10/18/21, 12:13 PM Power steering - Wikipedia

Power steering
A power steering is a mechanical device equipped on a motor vehicle that helps drivers steer the vehicle by augmenting steering effort needed
to turn the steering wheel, making it easier for the vehicle to turn or maneuver at lower speeds.

Hydraulic or electric actuators add controlled energy to the steering mechanism, so the driver can provide less effort to turn the steered wheels
when driving at typical speeds, and reduce considerably the physical effort necessary to turn the wheels when a vehicle is stopped or moving
slowly. Power steering can also be engineered to provide some artificial feedback of forces acting on the steered wheels.

Hydraulic power steering systems for cars augment steering effort via an actuator, a hydraulic cylinder that is part of a servo system. These
systems have a direct mechanical connection between the steering wheel and the linkage that steers the wheels. This means that power-steering
system failure (to augment effort) still permits the vehicle to be steered using manual effort alone.

Electric power steering systems use electric motors to provide the assistance instead of hydraulic systems. As with hydraulic types, power to the
actuator (motor, in this case) is controlled by the rest of the power steering system.

Other power steering systems (such as those in the largest off-road construction vehicles) have no direct mechanical connection to the steering
linkage; they require electrical power. Systems of this kind, with no mechanical connection, are sometimes called "drive by wire" or "steer by
wire", by analogy with aviation's "fly-by-wire". In this context, "wire" refers to electrical cables that carry power and data, not thin wire rope
mechanical control cables.

Some construction vehicles have a two-part frame with a rugged hinge in the middle; this hinge allows the front and rear axles to become non-
parallel to steer the vehicle. Opposing hydraulic cylinders move the halves of the frame relative to each other to steer.

Contents
History
Hydraulic systems
DIRAVI variable-assist power steering
Electro-hydraulic systems
Electric systems
Electrically variable gear ratio systems
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_steering 1/8
10/18/21, 12:13 PM Power steering - Wikipedia

See also
References
External links

History
The first power steering system on a vehicle was apparently installed in 1876 by a man with the surname of Fitts, but little else is known about
him.[1] The next power steering system was put on a Columbia 5-ton truck in 1903 where a separate electric motor was used to assist the driver in
turning the front wheels.[1][2]

Robert E. Twyford, a resident of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, included a mechanical power steering mechanism as part of his patent (U.S. Patent
646,477) issued on April 3, 1900 for the first four-wheel drive system.[3]

Francis W. Davis, an engineer of the truck division of Pierce-Arrow, began exploring how steering could be made easier, and in 1926 invented and
demonstrated the first practical power steering system.[4][5][6] Davis moved to General Motors and refined the hydraulic-assisted power steering
system, but the automaker calculated it would be too expensive to produce.[5] Davis then signed up with Bendix, a parts manufacturer for
automakers. Military needs during World War II for easier steering on heavy vehicles boosted the need for power assistance on armored cars and
tank-recovery vehicles for the British and American armies.[5]

Chrysler Corporation introduced the first commercially available passenger car power steering system on the 1951 Chrysler Imperial under the
name "Hydraguide".[7] The Chrysler system was based on some of Davis' expired patents. General Motors introduced the 1952 Cadillac with a
power steering system using the work Davis had done for the company almost twenty years earlier.

Charles F. Hammond from Detroit filed several patents for improvements of power steering with the Canadian Intellectual Property Office in
1958.[8][9][10]

Starting in the mid-1950s American manufacturers offered the technology as optional or standard equipment while it is widely offered
internationally on modern vehicles, owing to the trends toward front-wheel drive, greater vehicle mass, reduced assembly line production costs,
and wider tires, which all increase the required steering effort. Heavier vehicles, as are common in some countries, would be extremely difficult to
maneuver at low speeds, while vehicles of lighter weight may not need power assisted steering at all.

