRATION
EFFECTS
ELASTIC MODULI AND TENSILE -unexpected fractures of dental prosthesis and restorations
STRENGTH due to
• a material with a low elastic modulus and a high tensile locally high stresses in specific areas
strength is more -cause is small microscopic flaws or microstructural defects
resistant to impact forces on the
• A low elastic modulus and a low tensile strength suggest surface or within internal structure
low-impact 2 important aspect of flaws:
resistance a.Stress intensity increases with the length of the flaw
• Resin-based composite: 17 GPa and 30−90 MPa b.Surface flaw stresses are higher compared to the internal
• Dental porcelain: 40 GPa and 50−100 MPa regions
• Poly(methylmethacrylate): 3.5 GPa and 60 MPa
• Amalgam: 21 GPa and 27−55 MPa STRESS CONCENTRATION ARE
• Alumina ceramic: 350−418 GPa and 120 Mpa CAUSED BY THE FOLLOWING
FACTORS 1. Surface defects, such as porosity, grinding
OTHER IMPORTANT PROPERTIES roughness, and machining damage
1.Toughness 2. Interior flaws, such as voids or inclusions
-is defined as the amount of elastic and plastic deformation 3. Marked changes in contour, such as the point of
energy attachment of
required to fracture a material a clasp arm to a partial denture framework or a sharp internal
-a tough material is generally strong, although a strong angle at the pulpal-axial line angle of a tooth preparation for
material is an
not necessarily tough (resilience and ductility) amalgam or composite restoration
2.Fracture Toughness 4. A large difference in elastic moduli or thermal expansion
-is a mechanical property that describes the resistance of coefficient across a bonded interface
brittle materials to the catastrophic propagation of flaws 5. A Hertzian load (or point contact)
under an applied stress
HOW CAN WE MINIMIZE STRESS
3. Brittleness CONCENTRATION
-a tensile strength markedly lower than their corresponding 1. surface can be polished to reduce the depth of the defects.
compressive Little can be
strength because of their inability to plastically deform and done for interior flaws
reduce the 2. ensure the highest quality of the structure or to increase
tensile stress at flaw tips the size of the
(amalgams, composites, cements, ceramics, and some base object
metal alloys) 3. the design of any prosthesis should vary gradually rather
-low percentage elongation, little burnishability and no plastic than abruptly,
deformation notches should be avoided. Internal line angles of tooth
potential preparations should
4.Ductility be well rounded to minimize the risk of cusp fracture
-represents the ability of a material to sustain a large 4. the most brittle material should have the lower elastic
permanent modulus so that more
deformation under a tensile load up to the point of fracture stress is transferred to the material with the higher elastic
5.Malleability modulus, If this is
not possible, the elastic moduli of the two materials should
be more closely
matched
5. If a thermal mismatch cannot be avoided, the weaker,
more brittle material
should have a slightly lower expansion or contraction
coefficient so that a
protective compressive stress is sustained in its structure next
to the interface

6. the cusp tip of an opposing crown or tooth should be well

rounded
such that occlusal contact areas in the brittle material are
large. In
addition, the internal line angle of the tooth preparation
should have as large a radius of curvature as possible

CLENCHING AND MASTICATION FORCES

• The average maximum sustainable biting force is
approximately 756 N /170
lbf
(neutron and foot-pound force)
• range of biting forces varies markedly from one area of the
mouth to
another and from one individual to another
a. 400 to 890 N (90 to 200 lbf for molars
b. 222 to 445 N (50 to 100 lbf) for premolars
c. 133 to 334 N (30 to 75 lbf) for canines
d. 89 to 111 N (20 to 55 lbf) for incisors
• The average mean clenching force of 462 N (104 lbf), with a
range of 98 to 1031 N (22 to 232 lbf) for individuals between
the ages of 28 and 76
• The modulus of resilience of dentin is greater than that of
enamel and it is better able to absorb impact energy
j.cansancio • Metals have greater fracture toughness, the ability to absorb
STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF CAST DENTAL ALLOYS energy and inhibit crack extension under an applied tensile
stress.
History of Metal Development in Dentistry
Passivation
o 17th century BC: the Etruscans used ivory and bone supported • The formation of a protective film by a reactive substance
by gold frameworks as tooth forms • Base metals are resistant to tarnish and corrosion not because of
o 1800: metal restorations were made by compacting aluminum, their low reactivity but because of their passivity when protected by
amalgam, gold, lead, platinum, and silver in tooth cavities a chromium layer
o 1903: producing gold castings using the lost-wax process and a • The oxide film that forms with these metals upon oxidation is self-
melting torch were introduced limiting
o 1907: Taggert introduced a method for producing precise cast • It acts as a barrier to the flow of oxygen and metal ions necessary
metal crown and bridge forms for further oxidation
o 1900s: electricity driver furnaces and casting machines became • It also protects the surface from corrosive liquids
available
o 1970s: successful casting of titanium Noble Metals Are highly resistant to corrosion and oxidation
1. Gold and do not require alloying elements for
2. Iridium protection in corrosive environments. Pure noble
METALS AND ALLOYS 3. Osmium metals must be alloyed to provide sufficient
4. Palladium resistance to deformation and fracture when
• Alloys 5. Platinum they are used for cast implants, endodontic posts
− metal containing 2 or more elements, at least one of which is a 6. Rhodium and cores, and crown and bridge restorations.
metal, and all of which are mutually soluble in the molten 7. Ruthenium
states
METALLIC BONDING
Desirable characteristics of casting alloy: • Metals have the ability to conduct heat and electricity. These
o Exhibit biocompatibility properties are associated with the mobility of its free valence
o Ease of melting, casting, brazing, polishing electrons.
o Little solidification shrinkage • The difference in electronegativity between atoms is small and
o Minimal reactivity with the mold material the valence electron orbitals are spherical, so electron sharing
o Good wear resistance between atoms is minimal.
o High strength and sag resistance • Free electrons act as conductors of both thermal energy and
o Excellent tarnish and corrosion resistance electricity. They transfer energy by moving readily from bands
o Color of higher energy to those of lower energy under the influence
of either a thermal gradient or the potential gradient of an
electrical field.
Dental casting alloys are associated with the • Metallic bonding is responsible for the luster of polished metals
following groups: and their typical ability of undergoing significant permanent
deformation (associated with the properties of ductility and
1. Dental amalgams, which contain mercury (Hg), silver (Ag), tin malleability) under mechanical stresses above their elastic
(Sn), and copper (Cu) limits or yield points.

2. High noble (HN) alloys, which contains at least 40 wt% gold (Au) CRITICAL QUESTION
and 60 wt% of noble metals. Why are pure metals not useful for most dental applications?
• Pure metals have limited uses in dental and engineering
3. Noble (N) metal alloys, which are typically based on palladium applications, because they are too soft and some may corrode
(Pd) as the main noble metal with a total noble metal content of at excessively.
least 25 weight percent. Noble metal alloys may also contain gold,
silver, copper, gallium (Ga), indium (In), platinum (Pt), and tin (Sn).
CLASSIFICATION OF ALLOYS
4. Predominantly base (PB) metal alloys, which contain less than 25 Cast dental alloys can be classified according to the following five
wt% of noble metals, are most commonly composed of one of the categories:
following groups: nickel and chromium (Ni-Cr); cobalt and chromium 1. Use
(Co-Cr); iron, carbon, and chromium (Fe-CCr); commercially pure 2. Major Elements
3. Nobility
titanium (CP- Ti); and titanium-aluminum and vanadium (Ti- Al-V).
4. 3 Principal Elements
5. Dominant Phase System
GOLD and COPPER
• Two nonwhite metals in the periodic table of the elements, USE
both of which are important components of cast dental alloys. 1. All-metal inlays
• Most cast dental alloys, which are based on either cobalt, 2. Crowns and bridges
nickel, palladium, or silver, are “white” or silver in appearance, 3. Metal-ceramic
although these alloys may exhibit slight differences in hue and 4. Prostheses,
chroma. 5. Posts and cores,
• A unique characteristic of metals is that they are generally 6. Removable partial dentures
excellent thermal and electrical conductors. 7. Implants
MAJOR ELEMENTS • Palladium whitens gold alloys markedly.
1. Gold-based − It raises the melting range, elastic modulus, strength, and
2. Palladiumbased hardness of gold alloys
3. Silver-based − Lowers the density of gold alloys
4. Nickel-based − Small amounts improve the tarnish and corrosion resistance of
5. Cobalt-based Au-Ag-Cu crown and bridge alloys, especially of alloys
6. Titaniumbased containing less than 68% Au.
• Platinum (Pt) is used primarily in yellow-gold PFM alloys to
NOBILITY increase the melting range, hardness, strength, and elastic modulus.
1. High noble • Silver is added to Au-Ag-Cu casting alloys to offset the reddish hue
2. Noble contributed by Cu.
3. Pre- dominantly base metal • Copper strengthens and reddens Au-Ag-Cu crown and bridge
alloys.
3 PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS such as: • Zinc is added to crown and bridge alloys as an oxygen scavenger,
• Au-Pd-Ag, Pd-Ag- Sn thereby reducing gas porosity in castings.
• Ni-Cr-Be, Co- Cr-Mo • Indium (In) is used in some Au-Ag-Cu casting alloys to improve
• Ti-Al-V their castability.
• Fe-Ni-Cr • Iron is used primarily to strengthen Au-Pt alloys for PFM
applications.
DOMINANT PHASE SYSTEM • Three noble elements that are used to refine the grain structure of
1. Single phase alloys are iridium (Ir), rhenium, (Re), and ruthe- nium (Ru).
2. Eutectic
3. Peritectic
4. Intermetallic SOLIDIFICATION AND MICROSTRUCTURE OF CAST DENTAL ALLOYS

− The temperature, Tf, indicated by the straight or “plateau”

Revised Classification by ADA in 2003 portion of the curve
High Noble (HN) − BC is the solidification temperature of the pure metal and the
Titanium and titanium alloys melting point or fusion temperature.
Noble (N) − During melting, the temperature remains constant. During
Predominantly base metals (PB) freezing or solidification, heat is released as the metal changes
from a high-energy liquid to a low-energy solid.
• If two metals are present during solidification of a molten metal, a − This energy difference is the latent heat of solidification and is
binary alloy is produced; if three or four metals are present, ternary equal to the heat of fusion. It is defined as the number of
and quaternary alloys, respectively, are produced. As the number of calories of heat liberated from 1 g of a substance when it
metals increases beyond two, the alloy structure becomes more transforms from a liquid to a solid.
complex. • Supercooling - the initial cooling of the liquid metal from Tf to
point B’
• The simplest alloy is a solid solution, in which atoms of two metals *It is important to emphasize that supercooling of pure metals
are mutually completely soluble and dispersed in specific arrays only occurs in clean and inert containers.
within the same crystal structure, such as face-centered cubic
(FCC), body- centered cubic (BCC), and hexagonal close-packed
(HCP).

