Dong Nai People’s Committee

Dong Nai University

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

Lecturer: Bui Hong ha

 Introduction

Intercultural Communication focuses on the importance of culture in our

everyday lives, and the ways in which culture interrelates with and effects
communication processes. We live in an era of rapid globalization in which
being able to communicate across cultures is imperative to our ability to
function in a diverse workplace, city, and world. This course will take us on a
journey. Using our stories and our online discussions, this course is designed
to increase our sensitivity to other cultures. Just as importantly, this journey
increases our awareness of our own cultural backgrounds, and the contexts
(social, cultural and historical) in which we live and communicate.

The specific course objectives are as follows:

 To explore cultural self-awareness, other culture awareness, and the

dynamics that arise in interactions between the two.
 To understand how communication processes differ among cultures.
 To identify challenges that arise from these differences in intercultural
interactions and learn ways to creatively address them.
 To discover the importance of the roles of context and power in studying
intercultural communication.
 To acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes that increase intercultural
competence
TWO What Constitutes a Culture?

Culture is communication and communication is

culture.1

The plane finally landed in Tokyo, after the long flight from the West Coast
of the United States. Annie Nimos had changed into fresh business clothes
before arrival, because she would be met by the owner of the firm with whom
she had corresponded for a year for her import business. She had placed sev-
eral orders by correspondence, and business had gone smoothly, but this
would be the first time she and the owner would meet. After finally getting
through customs, she saw a gentleman with a sign in his hand that said
“Mrs. Nimos” and made her way toward him. Tanaka-San, the owner of the
firm, as well as another man and woman who were employees, had come to
meet her. There were bows and herros, and the younger man stepped for-
ward to offer to carry her laptop computer. She started slightly when he
greeted her: “Hello. Welcome to Tokyo. How old are you?”

C O M M U N I C AT I N G W I T H T H E O T H E R
Some communication specialists propose that all communication is inter-
cultural,2 because there are microcultural differences between one family
and another, or even idio-cultural differences between two persons. But this
is not a useful stance in the attempt to communicate successfully across
 What Constitutes a Culture? 13

national cultures, as culture is commonly defined. The act of understand-

ing and being understood is more complex in a broad intercultural range
than in a narrow intracultural situation. The variables of mind, senses, and
medium are, in part or great measure, the products of the communicator’s
particular culture.3 Further, cultural differences present greater obstacles to
communication than do linguistic differences.4
Although Mrs. Nimos had had contact with diverse cultures in South
America and in Europe, this was her first trip to Japan. The personal ques-
tion as to her age caught her off guard, because in the West such a question
would be considered intrusive and offensive. After momentary hesitation
she told the young man her age. He nodded and seemed satisfied, maybe be-
cause she was older than he had expected. Later in the visit, reflecting on her
welcome at the airport, she was able to relate the question about her age to
the importance of hierarchy in Japan. Age is an important factor in situat-
ing a person in the Japanese cultural hierarchy. For her Japanese business
counterparts to feel comfortable that they knew the proper way to address
and to relate to her, they needed to know her age.
In a later conversation, at a dinner with several Chinese students work-
ing on doctoral degrees in the United States, Mrs. Nimos recounted her ex-
perience in Japan, seeking another Asian perspective. On hearing the story,
the men nodded instantly with understanding and said that age is important
for the same reason in China. However, they elaborated, when communi-
cating with family members generation becomes an important factor that
overrides age. Xu Lia explained that he has an uncle who is almost the same
age as he and a cousin who is twenty years older. Xu Lia must address the
young uncle with the respect accorded to the older generation in the family,
and he addresses the older cousin as a peer because the cousin is of the same
generation as Xu Lia.5
We can best understand intercultural communication as cultural variance
in the perception of social objects and events.6 The differences commonly
defined as cultural include language, nationality, ethnicity, values, and cus-
toms. And although communication between subcultures or microcultures
within a given polity is not our focus, understanding how barriers to com-
munication arise because of cultural differences certainly will increase one’s
communication skills with all people.
The elimination of geographic and social barriers by current communi-
cation technology constantly crosses cultural boundaries and confronts us
with the Other, one who is other than us, in some way alien and diverse.7
14 Intercultural Communication

Communicating with the Other may be the key to our survival,8 and the
identity and attributes of the Other are rooted in culture.9 Central, then, to
the issue of intercultural communication is the concept of what constitutes
a culture.

