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Zartash’s
Notes

First Year Physics

Chapter No 2
Vectors and Equilibrium

By Asim Ghafoor Zartash

Unique science academy

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2020 version
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Questions from Chapter

Q.No.1: Differentiate between vectors and scalars? Give at least two examples of each?
Ans:

VECTORS SCALARS
A vector is a physical quantity which has both A scalar is a physical quantity which has only
magnitude and direction for its complete magnitude for its complete description.
description.
Velocity and Force are examples of vectors Mass and Length are examples of scalars
They have different rules of addition, subtraction and multiplication
Q.No.2: How vectors can be denoted symbolically?
Ans:
In books, vectors are usually denoted by bold face characters such as A, d, r etc while
In handwriting, we put an arrow head over the letter such as 𝐴, 𝑑 , 𝑟 etc
Q.No.3: How vector can be represented graphically?
Ans: A vector can be represented graphically by a direct line segment with an arrowhead.
Magnitude:
The length of line segment gives the magnitude of vector
Direction: A
Arrowhead gives the direction of that vector as shown in figure by vector A

Q.No.4: What do you know about Cartesian or Rectangular co-ordinate

system?
Ans:
Definition: A system used for the representation of vectors is called Cartesian
or Rectangular Co-ordinate system.
Formation: It is made by drawing two perpendicular intersecting lines. One line
is called x-axis and other is called y-axis. Point of intersection is called origin or reference point

Q.No.5: How many angles specified the direction of a vector in a space?

Ans: There are three angles which specified the direction of a vector in a
space normally called α, β and γ shown in fig.
Explanation: As the space has three dimensions so vector has its three
components and also having three angles
Q.No.6: What do you know about addition of vectors? Explain
Ans:
Definition:
Process of finding the geometric sum of number of vectors by head to tail rule is
called addition of vectors.
Explanation: If the two vectors A and B are given as shown in fig (a) then
their sum is obtained by joining the tail of vector B with the head of vector
A as shown in fig b. Their sum is called resultant vector and denoted by R.
Vector addiction is said to be commutative
𝐴+𝐵 =𝐵+𝐴

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Q.No.7: Define Resultant vector
Ans: A single vector which has combine effect of all original vectors is called resultant vector and is
denoted by R.
Example: For Example we add two vectors, A and B then their
resultant will also be a vector represented as
R=A+B
Q.No.8: What do you know about vector subtraction?
Ans:
The subtraction of vectors is similar to the addition of the same vector
with its direction reversed.
Example: For example if we want to subtract B vector from A as given
in fig(a) then at first we reverse the direction of vector B and then
added it to vector A.
So it can be represented as (fig b)
𝐴 − 𝐵 = 𝐴 + (−𝐵 )

Q.No.9: How you can multiply a vector by a scalar?

Ans:
Definition:
If a vector A is multiplied with any scalar number n then a new vector nA is formed which having the
same direction as A but its magnitude increases n times. In this way, a vector can be multiplied by a
scalar.
Explanation:
n is a scalar quantity. So product of scalar and vector will give a new
physical quantity.
For example, product of velocity (vector) and mass (scalar) gives the new
quantity which is momentum.
Examples:
Some examples are given in diagram
Q.No.10: What is unit vector? Give its formula as well
Ans:
A vector which has one magnitude and used to represent the direction of other vector is called unit
vector.
Formula:
It is denoted as
𝐴
𝐴=
𝐴
Q.No.11: What is null vector? How we can obtain it?
Ans:
Null Vector:
A vector which has zero magnitude and arbitrary direction is called null vector.
How it can be obtained:
For example, we can obtain a null vector by adding a vector with its negative as given
𝐴 + (−𝐴) = 0
Q.No.12: What are equal vectors?
Ans:

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The vectors which have the same magnitude and direction regardless of their initial position are
called equal vectors.
As the two vectors shown in figure below are equal vectors
A
B
Q.No.13: What are rectangular components of a vector? Give their formula as well
Ans:
Definition: The parts of a vector which are perpendicular to each other are called rectangular
components. A vector is actually resultant of its component vectors. They are produced due to
resolution of a vector.
Formula: For example a vector A have Ax and Ay components and their relations are given as:
Ax= Acosθ Ay= Asinθ
Q.No.14: What do you know about position vector?
Ans:
Definition:
A vector which gives the position or location of a point with respect
to the origin is called position vector and it is denoted by r.
Formula: It is represented by r=a 𝑖+ b 𝑗 as shown in the figure
Magnitude: Its magnitude is represented by 𝑟 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2

