THE EARTH PROCESSES

EXOGENIC PROCESSES

“One of the first conditions of happiness is that the link between man and nature shall not be broken.”
—Leo Tolstoy

Weathering
Weathering is the interaction between the elements in the atmosphere and the rocks
exposed at the earth's surface. The relative importance of different kinds of weathering processes
is largely determined by climate.
When a rock undergoes MECHANICAL WEATHERING, it is broken into smaller pieces,
each retaining the characteristics of the original material. The most important types of mechanical
weathering are:
1. Ice wedging/Frost wedging in which freezing water expands in cracks or bedding
planes and
wedges the rock apart, and
2. Sheeting or unloading in which a series of fractures is produced by expansion of the
rock body itself as a result of the removal of overlying material by erosion.

Left: Frost wedging processes (source: https://www.google.com/search?q=ice+wedging) Right: Sheeting

a type of weathering at along Mangima Road, Bukidnon, where rocks at the surface are removed.
 3. Biological weathering - Animals and plants play a
variety of relatively minor roles in mechanical weathering.
Burrowing animals, such as rodents, mechanically mix the
soil and loose rock particles, a process that facilitates further
breakdown by chemical means. Pressure from growing roots
widens cracks and contributes to the rock breakdown (refer
to the inset photo at the right). Lichens can live on the surface
of bare rocks and extract nutrients from its minerals by ion
exchange.
CHEMICAL WEATHERING involves the complex
processes that alter the internal structure of minerals by
removing and/or adding elements. Water is by far the most
important agent of chemical weathering. Although pure water
is nonreactive, a small amount of dissolved material is
generally all that is needed to activate it. Oxygen dissolved in water will oxidize some materials.
The chemical reactions involved in the decomposition of rock are complex but three main groups
are recognized: hydrolysis, dissolution, and oxidation.
Hydrolysis is the chemical union of water and mineral. In this process, ions derived from
one mineral react with the H+ or OH- ions of the water to produce a different mineral. A good
example for this is the chemical weathering of feldspar.
Dissolution is a process whereby rock material passes directly into solution like salt in
water. The carbonate minerals, calcite and dolomite, are some of the most important minerals
involved in dissolution. These minerals make up the limestones of the world.
Oxidation is the combination of atmospheric oxygen with a mineral to produce an oxide.
The process is especially important in the weathering of minerals that have a high iron content
like olivine pyroxene, and amphibole. The iron in silicate minerals unites with oxygen to form
hematite (Fe2O3) or limonite (FeO(H)).
The rate at which rock weathers depends on many factors: the mineral makeup of a rock,
which can be demonstrated by comparing headstones carved from different rock types; climatic
factors, particularly temperature and moisture; and the amount of surface exposed to the
atmosphere. Rates of weathering can be calculated by measuring the amount of decay on rock
surfaces of known age. Tombstones and ancient buildings for example, provide datable rock
surfaces for estimating rates of weathering.
The products of mechanical weathering are merely smaller fragments of the original rock.
However, the products of chemical weathering are different substances from the original rock. An
important product of weathering is the soil, the basis of human existence. Soil is loose rock mineral
mixed with organic matter. The accumulation of minerals such as iron and nickel and alumina is
of interactional significance. Weathering is important as an essential precursor to erosion and
transportation. Upland and plain, ridge and valley, hill and low land, all are basically a reflection
of structural contrasts brought about by weathering.

Hills and upland plain at Barangay Kuya, Maramag, Bukidnon

Erosion
Erosion is another big force that breaks or transports rock particles from one place to
another by natural processes. The agents of erosion are gravity, wind, water, waves, and glaciers.
Wind can continuously carry away loose particles of rock and soil from one place to another and
make deposits of dust in wide areas where hills of sands are formed. Soil and broken particles of
rock are eroded by water. Floods, strong rains, and running water make deposits on other places.
One proof is the colour of water (turbid) which can mean the carrying of particles.
Wind erosion also occurs through particle disaggregation and transport. Heavier soil
particles are rolled along the surface through creep, lighter particles bounce through saltation,
and lightest become airborne, suspended in wind currents and sometimes transported for
thousands of kilometre.