C O N C E P T O F C U LT U R E
There are many concepts of culture, ranging from the simple to the complex:

1. Culture is just “the way we do things around here.” 10 Culture is

the set of norms by which things are run— or simply “are.” 11
2. Culture is the logic by which we give order to the world.12
3. Culture refers to “knowledge, experience, meanings, beliefs,
values, attitudes, religions, concepts of self, the universe and self-
universe, relationships, hierarchies of status, role expectations,
spatial relations, and time concepts” accumulated by a large
group of people over generations through individual and group
effort. “Culture manifests itself both in patterns of language and
thought, and in forms of activity and behavior.” 13 Culture filters
communication.

Anthropologist Edward T. Hall, in his catalyzing work The Silent Lan-

guage, states that culture is not one thing, but rather a complex series of in-
terrelated activities with origins deeply buried in our past. He treats culture
in its entirety as a form of communication. Culture is communication and
communication is culture.14 In a living, dynamic circle, culture governs com-
munication and communication creates, reinforces, and re-creates culture.
Even though humans may be the only animals to have culture, they are
not the first to be social. They did not, in their special wisdom, invent soci-
ety. Even the earliest complex animals were born into a social system to
which they had to adapt if they were to subsist. Society is an adaptive neces-
sity for human existence, and communication is the system of co-adaptation
that sustains society. However, we need to remember that even though com-
munication is necessary to sustain life, other peoples who do not communi-
cate precisely as we do, do not immediately die.15
Human communication contains two kinds of messages. The first is in-
termittent in occurrence and can be referred to as the new informational as-
pect. The other is the continuous, relational aspect of interpersonal com-
munication. The conveyance of new information is no more important than
 What Constitutes a Culture? 15

the relational aspect of communication, because the latter keeps the com-
munication system in operation and regulates the interaction process. Com-
munication in the broadest sense is the active aspect of cultural structure.16
The information content of communication often takes the form of a low-
context verbal message, and the relational aspect is more often communi-
cated nonverbally as a contextual metamessage.17
To understand how humans adapt to their society, we can conceptually
break down the social system of a culture into units of prescribed behavior
for given situations. Hall characterizes these units as situational frames in
society. A situational frame is the smallest viable unit of a culture that can
be “analyzed, taught, transmitted, and handed down” as a complete entity.
Examples of such units might be “greeting,” “gift-giving,” “introductions,”
“eye contact,” and “table manners.” As children, we start learning in units
the behavior for each situation that is considered appropriate for our cul-
ture. These situational units are culture’s building blocks, and they contain
social, temporal, proxemic, kinesic, linguistic, personality, and other com-
ponents. Since we can more easily learn a new culture by using manageable
analytic units,18 looking at common cultural “situations”— the units that
differ from culture to culture and constitute potential obstacles— can aid us
in achieving effective intercultural communication.
Difference in the situational units of a culture creates communication ob-
stacles in the process of verbal and nonverbal interaction between persons.
But since culture as a whole gives rise to obstacles of perception, it is also
imperative to broadly consider cultural information such as history, reli-
gion, form of government, preconceptions, and values.
Culture gives humans their identity. It is the total communication frame-
work for words, actions, body language, emblems (gestures), intonation, fa-
cial expressions, for the way one handles time, space, and materials, and for
the way one works, makes love, plays, and so on. All these things and more
are complete communication systems. Meanings can only be read correctly
if one is familiar with these units of behavior in their cultural context.19
Anything that can properly be called cultural is learned, not hereditary.20
But these learned ways of interacting gradually sink below the surface of the
mind and become hidden controls that are experienced as innate because
they are ubiquitous and habitual. Culture organizes the psyche, how people
look at things, behave, make decisions, order priorities, and even how they
think.21
We are, all of us, already cultural experts, but we are experts in our own
cultures and almost totally at a subconscious level. Our trained subcon-
16 Intercultural Communication