Q.No.15: What are the conditions for components of resultant

vector for determines ө?
Ans: There are four conditions for Rx and Ry.
(i) If both Rx and Ry are positive then R lies in first quadrant and ө=φ
(ii) If Rx is negative and Ry is positive then R lies in second quadrant and ө=180o-φ
(iii) If both Rx and Ry are negative then R lies in 3rd quadrant and ө=180o+φ
(iv) If Ry is negative and Rx is positive then R lies in fourth quadrant and ө=360o-φ
(Also see diagrams from the text book)
Q.No.16: Define torque and write down its expression. Also mention its units?
Ans :
Definition: The turning or rotational effect of a force is called torque. It is also defined as the product
of applied force and moment arm is called torque.
Formula: Its mathematical expression is given as τ=r×F
Units: Units of torque are Nm
Q.No.17: Define the term “ Moment Arm”
Ans :
Definition: Perpendicular distance between point of action to point of rotation is called moment arm
Units: its units are meter and represented by 𝑙 or 𝑟
Q.No.18: Mention the conditions under which torque is maximum. Torque is minimum
Ans :
Formula of torque is given as: τ=r×F
τ=rFSinθ
Maximum torque Minimum torque
If Force is maximum If force is zero
If force is directed perpendicular to the moment If force is directed in the direction of moment
arm arm.
If line of action passes through the pivot point
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Q.No.19: If the line of action of the applied force passes through the pivot then what you can say
about torque?
Ans: If the line of action of the applied force passes through the pivot then moment arm will be zero
so torque will also be zero
Mathematically: 𝑙 = 0 So 𝜏 = 𝑙𝑓 = 0 𝑓 = 0
Q.No.20: If a body is rotating with uniform angular velocity then calculate the value of torque?
Ans : If a body is rotating with uniform angular velocity then its angular acceleration will be zero. In
this case the torque acting on the body will be zero.
Mathematically it can be proved as:
We know that 𝜏 = 𝑙𝐹
As 𝑎=0
Then 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 0
So 𝜏=𝑙 0 =0
Q.No.21: What is equilibrium? Write down its conditions?
Ans :
Definition: If a body is at rest or moving with uniform velocity under the action of many forces then
this body is said to be in equilibrium.
There are two conditions of equilibrium
First condition of equilibrium: It states that sum of all forces acting on a body must be equal to zero.
Formula:
Mathematically written as ∑F=0 i.e ∑Fx=0 and ∑Fy=0.
Second condition of equilibrium: It states that sum of all torques acting on a body must be equal to
zero.
Formula:
Mathematically written as ∑τ=0.
Q.No.22: Write down the complete requirements of a body to be in equilibrium?
Ans : The complete requirements of a body to be in equilibrium are two.
(i) ∑F=0 i.e ∑Fx=0 and ∑Fy=0
(ii) ∑τ=0
Q.No.23: Differentiate between translational and rotational equilibrium?
Ans :
Translation Equilibrium Rotational Equilibrium
If there is no linear acceleration then body will be If there is no angular acceleration then body will
in translation equilibrium be in rotational equilibrium
It satisfies the first condition of equilibrium It satisfies the second condition of equilibrium
Uniform motion of car is example of translational Uniform motion of a fan is example of rotational
equilibrium equilibrium
Q.No.24: Differentiate between static and dynamic equilibrium?
Ans :
Static Equilibrium Dynamic Equilibrium
If a body is at rest then it is said to be in static if the body is moving with uniform velocity then
equilibrium it is said to be in dynamic equilibrium
A book on table is example of static equilibrium Uniform motion of car or fan is example of
dynamic equilibrium

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Q.No.25: What are the coplanar forces?
Ans :
Definition:
The forces which lie in a common plane are called coplanar forces.
Examples:
For example all these forces ∑F=0 , ∑Fx=0 and ∑Fy=0 lie in the xy-plane. So these forces are called
coplanar
Q.No.26: You are falling off the edge. What should you do to avoid falling?
Ans : If we are falling from the edge then we will try to balance us to produce equilibrium so that
we can avoid from falling
Q.No.27: If there are more than one object in equilibrium, how you can apply conditions of
equilibrium?
Ans : If there is more than one object in equilibrium in a given problem, one object is selected at a
time to apply conditions of equilibrium

Exercise Questions
Q.No.2.1: Define the term (i) Unit vector (ii) Position vector (iii) Components of vector
Ans :
(i) Unit Vector: A vector which has one magnitude and used to represent the direction of a vector is
called unit vector.
Formula: It is denoted as
𝐴
𝐴=𝐴
(ii)Position vector:
Definition:
A vector which gives the position or location of a point with respect
to the origin is called position vector and it is denoted by r.
Formula: It is represented by r=a 𝑖+ b 𝑗 as shown in the figure
Magnitude: Its magnitude is represented by 𝑟 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2

(iii) Rectangular components of a vector:

Definition:
The parts of a vector which are perpendicular to each other are called rectangular components. A
vector is actually resultant of its component vectors. They are produced due to resolution of a vector.
Formula: For example a vector A have Ax and Ay components and their relations are given as:
Ax= Acosθ Ay= Asinθ
Q.No.2.2: The vector sum of three vectors gives a zero resultant. What can be the orientation of
the vectors?
Ans: If we add three vectors in such a way that these represent the three sides of a triangle then
their vector sum will be zero.
Explanation: Suppose we have three vectors A, B and C as shown in fig. Their vector sum can be
finding out by head to tail rule. Thus from the diagram we get A+B+C=0
C
A
B C B
A
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Q.No.2.3: Vector A lies in xy-plane. For what orientation will both of its rectangular components be
negative? For what orientation will its components have opposite signs?
Ans :
Both negative components:
If a vector lies in 3rd quadrant then both of its components will be negative as shown in fig

Both opposite components:

If vector lies in 2nd and 4th quadrant then its components have opposite signs

Q.No.2.4: If one of the rectangular components of a vector is not zero, can its magnitude be zero?
Explain
Ans No magnitude of a vector can never be zero due to addition process between two components.
Example:
For example, we know that magnitude of a vector A is given
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2
If 𝐴𝑥 = 0 then
𝐴 = 0 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 = 𝐴𝑦

Similarly for 𝐴𝑦 = 0, we can find that 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥

So from above calculation it is clear that resultant vector cannot be zero if one of its components is
not zero.
Q.No.2.5: Can a vector have a component greater than the vector’s magnitude?
Ans : Components cannot be greater than the magnitude at any condition
Explanation:
We know that formula of magnitude of a vector
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2
if component of a vector A is zero e.g. 𝐴𝑥 = 0 then
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 = (0)2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 = 𝐴𝑦

Similarly for 𝐴𝑦 = 0, we can find that 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥

thus if all the components of a vector become zero except one then this component will be equal to
the magnitude of the vector but not greater than its magnitude
Q.No.2.6: Can the magnitude of a vector have a negative value?
Ans :
7

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No, the magnitude of a vector cannot be negative but it always has a positive value due to square
values.
Explanation:
As 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2
As the magnitude contains square values and square of every value is always positive so magnitude
of a vector cannot have negative value.
Q.No.2.7: If A+B=0, what you can say about the components of two vectors?
Ans :
If Sum of two vectors is zero then sum of their respective components will also be zero\
Proof:
As A+B=0
thus A= -B
In rectangular form the above equation can be written as
𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘 = −(𝐵𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘 )
OR 𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘 = −𝐵𝑥 𝑖 − 𝐵𝑦 𝑗 − 𝐵𝑧 𝑘 )
Comparing the coefficients of unit vectors 𝑖, 𝑗 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘
𝐴𝑥 = −𝐵𝑥 , 𝐴𝑦 = −𝐵𝑦 , 𝐴𝑧 =--𝐵𝑧
Thus from above equations we conclude tha
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 = 0 , 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 = 0 , 𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵𝑧 = 0
Hence it is concluded that If A+B=0, then sum of their respective rectangular components will also be
zero.
Q.No.2.8: Under what circumstances would a vector have components that are equal in
magnitude?
Ans:
At angle of 45o both components are equal in magnitude.
Explanation:
As we know that
𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 and 𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃.
o
If the vector makes an angle 45 with positive x-axis then the magnitudes of its two components
will be equal. Mathematically if 𝜃=45o then
𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠45𝑜 = 0.7 𝐴
And
𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛45𝑜 = 0.7 𝐴
Thus at an angle of 45𝑜 both components are equal
Q.No.2.9: Is it possible to add a vector quantity to a scalar quantity? Explain
Ans : No, it is not possible to add vector quantity into scalar quantity.
Explanation: Because these are different quantities and their rules of addition are different. Only
those quantities can be added which are same.
Q.No.2.10: Can you add zero to a null vector?
Ans : No, zero cannot be added to a null vector
Explanation: Because zero is a scalar quantity but null vector is a vector quantity and their rules of
addition are different. Only those quantities can be added which are same.
Q.No.2.11: Two vectors have unequal magnitudes. Can their sum be zero?
Ans: No, the sum of two unequal vectors cannot be zero.
Explanation: If the two vectors have equal magnitudes and opposite directions then they can add up
and give zero sum. So unequal magnitudes can never be combined to give zero resultant.

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Q.No.2.12: Show that the sum and difference of two perpendicular vectors of equal lengths are
also perpendicular and of the same length.
Ans : Let us suppose there are two vectors A and B are of equal magnitudes and also
perpendicular to each other as shown in the below figure

By adding and subtracting these vectors, we concluded from the diagram that R and Ro have same
length are perpendicular to each other
Q.No.2.13: How would the two vectors of the same magnitude have to be oriented, if they were to
be combined to give a resultant equal to a vector of the same magnitude?
Ans : If the angle between two vectors of the same magnitude is 120 o, then the magnitude of their
resultant vector will also same. This can be proved as follows
Proof:
Let F1 and F2 are two vectors whose magnitudes are same, say F their resultant can be found
by using this formula

𝑅= 2𝐹1 𝐹2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝐹1 2 + 𝐹2 2
As F1=F2 =F and if angle θ=120o then
𝑅= 2𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠120𝑜 + 𝐹 2 + 𝐹 2
𝑅= 2𝐹 2 (− 1 2) + 2𝐹 2

𝑅= −𝐹 2 + 2𝐹 2
𝑅 = 𝐹2
𝑅=𝐹
Q.No.2.14: The two vectors to be combined have magnitude 60 N and 35 N. Pick the correct
answer from these given below and tell why is it the one of the three is correct?
(i) 100 N (ii) 70 N (iii)20 N
Ans :
Correct answer is 70 N
Explanation:
The minimum sum of two given vectors is equal to the difference of their magnitudes which is 25 N
and maximum sum is equal to the sum of their magnitudes which is 95 N. Hence the sum cannot be
less than 25 N and cannot be greater than 95 N. Thus the correct answer is (ii) which is 70 N.
Q.No.2.15: Suppose the sides of a closed polygon represent vector arranged head to tail. What is
the sum of these vectors?
Ans : If sides of a closed polygon represents vectors arranged head to tail rule then sum of these
vectors will be zero