• When two metals are not completely soluble in each other, the
solid state is a mixture of two or more phases. Important examples
are the eutectic alloys and peritectic alloys.

• Alloys can have intermediate phases, which have a range of

compositions different from the solid solutions formed by the nearly
pure metals. In some alloy systems, intermetallic compounds with a
fixed composition can also be formed.

EFFECTS OF ALLOY ELEMENTS ON PROPERTIES OF HIGH NOBLE AND

NOBLE METAL ALLOYS

• Gold is inert in the oral environment, extremely malleable, and

does not cause excessive wear of tooth structure.
• Cast gold prostheses have proven to be the most durable
compared with all other materials used for indirect restorations.
• Gold is useful to raise the thermal expansion coefficient (TEC) of
palladium alloys.
NUCLEUS FORMATION − Dendrite formation occurs during solidification of alloys
Figure 5-3 and Figure 5-4 because of constitutional supercooling.

Nucleation - formation of a center around which further Figure 5-5.

crystallization takes place is called nuclei and process of its The light areas are the dendrites, and the dark areas are
formation is nucleation. interdendritic regions. These dendritic microstructures are not
− It largely depends on critical radius of nucleation desirable in cast dental alloys because interdendritic regions serve as
− Nuclei with smaller than ro are less likely to form crystal and sites for crack formation and propagation.
and are called embryos. They may get dissolve in liquid state
again Figure 5-6.
− Generally, nucleation is combination of both types Microcracks, called “hot tears,” form at elevated temperatures in
thin cast areas of these alloys. It occurs when there is insufficient
Types: metal thickness to resist the stresses caused by the casting
investment during solidification.
1. Homogenous nucleation
− Is a random process, having an equal probability of occurring at Figure 5-7.
any point in the molten metal. Base metal (PN) alloys - dendritic microstructure
− It occurs in the absence of a surface that would promote Highly noble (HN) and Noble (N) alloys - equiaxed polycrystalline
heterogeneous nucleation. microstructure

surface energy (Fs) + Volume free energy (Fv) = Overall free energy Figure 5-8.
of embryos Solidification starts from isolated nuclei in the molten metal, and
these crystals gradually grow by the clustering of atoms and the
Surface Free Energy (Fs), Positive: Increases as the square of the crystals extend toward each other. When the adjacent crystals
embryo radius eventually contact one another, their growth stops.
Volume Free Energy (Fv), Negative: Varies as the third power of the
spherical embryo radius The regular atom arrangement in a cast metal becomes
discontinuous at a grain boundary.
o At small values of embryo radius, Fs is dominant and the
overall free energy for the formation of the embryo is positive
(energetically unfavorable).
SOLID SOLUTIONS
o At larger values of the embryo radius, Fv becomes dominant
and the overall free energy of the embryo is negative o The majority of noble metal casting alloys for dental
(energetically favorable). restorations are based on solid solutions.
o An important example is the palladium-silver (Pd-Ag) alloy
• Critical nucleus size, designated as r corresponds to the maximum system.
point in the total free energy of the embryos as a function of radius.
Solutes and Solvents
• For an embryo or radius (r), the overall free energy (R) decreases When two metals are mutually soluble in the solid state, the solvent
with the addition of another atom and continues to decrease as the is that metal whose crystal structure is retained over the
embryo grows. composition range of interest.

• Embryos with radii smaller than ro are unstable and spontaneously 2 Principal Atomic Arrangements for Binary Solid Solutions:
form and disappear in the liquid metal
1. Substitutional solid solution - the atoms of the solute metal
• Embryos with radii larger than ro are stable nuclei and continue to occupy the positions in the crystal structure that are normally
grow during the solidification process occupied by the solvent atoms in the pure metal.

• It follows that the greater the amount of supercooling, or 2. Interstitial solid solution - the solute atoms are present in
equivalently, the greater the rate of temperature reduction below random positions (interstices) between the atoms in the crystal
Tf, the smaller is the critical radius ro, because the value of Fv for a structure of the solvent metal.
give embryo size becomes increasingly negative. (The value of Fs per
unit area is not greatly affected by the amount of supercooling)

CONDITIONS FOR SOLID SOLUBILITY

Liquid to Solid Transformation of Cast Metals
Pure metals may crystallize in tree branch pattern from nucleus, For two or more species to be mutually soluble in solid solution,
such formations are called dendrites. several conditions must be satisfied: atom size difference, valence,
type of crystal structure, and the potential for solvent atoms.
− The latent heat released by solidifying metal also lowers the
amount of supercooling at the liquid-solid interface, hindering Solid solutions are more likely to form when the metal elements
growth in regions adjacent to the protuberances and resulting have the same valence.
in separated, highly elongated crystals.
If elemental species have a high degree of chemical affinity, they COLOR OF CAST METAL ALLOYS
tend to form an intermetallic compound during solidification rather
than a solid solution. To achieve a rich yellow color, a gold content of 84% or more is
typically required in PFM alloys in order to maintain the desirable
Solid solutions in an alloy can form metals only when they contain “yellow” color of pure gold. Although high noble (HN) alloys should
the same type of crystal structure. contain at least 40% Au and a total of 60% of noble metals, HN alloys
with gold contents of approximately 40% are “white” in color.

Physical Properties of Solid Solutions Shown in Figure 5-18

90 is a schematic representation of the range of hues that result
Solid solution strengthening of an alloy increases with greater from various concentrations of Au, Cu, and Ag in ternary alloys. The
concentrations of the solute atoms and with increasingly dissimilar transition areas from one color to another are more or less
sizes of the solvent and solute atoms up to the solid solubility limit. continuous rather than segmented as shown in this illustration. The
For binary alloys that form solid solutions, the maximum hardness is areas are merely intended to indicate approximate changes in hue
reached at concentrations of approximately 50% for each metal. as Cu and/or Ag are added to a gold matrix.

SOLID-STATE REACTIONS IN HIGH NOBLE AND NOBLE ALLOY

SYSTEMS

o Solid-state reactions provide important mechanisms that can

strengthen some dental alloys.
o The best-known example is the ordering of Au-Cu alloys

▪ Gold-Copper System
The melting range between solid and liquid is narrow for all
compositions, and the liquidus and solidus curves meet at 80.1% Au.
At the right side of this diagram, the addition of 10% Cu to Au lowers
the liquidus temperature markedly. These points are useful to
understand the nature of Au-Cu alloy compositions used for casting
dental prostheses.

▪ Other Gold Systems

Dental gold casting alloys may contain at least three principal solute
metals (Cu, Pd, and Pt), which provide solid solution strengthening.
Other elements in amounts less than 1%, such as zinc (Zn) and
iridium (Ir), are present as well. Because many of these metals in
binary combinations can form precipitates leading to age hardening.

Effective age-hardening constituent in gold alloys is the FePt3

intermetallic compound

▪ Palladium-Based Alloys
Alloys based on a high palladium content have been used for metal
ceramic prostheses because of their lower cost compared with gold-
based alloys, their excellent mechanical properties, and their proven
adherence to dental porcelain.

▪ Multicomponent Alloy Systems

Most high noble (HN) dental gold alloys are ternary alloys of gold,
silver, and copper, they also contain minor additions of platinum,
palladium, and zinc. These alloys, which form single-phase solid
solutions when quenched immediately after solidification, can be
strengthened and hardened by heat treatment.

▪ Base Metal Alloys

The principles of alloy solidification, phase formation and phase
transformation as a function of composition and thermal processing
for predominantly base metal (PB) alloy systems are essentially the
same as those described for HN and N alloy systems.
j.cansancio PERFORMANCE CRITERIA OF DENTAL RESINS
DENTAL POLYMERS o mechanically strong
o physically stable
o POLY= many ; MER= parts/units o easily manipulated
o Molecule made from repeating units o excellent esthetic quality
o Long chain molecule o chemically stable both in storage and in the mouth
Formed through chemical reactions that convert large numbers of o biocompatible
MONOMERS (low molecular weight molecules) into → o reasonable cost
MACROMOLECUES (large, very high molecular weight long chain)