scious antennae can read insincerity when words and nonverbal communi-
cation are incongruent, and we can anticipate aggressive actions from subtle
cues. But this same finely tuned sub-subconscious interpretative ability will
misread cues that have a different meaning in another culture, and when this
happens we have a reaction based on misinformation, often without our be-
ing aware of the mechanics leading to our response.
Our own cultural maps are so familiar, like a home neighborhood, that
we do not need to make them explicit; it is only in foreign cultural territory
that we need an externalized map.22 When one can successfully describe an
informal pattern in a culture, then others in the same culture can immedi-
ately recognize it because they already have acquired this pattern. By ex-
plicitly putting cultural patterns or rules into words, these informal and sub-
conscious patterns can be more easily taught.23 In fact, the only important
process in the survival of cultures is transmission,24 i.e., communication.
Although culture is learned, Hall points out that it is very difficult for
culture X to teach culture Y to use nonverbal communication forms, be-
cause all groups tend to interpret their own nonverbal communication pat-
terns as universal.25 We constantly and silently communicate our real feel-
ings in the language of nonverbal behavior, which is elaborately patterned
by our culture.26
Consequently, to communicate across cultures, we need formal training
not only in the language but also in the history, government, and customs of
the target culture, with at least an introduction to its nonverbal language.27
Humans are linked to each other through hierarchies of rhythms of lan-
guage and body movement that are culture-specific. We cannot adequately
describe a culture solely from the inside without reference to the outside,
nor vice-versa,28 which dictates an etic-emic approach.

C U LT U R E I S N O R M AT I V E
As children, we learn through subliminal, but clearly discrete, signals the
directives, the prohibitions, the encouragements, and the warnings that
govern our consistent association with other members of our society. Our
systems of verbal and body-motion languages are flexible and malleable,
but they are adaptive and functional only because they are systematically
organized.29
Every society seems to have strict normative regulations of communica-
tion, a kind of communication traffic order.30 In fact, all human behavior is
 What Constitutes a Culture? 17

subject to normative social control, and each bit of behavior (Hall’s situa-
tional unit) becomes an element in a code. This normative structure is what
gives human behavior its communicative power.31 One communicates by
how one adheres to or deviates from the norm. The particular set of rules
that transforms a person into a human being derives from requirements
established in the ritual organization of social encounters.32 However, we
should bear in mind that at some time in history some culture has justified
or condemned every conceivable human action.
When a person is born into a society, a system already exists into which
the person must be assimilated if the society is to sustain itself. If the per-
son’s behavior does not become predictable to the degree expected, then he
or she must be accorded special treatment, which can range from deifica-
tion to incarceration. In some societies the person who does not assimi-
late will be allowed to die. Ultimately the goal is to make the person’s be-
havior predictable enough that society can go about the rest of its business.
In every society, in order to attain membership, a person must gain control
of the pattern of, and be incorporated into, the society’s communication
system.33
Human communities select their cultural institutions from a great range
of possibilities; the resulting configuration of choices from this matrix makes
up the pattern of a culture, and patterning is what gives culture its intelligi-
bility.34 These cultural patterns are unique, not universal, but human beings
have difficulty getting outside their own cultural skins in order to see this.
To communicate effectively across cultures, we need to increase our under-
standing of our own unconscious culture.35

D E V I AT I O N F R O M C U LT U R A L N O R M S
There is a public order. All of our interactions with others are governed by
a learned set of rules— our cultural pattern—most of which unconsciously
guide our behavior and consequently affect our communication. We draw
on our learned rules to understand others’ behavior.36 Interacting through
verbal and nonverbal language usage (what is said when, how it is phrased,
and how one coordinates language with nonverbal signs) is not simply a
matter of free choice; such usage is affected by subconscious and internal
constraints that lie out of our immediate awareness.37 We are sharply con-
scious of another’s deviation from these rules—and we interpret meaning
from such deviation. When engaging in intercultural communication, we
18 Intercultural Communication