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Explanation:
Let the vectors A, B, C, D and E are represented by the sides of a closed polygon, then their sum will
be zero because the head of the last vector meets with the tail of first vector and no space to draw
resultant vector as shown in below figure

Formula: Mathematically A+B+C+D+E=0

Q.No.2.17: If all the components of vectors A1 and A2 were reversed, how would this alter A1×A2?
Ans :
If all the components of the A1 and A2 were reversed then vector product of two vectors remain
unchanged
Explanation:
If we reviser the components then vectors will also be reversed. So
A1×A2= -A1×-A2= A1×A2
Hence the vector product of two vectors will remain unchanged even by reversing all the
components of the vectors
Q.No.2.18: Name the three conditions that make A1×A2=0
Ans : A1×A2=A1A2 sinθ=0 if
(i) A1 is null vector i.e A1=0
(ii) A2 is null vector i.e A2=0
(iii) A1 and A2 are parallel i.e θ=0o
(iv) A1 and A2 are anti-parallel i.e θ=180o
Q.No.2.19: Identify true or false statements and explain the reason.
(a) A body in equilibrium implies that it is not moving nor rotating
(b) If coplanar forces acting on a body from a closed polygon, and then the body is said to be in
equilibrium
Ans :
(a) This is false statement since a body may be in equilibrium if it is moving with uniform speed.
(b) This is correct statement since a closed polygon represents zero vector sum of forces and this is
the first condition of equilibrium.
Q.No.2.20: A picture is suspended from the wall by two strings. Show by diagram the
configuration of the strings for which the tension in the string will be minimum?
Ans : The tension in the suspended strings will be minimum for the configuration shown in the fig.
In this case the tension in each string will be half of that weight.
Mathematically by applying condition of equilibrium on the below figure

10

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Q.No.2.21: Can a body rotate about its centre of gravity under the action of weight?
Ans : No, a body cannot rotate about its centre of gravity under the action of weight
Explanation: Because moment arm will be zero and thus turning effect or torque will also be zero.
Mathematically:
Moment arm is given as 𝜏 = 𝑙𝑓
As 𝑙=0
So 𝜏=0

Long Questions
2.2 VECTOR ADDITION BY RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS
VECTOR ADDITION:
Vectors can be added by a graphical method called head to tail rule. According to this rule head of
first vector joined with the tail of second vector.
RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS:
Splitting of two vectors which are perpendicular to each other are called components of vectors.
EXPLANATION:
Let A and B are the two vectors which are represented by lines OM and MP respectively. Vector B is
added to A by head to tail rule of vector addition as shown in figure. The resultant vector R is
represented by line OP and is given as
𝑹=𝑨+𝑩
Vector addition by rectangular components consists of the following steps:
i. Find x and y components of the all given vectors
ii. Find x-component Rx of the resultant vector by adding the x-components of all given
vectors
iii. Find y-component Ry of the resultant vector by adding the y-components of all given
vectors
iv. Find the magnitude of the resultant vector R by using the formula
𝑅= 𝑅𝑥2 + 𝑅𝑦2
v. Find the direction of resultant vector R by using
𝑅𝑦
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑅𝑥
Where θ is the angle which the resultant vector makes with positive x-axis. Now we will describe
these steps one by one
X-COMPONENT OF RESULTANT VECTOR:
In the figure Ax, Bx and Rx are the x-components of the vectors A, B and R and their magnitudes are
represented by the lines OQ, MS and QR respectively.
From the figure we get
OR=OQ+QR
𝑅𝑥 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥
This means that x-component of the resultant vector can be
obtained by adding the x-components of the given vectors.

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Y-COMPONENT OF RESULTANT VECTOR:
In the figure Ay, By and Ry are the y-components of the vectors A, B and R and their magnitudes are
represented by the lines RS, M\SP and RP respectively.
From the figure we get
RP=RS+SP
𝑅𝑦 = 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦
This means that y-component of the resultant vector can be obtained by adding the y-components of
the given vectors.
MAGNITUDE OF THE RESULTANT VECTOR:
Since Rx and Ry are the rectangular components of the resultant vector R hence
𝑹 = 𝑅𝑥 𝒊 + 𝑅𝑦 𝒋
Or
𝑹 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 𝒊 + (𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 )𝒋
Magnitude of resultant vector is given as
𝑅= 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 2 + (𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 )2
DIRECTION OF THE RESULTANT VECTOR:
The direction of the resultant vector is given as
𝑅𝑦
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑅𝑥
and
(𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 )
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥
Similarly for the number of coplanar vectors A, B , C………..
𝑅= 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥 + ⋯ 2 + (𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑦 + ⋯ )2
(𝐴 𝑦 +𝐵𝑦 +𝐶𝑦 … )
and 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝐴 𝑥 +𝐵𝑥 +𝐶𝑥 …
where θ is the angle, which the resultant vector makes with positive x-axis. The signs of Rx and Ry
determine the quadrant in which resultant vector lies.
First of all determine the value of ϕ without accounting the signs of Rx and Ry with help of calculator
by using the formula
𝑅𝑦
𝜙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑅𝑥
Knowing the value of ϕ, angle θ is determined as
FIRST QUADRANT:
If the vector lies in first quadrant then both Rx and Ry are positive and its direction is θ=ϕ
SECOND QUADRANT:
If the vector lies in second quadrant then Rx is negative and Ry is positive and its direction is θ=180o-ϕ
THIRD QUADRANT:
If the vector lies in third quadrant then both Rx and Ry are negative and its direction is θ=180o+ϕ
FORTH QUADRANT:
If the vector lies in forth quadrant then Rx is positive and Ry is negative and its direction is θ=360o-ϕ