A study in 1999 on the perceptual fidelity of steering force feedback, found that ordinary real-world truck and car drivers naturally expect an
increase in feedback torque as speed increases, and for this reason early forms of power steering, which lacked such effect, were met with
disapproval.[11][12]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_steering 2/8
10/18/21, 12:13 PM Power steering - Wikipedia

Hydraulic systems
Hydraulic power steering systems work by using a hydraulic system to multiply force applied to the steering
wheel inputs to the vehicle's steered (usually front) road wheels.[13] The hydraulic pressure typically comes
from a gerotor or rotary vane pump driven by the vehicle's engine. A double-acting hydraulic cylinder applies
a force to the steering gear, which in turn steers the roadwheels. The steering wheel operates valves to control
flow to the cylinder. The more torque the driver applies to the steering wheel and column, the more fluid the
valves allow through to the cylinder, and so the more force is applied to steer the wheels.[14]

One design for measuring the torque applied to the steering wheel has a torque sensor – a torsion bar at the
lower end of the steering column. As the steering wheel rotates, so does the steering column, as well as the
upper end of the torsion bar. Since the torsion bar is relatively thin and flexible, and the bottom end usually
resists being rotated, the bar will twist by an amount proportional to the applied torque. The difference in
position between the opposite ends of the torsion bar controls a valve. The valve allows fluid to flow to the
cylinder which provides steering assistance; the greater the "twist" of the torsion bar, the greater the force.

Since the hydraulic pumps are positive-displacement type, the flow rate they deliver is directly proportional
to the speed of the engine. This means that at high engine speeds the steering would naturally operate faster
than at low engine speeds. Because this would be undesirable, a restricting orifice and flow-control valve A power steering fluid reservoir and
direct some of the pump's output back to the hydraulic reservoir at high engine speeds. A pressure relief valve pulley driven pump
prevents a dangerous build-up of pressure when the hydraulic cylinder's piston reaches the end of its stroke.

The steering booster is arranged so that should the booster fail, the steering will continue to work (although the wheel will feel heavier). Loss of
power steering can significantly affect the handling of a vehicle. Each vehicle owner's manual gives instructions for inspection of fluid levels and
regular maintenance of the power steering system.

The working liquid, also called "hydraulic fluid" or "oil", is the medium by which pressure is transmitted. Common working liquids are based on
mineral oil.

Some modern systems also include an electronic control valve to reduce the hydraulic supply pressure as the vehicle's speed increases; this is
variable-assist power steering.

DIRAVI variable-assist power steering

DIRAVI innovated the now common benefit of speed sensitive steering.[15]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_steering 3/8
10/18/21, 12:13 PM Power steering - Wikipedia

In this power steering system, the force steering the wheels comes from the car's high pressure hydraulic system and is always the same no
matter what the road speed is. Turning the steering wheel moves the wheels simultaneously to a corresponding angle via a hydraulic cylinder. In
order to give some artificial steering feel, there is a separate hydraulically operated system that tries to turn the steering wheel back to centre
position. The amount of pressure applied is proportional to road speed, so that at low speeds the steering is very light, and at high speeds it is
very difficult to move more than a small amount off centre.

It was invented by Citroën of France.

As long as there is pressure in the car's hydraulic system, there is no mechanical connection between the steering wheel and the roadwheels. This
system was first introduced in the Citroën SM in 1970, and was known as 'VariPower' in the UK and 'SpeedFeel' in the U.S.

Electro-hydraulic systems
Electro-hydraulic power steering systems, sometimes abbreviated EHPS, and also sometimes called "hybrid" systems, use the same hydraulic
assist technology as standard systems, but the hydraulic pressure comes from a pump driven by an electric motor instead of a drive belt at the
engine.

In 1965, Ford experimented with a fleet of "wrist-twist instant steering" equipped Mercury Park Lanes that replaced the conventional large
steering wheel with two 5-inch (127 mm) rings, a fast 15:1 gear ratio, and an electric hydraulic pump in case the engine stalled.[16][17]

In 1988, the Subaru XT6 was fitted with a unique Cybrid adaptive electro-hydraulic steering system that changed the level of assistance based on
the vehicle's speed.

In 1990, Toyota introduced its second-generation MR2 with electro-hydraulic power steering. This avoided running hydraulic lines from the
engine (which was behind the driver in the MR2) up to the steering rack.