often cannot understand the meaning of another’s comportment, and we

know that we do not understand. A yet greater peril to misunderstanding
occurs when we think we understand and do not. We misinterpret. We can
misinterpret such things as the dynamics of turn-taking, the use of space,
eye contact, and smiling, to name only a few possibilities from a potentially
infinite list.
An act can be proper or improper only according to the judgment of a spe-
cific social group, and one type of socially approved act, called a negatively
eventful act, is of central importance. If this type of act is not performed
there will be negative sanctions, but the act goes unperceived if performed
properly.38 The part of the human nervous system that deals with social be-
havior works according to the principle of negative feedback. Therefore, we
are consciously aware primarily of violations of our unconscious rules of
behavior; acts in compliance with the rules go unnoticed, as do the uncon-
scious rules themselves as long as persons comply with them. We most fre-
quently become aware of this hidden control system when interacting with
other cultures, because often such interactions do not follow our uncon-
scious rules.39 The great gift of intercultural interactions is the opportunity
to achieve awareness of our own cultural system, which has value beyond
simply having a good or bad experience with an “exotic” encounter.
Teresa, raised in South America, married a man with a French father
and a Russian mother, Antonina. The newlyweds lived with the husband’s
parents early in the marriage. Every morning the young woman would greet
her father- and mother-in-law and kiss them on the cheek, as she was ac-
customed to greeting her own family. On occasions when the mother-in-
law was irritated with Teresa, she complained that Teresa obviously didn’t
like her—that she “disgusted” and “repulsed” Teresa. Teresa was surprised
by the choice of words and could not identify the basis for Antonina’s
complaint.
Several years later Teresa realized that she was accustomed to giving a
Latin-style “kiss” good-morning—a kiss on the cheek— or more accurately,
a brushing of cheeks. But all of her life, in the various countries in which she
lived, Antonina kissed family and friends, both men and women, in Russian
fashion. This was a kiss full on the mouth, and most people with whom she
interacted accommodated her style. Antonina interpreted Teresa’s turning of
her head and the “cheek-kiss” as avoidance because of dislike and a critical
attitude. The only person Teresa kissed on the mouth was her husband. Be-
fore her realization, Teresa had not connected Antonina’s accusation of
“disgust” with her morning greeting and its style.
 What Constitutes a Culture? 19

C U LT U R E C L A S H E S
Millions of North Americans traveled to Europe after World War II, and a
large number of European writers, intellectuals, and students traveled to the
United States. Occasionally, the opportunity to live in and learn about a dif-
ferent society helped shatter the preconceived stereotypes that each had
about the other. But most of these transatlantic explorations and cultural
exchanges led not to mutual understanding but mutual suspicion, and not
to greater sophistication but greater provincialism. Most of the travelers were
champions of their own culture with an inability to appreciate any country
but their own or to accept another society on its own terms.40 Simple expo-
sure to another culture does not guarantee better intercultural communica-
tion. Such encounters may result only in culture clashes and the reinforce-
ment of negative stereotypes.
Antonina and Teresa’s greeting behavior lay below their conscious
thought. Antonina reacted strongly to the negatively eventful act of avoid-
ance of contact on the mouth because she interpreted it as judgmental. It
brought Teresa’s behavior to a conscious level, although Antonina seemed
able to verbalize only her reaction and not its cause. For Teresa the morn-
ing greeting was not a negative event, and the ritual stayed below a con-
scious level. It would have been helpful if Teresa had become consciously
aware of her own and Antonina’s cultural conditioning earlier in the rela-
tionship, because the offense perceived by Antonina added fuel to a long-
lasting fire of contention. This type of misunderstanding is typical of how
cultural differences cause difficulties in intercultural communication.
Australian Jill Ker Conway, in her autobiography True North, recounts
that she was irrationally irked by what she perceived as the inefficiency of
English life, the slowness with which things got done, and the relaxed con-
fidence of all concerned that they lived at the center of the greatest intellec-
tual community in the world. John, her North American husband, gave her
advice to help her objectively observe rather than react. He urged her “to
view the British as though they were an African tribe, complete with nose
rings and elaborate tattoos, delightful to observe, just as one would any
other strange culture.” 41 She states that, like “every émigré, I was always
keeping score, somewhere in the back of my mind, weighing and assessing
what was good and bad about my new situation, testing the new society
against my native one.” 42
Conway writes that there are climates of the mind. “Some expatriates
never arrive spiritually in the new land.” The light remains foreign, and the
20 Intercultural Communication

climate is perpetually measured by the standard of another geographic zone.