Type of Resins
MONOMER
− molecules that form the basic unit of polymers which are the 1. ACRYLIC RESINS
building blocks of protein − derivatives of ethylene and contain a vinyl group
− bind to other monomers to form repeating units chain − two acrylic resins;
molecules through a process known as polymerization − one derived from acrylic acid (CH2=CHOOH) and
− may be either natural or synthetic in origin − other derived from metal acrylic acid (CH2=C(CH3)COOH) are of
dental interest
1. Natural Polymers
o exist in living things HISTORY OF DENTAL POLYMERIC MATERIALS
o protein, cellulose, wool, silk, starch, natural rubber, DNA
o 1853 DENTURE BASE is made of vulcanized rubber, a plant
2. Synthetic Polymers derive latex crosslinked with sulfur, and celluloid formed the
o man-made in laboratory through chemical processes gingival area
o plastic, synthetic fibres, synthetic rubber o 1890 a plant exudate containing trans-polysoprene used for
temporary crows and fillings, permanent restorations and gutta
percha
RESINS o 1936 polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), heat processed
− compositions of either monomers or macromolecules blended thermosetting material. Then self-curing resins.
with other components to provide a material with a useful set o During 20th a wide variety of synthetic elastomers--
of properties polysulfides, silicon rubber, polyethers and polyvinylsiloxanes
− the morphology of macromolecule determines whether it is were developed
Fiber, rigid solid or elastomer (rubber-like)
HISTORY
− Monomer Resin can be shaped and molded transformed to
solid when polymerized
o Dr. Ray Bown of the ADA research foundation introduced self-
− Synthetic Polymer Resins often called plastics
curing dimethacrylates reinforced with ceramics as a filler
o Resin-Based composites: durable and esthetically pleasing
polymer network
SYNTHETIC POLYMERS (PLASTIC)
o Later replaced with ultraviolet photocured materials (light-
curable resin)
Based on their thermal behavior:
o Dimethacrylate resins used to seal fissues, luting cements,
veneering materials and other restorations
1. Thermoplastic Polymers
o Polymer materials continues its development
o if they undergo reversible change
o can be softened by heat and pressure
o hardened in low temperature
DENTAL USES OF POLYMERIC MATERIALS AND RESINS
o ex. polymethyl methacrylate, polyvinyl, acrylics,
polystyrene
▪ Prosthodontics: denture bases and teeth, soft reliners, custom
trays, impression materials, core buildup materials, temporary
2. Thermosetting Polymers
restoratives luting materials, and maxillofacial prosthesis
o if they undergo an irreversible change when heated
o chemical reaction
▪ Operative Dentistry: dentin bonding agents, cavity fillings, resin
o final products is different from original substance
and glass-ionomer cements, pits and fissure sealants, splinting
o insoluble
materials and veneers
o ex. cross-linked polymethylmethacrylate and silicones
▪ Orthodontics: brackets, bracket bonding resins and cements
Thermosetting
and spacers
Heated → Softens → Cooled → Permanently Hard
▪ Endodontics: gutta percha points, root canal sealants and
Thermoplastic
rubber dams
Heated → Softens → Cooled → Hardens → Heated etc. (cycle)
▪ Equipment: mixing bowls and spatulas, mouth guards (sports),
protective eyewear
NATURE OF POLYMERS 3. Cross linked polymer
-rigid, two or more kinds of monomer
o Consist of very large macromolecules -STRONGEST
o Their chain-like molecular structure is capable of virtually
limitless configurations and conformations
o Its properties can be determined by its chain length, extent of
chain branching, crosslinking and the organization of chains
o Consist of inorganic (silicone dioxide repeating units) and
organic (carbon-carbon repeating units) in the backbone chain.

DEGREE OF POLYMERIZATION
CHAIN BRANCHING AND CROSSLINKING o total number of Mers
o if high mol.wt, high degree of polymerization
▪ Branching: extra arm growing out of a polymer chain thus o the higher degree of polymerization, the stronger the polymer
probability of entangled, physical connections among chains o a narrow mol. wt. distribution is the most useful polymer
increases o if there is a high mol. wt, then the material is hard
▪ Crosslinking: linear polymers are joined or bridged, through
reactive side chains to form crosslinked molecular network
MECHANICAL-PROPERTIES DEFORMATION AND RECOVERY
▪ Plastic Strain- irreversible deformation that cannot be
recovered which result in a new, permanent shape
▪ Elastic strain- reversible deformation and will be quickly and
completely recovered when stress is eliminated
▪ Viscoelastic strain- combination of both elastic and plastic
deformation
Effect of polymer chain length, branching, and crosslinking on ▪ Plastic deformation- amount of deformation that is not
mechanical and physical properties. Rigidity, strength, and melting recovered at the moment the stress is eliminated
temp. increase as polymer chain length grows and molecular weight
increases. Stress Strain in Polymers
Crosslinked is the strongest of the three. higher strain, least likely to break
brittle
o fracture strengths of polymers – 10% of those for metals
o deformation strains for polymers > 1000%
STRUCTURES OF POLYMERS o more most metals, deformations strains < 10%

1. Linear
RHEOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF SOLID POLYMERS
A. Linear Homopolymer: all monomers are in the same type
B. Random Copolymer: two or more different monomer unit are ▪ Plastic flow- irreversible strain behavior that occurs when
randomly arranged in a linear chain polymer chain slide over one another and become relocated
C. Block Copolymer: two kinds of monomer are distributed in blocks within material, resulting in permanent behavior

▪ Elastic Recovery- reversible strain behavior that occurs in the

amorphous regions of polymer when the randomly coiled
chains straighten and then recoil
ex. spring; reversible strain behavior that occurs

POLYMER OLVATION CHARACTERISTICS

2. Branched o the longer the chains (the highter mol.wt.), the polymer
dissolves slowly
A. Branched Homopolymer- one type of polymer, forming line/ o Polymers tend to absorb a solvent, swell, and soften rather
branches than dissolve. Any dissolution occurs from the swollen state
B. Graft Copolymer- one kind of monomer and a diff one in the o Crosslinking prevents complete chain separation and retars
branch dissolution; thus, highly crosslinked polymers cannot be
C. Random Co-polymer in Branched Type- two or more polymer dissolved
o Elastomers swell more easily and to a greater extent than
plastics
o Absorbed molecules (eg water) spread polymer chains apart
and facilitate slippage between chains; this lubricating effect is
called plasticization
o Swelling of dental polymeric devices can adversely affect fit as,
for example, with full and partial dentures
CHEMISTRY OF POLYMERIZATION o Any impurity reacts with a free radical and inhibits or retards
the polymerization reaction
1. Addition polymerization o Any impurity can react with the activated initiator or with an
o chain-growth polymerization; monomers are activated one at a activated growing chain to prevent further growth
time and added together in sequence to form a growing chain o Small amount of hydroquinone (0.006% or less)
o no change in chemical composition o Oxygen also retars the polymerization reaction as it reacts with
o no by products free radical

Vinyl chloride (monomer), Poly(vinyl) chloride (PVC Polymer)

COPOLYMERIZATION
o the combination of two ore more chemically different
2. Condensation polymerization monomers
o (step-growth polymerization) monomers and/or oligomers o the polymer formed is called a copolymer
reach with each other to form larger structural units while o improves the physical properties
releasing smaller molecules as a byproduct such as water or o in small quantities they can modify the adhesive properties and
methanol surface properties
o by products: water, halogen acid, ammonia
o high mol. wt. molecule is difficult to form
o not widely used in dentistry Methyl Methacrylate
− clear and transparent liquid at room temperature
Carboxylic acid + Amine → Amide + water
Physical Properties:
o Melting point: 48 C
STEPS IN ADDITION POLYMERIZATION o Boiling point: 100.3 C
o Mol. Wt.: 100
1. Induction o Density: 0.945 g/ml at 20C
o 2 processes controlled o Heat of polymerization: 12.9 kcal/mol
o Activation and Initiation
o a source of free radical is required to begin addition Polymethyl Methacrylate
polymerization reaction − transparent, clear and extremely stable resin
o free radical is provided by a free radical producing molecule − PMMA also absorbs water by imbibition (increase in 0.5% of
o activation is done by heat, chemical, ultraviolet and visible light weight after immersion of water for 1 week)
(heat and visible light are commonly used in dentistry) − this phenomenon is reversible when resin is dried

2. Propagation Physical Properties

o resulting free radical monomer now act as a new free radical o Knoop hardness number: 18-20
center o Tensile strength: 60 Mpa
o it approaches another monomer to form a "dimer" o Density: 1.19 g/cm3
o ten the dimer becomes another free radical o Modulus of elasticity: 2400 Mpa
▪ Free Radical- an atom or group of an atom processing the o Softening Temp: 125 C
unpaired electrons

3. Chain Transfer
o active free radical of growing chain is transferred to another
molecule
o this initiates further chain growth
o thus a new nucleus of chain growth results

4. Termination
addition polymerization can be terminated by either:
1. direct coupling of two radical then chain ends
2. by exchange of one hydrogen atom from one growing chain to
another

Steps for Synthesis of Polymers

There are three (3) significant reactions that take place in addition
polymerization:

Initiation (Birth) → Propagation (Growth) → Termination (Death)

INHIBITION OF ADDITIONAL POLYMERIZATION

o Polymerization is not likely to result in a complete exhaustion of
monomer
o Impurities in monomers inhibit such reaction
j.cansancio ADVERSE REACTIONS TO DENTAL RESTORATIVE MATERIALS AND
BIOCOMBATIBILITY AUXILLARY MATERIALS INCLUDE:
1. allergic rxn (patch test)
Toxicity 2. chemical burn (breakdown/degradation of substance)
Immunotoxicity 3. pulp irritation (tooth filling)
Systemic 4. pulp damage (reversible/irreversible)
Local 5. thermal injury (pulp and surrounding tissues)
Inflammation 6. tissue irritation (dentures, sharp root fragments and fillings)
Allergic Reactions 7. toxic reaction (chemical in nature)
Cross Reactive Allergy
Concurrent Allergy ACID: Types of Hypersensitivity
• Anaphylaxis
Other Reactions
• Cytotoxic
• Immune complex deposition
o the ability of a material to perform with an appropriate host • Delayed
response in a specific application
o toxicity, bio-integration, adverse effect level, osteointegration Type I: Allergic-people commonly use the term 'allergic' to mean any
o biological and structural ability (dynamic and transitional sort of undesirable side-effect, so you have to keep in mind that the
functionality) true definition of the word means the rxn is IgE-mediated. ex.
anaphylaxis, asthma, atopy
3 MAJOR FACTORS LINKED TO THE SUCCESS OF DENTAL
MATERIALS Type II. Cell-mediated (Cytotoxic)- ex. Goodpasture's, Grave's
1. Material Properties disease, Myasthenia Gravis
2. Design of the dental device
3. Biocompatibility of component materials Type III. Immune complex deposition (Antigen-Antibody)- ex. SLE,
serum sickness
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE BIOCOMPATIBILITY OF DENTAL
MATERIAL Type IV. Delayed- think of 'dermatitis from contact' examples such
1. The chemical nature of its components as poison ivy exposure and cheap jewelry. Several other type IV rxns
2. The physical nature of the components start with "T", which is convenient, since they have to be "T"-cell
3. Types and locations of patient tissues that will be exposed to the mediated. ex. the TB skin test, and transplant rejection
device
4. The duration of the procedure
5. The surface characteristics of the material o toxicity is dose dependent
6. The amount and nature of substances eluted from the material o allergy is dose independent
*The primary purpose of biocompatibility tests is to protect dental ➢ Sensitization- the quality or condition of responding to certain
px who will be treated with the materials and the office staff and lab stimuli in a sensitive manner
techs who will be handling these materials (adverse reactions).