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2.3 SCALAR PRODUCT/DOT PRODUCT
DEFINITION:
Product of two vector A and B gives the result in the scalar form is called scalar or dot product and is
represented as
𝑨. 𝑩 = 𝐴𝐵 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃
PROPERTIES/CHARACTERISTICS:
Following the five properties of scalar or dot product
1. DOT PRODUCT IS COMMUTATIVE
Scalar product is commutative. It is explained as
𝑨. 𝑩 = 𝐴𝐵 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃
And 𝑩. 𝑨 = 𝐵𝐴 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐴𝐵 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃
Its mean scalar or dot product is commutative. In other words order of multiplication is irrelevant
2. DOT PRODUCT OF PERPENDICULAR VECTORS
Scalar product of two mutually perpendicular vectors is zero as
𝑨. 𝑩 = 𝐴𝐵 𝐶𝑜𝑠90𝑜 = 0
In case of unit vectors 𝑖, 𝑗 and 𝑘, since they are mutually perpendicular, therefore
𝑖. 𝑗 = 𝑖 𝑗 𝐶𝑜𝑠90𝑜 = 0
𝑗. 𝑘 = 𝑗 𝑘 𝐶𝑜𝑠90𝑜 = 0
𝑘. 𝑖 = 𝑘 𝑖 𝐶𝑜𝑠90𝑜 = 0
3. DOT PRODUCT OF PARALLEL VECTORS
Scalar product of two parallel vectors is equal to the product of their magnitudes
𝑨. 𝑩 = 𝐴𝐵 𝐶𝑜𝑠0𝑜 = 𝐴𝐵
In case of unit vectors
𝑖. 𝑖 = 𝑖 𝑖 𝐶𝑜𝑠0𝑜 = 1
𝑗. 𝑗 = 𝑗 𝑗 𝐶𝑜𝑠0𝑜 = 1
𝑘. 𝑘 = 𝑘 𝑘 𝐶𝑜𝑠0𝑜 = 1
And scalar product of two anti-parallel vectors is given as
𝑨. 𝑩 = 𝐴𝐵 𝐶𝑜𝑠180𝑜 = −𝐴𝐵
4. SELF PRODUCT OF VECTORS
Self product of vector A is equal to square of its magnitude
𝑨. 𝑨 = 𝐴𝐴 𝐶𝑜𝑠0𝑜 = 𝐴2
5. SCALAR PRODUCT IN TERMS OF RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS
Scalar product of two vectors A and B in terms of their rectangular components
𝑨. 𝑩 = (𝑨𝒙 𝒊 + 𝑨𝒚 𝒋 + 𝑨𝒛 𝒌). (𝑩𝒙 𝒊 + 𝑩𝒚 𝒋 + 𝑩𝒛 𝒌)
𝑨. 𝑩 = 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧
𝐴𝐵 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧
𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 +𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 +𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐴𝐵
EXAMPLE
Example of scalar or dot product is work done given as
𝑊 = 𝑭. 𝒅 = 𝐹𝑑 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃
2.3 VECTOR PRODUCT/ CROSS PRODUCT
DEFINITION:
Product of two vector A and B gives the result in the vector form is called vector or cross product and
is represented as
𝑨 × 𝑩 = 𝐴𝐵 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑛

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PROPERTIES/CHARACTERISTICS:
Following the five properties of vector or cross product
1. CROSS PRODUCT IS NON-COMMUTATIVE
Vector product is non-commutative. It is explained as
𝑨 × 𝑩 = 𝐴𝐵 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑛
By right hand rule, direction of 𝑛 is outward
And 𝑩 × 𝑨 = 𝐴𝐵 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑛
So by right hand rule, direction of 𝑛 in this case is inward
Its mean 𝑨 × 𝑩 and 𝑩 × 𝑨 are not equal means cross product is non-commutative
2. CROSS PRODUCT OF PERPENDICULAR VECTORS
Vector product of two mutually perpendicular vectors is maximum as
𝑨 × 𝑩 = 𝐴𝐵 𝑆𝑖𝑛90𝑜 = 𝐴𝐵
In case of unit vectors 𝑖, 𝑗 and 𝑘, since they are mutually perpendicular, therefore
𝑖×𝑗 =𝑘
𝑗×𝑘 =𝑖
𝑘× 𝑖=𝑗
3. CROSS PRODUCT OF PARALLEL VECTORS
Vector product of two parallel vectors is equal to zero
𝑨 × 𝑩 = 𝐴𝐵 𝑆𝑖𝑛0𝑜 𝑛 = 0
In case of unit vectors
𝑖 × 𝑖 = 𝑖 𝑖 𝑆𝑖𝑛0𝑜 𝑛 = 0
𝑗 × 𝑗 = 𝑗 𝑗 𝑆𝑖𝑛0𝑜 𝑛 = 0
𝑘 × 𝑘 = 𝑘 𝑘 𝑆𝑖𝑛0𝑜 𝑛 = 0
4. VECTOR PRODUCT IN TERMS OF RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS
Vector product of two vectors A and B in terms of their rectangular components
𝑨 × 𝑩 = (𝐴𝑥 𝒊 + 𝐴𝑦 𝒋 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒌)× (𝐵𝑥 𝒊 + 𝐵𝑦 𝒋 + 𝐵𝑧 𝒌)
𝑨 × 𝑩 = 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 𝑖 − 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 𝑗 + (𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 )𝑘
The result obtained can be expressed in form of determinant as below
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝑨 × 𝑩 = 𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧
𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧
5. MAGNITUDE OF A×B
Magnitude of A×B is equal to the area of the parallelogram
formed with A and B as shown in figure
EXAMPLE
Example of vector or cross product is torque given as
𝝉=𝒓×𝑭
2.4 TORQUE
DEFINITION:
Turning or rotational effect of the force is called torque or moment. In other words, product of force
and perpendicular distance from point of application to point of rotation is called torque or moment.
FORMULA: It is denoted as
𝝉=𝒓×𝑭
Units of torque are Nm
MAGNITUDE OF TORQUE:

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We know that a turning effect is produced when a nut is tightened with spanner. The turning effect
increases when we push harder on the spanner. It also depends upon the length of the spanner. By
longer the handle of the spanner, turning effect of the force increases. Torque is the product of force
and perpendicular distance from its line of action to the pivot which is point O around which spanner
rotates. This distance OP is called moment arm. Thus the magnitude of torque is represented by the
formula
𝜏 = 𝑙𝐹
TORQUE DUE TO RIGID BODY:
Now we consider a torque produced due to a force F acting on a rigid body. Let the force F acting on
the rigid body at point P whose position vector relative to O is r.
The force can be resolved into its two rectangular components. F sinθ perpendicular to r and F cosθ
along the direction of r. The torque due to F cosθ is zero because its line of action passes through the
pivot point. Hence the torque produced on that rigid body is only due to the F sinθ.
Hence the torque is given as
𝜏 = 𝑟 𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑟𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Where θ is the angle between r and F
It can be seen that the torque can be defined as vector product
of position vector and the force. So it can be written as
𝝉 = 𝑟𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑛
𝜏 =𝒓×𝑭

DIRECTION OF TORQUE:
The direction of torque is represented by 𝑛 whose direction is perpendicular to the plane containing r
and F. This can be find out by using right hand rule.

TORQUE IS ANALOGOUS OF FORCE:

As the force determines the linear acceleration of the body, similarly torque on the body determines
its angular acceleration. Hence torque is analogous of the force for rotational motion.
CONCLUSION:
Hence it is concluded that torque is responsible for rotational motion of the bodies.
Torque will be zero if
 Force acting on the body is zero
 Line of action of the applied force passes through the pivot point, because moment arm will
be zero in this case
 Body is at rest or moving with uniform angular velocity because in this case angular
acceleration will be zero.
 Angle between force and moment arm will be zero
Torque will be maximum if
 Length of the spanner is maximum
 Force and moment arm are perpendicular to each other