Process of wind erosion diagram (Source: https://eschooltoday.com/landforms/the-process-of-wind-

erosion.html)
Waves have erosional power. Larger waves can tear up a shore. The continuous pounding
of waves along the edges of the land wears away or destroys the land. This is called wave erosion.
Water flows because of gravity. Gravity gives water the energy to erode and carry away rock
materials. Gravity alone can erode the land. Have you seen broken rocks at the base of a
mountain? These are weathered materials pulled down by the force of gravity. Once rocks on a
steep slope are loosened, they roll downside. On falling, the rocks further break into smaller
pieces. The sudden and massive downward movement of rock is called a landslide. Glaciers can
erode land in two ways first as a glacier flows over a fractured bedrock surface, it loosens and
lifts the blocks of rock, incorporates them into the ice, and carries them off. This process, known
as plucking, occurs when melted water penetrates the cracks and joins along the rock floor of the
glacier and refreezes. As the water expands, it exerts tremendous leverage that pries the rock
loose. In this way, sediments of all sizes ranging from particles as fine as flour to blocks as large
as houses, become part of the glacier's load. The second abrasion. As the ice with its load of rock
fragments moves major erosional process is abrasion. As the ice with its load of r along, it acts
as giant rasp or file and grinds the surface below as well as the rocks within the ice. The pulverized
rock produced by the glacial "grist mill” is called rock flour.

From left to right: Wave erosion (https://www.google.com/search?q=wave+erosion); Glacial abrasion

(https://www.google.com/search?q=glacial+erosion); Runoff (https://www.google.com/search?q=runoff&tbm=isch&ved)
Causes of Erosion
Soil erosion in the Philippines is mainly caused by water. Heavy rains brought by typhoons and
monsoon wind result in large amounts of runoff. Floods
suddenly occur and large amounts of sediments are scraped
from the land by runoff and carried into rivers and eventually
into the sea.
At worst, man himself causes soil erosion by means of the
following practices. shifting cultivation; timber harvesting or
logging, mining, construction projects, and overgrazing and
burning of grassland. Along steep slopes of mountains, large
areas of forests are cleared, trees are burned, and agricultural
crops planted, a proof of the presence of shifting agriculture or
the kaingin system. In 2 or 3 years, the soil loses its fertility
and topsoil. Another clearing is then made without replanting
the used land with forest trees.
Forest trees are cut down mainly for timber in the Philippines. Uncontrolled cutting of trees
removes almost all the vegetation which protects the soil. The soil therefore is exposed to erosion
by rain (see photo inset photo). The country's construction of roads, dams, reservoirs, irrigation
and drainage projects, hydroelectric plants, resorts, and other related facilities have contributed
much to soil erosion.
Mining operations dig out and loosen rocks in the mountains exposing them to further erosion.
Forested areas are cleansed of millions of tons of rocks.
Grass, a soil cover, reduces the rate of runoff. It also protects the soil from the crushing hooves
of grazing animals. Uncontrolled grazing of too many animals removes the grass cover and packs
the soil more. Grassland fires most often leave the soil bare. Ashes from burned grasses are
removed by wind and water.

Grass mat for erosion control

Effects of Soil Erosion

Soil erosion that occurs at about the same rate as soil formation is normally a harmless
natural process. It may be beneficial for low areas with no fertile soil or it can form caves, beaches,
or resorts. But there are more harmful effects of erosion which include the deterioration of
farmlands and forests, occurrences of floods and droughts, siltation of rivers and water reservoirs,
and destruction of houses and infrastructure. Most of our farmers till the land without considering
soil and water conservation. As a result, the rich topsoil is washed away, leaving behind the barren
subsoil which results in the deterioration of farmlands. Excessive tree-cutting opens forest soil to
erosion. Trees and other types of vegetation cannot grow on the rocky ground left behind. Without
this vegetation to hold and protect the soil, more erosion takes place. More fertile topsoil is lost
as erosion continues until the time when the mountains are left bare.
Since water flows slowly, there is enough time for it to seep into the ground for storage as ground
water and to become available to the roots of plants. It takes about a year or two for all the water
to be released from the soil. With the soil eroded and no trees to store water during the rainy days
or season, wells dry up and springs disappear. Water shortages result.
Floodwaters carry and later deposit large amounts of sediments at the bottoms of rivers and
reservoirs. The filling up of the bottoms of water courses and reservoirs with mud and sand
deposits is called siltation or sedimentation. Siltation reduces the amount of water that rivers and
reservoirs can hold. When a heavy rainfall occurs, the rivers overflow their banks and the
surrounding areas become flooded.
Landslide is a serious problem in the mountainous areas of the country. Loss of vegetative cover
weakens the steep slopes, allowing rainwater and gravity to work on these unstable rocks. Rocks
and soil fall. Roads and houses built in these areas may be buried in landslides coming from the
unstable upper slopes.
CLASSIFICATION OF SLOPE FAILURE