ADVERSE REACTIONS HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE (not rlly imp)

➢ Critical Adverse Effect PARACELSUS (1493-1541)

− first event observed at lowest exposure level o inert materials have been placed or implanted in humans to
replace or repair missing, damaged, or defective body tissues
➢ Critical Tissue or Critical Organ o no pharmacological agent is free of potential toxic effects, and
− location of these effects no drug is free from possibility of causing an adverse event in
certain individuals
➢ Critical Concentration o the allowable percentage of adverse effects in a population is
− concentration of a substance based on the risks to the health and life expectancy of the
individuals
BIOCOMP OF DENTAL MATERIALS IS AN EXTREMELY COMPLEX
TASK THAT REQUIRES CONSIDERATION OF BIOLOGICAL TESTING
1. Cell biology o Primary test for cytotoxicity- toys, crop residue
2. Patient risk factors o Hemolysis- destruction of RBC (glucose-6-phosphate
3. Clinical experience dehydrogenase)
4. Materials science o Style's cell transformation- normal or malignant
o Ames test- use of bacteria to test if chemical causes mutation
o Acute inhalation test- short term exposure to test chemicals o transitional cooling process creates a composition gradient,
o Mucous membrane test which may lead to dissolution or corrosion behavior that is
o Dermal toxicity from repeated exposures quite unpredictable
o Responses to subcutaneous implantation

RISK ASSESSMENT OF DENTAL MATERIALS

ADVERSE EFFECTS FROM EXPOSURE TO DENTAL MATERIALS
[IMAGE] Cell culture test → Animal test for sensitization → human trials →
manufacturer and govt agencies
INFLAMMATORY REACTIONS
o involves the activation of the host's immune system to ward off
some challenge or threat o Mercury ions are shown to increase the glutathione content of
o Trauma or toxicity the monocytes in the cell culture, while palladium ions cause
o Edema as initial reaction (neutrophils) the glutathione content to decrease. Since glutathione is
o Chronic stage (monocytes and lymphocytes) essential for maintaining the redox balance in the cells,
o Examples are pulp inflammation and periodontal disease exposure to these metallic ions can change the cellular function
of the monocytes

ALLERGIC REACTIONS IMMUNOTOXICITY

o occurs when the body recognizes a substance, molecule, or ion o refers to any adverse effect on the structure or function of the
as foreign, and the human immune system can react quickly as immune system, or on other systems as a result of immune
during an anaphylactic rxn or slowly in delated contact system
dermatitis o the principal concept of immunotoxicity is that substances
o induces an inflammatory response that cannot be easily leached from materials can alter immune system cells, resulting
distinguished from rxns caused by a nonallergic inflammatory in enormous biological consequences because of the amplifying
process or by low-grade toxicity nature of immune cells
o process of elimination o monocytes control chronic inflammatory and immune
o trauma, other noninflammatory process or self-limiting allergic responses, and they also secrete many substances that alter the
reaction actions of other cells
o allergy comes before inflamm.

PULPAL AND PERIODONTAL EFFECTS

PRECURSORS TO ADVERSE EFFECTS OF DENTAL MATERIALS Postoperative discomfort or pain caused by txt with dental materials
o the difference between dissoluction and corrosion is primarily 1. Thermal trauma
related to the difference between chemical concentration 2. Chemical injury
gradients and electrical currect gradients 3. Mechanical injury
4. Microleakage
*A metal restoration can release metal ions as a result of chemical 5. Allergy
reactions, electrochemical forces, or mechanical forces (such as
during abrasion)
*Ceramics and resin-based composites, cyclical stresses contribute HYDRODYNAMIC THEORY OF PULP PAIN
to the breakdwon of the material and release of components o related to the movement of dentinal fluid and its influence on
the odontoblastic processes
➢ CORROSION is not determined only by a metal's composition o dentin permeability increases substantially in areas closer to
but also by the environment in contact with the metal (GERD) the pulp chamber
o High pH envi. increase the dissolution of some glass-phase o influenced by the remaining thickness of dentin between the
ceramics material and the pulp chamber
o Surface roughness- increases the potential for the release of o a major problem in the diagnosis or potential pulp damage
potential allergens, mutagens, or toxins caused by a material or substance is the fact that there is
− plaque accumulation contributing to caries and periodontal virtually no correlation between the histologically documented
disease damage to the pulp and clinical symptoms
− leaching of impurities (Bisphenol A) in composites
PERIODONTAL EFFECTS
CAST METAL FRAMWORK o cervical margins of many dental restorations are near the
o solidify first at the investment mold surface, and subsequently, periodontal attachment area, the biocompatibility of these
the hottest area solidifies last materials may influence the body's ability to defend
against bacteria that cause periodontal disease
 o periodontal pocket, or gingival sulcus, may accumulate ESTROGENICITY
significant concentrations of leached substances that do o the ability of a chemical to act as the hormone estrogen does in
not accumulate to these levels in other areas the body
o bis-GMA (bisophenol-A-glycidyldumethacrylate in composites)
o plastics, chemicals, pesticides
INTERFACES WITH DENTAL MATERIALS
o dentin-cement or dentin-resin interfaces are the most XENOESTROGEN
important in transition areas for transfer of leached substances o are "foreign" estrogens, substances that are close enough in
into dentinal fluid mol. structure to estrogen that they can bind to estrogen
o Nanoleakage is not known to occur between restorations and receptor sites with potentially hazardous outcomes
enamel because enamel contains virtually no organic mass and o allergic rx to resins, monomers easily pass through the gloves
therefore has no collagenous matrix which resin may penetrate
TITANIUM AND TITANIUM ALLOYS
INFLUENCE OF BIOCOMPATIBILITY ON THE OSSEOINTEGRATION OF o light weight, high strength and excellent durability when
IMPLANTS exposed to chemical agents
➢ Osteointegration o However, it is susceptible to attack by acidic fluoride products
-the ingrowth of new bone into the surface o Surface layer of titanium oxide (Ti2O3) has the ability to coexist
with living tissues and organisms
The most common implant materials o Titanium is relatively nontoxic, non-injurious, and not
1. Cp Ti physiologically reactive
2. titanium-aluminum-vanadium alloy
3. Titanium
4. Some types of ceramics BASE METAL AND NOBLE METAL ALLOYS
o Predominantly base metal alloys are classified by ADA as those
MATERIALS THAT ALLOW OSSEOINTEGRATION: containing less than 25% by weight of noble metals
1. Have very low degradation rates o Noble alloys are classified as those that contain between 25%
2. tend to form surface oxides that enhance bony approximation and 60% of these noble metal elements
3. bioglass ceramics promote a perfect osseointegration of the bone o High noble metal alloys are classified by the ADA as those
4. involves adaptation of bone or other tissues to the implanted containing at least 40% gold and 60% of noble metals and base
material without any intervening space along the tissue-material alloys used together
interface o Commercially pure titanium (Cp Ti) are used most often for
removable fixed restorations and orthodontic appliances
MERCURY AND AMALGAM
o Metallic mercury gain access to the body via the skin or as a BASE METAL ALLOYS
vapor through the lungs 1. stainless steel (Fe, C, Ni, Cr)
o Primary portal into the body is through inhalation of mercury 2. Cobalt-chromium (Co, Cr)
vapor 3. Nickel-chromium (Ni, Cr)
o Dissolved mercury can be transported through blood and 4. Cobalt-nickel-chromium (Co, Ni, Cr)
distributed to the brain and other organs and excreted by
exhalation and in urine NOBLE METALS
o Selenium is claimed to be protective against toxic effect of 1. gold
mercury 2. platinum
o Amalgams do not release anywhere near toxic levels of mercury 3. palladium
o Half-life ranges from 20 to 90 days 4. rhodium
o Biological effects of mercury levels in amalgam are insignificant 5. ruthenium
6. iridium
7. osmium
COMMON FORMS OF MERCURY
1. Metallic
2. Inorganic salts CONCLUSION
3. Mercuric sulfide o No evidence exists to prove that dental metallic materials are
4. Mercuric chloride mutagenic, genotoxic, or carcinogenic
5. Methyl mercury- most common, transformed by natural process, o Immune response can be altered by various metal ions
major safety concern because it accumulates through the food chain o Their role in oral inflammatory diseases such as gingivitis and
(fish, red tide), brain is the most sensitive periodontitis is unknown
o Nickel is known to be highly allergenic, especially in females
o Patients who are allergic to nickel are also allergic to palladium
o beryllium is known to be highly toxic

LATEX
o Natural latex products are made from a white milky sap
harvested from a tree growing in tropical regions
o Ammonia added to the sap to preserve it, but t the same time,
the ammonia hydrolyzes and degrades the sap proteins to
produce allergens
o Vulcanization is the process by which liquid latex is hardened
into rubber through the use of sulfur compounds and heat

DENTAL CERAMICS
o overall, the risk of surface degradation is low, and feldspathic
ceramics have been used as clinical veneers for many years
without significant biocompatibility issues
o Ceramic materials are known for their high levels of
biocompatibility
o Acidulated phosphate fluoride (AFP) is known to corrode the
surfaces of veneering porcelains as well as glaze and stain
ceramics
o most dental ceramics do not induce an adverse effect when
they contact the oral mucous membrane

o TABLE 7-1

HYDROFLUORIC ACID
o Etching of glass-phase ceramics and glass ceramics by
hydrofluoric acid (HF) has been performed occasionally to
promote bonding of these ceramics to resin-based composites
o Different from Phosphoric acid used in composite filling
j.cansancio CLINICAL APPLICATION
IMPRESSION MATERIALS
Elastic impression materials
MODEL OR CAST o can be stretched or compressed slightly and then rebound
o important step in numerous dental procedures when the impression tray is removed from the mouth
o made from gypsum products o capable of accurately reproducing both the hard and soft tissue
o must be an accurate representation of oral structures which structures of the mouth, including the undercuts and
requires an accurate impression interproximal cases
o ZOE impression paste, impression plaster and impression
DENTAL IMPRESSION compound
o is a negative imprint of hard and soft tissues in the mouth from − ideal for making impression of edentulous jaw
which a positive reproduction can be formed structure or soft tissue
o it is made by placing an appropriate material in a stock or o AGAR, alginate and elastomers for dentulous jaw
custom dental impression tray which is designed to roughly fit
over the dental arches
DIAGRAM OF IMPRESSION MATERIAL
IMPRESSION OF DENTATE AND EDENTULOUS ARCHES
And resulting gypsum casts Impression Material
[IMAGE]