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Numerical Problems
Numerical 2.1: Suppose in a rectangular 𝑟 = 𝑟2 − 𝑟1 = −2𝑖 + 3𝑗 − 3𝑖 − 7𝑗 = −5𝑖 − 4𝑗
coordinate system, a vector A has its tail at the 𝑟 = (−5)2 + (−4)2 = 25 + 16
point P(-2, -3) and its tip at Q(3,9). Determine the 𝑟 = 41 = 6.4
distance between two points Vector lies in 3rd quadrant so
Solution: 𝜃 = 180𝑜 + ɸ
𝑑 =? 𝑦 4
For point P 𝑟1 = −2𝑖 − 3𝑗 ɸ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 38.65𝑜
𝑥 5
For point Q 𝑟2 = 3𝑖 + 9𝑗 so 𝜃 = 180𝑜 + 38.65𝑜 = 219𝑜
𝑑 = 𝑟2 − 𝑟1 = 3𝑖 + 9𝑗 − (−2𝑖 − 3𝑗) Numerical 2.5: If a vector B is added to vector A,
𝑑 = 3𝑖 + 9𝑗 + 2𝑖 + 3𝑗 = 5𝑖 + 12𝑗 the result is 6𝑖 + 𝑗. If B is subtracted from A , the
𝑑 = 52 + 122 = 25 + 144 = 169 result is −4𝑖 + 7𝑗. What is the magnitude of vector
𝑑 = 13 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 A?
Numerical 2.2: A certain corner of room is Solution:
selected as the origin of a rectangular coordinate 𝐴 =?
system. If an insect is sitting on an adjacent wall 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 6𝑖 + 𝑗
at the a point having coordinates (2,1), where the 𝐴 − 𝐵 = −4𝑖 + 7𝑗
units are in meters, what is the distance of the By adding these two equations
insect from the corner of the room? 2𝐴 = 2𝑖 + 8𝑗
Solution: 𝐴 = 𝑖 + 4𝑗
𝑑 =? 𝐴 = 12 + 42 = 17
For point O 𝑟1 = 0𝑖 + 0𝑗 𝐴 = 4.1
For point A 𝑟2 = 2𝑖 + 𝑗
Numerical 2.6: Given that 𝑨 = 2𝑖 + 3𝑗 and
𝑑 = 𝑟2 − 𝑟1 = 2𝑖 + 𝑗 − 0𝑖 − 0𝑗 𝑩 = 3𝑖 − 4𝑗, find the magnitude and angle of (a)
𝑑 = 2𝑖 + 𝑗 𝑪 = 𝑨 + 𝑩 and (b) 𝑫 = 3𝑨 − 2𝑩
𝑑 = 22 + 12 = 4 + 1 = 5 Solution:
𝑑 = 2.2 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 (a)
Numerical 2.3: What is the unit vector in the 𝑪 = 𝑨 + 𝑩 = 2𝑖 + 3𝑗 + 3𝑖 − 4𝑗 = 5𝑖 − 𝑗
direction of vector 𝑨 = 4𝑖 + 3𝑗 𝐶 = 52 + (−1)2 = 25 + 1
Solution: 𝐶 = 26 = 5.1
𝐴 =? Vector C lies in 4th quadrant so
Unit vector is given as 𝜃 = 360𝑜 − ɸ
𝐴 𝑦 1
𝐴 = ……….. 𝑖 ɸ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 11.3𝑜
𝐴 𝑥 5
𝑨 = 4𝑖 + 3𝑗 so 𝜃 = 360𝑜 − 11.3𝑜 = 349𝑜
𝐴 = 42 + 32 = 16 + 9 = 25 (b)
𝐴=5 𝑫 = 3𝑨 − 2𝑩 = 3 2𝑖 + 3𝑗 − 2(3𝑖 − 4𝑗)
By putting it in equation (i) we get 𝑫 = 6𝑖 + 9𝑗 − 6𝑖 + 8𝑗 = 17𝑗
4𝑖 + 3𝑗 𝐷 = 02 + (17)2 = 17
𝐴= Vector is directed along y-axis so it is directed
5
Numerical 2.4: Two particles are located at perpendicular to x-axis
𝒓𝟏 = 3𝑖 + 7𝑗 and 𝒓𝟐 = −2𝑖 + 3𝑗 respectively. So
Find both the magnitude of the vector (𝒓𝟐 − 𝒓𝟏 ) 𝜃 = 90𝑜
and its orientation with respect to the axis
Solution
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Numerical 2.7: Find the angle between the two 𝑩. 𝑪 = 2𝑖 − 3𝑗 + 𝑘 . (4𝑖 + 𝑗 − 5𝑘 )
vectors 𝑨 = 5𝑖 + 𝑗 and 𝑩 = 2𝑖 + 4𝑗 𝑩. 𝑪 = 2 4 + −3 1 + 1 −5 = 0
Solution: 𝑨. 𝑪 = 𝑖 + 𝑗 + 𝑘 . (4𝑖 + 𝑗 − 5𝑘)
𝜃 =? 𝑨. 𝑪 = 1 4 + 1 1 + 1 −5
As dot product is given as 𝑨. 𝑪 = 4 + 1 − 5 = 0
𝑨. 𝑩 = 𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 Numerical 2.10: Given that 𝑨 = 𝑖 − 2𝑗 + 3𝑘 and
So 𝑩 = 3𝑖 − 4𝑘 find the projection of A on B
𝑨. 𝑩
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = … … (𝑖) Solution:
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =?
𝐴 = 52 + 12 = 26 As dot product is given as
𝐵 = 22 + 42 = 20 𝑨. 𝑩 = 𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑨. 𝑩 = 5 2 + 1 4 = 14 𝑨. 𝑩
By putting these values in equation (i) 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = … … (𝑖)
𝐵
14 14 14 𝑨. 𝑩 = 1 3 + −2 0 + 3 −4 = 3 − 12
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = = =
26. 20 520 22.8 𝑨. 𝑩 = −9
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 0.61 𝐵 = (3)2 + (−4)2 = 25 = 5
𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 0.61 = 52.41𝑜 By putting these values in equation (i)
Numerical 2.8: Find the work done when the 9
𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = −
point of application of force 3𝑖 + 2𝑗 moves in a 5
straight line from the point (2, -1) to the point Numerical 2.11: Vectors A, B and C are 4 units
(6,4) north, 3 units west and 8 units east respectively.
Solution: Describe carefully (a) 𝑨 × 𝑩 (b) 𝑨 × 𝑪 (c) 𝑩 × 𝑪
𝑊 =? Solution:
For point (2,-1) 𝑟1 = 2𝑖 − 𝑗 𝐴=4 𝐵=3 𝐶=8
For point (6,4) 𝑟2 = 6𝑖 + 4𝑗
𝑑 = 𝑟2 − 𝑟1 = 6𝑖 + 4𝑗 − (2𝑖 − 𝑗)
𝑑 = 6𝑖 + 4𝑗 − 2𝑖 + 𝑗 = 4𝑖 + 5𝑗
𝑠𝑜
𝑊 = 𝑭. 𝒅 = 3𝑖 + 2𝑗 . (4𝑖 + 5𝑗)
𝑊 = 3 4 + 2 5 = 22 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
Numerical 2.9: Show that three vectors
𝑖 + 𝑗 + 𝑘 , 2𝑖 − 3𝑗 + 𝑘 and 4𝑖 + 𝑗 − 5𝑘 are
mutually perpendicular
Solution: (a) 𝑨 × 𝑩 =?
Let 𝑨 × 𝑩 = 𝐴𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑛
𝑨 × 𝑩 = 4 (3) 𝑠𝑖𝑛90𝑜 𝑛
𝑨=𝑖+𝑗+𝑘
𝑨 × 𝑩 = 12 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑢𝑝
𝑩 = 2𝑖 − 3𝑗 + 𝑘
𝑪 = 4𝑖 + 𝑗 − 5𝑘 (b) 𝑨 × 𝑪 =?
If dot product of two vectors is zero then they are 𝑨 × 𝑪 = 𝐴𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑛
mutually perpendicular 𝑨 × 𝑪 = 4 (8) 𝑠𝑖𝑛90𝑜 𝑛
So we have to prove that 𝑨 × 𝑪 = 32 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛
𝑨. 𝑩 = 0 𝑩. 𝑪 = 0 𝑨. 𝑪 = 0 (c) 𝑩 × 𝑪 =?
𝑨. 𝑩 = 𝑖 + 𝑗 + 𝑘 . (2𝑖 − 3𝑗 + 𝑘) 𝑩 × 𝑪 = 𝐵𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑛
𝑨. 𝑩 = 1 2 + 1 −3 + 1 1 𝑩 × 𝑪 = 3 (8) 𝑠𝑖𝑛180𝑜 𝑛
𝑨. 𝑩 = 2 − 3 + 1 = 0 𝑩×𝑪 =0