In 1994 Volkswagen produced the Golf Mk3 Ecomatic, with an electric pump. This meant that the power steering would still operate while the
engine was stopped by the computer to save fuel.[18] Electro-hydraulic systems can be found in some cars by Ford, Volkswagen, Audi, Peugeot,
Citroën, SEAT, Škoda, Suzuki, Opel, MINI, Toyota, Honda, and Mazda.

Electric systems
Electric power steering (EPS) or motor-driven power steering (MDPS) uses an electric motor rather than hydraulic system to assist the
driver of a vehicle. Sensors detect the position and torque of the steering column, and a computer module applies assistive torque via the motor,
which connects to either the steering gear or steering column. This allows varying amounts of assistance to be applied depending on driving
conditions. Engineers can therefore tailor steering-gear response to variable-rate and variable-damping suspension systems, optimizing ride,

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_steering 4/8
10/18/21, 12:13 PM Power steering - Wikipedia

handling, and steering for each vehicle.[19] On Fiat group cars the amount of assistance can be regulated
using a button named "CITY" that switches between two different assist curves, while most other EPS
systems have variable assist. These give more assistance as the vehicle slows down, and less at faster speeds.

A mechanical linkage between the steering wheel and the steering gear is retained in EPS. In the event of
component failure or power failure that causes a failure to provide assistance, the mechanical linkage serves
as a back-up. If EPS fails, the driver encounters a situation where heavy effort is required to steer. This heavy
effort is similar to that of an inoperative hydraulic steering assist system. Depending on the driving situation,
driving skill and strength of the driver, steering assist loss may or may not lead to a crash. The difficulty of
steering with inoperative power steering is compounded by the choice of steering ratios in assisted steering
An EPS module with a partially
gears vs. fully manual. The NHTSA has assisted car manufacturers with recalling EPS systems prone to
disassembled steering column
failure.[20]

Electric systems have an advantage in fuel efficiency because there is no belt-driven hydraulic pump
constantly running, whether assistance is required or not, and this is a major reason for their introduction. Another major advantage is the
elimination of a belt-driven engine accessory, and several high-pressure hydraulic hoses between the hydraulic pump, mounted on the engine,
and the steering gear, mounted on the chassis. This greatly simplifies manufacturing and maintenance. By incorporating electronic stability
control electric power steering systems can instantly vary torque assist levels to aid the driver in corrective maneuvers.[21]

In 1986 NSK put the EPS for battery fork into practical use.[22] In the subsequent 8 years Koyo Seiko (current JTEKT), NSK developed a column
system exclusively for minicars, sold only in Japan such as Suzuki and Mitsubishi Motors.[23] However, this simple method was noticeable due to
the inertia feeling of the motor at the time of rapid steering for danger avoidance in low speed running, at the time of high speed running at which
the steering force became small, returning to the manual steering. As a result, that system was not adopted. In the late 1990s, a direct full control
system of a rack assist without clutch to a regular car was put into practical use in the Honda NSX (initially, automatic only) Since then, there has
been a transition from a brush-attached motor to a brushless motor in the rack type of ordinary vehicles and this method has become
mainstream.

Electric power steering systems appeared on the Honda NSX in 1990,The MG F, the FIAT Punto Mk2 in 1999, the Honda S2000 in 1999, Toyota
Prius in 2000, the BMW Z4 in 2002, and the Mazda RX-8 in 2003.

The first electric power steering system appeared on the Suzuki Cervo in 1988.[24] The system has been used by various automobile
manufacturers, and most commonly applied for smaller cars to reduce fuel consumption and manufacturing costs.

Electrically variable gear ratio systems

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_steering 5/8
10/18/21, 12:13 PM Power steering - Wikipedia

In 2000, the Honda S2000 Type V featured the first electric power variable gear ratio steering (VGS) system.[25] In 2002, Toyota introduced the
"Variable Gear Ratio Steering" (VGRS) system on the Lexus LX 470 and Landcruiser Cygnus, and also incorporated the electronic stability
control system to alter steering gear ratios and steering assist levels. In 2003, BMW introduced "active steering" system on the 5 Series.[26]

This system should not be confused with variable assist power steering, which varies steering assist torque, not steering ratios, nor with systems
where the gear ratio is only varied as a function of steering angle. These last are more accurately called non-linear types (e.g. Direct-Steer offered
by Mercedes-Benz); a plot of steering-wheel position versus axle steering angle is progressively curved (and symmetrical).