Impression materials should be

1. sufficiently fluid to adapt to the oral tissues Non-Elastic Elastic
2. viscous enough to be contained in a tray
3. able to transform (set) into rubbery or rigid solid in the mouth
Plaster Non-aqueous
in a reasonable time (less than 7 min) Hydrocolloids Elastomers
4. resistant to distortion or tearing when removed from the Impression
compound Agar-reversible Polysulfides
mouth
5. dimensionally stable long enough to allow one or more casts to Zinc oxide eugenol Alginate Polyethers
be poured irreversible
Impression waxes Condensation
6. biocompatible
silicone
7. cost-effective in terms of time as well as the expense of the
associated processing equipment Addition silicone

Classified according to their:

❖ Composition Elastomeric impression materials
❖ Mechanism of setting o comprise a group of synthetic polymer-based impression
❖ Mechanical properties materials that are chemically cross-linked when set and that
❖ Application can be stretched and rapidly recover to their original dimension
o Polysulfide, polyether, addition and condensation silicone
SETTING MECHANISM o supplied in two components: base paste and catalyst paste
▪ Irreversible (liquid)
− material cannot revert to previous state o extra low (for fine details), low, medium, heavy and putty
− ex. alginate, ZOE impression paste, impression plaster and (supporting impression)
elastomeric impression material
▪ Reversible 1. POLYSULFIDE
− material that can revert to its previous state and vice versa o Base Paste: polysulfide polymer
− ex. agar, impression compound ✓ lithopone or titanium dioxide (filler) to provide strength
✓ dibutyl phthalate (plasticizaer) to confer viscocity to the paste
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES ✓ 0.5% sulfur accelerator
▪ Inelastic (Rigid)
− highly resistant to flexure, fractures when stressed o Catalyst (Accelerator) Paste: Reactor
✓ lead dioxide- brown color
− modelling compound
✓ filler and plasticizer- same as the base plate
▪ Elastic
✓ oleic or stearic acid (retarder) to control the rate of setting
− material is flexible and can be deformed and still return to its
reaction
original form when unstressed
− alginate
2. CONDENSATION SILICONE o the two putty system where two equal number of scoop of
o two paste system or a two putty system each material mixed by kneading the material with ones finger
o putty wash technique- putty used as a tray material in palm until a uniform color is obtained
conjunction with a low-viscocity silicone
o Base paste: a-w-hydroxyl-terminated polydimethyl siloxane ▪ Static mixing
o Catalyst- stannous octoate o two fluid (paste-like materials) into a homogeneous mixture
o ethyl alcohol- byproducts without mechanical mixing
o device used to mix the catalyst and the bast paste. GUN is used
3. ADDITION SILICONE for compressing the material separately from their cartridge
o polyvinyl siloxane (pvs) or viny polysiloxane (vps) and the MIXING tip where the material will be mixed
o Base Paste: polymethylhydrosiloxane and Divinylpolysiloxane + o provides greater uniformity in proportioning and mixing, yields
fillers fewer voids in the mix and reduce mixing time
o Catalyst Paste / Accelerator: dibinylpolysiloxane and a
platinum salt + fillers ▪ Dynamic mechanical mixing
o no reaction by products are formed o uses a motor to drive parallel plungers, forcing the materials
o Hydrogen gas is a secondary reaction by product that does not into a mixing tip and out into an impression tray or syringe
affect dimension stability o the motor driven impeller which is inside the mixing tip, mixes
the material as they are extruded through the tip
4. POLYETHER
o hydrophilic, easily influenced by water or moist 4. Impression making
o Baste Paste: polyether polymer, colloid silica (filler), glycol Three Techniques
ether or phthalate (plasticizer)
o Accelerator Paste: alkyl-aromatic sulfonate, filler and plasticizer a. Multiple mix technique
o syringe material (light body) and a tray material (heavy body)
are used
SIX MAJOR STEPS IN MAKING IMPRESSION WITH ELASTOMERIC o mixed simultaneously by different person unless a device is
MATERIALS used otherwise
1. Preparing Trays o the lighter material is placed around the tooth preparation then
2. Tissue Management filled tray is inserted in the mouth
3. Manipulation of Impression Materials
4. Making an Impression b. Monophase technique
5. Removing the impression o single-viscosity technique, medium body polyether and addition
6. Preparing stone cast and dies silicone are often used
o only one mixture is made, part of the mixture is placed in the
1. Impression trays syringe and other part is placed in the tray
▪ Custom tray o its success depends on the pseudoplastic (shear thinning)
o recommended to reduce the quantity of materials required and properties of the material
uniform distribution of material between tray and object
o not critical for polyether and addition silicone c. Putty-wash technique
o should be avoided when sever undercut is present o developed for condensation silicone to minimize the
dimensional changes
▪ Disposable stock tray o the thick putty material is placed in a stock and preliminary
o should be rigid impression is made
o used to support the putty when the putty-wash technique is o space for the light-body "wash" material provided either by
used cutting away some of the tray putty or by using polyethylene
sheeth as a spacer between the putty in prepared teeth during
2. Tissue Management impression making
▪ Retraction cord o a thin consistency was material is placed into the putty
o use to displaced gingival tissues from the margin, control the impression and on preparation then the tray is reseated in the
hemorrhage and sulcular fluids (in fixed partial dentures) mouth to make the final impression
▪ Electrosurgical unit
▪ Soft tissue laser 5. Removal of Impression
o remove only when sufficiently cured to provide adequate
3. Manipulation of Impression materials elasticity
▪ Hand mixing o for determining the time of removal inject some materials in
o the catalyst paste is mixed to the base paste using spatula or separate place, not in the field of operation; which you can
mixing pad until the mixed paste is uniform in color check from time to time if the material is set
o remove within 10 min from time of mixing, 6-8min inside the ELASTICITY AND VISOELASTICITY
mouth o sufficient high elastic limit should not sustain permanent
o see manufacturers recommendation deformation
o flexibility of material allows the material to be easily removed o recovery of elastic deformation following strain is less rapid for
from the undercut areas polysulfide than other materials
o quick snap to minimize plastic deformation of the impression o elastic properties of these elastomeric impression materials
improve with an extra 1 or 2 minutes curing time in the mouth
6. Preparation of stone casts and dies o polyvinyl siloxane impression materials exhibit the most elastic
o they hydrophobicity of silicone impression material increases recovery
the potential of forming voids in gypsum dies and casts
o surfactant spray "debubblizer" can improve wettability of the TEAR STRENGTH
silicone impression material o the amount of force needed to tear a specified test specimen
o polyether and polysulfide impression does not require the aid divided by the thickness of the specimen
of a surfactant o influenced by consistency and the manner of removing the
o addition silicone and polyether can be constructed at about 2-3 materials
casts or dies with not greater than 30 mins interval o low-viscosity impression materials are used in interproximal
and subgingival areas during impression
Pouring and making dental cast
[image] DISINFECTION
o impression should be immersed with disinfectant and removed
rinsed and poured with gypsum products as soon as possible
WORKING AND SETTING TIME o long immersion time may cause surfactant less hydrophilic in
Setting time PVS
− the time that has elapsed from the beginning of mixing o dimensional change in polyethers if immersed for a long time
until the impression can be removed from the mouth
Working time HYDROCOLLOIDS
− begins at the start of mixing and ends just before the Colloids
elastic properties have developed − is a substance that is microscopically dispersed uniformly
✓ Increase in temperature accelerates the rate of polymerization throughout another substance
of all elastic impression materials Hydrocolloid
✓ Working and setting time decrease as the filler content in the − if dispersion phase of a colloidal system is water
materials increases Sol-gel transformation
− the material sets from a flowable state to a solid state
RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES Sol
o material should flow freely and wet the tissue to achieve − is a colloidal dispersion of very small particles in a
adaptation and resist flow away from the intended surface continuous liquid medium
areas (shear thinning phenomena) Gel
o Pseudoplasticity- decrease viscosity with increasing shear − is a suspension that behaves like an elastic solid
stress Micelles
o Thixotropic- does not flow until sufficient energy is applied to − chains or fibrils form in the gel state
overcome the yield stress of the material
o Stress thinning- the material becomes less viscous when AGAR (Reversible Hydrocolloid)
stressed and then recover its viscosity when it rests on the o the physical change of agar from sol to gel induced by lowering
tissue or in the tray temperature. the gel liquifies to a sol when it is heated to a
temperature known as liquefaction
DIMENSIONAL STABILITY ▪ AGAR- polysaccharide extracted rom certain types of seaweeds.
❖ Six Major Sources it is the main active ingredient of the material
1. polymerization shrinkage Composition:
2. loss of a condensation reaction by-product (water or alcohol) water is the major constituent; borax- strengthener
3. thermal contraction from oral temperature to room temperature fillers- diatomaceous earth, clay, silica, wax, rubber, inert powders
4. absorption of water or disinfectant over a period of time thymol and glycerin- bactericidal agent and plasticizes
5. incomplete recovery of deformation, because of plastic supplied in syringe material and tray material
viscoelastic behavior
6. incomplete recovery because of plastic deformation ALGINATE (Irreversible Hydrocolloid)
o setting of alginate hydrocolloid is a process of cross-linking
alginic acid with calcium ions
COMPOSITION:
▪ soluble alginates- sodium, potassium, or triethanolamine INELASTIC IMPRESSION MATERIALS
alginate o exhibit an insignificant amount of elastic deformation when
▪ diatomaceous earth- filler to increase strength and stiffness of they are subjected to bending or tensile stresses. No plastic
alginate deformation
▪ zinc oxide- filler and has influence on the physical properties
and setting time of the gel 1. Impression plaster
▪ calcium sulfate dihydrate- reactor providing calcium ions o beta-calcium sulfate hemihydrate, suitable for making
▪ potassium titanium fluoride- accelerator for the stone (surface impression of soft tissue in the uncompressed state; Mucostatic
hardener) Impression Material