The senses of sight and smell continue to be governed by the person’s inner
sense, always searching for the familiar sensations of childhood, just as
some émigrés can never master the pronunciation of a new tongue no mat-
ter how fluently they speak it.43
We automatically treat what is most characteristic of our own culture
(that of our youth) as though it were innate. We are automatically ethno-
centric—we are thoroughly trained to be so—and we therefore think and
react to anyone whose behavior differs as if that person were impolite, irre-
sponsible, inferior, etc. We experience the behavior of another that deviates
from our own unconscious cultural norms as an uncontrollable and unpre-
dictable part of ourselves; a cultural type of identification grips us in its iron
fist,44 demanding conformity. And, as the misunderstanding between An-
tonina and Teresa over greeting style illustrates, a negative or positive reac-
tion can be primarily one-way.
All societies lament the differences they encounter in others. Europeans
have complained that the United States’ past has little relevance to the ex-
perience of societies elsewhere on earth. The French have long believed that
their culture is infinitely exportable and their history of worldwide sig-
nificance. While North Americans tout their democracy, the French pro-
claim their civilization. The global attitudes of both nations are similarly
grandiose.45
In dealing with other countries, many North Americans assume that all
foreigners secretly wish to emulate the United States and expect them to re-
model their institutions using the North American pattern. Richard Pells
writes that North Americans tend to evaluate other countries by how closely
they resemble the United States, including not only those nations’ social in-
stitutions but also their plumbing and their kitchens.46
Many nations characterize a cultural difference such as the killing of
one’s sister for adultery as an uncivilized deviation from cultural norms.
Differences as extreme as this example signal very fundamental differences
in cultural patterns. In non-Westernized Arab settings the sister is a sacred
link between families, and culture justifies such an act as preserving the cen-
tral family institution, without which the society would perish or be radi-
cally altered.47 Without accepting, condoning, or participating in practices
unacceptable to our own cultures, understanding a different practice none-
theless aids in intercultural communication. It is true, however, that signi-
ficant and fundamental cultural differences make communication difficult at
best and, on some points, impossible.
 What Constitutes a Culture? 21

DIVERSITY AND IDENTITY

In some North American subcultures, it is the practice to avoid direct eye
contact with strangers in public when closer than twelve to fourteen feet.
Persons belonging to a group that is used to visual involvement inside that
distance will misread the avoidance of eye contact: miscuing of this type on
the unconscious behavioral level is touchy and complex and in some con-
texts is interpreted as deliberate racism.48 Many people from Asian and
Latin American cultures avoid eye contact as a sign of respect. This is also
true of many African Americans, particularly in the southern United States.
Many North American employers, teachers, and similar “authority” figures
interpret avoidance of eye contact as a sign of disrespect or deviousness.49
In fact, we can picture a North American adult scolding a child who looks
down: “You look at me when I speak to you!”—but in many parts of the
world one never challenges authority by looking it in the eye.
In United States’ urban centers, direct eye contact has taken new mean-
ing among the younger generation. It acts much like a challenge to a duel
and may provoke a physical altercation. The Code of Conduct signs at Uni-
versal Studio’s City Walk in Los Angeles warn against “annoying others
through noisy or boisterous activities or by unnecessary staring [author’s
emphasis].” 50
An anglophone North American teacher may assume that most children
want to get ahead and may try to encourage students with contests. His-
panic New Mexican children may appear lazy because they seem not to
want to make the effort. This stereotype takes on new meaning when we
learn that to stand out from one’s peers in the Hispanic group is to place
oneself in great jeopardy and is to be avoided at all costs.51 The teacher is
steeped in the individualism of North American culture; the child has been
conditioned by collective Hispanic culture. Members of each group will be
motivated differently.
People as cultural beings are not masters of their fate—they are bound
by hidden rules as long as they remain ignorant of the hidden norms of their
culture.52 What is closest to ourselves is what we consciously know least
well.53
In Not Like Us, Richard Pells writes that North American expatriates liv-
ing in Europe found the experience to be an occasion for introspection, and
the opportunity not only to explore another culture but also to “rediscover”
one’s own. James Baldwin during his long residence in France concluded
that his cultural ties were neither to Europe nor to Africa, but that his iden-
22 Intercultural Communication