Rock fall – in a rock fall, large blocks or smaller pieces of bedrock detach from a cliff face to fall
to the ground. Rock falls can be triggered by rain, an earthquake or stream erosion, or human
construction that undercuts a cliff.
Rock slide – in a rock slide, a slap of relatively intact rock detaches from bedrock along a bedding
surface, pre-existing fault, joint, or other discontinuity that is inclined downslope. As it slides, parts
of the slab typically shatter into angular fragments of all sizes, but large blocks can remain
relatively intact.
 Debris flows – these are wet, downhill-flowing slurries of loose mud, soil, volcanic ash, rocks, and
other objects picked up along the way. Some contain only a little water, whereas others are water
rich and flow like a thick soup. Debris flow, especially their mud-dominated varieties, are called
mudflows by the media, and can move rapidly. They often result from heavy rains that saturate
the soil and other loose materials.
Rock and Debris avalanches – these are high-velocity flows of soil, sediment, and rock that result
from the collapse of steep mountain slopes. A debris avalanche moves down the valleys and
across relatively gentle slopes. A rock avalanche occurs when a rock mass falls off a cliff face
and shatters on contact, sending a turbulent jumble of rock fragments, some bigger that cars,
flowing downhill.

Rock fall at Mangima Roadside Rock slide at Barangay Damay Debris flow at Brgy. Lorega

Rock avalanche (Source: Mudflow at Cagayan Valley Debris avalanche (Source:

https://www.google.com/search?q=r https://www.google.com/searc
ock+avalanche) h?q=debris+avalanche
HOW TO PREVENT SOIL EROSION
As soil erodes, it loses nutrients, clogs rivers with dirt, and eventually turns the area into a desert.
Although erosion happens naturally, human activities can make it much worse. It is then the role
of the humanity to look for ways in preventing soil erosion. Below are just some of the ways that
are being done to prevent soil erosion:

1. Plant grass and shrubs. Bare soil is easily swept

away by wind and water, the two main causes of
erosion. Plant roots hold the soil together, while their
leaves block rain and stop it breaking the soil apart.
Turf, ornamental grass, and low, spreading shrubs
work best since they cover the soil completely.

2. Add mulch or rocks. This will weigh down the soil and
protect the seeds and young plants underneath from getting
washed away. It also slows the absorption of water to reduce
runoff. Grass clippings or bark chips work especially well.

3. Use mulch matting to hold vegetation on slopes. Simply

lay the mat over your seeds or young plants. On steep slopes,
dig a small trench at the top of the hill first. Lay the top of the
mat in the trench, fill it up with soil, then fold the mat back over
the top. This helps water run over the top of the mat, where the
mat will slow it down, instead of traveling underneath it. Fiber
mulch mats or erosion control mats are a layer of mulch held
together in a fiber mesh. This structure holds the mulch
together in areas where normal mulch would be washed or blown away.

4. Put down fiber logs. Another option for erosion

control on steep slopes is a series of rolled up logs or
"wattles" made from fibrous material (like straw). Water
running down the slope will slow down when it hits the
logs, soaking into the soil instead of carrying mud
downhill. Put the logs down across the slope, 10 to 25
feet (3–8m) apart. Hold them in place with wooden
stakes or sturdy, living plants.

5. Build retaining walls. Badly eroded slopes will continue

to collapse downhill until they are stabilized. A retaining wall
at the base of the slope will block the soil and slow down the
collapse. This gives grass or other plants time to grow and
help the soil hold together.
6. Improve drainage. All buildings should have gutters
or pipes that can drain water effectively out of your
garden and into water collection systems. Without
adequate drainage, heavy rain could wash away a whole
layer of topsoil.