CONTROLLING SETTING TIME 2. Impression compound

o water/powder ratio and mixing time can affect the tear o modelling plastic, thermoplastic supplied in the form of sheets
strength and elasticity and sticks
o setting time best regulated by the amount of retarder added Two types:
o fast setting (1.5-3 mins), normal setting (3-4.5 min) 1. Lower-fusing material: for impression, in sheet or stick
o altering water temperature can influence the setting time (high 2. Higher fusing material: tray compound, use for forming trays
temp, dec time; low temp, inc time) for oral cavity
o tap water contains metallic ions may accelerate the setting
3. Zinc Oxide Eugenol
PREPARATION OF ALGINATE IMPRESSION MATERIALS ➢ impression material for edentulous mouth
o measured powder is added to the premeasured water in the ➢ surgical dressing
rubber bowl ➢ bite registration paste
o mix with metal or plastic spatula that is flexible to adapt well ➢ temporary filling material
the wall of the mixing bowl ➢ root canal filling material
o figure of eight stropping motion ➢ temporary relining material
o mixing time is 45s to 1min
o instructions on the package should be followed

MAKING THE ALGINATE IMPRESSION

o perforated metal tray
o if plastic tray or rim lock tray is selected, a thin layer of alginate
and tray adhesive should be applied
o thickness of alginate impression between the tray and tissues
should at least be 3mm
o remove with vertical path with a snap, breaking the air seal
"suction"

ALGINATE
o strength: follow manufacturer's direction
o shelf life: storage and moisture contamination from ambient
air, should be stored in a cool, dry environment
o dimensional stability: once the hydrocolloid impression is
removed from the mouth and exposed to air at room
temperature
➢ syneresis- shrinkage and evaporation will occur
➢ imbibition- swelling will occur when the impression is
immersed in water

DISINFECTION- spray household bleach, iodophors on synthetic

phenols or wrap with disinfectant soaked paper or towel and placed
in a sealed plastic bag for 10 mins
Accuracy- among the most accurate but not capable of reproducing
the finer details

ACCURACY- among the most accurate but not capable of

reproducing finer details
j.cansancio ✓ Hygroscopy - the ability of a substance to attract water molecules from
Gypsum Products the surrounding environment through either absorption or adsorption

• Gypsum (CaSO4•2H2O; calcium sulfate dihydrate) products supplied as

fine hemihydrate powders that are produced by heating ground Strength of Set Gypsum Products
gypsum particles.
• After mixing with water, the mixture reverts back to gypsum. This EFFECT OF WATER CONTENT
unique property of gypsum products has led to numerous applications • Wet strength (green strength) - strength that is determined when
through history. water in excess of that required for hydration of the hemihydrate
remains in the test specimen.
Production of Gypsum Products • Dry strength - When such excess water is removed by drying, the
• Gypsum products are produced by calcining calcium sulfate dihydrate strength obtained is the dry strength.
(gypsum).
EFFECT OF W/P RATIO
• Calcination - is the process of heating a solid material to drive off
volatile chemically combined components such as water and carbon
dioxide.
• Dental stone (α-hemihydrate) - crystals are denser and have a
prismatic shape.
• Plaster of Paris (β-hemihydrate) - characterized by their “sponginess”
and irregular shape.

Setting of Gypsum Products

SETTING REACTIONS
3 Theories of Gypsum Setting:
1. Colloidal Theory EFFECT OF MANIPULATION AND ADDITIVES
2. Hydration Theory • In general, an increase in mixing time increases the strength to a
3. Dissolution-Precipitation Theory - most widely accepted limit that is approximately equivalent to that of hand mixing for 1
minute.
QUANTIFYING SETTING REACTIONS
• Mixing Time - the time from addition of powder to the water until Types of Gypsum Products
mixing is completed.
• Working Time - the time from the start of mixing to the point ADA Specification No. 25 classifies five types of gypsum products:
where the consistency is no longer acceptable for the product’s Impression Plaster (Type I)
intended purpose • Composed of plaster of Paris (β-hemihydrate
• Initial Setting Time - when the mix loses its surface gloss and Model Plaster (Type II)
gains strength and can resist penetration by a Gillmore needle. • Used principally to fill a flask used in denture construction when
• Final Setting Time - the time elapsed at which a heavier Gillmore setting expansion is not critical and the strength is adequate
need leaves only a barely perceptible mark on the surface. according to the limits cited in the ADA specification or ISO
standard.
CONTROL OF SETTING TIME Dental Stone (Type III)
1. Solubility of the hemihydrate • It is intended for the construction of casts in the fabrication of full
2. Number of nuclei of crystallization dentures to fit soft tissues.
3. Rate of crystal growth Dental Stone, High Strength (Type IV)
• Modified α-hemihydrate or die stone
• Water/Powder ratio (W/P) - the weight (or volume) of the water Dental Stone, High Strength, High Expansion (Type V)
divided by the weight of the hemihydrate powder. • This gypsum product exhibits an even higher compressive
strength than the Type IV dental stone.
MODIFIERS FOR CONTROLLING SETTING TIME
• Retarders
• Accelerators ➢ Special Gypsum Products
• White stone or plaster - for study models in orthodontics
• Mounting stones or plasters - fast setting and have low setting
SETTING EXPANSION expansion

MECHANISM OF SETTING EXPANSION Manipulation of Gypsum Products

• The crystallization of dihydrates can be pictured as an outgrowth
of crystals from nuclei of crystallization. CARE OF GYPSUM PRODUCTS
CONTROL OF SETTING EXPANSION • The hemihydrate of gypsum absorbs water from the air readily.
• The most effective method by which to control setting expansion Therefore, it is important that all gypsum products be stored in a
is through the addition of chemicals by the manufacturer. dry atmosphere.
HYGROSCOPIC SETTING EXPANSION PROPORTIONING
5 stages: • The recommended W/P ratio should be used.
o Stage I - Initial mix MIXING AND POURING
o Stage II - Initial Crystal Growth • Mechanical mixer under vacuum - the preferred method of mixing
o Stage III - Solid Phase Contact CARE OF THE CAST
o Stage IV - Expansion INFECTION CONTROL
o Stage V – Termination

• Normal Setting Expansion - setting expansion without water immersion

• Hygroscopic Setting Expansion - the expansion that occurs under water
j.cansancio Ceresin
DENTAL WAXES, CASTING INVESTMENTS, AND CASTING − White wax extracted from ozokerite, a waxy mineral mixture of
hydrocarbons that is colorless or white when pure, but it has a
PROCEDURES
somewhat unpleasant odor.
− May replace part of the paraffin to modify the toughness and carving
HISTORY OF DENTAL WAX
characteristics of the wax.
• Beeswax- was derived from secretions that bees use to build
honeycombs
• Synthetic waxes- are typically composed of hydrogen, carbon, oxygen,
DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF WAX
and chlorine. Synthetic waxes are more uniform than natural waxes in
• The most important properties of inlay waxes are as follows:
their organic structure and more homogenous in composition.
• Carnauba- is one of the hardest and most durable waxes, it is derived
1. The wax should be uniform when softened.
from the fronds of carnauba palm trees, one of the main components
2. The color should contrast with die materials or prepared teeth.
of dental inlay wax
3. The wax should not fragment into flakes or similar surface particles
• Candelilla wax- a major component of some dental waxes, is obtained
when it is molded after softening.
from plants growing in Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, Nicaragua,
4. Once the wax pattern has solidified, it is necessary to carve the original
Panama, and the southwestern US
tooth anatomy and the margins so that the pattern conforms precisely
to the surface of the die.
TYPES OF INLAY WAXES
5. For lost-wax casting of metals, an investment mold is formed around a
Variety of Dental waxes can be classified into two groups:
wax pattern. After the mold containing the wax pattern has been
• Clinical Products
formed, the wax must be eliminated from the mold.
• Laboratory Products

Dental waxes can also be classified in one of three types: FLOW OF DENTAL WAX
• Pattern wax • The wax begins to harden slowly below 65 °C and becomes solid below
o inlay approximately 48 °C; below which it cools rapidly at a constant rate.
o casting • Different types of casting waxes exhibit characteristic flow curves as a
o baseplate types
function of temperature.
• Processing wax
o boxing • Each wax exhibits a sharp transition temperature at which it loses its
o utility plasticity. Soft wax exhibits a transition point at a lower temperature
o sticky types than hard wax.
• Impression wax
o bite registration THERMAL PROPERTIES OF DENTAL WAXES
o correction types
• The thermal conductivity of the waxes is low (e.g., kparaffin = 0.25
COMPOSITION OF DENTAL WAXES
W/mK), and sufficient time must be allowed both to heat them
o the primary components of dental waxes are derived from synthetic
uniformly throughout and to cool them to body or room temperature.
waxes and natural waxes (hydrocarbons of the paraffin and the
• Another thermal characteristic is their high coefficient of thermal
microcrystalline groups, carnauba wax, candelilla wax, and resins)
expansion.
o most dental waxes contain 40% to 60% paraffin by weight
• The thermal dimensional change may be affected by the previous
o the wax can be obtained in a wide range of melting or softening
treatment of the wax.
temperatures depending on the molecular weight and distribution of
the constituents
o The melting range can be determined by a temperature versus-time
cooling curve.
MANIPULATION OF INLAY WAX
o Paraffin that is used for type I waxes has a higher melting point than the
• The higher flow of softer waxes produces larger cast metal or hot-
paraffin used for type II waxes.
isostatically-pressed (HIP) ceramic prostheses than harder waxes
because the soft waxes expand more as the investment heats up during
Gum dammar or dammar resin
setting and they offer less resistance to the expanding investment
− Natural resin
during setting.
− Added to the paraffin to improve the smoothness in molding and to
• To manipulate inlay wax, dry heat is preferred to the use of a water
render it more resistant to cracking and flaking.
bath.
− Increases the toughness of the wax and enhances the smoothness and
o Water bath can result in the inclusion of droplets of water,
luster of the surface.
which can splatter on flaming, smear the wax surface during
polishing, and distort the pattern during temperature
changes.
Carnauba wax
• To fabricate indirect patterns, the die should be lubricated, preferably
− Very hard, and it has a relatively high melting point and it has an
with a lubricant containing a wetting agent. Any excess must be
agreeable odor.
avoided because it will prevent intimate adaptation to the die.
− Combined with the paraffin to decrease flow at mouth temperature.