tity was inescapably North American. Other writers and intellectuals had
similar epiphanies and spoke of a cultural reawakening and of their greater
awareness of the strengths and deficiencies of their own North American
culture.54
To understand and accept the ways in which the minds of those in an-
other group work constitutes the essence of cultural understanding; a by-
product of such acceptance affords a rare glimpse of the strengths and weak-
nesses of our own system. Transcending or freeing ourselves from the grip
of unconscious culture cannot be accomplished without some such self-
awareness. The real job may be to understand our own culture, and to take
other cultures seriously forces us to pay attention to the details of our own.55
We may, in fact, need each other for self-definition. How can we know what
is distinctively British, French, or Mexican without describing what is pe-
culiarly German, Italian, or Dutch? How can we know what is distinctively
Latin American without defining what is North American? 56

ETIC /EMIC APPROACHES

Since some universal skills for intercultural communication apply across all
cultures,57 we can effectively utilize an etic (culture general) approach. But
we also need to employ an emic approach to produce paradigms about a
specific culture,58 and therefore we need to investigate the culture with
which we plan to interact in order to pinpoint cultural differences. Increas-
ing difference-awareness through an emic approach ideally should engender
the concept that we are different from others and not always that others are
different from us. Sensitizing people to the idea that differences exist is a first
step in attaining intercultural communication proficiency.59 Intercultural
communication competence and culture-specific communication compe-
tence must be viewed as two separate concepts that operate simultaneously
to contribute to the successful outcome of a given intercultural encounter.60
In examining a culture from the inside to gain as much understanding as
possible, we should always be alert for any cultural differences that may po-
tentially present communication problems but that may not seem to fit any
external list of categories. It is important not to lose sight of the fact that cul-
ture is active, not static, and is continuously evolving and changing. And
even though this book specifically addresses intercultural communication,
the concepts presented will also be useful in everyday intracultural commu-
nication. Ideally, we will learn to suspend judgment about any unfamiliar or
 What Constitutes a Culture? 23

offensive communicative behavior, verbal or nonverbal, and ask ourselves

“How is this behavior useful, or how does it originate in culture?” or—per-
haps occasionally —“Is this individual really just an obnoxious representa-
tion of him- or herself?”
In our own cultures, we acquire a cultural template for communication
behavior that not only allows us automatically to handle routine encoun-
ters, but also consciously to adapt to new situations that arise. In address-
ing a foreign culture, using an etic, general approach combined with an
emic, culture-specific approach will give us insight into how to arrive at ac-
ceptable shared meaning both in anticipated and unforeseen circumstances.

I N T E R C U LT U R A L C O M M U N I C AT I O N O B S TA C L E S
The successful intercultural communication process best begins with good-
will on both sides. However, an individual’s negative reactions and evalua-
tions of a foreign culture may create intercultural communication barriers.
Negative evaluations cause dislike rather than like, and avoidance rather
than approach. They occur because the foreign culture deviates from the
norms to which we are acculturated. These barriers are bicultural and mono-
directional, reflecting unwillingness or inability to understand the norms
of a foreign culture. The barriers are not necessarily reciprocal. Further, a
single cultural difference may, in fact, be an absolute barrier if it violates one
of a communicator’s core values.61 The isolation of women in harems and
the practice of infanticide violate Western core values. Female sexual free-
dom violates core values of most Arab and Asian nations.
Culture is the matrix in which perception and verbal and nonverbal com-
munication processes develop.62 Factors in these three general communica-
tion groupings in turn affect culture as well as each other. The interrela-
tionships are complex but can be usefully diagrammed (see Table 1).