See also
Servomechanism
Steering engine
Comparison of direct-drive sim racing wheels

References
1. Schultz, Mort (May 1985). "Steering: A Century of Progress" (http 5. Howe, Hartley E. (February 1956). "Mr. Power Steering's Ship
s://books.google.com/books?id=YuQDAAAAMBAJ&q=first+power+ Comes In" (https://books.google.com/books?id=xiwDAAAAMBAJ&q
steering+system+on+an+automobile+1876+Fitts&pg=PA59). =Francis+W.+Davis+and+power+steering&pg=RA1-PA162).
Popular Mechanics. 162 (5): 59. ISSN 0032-4558 (https://www.worl Popular Science. 168 (2): 161–164, 270. Retrieved 28 May 2015.
dcat.org/issn/0032-4558). Retrieved 8 November 2014. 6. "The Waltham Museum's Hall-of-Fame" (https://web.archive.org/we
2. Wren, James A.; Wren, Genevieve J. (1979). Motor Trucks of b/20100719033929/http://www.walthammuseum.com/hof.htm).
America (https://books.google.com/books?id=MpoUAQAAIAAJ&q= Waltham Museum. Archived from the original (http://www.waltham
power+steering+was+Columbia+5-ton+electric+truck+where+a+se museum.com/hof.htm) on 19 July 2010. Retrieved 8 November
parate+electric+motor+was+used+to+assist+the+driver+in+turning 2015.
+the+front+wheels). University of Michigan Press. p. 23. 7. Lamm, Michael (March 1999). "75 years of Chryslers" (https://book
ISBN 9780472063130. Retrieved 8 November 2015. s.google.com/books?id=PmYEAAAAMBAJ&q=introduced+industr
3. "Driving-gear for motor-carriages - US patent 646477 A" (http://ww y's+first+power+steering&pg=PT34). Popular Mechanics. 176 (3):
w.google.com/patents/US646477). Retrieved 29 May 2015. 75. Retrieved 28 May 2015.
4. Nunney, Malcolm James (2006). Light and Heavy Vehicle 8. "Manual and power actuated steering mechanism for motor
Technology (https://books.google.com/books?id=I90NpNQUzJ4C& vehicles" (http://brevets-patents.ic.gc.ca/opic-cipo/cpd/eng/patent/5
q=Francis+W.+Davis+power+steering&pg=PA521). Elsevier 66405/summary.html?query=Charles+F.+Hammond&start=1&num=
Science. p. 521. ISBN 978-0-7506-8037-0. Retrieved 18 June 50&type=basic_search). Canadian Intellectual Property Office.
2010.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_steering 6/8
10/18/21, 12:13 PM Power steering - Wikipedia