Candelilla wax
WAX DISTORTION
− Provides the same general qualities as carnauba wax but its melting
• Distortion of a wax pattern results from occluded air in the pattern,
point is lower and it is not as hard as carnauba wax.
physical deformation (during molding, carving, or removal), release of
 stresses “trapped” during previous cooling, excessive storage time, and Modifiers
extreme temperature changes during storage. o Some of the added modifiers—such as alkali-earth and transition-metal
• Waxes tend to return partially to their original shape after chlorides, boric acid, and sodium chloride— not only regulate the
manipulation. This is known as elastic memory. setting expansion and the setting time but also prevent most of the
− The expansion increases above the glass transition temperature more shrinkage of gypsum when it is heated above 300 °C.
than when it is cooled without pressure
− Once the stresses are gradually relieved at room temperature, the wax Setting Time
tends to recover its elastic strain. o The setting time of an investment can be measured in the same manner
as plaster. Furthermore, it can be controlled in the same manner.
SPECIALTY WAXES o The setting time for dental inlay casting investment should not be less
• Baseplate wax than 5 or more than 25 minutes.
• Sticky wax Normal Setting Time
• Boxing wax o A mixture of silica and calcinated gypsum powder (calcium sulfate
• Carving wax and presentation wax hemihydrate, CaSO4• 1 2 H2O) results in setting expansion greater than
that of the gypsum product used alone.
o The purpose of the setting expansion is to aid in enlarging the mold to
GYPSUM-BONDED INVESTMENT compensate partially for the casting shrinkage of the alloy.
− GENERALLY, there 2 Types of investments (depending on the melting Hygroscopic Setting Expansion
range of the alloy to be cast) o Occurs when the gypsum product is allowed to set under or in contact
with water.
➢ Gypsum-bonded - gypsum-based materials represent the type o The hygroscopic setting expansion is one of the methods for expanding
traditionally used for conventional casting of gold alloy inlays, onlays, the casting mold to compensate for the casting shrinkage of gold alloys.
crowns, and larger fixed dental prostheses (FDPs).
Thermal Expansion of Gypsum-Bonded Investments
➢ Phosphate bonded - Phosphate-based investments are designed o To achieve sufficient expansion of gypsum-bonded investment, the
primarily for alloys used to produce copings or frameworks for metal- silica must be increased to counterbalance the contraction of the
ceramic prostheses and some base metal alloys. It can also be used for gypsum during heating.
pressable ceramics.
Effect of Chemical Modifiers
➢ A third type is the ethyl silicate–bonded investment, which is used o The addition of small amounts of sodium, potassium, or lithium
principally for the casting of removable partial dentures made from chlorides to the investment eliminates the contraction caused by the
base metals (cobalt-based and nickelbased alloys). gypsum and increases the expansion without the need for an excessive
amount of silica.
➢ Type I investments are those employed for the casting of inlays or Thermal Contraction
crowns when the compensation for alloy casting shrinkage is o the investment contracts to less than its original dimension.
accomplished principally by thermal expansion of the investment. Strength
o The more water that is employed in mixing, the lower is the
➢ Type II investments are also used for casting inlays, onlays, or crowns, compressive strength.
but the major mode of compensation for alloy shrinkage during o The compressive strength is increased according to the amount and the
solidification is by hygroscopic expansion achieved by immersing the type of the gypsum binder present.
invested ring in a warm water bath. Fineness of Gypsum Investment
o The fineness of the investment may affect its setting time, the surface
➢ Type III investments are used rarely in the construction of partial roughness of the casting, and other properties.
dentures because they are designed for casting gold alloys. Porosity of the Gypsum-Based Casting Investment
o In general, the more gypsum crystals that are present in the set
Composition investment, the less is its porosity. Thus, the lower the amount of
o The ingredients of dental inlay investments employed with calcium sulfate hemihydrate and the more gauging water used in
conventional gold casting alloys are α-hemihydrate of gypsum, and mixing the investment, the more porous it will be.
quartz, or cristobalite, which are forms of silica. Storage of Gypsum-Based Casting Investment
o Most investments contain the α-hemihydrate of gypsum because of its o In storage rooms with high relative humidity, the setting time may
greater strength. change.
Gypsum-Bonded Investments o The investments should be stored in airtight and moisture-proof
o The α-hemihydrate form of gypsum is generally the binder for containers.
investments used in casting gold-containing alloys with melting ranges
below 1000 °C. PHOSPHATE-BONDED INVESTMENT
Silica
o Silica exists in at least four allotropic forms: quartz, tridymite, Composition
cristobalite, and fused quartz. • Silica filler
o When quartz, tridymite, or cristobalite is heated, a change in crystalline • Binder
form occurs at a transition temperature characteristic of the particular Setting Reaction
form of silica. o The chemical reaction for the phosphate-based binder system that
causes the investment to set and harden is described as: NH4H2PO4
o +MgO+5H2O→NH4MgPO4 +6H2O
o The resulting reaction products of phosphate-bonded investments are Methods of Altering Sie Dimensions
crystalline Mg2P2O7, excess MgO, and essentially unchanged quartz, o Additional accelerator (potassium sulfate) and retarder (borax) can be
cristobalite, or both. added to the gauging water to reduce the setting expansion of the type
Working and Setting Time IV die stone to less than 0.1% and, therefore, to reduce the diameter of
o The warmer the mix, the faster it sets. the die.
o In general the more efficient the mixing, the better is the smoothness
and accuracy of the casting. Dies Stone/Investment Combination
Surface Quality of Metals o One of the commercial gypsum-bonded materials (Divestment, Whip-
o Phosphate- bonded investments now approach the surface quality or Mix Corporation, Louisville, KY) is mixed with a colloidal silica liquid. The
fineness of the gypsum investments. However, their ability to improve die is made from this mix, and the wax pattern is constructed on it.
the smoothness is dependent on the alloy and casting procedure Then the entire assembly (die and pattern) is invested in a mixture of
employed. the investment and water, thereby eliminating the possibility of
distortion of the pattern on removal from the die or during the setting
of the investment.

ETHYL SILICATE–BONDED INVESTMENT Other Die Materials

• The process for an ethyl silicate–bonded investment is a little more o Non-gypsum die materials are also available, such as acrylic, polyester,
complicated than that for the phosphate type in that care must be and epoxy resins. These materials are limited in their compatibility with
exercised during handling and burnout because flammable alcohol is impression materials, which would ordinarily be nonaqueous
given off. elastomers rather than hydrocolloid or compound.
• If the ethyl silicate–bonded investment is heated to a sufficiently high
temperature, some silica converts to quartz and provides added
expansion. VARIABLES AND PRINCIPLES OF OPTIMAL SPRUE DESIGN
• This type of investment can be heated to between 1090 °C and 1180 °C o The purpose of a sprue former, or sprue pin, is to provide a channel
and is compatible with the higherfusing alloys. through which molten alloy can reach the mold in an invested ring after
• Its low setting expansion minimizes distortion. the wax has been eliminated. It is made of wax.
o The diameter and length of the sprue former (also referred to simply as
CLINICAL EVALUATION OF CASTING FIT the sprue) depend to a large extent on the type and size of the pattern,
• The casting process is designed to provide a metallic duplication of the type of casting machine to be used, and the dimensions of the flask
missing tooth structure with as much accuracy as possible. or ring in which the casting will be made.
• The difficulty in detecting small discrepancies at the margins of
cemented restorations is associated with the use of explorers that have Wax Pattern Removal
a relatively large radius of curvature at the tip compared with the width o The sprue former should be attached to the wax pattern with the
of margin gaps that are being evaluated. pattern on the master die provided that the pattern can be removed
• At the margins of the cemented restoration, a thin line of cement is directly in line with its path of withdrawal from the die.
always present, even though it may not be readily visible. o Any motion that might distort the wax pattern should be avoided
• The more accurate the fit of the casting, the less the likelihood of during removal.
leakage, plaque accumulation on the cement, and secondary caries.
Optimal performance during the casting process is based on the following
COMPENSATION FOR SOLIDIFICATION SHRINKAGE five general principles:
Compensation for the shrinkages inherent in the dental casting procedure 1. Sprue Diameter
may be obtained by controlling either − Select a sprue former with a diameter that is approximately the same
1. The setting or hygroscopic expansion of the investment (hygroscopic size as the thickest area of the wax pattern.
expansion (low-heat) method) 2. Sprue Position
2. The thermal expansion of the investment (thermal expansion (high- − The position of the sprue former attachment is often a matter of
heat) method) individual judgment and intuition, based on the shape and form of the
wax pattern.
Ringless Casting System 3. Sprue Attachment
o A ringless system that provides maximum expansion of investment is − If possible, the sprue former should be attached to the portions of the
available commercially. It is called the PowerCast Ringless System pattern with the largest cross-sectional areas. It is best for the molten
(Whip-Mix Corporation, Louisville, KY), consists of three sizes of rings alloy to flow from a thick section to surrounding thin areas (e.g., the
and formers, preformed wax sprues and shapes, investment powder, margins) rather than the reverse.
and a special investment liquid. 4. Sprue Direction
o This system is suited for the casting of alloys that require greater mold − The sprue former should be directed away from any thin or delicate
expansion than traditional gold-based alloys. parts of the pattern because the molten metal may abrade or fracture
investment in this area and result in a casting failure.