T A B L E 1. Cultural Matrix

CULTURE

Behavior

VERBAL NONVERBAL
PERCEPTION PROCESSES PROCESSES
T A B L E 2 . Potential Obstacles to Intercultural Communication

Culture

Perception Behavior

Verbal Processes Nonverbal Processes

CULTURE SPECIFIC COMPETENCY Chronemics (Time Sense)

Collectivism vs. Accent Monochronic

Individualism Cadence Polychronic

Face Connotation Context

Hierarchy Context Immediacy
History and Idiom Kinesics (Body Motion
Experience Polite Usage Communication)
Master Symbols Silence Emblems (Gestures)
Power Style Eye Contact
Preconceptions Facial Expressions
Role LITERACY / Haptics (Touch)
Class ORALITY Posture
Gender Smell
Rules Proxemics (Space Sense)
Social Organization Fixed-Feature Space
Family Semifixed-Feature Space
Government Informal Space
Thought Patterns Physical Characteristics
Values Artifacts (Extensions of
Worldview Self)
Physical Appearance
CULTURALLY Vocalics (Speech
PERSONAL Characteristics)
Adaptability Vocal Characterizers
Attitude Vocal Qualifiers
Ethnocentrism Vocal Rate
Uncertainty Vocal Segregates
 What Constitutes a Culture? 25

As a navigation tool for foreign cultural territory, an original list of “ob-

stacles” has been gleaned from intercultural communication research and
literature. These obstacles have been sorted into the three general groupings
and tabulated in taxonomic form. For an overview of a dynamic culture-as-
communication whole, see Table 2 for this list of categories of common po-
tential obstacles to intercultural communication.63
Table 2 will serve as a map to guide us in our attempt to communicate
across cultural boundaries. The next three chapters will explicate the cate-
gories of potential obstacles to intercultural communication, so that we
have a better chance of anticipating and recognizing—and therefore of
avoiding or surmounting—these barriers.
 WESTERN AND EASTERN CULTURE

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2
3
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 Verbal Patterns

[A] Have you noticed how often Americans use the expression "thank
you"? A customer, after paying $100 for a meal in a restaurant, says
"thank you" to the person who hands him the bill. In response to "I like
the color of your car," an American might answer "thank you." In both of
5 these cases no great favor or compliment was extended, yet "thank you"
was the automatic response.
[B] When you listen to people speak a foreign language that you under
stand, have you noticed that the native speakers of that language use
words and phrases in a manner different from what you are used to? In
American English, for example, people say "thank you" frequently. A
5 word for "thank you" exists in almost every language, but how and when
it is used is not always the same. In your language, do you thank people for
trivial as well as important or unusual favors? For Americans, this
expression is used as a polite response to different kinds of favors and 10
compliments, and is often automatic (e.g., "Thanks for calling" to someone
on the phone or "Thank you" to a teller in a bank).

Rules and Sty les of Speaking

[C] In language there are tacit rules of speaking that, unlike rules of
grammar or spelling, are not usually studied in a formal manner. These
unspoken "rules" exist in every language but differ significantly from culture
to culture. Acquiring a second language demands more than 5 learning
new words and another system of grammar. It involves developing sens it ivity
to aspects of language that are usually not taught in language textbooks.
Some important rules include permissible degrees of directness in speech
and forms of politeness used in daily conversation.

19
20 Verbal Patterns

Directness in American English

[D] Compared with other languages, American English strongly empha

sizes directness in verbal interaction. Many expressions exemplify this
tendency: "Don't beat around the bush," "Let's get down to business,"
and "Get to the point" all indicate impatience with avoiding issues. If a
5 son hesitates telling his father that he received a bad grade in school, his
father might respond angrily with, "Out with it!" or "Speak up!"
[E] Directness is also seen when information is requested from strangers
or from people who are not well known to you. For example, when
passing a professor's office a student may say, "Excuse me, I'd like to ask
 Verbal Patterns 21

you a couple of questions." Her professor may respond, "Sure, go right

5 ahead. What's the problem?" In this interaction, the student stated her
purpose and the professor responded immediately.
[F] Offers and responses to offers provide another example of directness
in verbal interaction. At a dinner party it would not be unusual to hear
the following conversation:

HOST. Would you like some more dessert?

GUEST. No, thank you. It's delicious, but I've really had enough.
HOST. OK, why don't we leave the table and sit in the living room?