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Numerical 2.14: The magnitude of dot and cross Numerical 2.12: The torque or turning effect of
products of two vectors are 6 3 and 6 force about a given point is given by 𝒓 × 𝑭. Where
respectively. Find the angle between the vectors. r is the vector from the given point to point of
Solution: application of F. Consider a force 𝑭 = −3𝑖 + 𝑗 +
𝜃 =? 5𝑘 (newton) acting on point 7𝑖 + 3𝑗 + 𝑘 (m). What
𝑨. 𝑩 = 6 3 is the torque in Nm about the origin?
𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 6 3 … … (𝑖) Solution:
𝑨×𝑩=6 𝑭 = −3𝑖 + 𝑗 + 5𝑘 (newton)
𝐴𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 6 … … (𝑖𝑖) 𝒓 = 7𝑖 + 3𝑗 + 𝑘 (m).
By dividing (i) with (ii) 𝝉 =?
𝐴𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 6 𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
= 𝝉=𝒓×𝑭= 7 3 1
𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 6 3
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 −3 1 5
𝝉 = 𝑖 3 5 − (1 (1)) − 𝑗 7 5 − (−3 (1) + 𝑘((7)(1) − (−3)(3))
=
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 3 𝝉 = 𝑖 15 − 1 − 𝑗 35 + 3 + 𝑘(7 + 9)
1 𝝉 = 14𝑖 − 38𝑗 + 16𝑘 Nm
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
3 ==========================================
1 Numerical 2.13: The line of action of force
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 30𝑜
3 𝑭 = 𝑖 − 2𝑗 passes through a point whose position
vector is (−𝑗 + 𝑘). Find (a) the moment of F about
the origin. (b) the moment of F about the point of
which the position vector is 𝑖 + 𝑘
Solution:
Numerical 2.15: A load of 10.0 N is suspended 𝑭 = 𝑖 − 2𝑗
from a clothes line. This distorts the line so that it 𝒓𝟐 = −𝑗 + 𝑘
makes an angle of 15𝑜 with the horizontal at each 𝝉 =?
end. Find the tension in the clothes line? (a)
Solution: 𝒓𝟏 = 0𝑖 + 0𝑗
𝑊 = 10.0 𝑁 𝜃 = 15 𝑜 𝒓 = 𝒓𝟐 − 𝒓𝟏 = −𝑗 + 𝑘 − 0𝑖 − 0𝑗
𝑇 =? 𝒓 = 𝒓𝟐 − 𝒓𝟏 = −𝑗 + 𝑘
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝝉 = 𝒓 × 𝑭 = 0 −1 1
1 −2 0
𝝉 = 𝑖 −1 0 − (−2 (1)) − 𝑗 0 0 − (1 (1) + 𝑘((0)(−2) − (1)(−1))
𝝉 = 𝑖 0 + 2 − 𝑗 0 − 1 + 𝑘(0 + 1)
𝝉 = 2𝑖 + 𝑗 + 𝑘

(b)
𝒓𝟏 = 𝑖 + 𝑘
As 𝐹=0 𝒓 = 𝒓𝟐 − 𝒓𝟏 = −𝑗 + 𝑘 − 𝑖 − 𝑘
So 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑊 = 0 𝒓 = 𝒓𝟐 − 𝒓𝟏 = −𝑖 − 𝑗
2𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑊 𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝑊 10 𝝉 = 𝒓 × 𝑭 = −1 −1 0
𝑇= = 𝑁 = 19.3 𝑁
2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2𝑠𝑖𝑛15𝑜 1 −2 0
𝝉 = 𝑖 −1 0 − (−2 (0)) − 𝑗 −1 0 − (1 (0) + 𝑘((−1)(−2)
− (1)(−1))
𝝉 = 𝑖 0 + 0 − 𝑗 0 − 0 + 𝑘(2 + 1)
𝝉 = 3𝑘

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