PREPARATION OF THE MASTER DIE 5. Sprue Length

o The most commonly used die materials are type IV (dental stone, high- − The length of the sprue former depends on the length of the casting
strength) type V (dental stone, high-strength, high-expansion) ring.
improved stones.
CASTING RING LINER • Rehydration of a set investment that has been stored for an extended
o With the use of solid metal rings or casting flasks, provision must be period may not replenish all of the lost water.
made to permit investment expansion.
o The most commonly used technique to provide investment expansion is High-Heat Thermal Expansion Technique
to line the walls of the ring with a ring liner. • Additional expansion results from the slight heating of gypsum
o To ensure uniform expansion, the clinician or technician cuts investments on setting, thus expanding the wax pattern, and the water
the liner to fit the inside diameter of the casting ring with no entering the investment from the wet liner adds a small amount of
overlap. hygroscopic expansion to the normal setting expansion.
o The liner affords greater normal setting expansion in the
investment and the absorbed water causes a semihygroscopic Casting Metal in Gypsum Investments
expansion as it is drawn into the investment during setting, as shown • These casting investments are relatively fragile and require the use of a
for gypsum investments. metal ring for protection during heating. The molds are usually placed
o The expansion of the investment is always greater in the unrestricted in a furnace at room temperature, slowly heated to 650 °C to 700 °C in
longitudinal direction than in the radial direction —that is, toward the 60 minutes, and held for 15 to 30 minutes at the upper temperature.
ring.
Casting Metal in Phosphate Investments
INVESTING PROCEDURE • Phosphate investments obtain their expansion from the following
• The wax pattern should be cleaned of any debris, grease, or oils. A sources:
commercial wax pattern cleaner or a diluted synthetic detergent may 1. Expansion of the wax pattern—this is considerable because the setting
be used. reaction raises the mold temperature substantially.
• The thin film of cleanser left on the pattern reduces the surface tension 2. Setting expansion—this is usually higher than in gypsum investments,
of the wax and permits better “wetting” of the investment to ensure especially because special liquids are used to increase such expansion.
complete coverage of the intricate portions of the pattern. 3. Thermal expansion—this is greater when taken to temperatures higher
• While the wax pattern cleaner is air-drying, the appropriate amount of than those used for gypsum-bonded investments.
distilled water (gypsum investments) or colloidal silica special liquid
(phosphate investments) is dispensed. Time Allowable for Casting
• The liquid is added to a clean dry mixing bowl, and the powder is • The investment contracts thermally as it cools. When the thermal
gradually added to the liquid, using the same care and caution to expansion or high-heat technique is used, the investment loses heat
minimize air entrapment as. after the heated ring is removed from the furnace and the mold
• Mixing is performed gently until all the powder has been wet; contracts.
otherwise the unmixed powder may inadvertently be pushed out of the
bowl. Casting Machines
• Although hand-mixing is an option, it is far more common to mix all Alloys are melted in one of the four following ways, depending on the
casting investments mechanically under vacuum. available types of casting machines:
➢ Torch Melting/Centrifugal Casting Machine
Vacuum Mixing ➢ Electrical Resistance-Heated Casting Machine
• Mechanical mixing under vacuum removes air bubbles created during ➢ Induction Melting Machine
mixing and evacuates any potentially harmful gases produced by the ➢ Direct Arc Melting Machine
chemical reaction of the high-heat investments. ➢ Vacuum- or Pressure-Assisted Casting Machine
Compensation for Shrinkage
• The lower the L/P ratio, the greater the potential for investment
expansion. Conversely, thinner mixes reduce the expansion. Casting Crucibles
• The longer the delay before the investment is immersed in the water • Generally four types of casting crucibles are available: clay, carbon,
bath, the less is the amount of hygroscopic expansion that can occur. quartz, and zirconia-alumina.
Controlled Water-Added Technique • Clay crucibles are appropriate for many of the crown and bridge alloys,
• The linear hygroscopic expansion increases directly with the amount of such as the high noble and noble types.
water added until maximum expansion is attained. The compositions of • Carbon crucibles can be used not only for high noble crown and bridge
investments used with the water- added hygroscopic casting technique alloys but also for the higher-fusing gold-based metal-ceramic alloys.
ensure maximal expansion during immersion in water. The amount of
hygroscopic expansion needed for compensation is then obtained by Torch Melting of Noble Metal Alloy
adding only enough water to provide the desired expansion. • This type of alloy is best melted by placing it on the inner sidewall of
the crucible. Thus, the operator can better observe the progress of the
CASTING PROCEDURE melting and there is a better opportunity for any gases in the flame to
• Once the investment has set for an appropriate period— approximately be reflected from the surface of the alloy rather than being absorbed.
1 hour for most gypsum- and phosphate- bonded investments—it is
ready for burnout. Two types of flames can be obtained with a casting torch:
• The crucible former and any metal sprue formers are carefully 1. Air supply for the lower flame - incomplete combustion and a lower
removed. Any debris from the ingate area (funneled opening at the end temperature will result. This type of flame is likely to be favored by the
of the ring) is cleaned with a brush. beginner because the roaring sound that accompanies this flame
• If the burnout procedure does not immediately follow the investing adjustment “sounds” hot.
procedure, the invested ring is placed in a humidor at 100% humidity. 2. Upper brush flame - indicates the proper adjustment for maximal
• If possible, the investment should not be permitted to dry out. efficiency and temperature.
Zones of Flame
Zone 1: Non Combustion Zone/Mixing Zone
• No heat is present
Zone 2: Combustion Zone
• Green and immediately surrounding the inner cone
• The gas and air are partially burned.
• This zone is definitely oxidizing and should always be kept away from
the molten alloy during fusion.
Zone 3: Reducing Zone
• Dimly blue and located just beyond the tip of the green combustion
zone
• This is the hottest part of the flame, and it should be kept constantly on
the alloy during melting
Zone 4: Oxidizing Zone
• Outer cone is the area in which combustion occurs with the oxygen in
the air.
• Under no circumstances should this portion of the flame be used to
melt the alloy.
• Not only is its temperature lower than that of the reducing zone but it
also oxidizes the alloy.

At the proper casting temperature, the molten alloy is light orange and tends
to spin or follow the flame when the latter is moved slightly. At this point, the
alloy should be approximately 38 °C to 66°C above its liquidus temperature.
j.cansancio
Materials and Processes for Cutting, Grinding, Finishing, and
• Coated Abrasive Discs and Strips
Polishing
− Are fabricated by securing abrasive particles to flexible backing
material (heavy weight paper, metal or nylon) with a suitable
APPLICATIONS OF ABRASIVE
adhesive material
• Grinding, Finishing, Polishing
− Moisture-resistant
BENEFITS OF FINISHING AND POLISHING
RESTORATIVE MATERIALS • Nonbonded Abrasives
• Better gingival health − are polishing pastes contain a fine particle size distribution either
aluminum oxide or diamond particles dispersed in water soluble
• Chewing efficiency
vehicle, such as glycerin.
• Patient comfort
• Esthetics.
• Abrasive motion - abrasive motion can be classified as:
− rotary, planar, reciprocal motion
PRINCIPLES OF CUTTING, GRINDING,
FINISHING, AND POLISHING
1. In Rotary motion, the bur in a high speed handpiece rotates in a
• Bulk reduction - removal of unwanted large portion
clockwise direction.
or material of the tooth or appliances quickly. This is done by cutting or
2. Planar Motion - are used in disks removes material along a plane.
grinding.
should be preferably be done in one direction to obtain a smoother
• Contouring - requires finer cutting instruments or abrasives to provide
surface.
better control of contouring and surface details.
3. Reciprocal motion - useful to access interproximal areas to remove
• Finishing - process of removing defects or scratches
overhangs, finish subgingival margins without creating ditches and to
created during contouring process through the use of cutting or
create embrasures.
grinding instruments or both.
• Polishing - process of providing luster or gloss on a
material surface.
TYPES OF ABRASIVES
• Natural abrasives include Arkansas stone, chalk, corundum, diamond,
ABRASION & EROSION
emery, garnet, pumice, quartz, sand, tripoli, and zirconium silicate.
• Abrasion - a process of wear whereby a hard rough surface or hard
Cuttle and kieselguhr are derived from the remnants of living
irregular shaped particles plough grooves in a softer material and cause organisms.
materials from these grooves to be removed from the surface.
• Manufactured abrasives: Silicone carbide, aluminum oxide, synthetic
➢ Two-body abrasion
diamond, rouge, and tin oxide
➢ Three- body abrasion

• Erosive wear is caused by hard particles impacting a substrate surface, FINISHING AND POLISHING PROCEDURES
carried by either a stream of liquid or a stream of air, as occurs in
sandblasting a surface.
• RESIN-BASED COMPOSITE RESTORATIONS – The recommended
abrasives and polishing instruments should be used in the proper
Hardness of Abrasives:
sequence, and intermediate abrasive steps should never be skipped.
• Hard abrasive - diamond, silicon carbide
• Medium abrasive - pumice, silicates, zirconates • DENTAL AMALGAM - In the past, a recommendation was made to wait
• Soft (polishing) abrasives - calcites 24 hours before polishing the amalgam restorations to allow amalgam
to set completely. However, if the restoration’s surface is finished
initially with a very fine prophylaxis paste applied with a cotton pellet
ABRASIVE INSTRUMENT DESIGN or a nonribbed rubber prophy cup rotated at slow speed and light
pressure, a smooth, velvety finish is achieved that will acquire a luster
• Abrasive Grits - are derived from materials as it is abraded normally in the mouth.
that have been crushed and passed through a
series of mesh screens (sieves) to obtain different particle size ranges. • GOLD ALLOY - Slow-speed handpieces should be used for finishing and
Classified as: polishing gold alloys. This technique consists of the following steps: (1)
o Coarse (125-150um) Contour with carbide burs, green stones (silicon carbide), or heatless
o Medium coarse (90-100um) stones; (2) finish with pink stones (aluminum oxide) or medium-grade
o Medium-fine (88-125um) abrasive impregnated rubber wheels and points (brown and green); (3)
o Fine (60-74um) apply fine abrasive-impregnated rubber wheels, cups, and points; and,
o Super fine (38-44um) if necessary, (4) apply tripoli or rouge with rag or leather wheels.

• Bonded Abrasives DENTRIFICES

The methods used to bond the abrasives: − Dentifrices have three important functions:
1. Sintering: the particles are fused together to make the whole cutting 1. Their abrasive and detergent actions provide more efficient removal of
tool. Sintered abrasives have the strongest bonding and last longer. debris, plaque, and stained pellicle compared with use of a toothbrush
2. Vitreous bonding: the abrasives are first mixed with a glassy or ceramic alone
matrix material, then cold pressed to the shape of the instrument and
2. They polish teeth to provide increased light reflectance and superior
fired to fuse the abrasives and the binder. esthetic appearance, and the high polish, as an added benefit, enables
3. Resinous bonding (usually phenolic resin): here the abrasives are cold teeth to resist the accumulation of microorganisms and stains better
pressed with resins and then the resin is cured. heat curing of the resin than rougher surfaces could
yields a binder with low porosity. 3. They act as vehicles for the delivery of therapeutic agents with known
4. Rubber- bonding: these are made similar to resin-bonded abrasive;
benefits
here the abrasives are bonded with rubber and used for final polishing.