9. "Manual and power actuated steering gear" (http://brevets-patents.i 19. Keebler, Jack (May 1986). "So long, hydraulics - the electronic
c.gc.ca/opic-cipo/cpd/eng/patent/561370/summary.html?query=Cha revolution in power steering" (https://books.google.com/books?id=0
rles+F.+Hammond&start=1&num=50&type=basic_search). 7B8zK-PQq8C&q=%22electric+power+steering%22&pg=PA52).
Canadian Intellectual Property Office. Popular Science. 228 (5): 50–56. Retrieved 8 September 2015.
10. "Manual and power actuated steering mechanism for motor 20. "Ready for another recall? NHTSA investigating Ford for more
vehicles" (http://brevets-patents.ic.gc.ca/opic-cipo/cpd/eng/patent/5 power steering problems" (http://www.newsomelaw.com/blog/2015/
54310/summary.html?query=Charles+F.+Hammond&start=1&num= 01/07/ready-another-recall-nhtsa-investigating-ford-more-power-ste
50&type=basic_search). Canadian Intellectual Property Office. ering-problems). Newsome Melton law firm. 7 January 2015.
11. Alfred T. Lee (2017) Vehicle Simulation: Perceptual Fidelity in the Retrieved 28 May 2015.
Design of Virtual Environments (https://books.google.it/books?id=p 21. "Electric power steering: one good turn deserves another" (https://w
mQ-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT113) ww.embedded.com/design/real-world-applications/4006457/Electric
12. Bertollini, G. P., & Hogan, R. M. (1999) Applying driving simulation -power-steering-one-good-turn-deserves-another). embedded.com.
to quantify steering effort preference as a function of vehicle speed Retrieved 2011-09-07.
(https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/1999-01 22. ”NSK Technical Journal 647 Product introduction "Electric Power
-0394/), (No. 1999-01-0394). SAE Technical Paper. Steering", September 1987
13. Nice, Karim (31 May 2001). "Rack-and-pinion Steering - How Car 23. Okamoto, Kenjiro; Chikuma, Isamu; Saito, Naoki; Miyazaki, Hiroya
Steering Works" (http://auto.howstuffworks.com/steering2.htm). (1 April 1989). "Improvement of Driver's Feel of Electric Power
Auto.howstuffworks.com. p. 2. Retrieved 28 May 2015. Steering" (https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/conten
14. Nice, Karim (31 May 2001). "Power Steering - How Car Steering t/890079/). SAE Technical Paper 890079. SAE Technical Paper
Works" (http://auto.howstuffworks.com/steering4.htm). Series. SAE Technical Paper. 1. doi:10.4271/890079 (https://doi.or
Auto.howstuffworks.com. p. 4. Retrieved 28 May 2015. g/10.4271%2F890079). Retrieved 4 October 2019.
15. "Top 5: Citroen SM innovations that saw the future (video)" (https:// 24. Nakayama, T.; Suda, E. (1994). "The present and future of electric
www.cnet.com/videos/top-5-citroen-sm-innovations-that-saw-the-fut power steering" (https://books.google.com/books?id=IGxVAAAAYA
ure/). CNET. 5 August 2014. Retrieved 28 May 2015. AJ&q=1988+Suzuki+Cervo+power+steering). International Journal
of Vehicle Design. 15: 243. Retrieved 8 November 2015.
16. "Will a twist of your wrist steer your next car?" (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=GuMDAAAAMBAJ&q=first+%22electric+power+st 25. "Honda to Launch S2000 Type V Equipped with the World's First
eering%22&pg=PA82). Popular Science. 186 (4): 83. February Variable Gear Ratio Steering (VGS) System" (https://web.archive.or
1984. Retrieved 8 September 2015. g/web/20150906044918/http://world.honda.com/news/2000/400070
7.html) (Press release). Honda News. 7 July 2000. Archived from
17. Markovich, Alex (April 1965). "Look, Ma-No Wheel!" (https://books.
the original (http://world.honda.com/news/2000/4000707.html) on 6
google.com/books?id=A-MDAAAAMBAJ&q=Mercury+twist+wrist+st
September 2015. Retrieved 8 September 2015.
eering&pg=PA91). Popular Mechanics. 123 (4): 91–93. Retrieved
8 September 2015. 26. "BMW » First Drive: 2004 BMW 5-Series" (https://web.archive.org/
web/20091016182333/http://www.canadiandriver.com/2003/06/02/fi
18. "The Golf Ecomatic Page" (https://web.archive.org/web/201108101
rst-drive-2004-bmw-5-series.htm). CanadianDriver. 2003-06-02.
20713/http://www.deylan.co.uk/golf/ecomatic/index.htm).
Archived from the original (http://www.canadiandriver.com/2003/06/
Deylan.co.uk. Archived from the original (http://www.deylan.co.uk/g
olf/ecomatic/index.htm) on 10 August 2011. Retrieved 8 November 02/first-drive-2004-bmw-5-series.htm) on October 16, 2009.
2015. Retrieved 2009-12-08.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_steering 7/8
10/18/21, 12:13 PM Power steering - Wikipedia

External links
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Power_steering&oldid=1049441717"

This page was last edited on 11 October 2021, at 21:11 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_steering 8/8