7. Plant trees to prevent landslides. Tree roots are powerful tools when soil is too eroded or
steep to plant. Plant native trees on steep slopes and
riverbanks to reduce soil loss. Bare ground around the
tress still needs to be covered in mulch or grass for best
results. Keep in mind that older trees will be more effective
at preventing landslides than new saplings. It may take
some time before your tree develops roots that are strong
enough.

8. Reduce tillage. Deep, frequent tillage creates a

layer of compact soil vulnerable to water erosion,
topped by loose soil easily removed by wind.
Consider a zero-tillage approach using a coulter or
other deep planting device. These conservation
tillage techniques also reduce the amount of vehicle
traffic, and therefore soil compaction.

9. Protect weak crops with strip cropping. Crops

with weak roots or that need to be sparsely planted
are more vulnerable to erosion. Plant these in strips,
alternating with strips of an erosion-resistant crop
such as dense grass or legumes. Plant the crops so
they contour the slope.
10. Control downhill runoff with flumes. Runoff
is concentrated into a narrower area as it travels
across lands. The points where the concentrated
runoff reaches a slope are particularly vulnerable
to erosion. You can build a paved flume, or lined
channel, to lead the water to a safe drainage
system. Build these at gully heads as well.

11. Turn a hillside into terraces. The steepest

slopes are almost impossible to farm on. Turn the
hill into terraces instead by building retaining
walls running across the slope. In between the
walls, grade the soil level to create a flat area
resistant to erosion.

References:
Braganza, Maria Chona S. (2005). Earth Science. REX Bookstore. Sampalok, Manila.
Jimenez, E. (2012). Introduction to Geology. Pearson Publishing. USA

Plummer, C., MC Geary and Coulson D. (2005) Physical Geology. McGraw Hill Companies, Inc.

Reynolds, S. and Johnson, J. (2016). Exploring Earth Science. Mc Graw Hill Education Int. Ed.

Online resources:
 https://www.wikihow.com/Prevent-Soil-Erosion co-authored by Andrew Carberry.
Nov.17,2020. Accessed: November 18, 2020
 https://www.google.com/search?q=rock+avalanche&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwiwl9SQuY
vtAhUNHqYKHZ1tCnsQ2-cCegQIABAA&oq=rock+avalanche&gs_lcp=
https://www.google.com/search?q=debris+flow+in+bukidnon&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwj
4wfHcuIvtAhVYyZQKHTqZBgoQ2-cCegQIABAA&oq=debris+flow+in+bukidnon&gs_lcp

Videos for enrichment:

 Classification of Mass Wasting events : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P1tXq-
VVZ2M (Accessed: November 18, 2020)
 Mass Movement : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q45i9JOdXCw (Accessed:
November 18, 2020)
 Soil Erosion causes, effects and prevention :
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zw_UWIUS8Vk q45i9JOdXCw (Accessed:
November 18, 2020)
 Activity in Exogenic Processes

WEATHERING AND EROSION: A FIELD OBSERVATION

Instruction:
1. In your Earth Science messenger group chat, you are to make a group compose of not
more than 8 members.
2. You are to have an individual observation in your respective locality on the different types
of weathering and erosion that are evident. Be sure to properly observe pandemic
protocols in going out of your house.
3. Take documentation of the weathering and erosion that are taking place in your
surroundings.
4. You are then to consolidate your work and make a report following the format below:
5. Save your consolidated report in PDF file and submit them to your respective Google
classroom classwork. Make sure not to copy-paste information from the internet. Work
that will be caught copying direct words and/or photos from the internet will automatically
be marked Zero.
6. Just ask ONLY ONE (1) REPRESENTATIVE PER GROUP to turn-in with the
ATTACHEMENT. The rest of the members are just to turn-in without attaching anything.
This should be followed strictly.
7. This will be recorded as performance task which is 60 % of your grade so you better do
your best to achieve great rating in the final term.
8. The Scoring of this activity will be as follow: Photo documentation in weathering – 20 pts.;
Question in weathering- 5 pts.; Photo documentation in erosion – 20 pts.; Question in
erosion- 15 pts.
A total of 60 pts. will be your goal for this activity!
9. God bless and keep safe always!