In this conversation between two Americans, the host does not repeat
5 the offer more than once. (Hosts may offer food twice but usually not
more than that.) If guests are hungry, they need to say directly, "Yes, I'd
like some more, thank you." If they are hungry but say, "No, thank you,"
out of politeness, they may remain hungry for the rest of the evening. A
host will assume that a guest's refusal is honest and direct.
[G] Of course, there are limits to the degree of directness a person is
allowed to express, especially with people of higher status such as
teachers and employers. A male student was surprised at the reaction of his
female teacher when he said, "What has happened to you? You look 5 like
you gained a lot of weight!" When the teacher replied, "That's none of
your business," he answered in an embarrassed tone, "I was just being
honest." In this case, his honesty and directness were inappropriate and
unappreciated because of the teacher-student relationship. (In addition,
most Americans do not like being told that they are fat!)

Invitations

[H] A frequently misunderstood area in American verbal interaction is

that of extending, accepting, and refusing invitations. The unwritten
"rules" are confusing and create misunderstandings even for native
speakers. In English someone might say something that sounds like an 5
invitation but that never results in an actual meeting with another per-
son. Of course, there are invitations that require definite commitments.
Compare these two invitations:

Invitation I:
KATIE. It was nice talking to you. I have to run to class. DARLENE. OK,
maybe we can meet sometime soon. KATIE. Yeah, love to. Why
don't you drop by my house sometime? DARLENE. Great. Gotta go.
See ya soon.
22 Verbal Patterns

Invitation II:
KATIE. Before you leave for your vacation can we get together and have lunch?
DARLENE . Sure. I'd love to.
KATIE. How about Friday? Say about 12:30 at my place?
DARLENE. That sounds good. See you then.

The first invitation did not result in an appointment and was nothing
more than a "polite" expression. In the second dialogue a genuine invita-10
tion was extended because Katie had a definite plan (a lunch
date) and a specific date, time, and place in mind (Friday, 12:30). If Katie
had said only, "Drop by," Darlene probably would not have visited Katie.

Speaking and Refraining from Speaking

[I] Many rules governing speech patterns are learned in childhood and
people grow up thinking that everyone has the same rules for speaking.
People unconsciously expect others to use the same modes of expression as
they do. For instance, not all languages use silence and interruptions in
 Verbal Patterns 23

5 the same way. Have you observed the ways people from different cul-
tures use silence? Have you noticed that some people interrupt conver-
sations more than other people? All cultures do not have the same rules
governing these areas of communication.
[J] Many Americans interpret silence in a conversation to mean disap-
proval, disagreement, or unsuccessful communication. They often try to fill
silence by saying something even if they have nothing to say! On the other
hand, Americans don't appreciate a person who dominates a con-5
versation. Knowing when to take turns in conversation in another language
can sometimes cause difficulty. Should you wait until someone has finished a
sentence before contributing to a discussion, or can you break into the middle
of someone's sentence? Interrupting someone who is speaking is considered
rude in the United States. Even children are 10 are taught explicitly not to
interrupt.

Different Ways of Expressing Common Needs

[K] Individuals in every culture have similar basic needs but express
them differently. In daily life we all initiate conversation, use formal and
informal speech, give praise, express disagreement, seek information,
and extend invitations. Some of the verbal patterns we use are influenced
5 by our culture. Whereas directness in speech is common in the United
States, indirectness is the rule in parts of the Far East. Thus people from
both of these parts of the world would probably express criticism of
others differently. In parts of the Middle East a host is expected to offer
food several times but in the United States he may make an offer only
10 once or twice. The different modes of expression represent variations on
the same theme. Each language reflects and creates cultural attitudes;
each has a unique way of expressing human need.
24 Verbal Patterns

Comprehension Questions'

Choose the best answer for the following questions. You will find the
answer either stated directly or indirectly in the reading passage.

1. What is the main point of this reading?

a. Directness is characteristic of American verbal interaction.
b. There are unwritten and tacit rules of speaking that affect verbal
interaction.
c. Invitations may not always be genuine.

2. Three general topics in the reading are:

a. Hospitality, honesty, friendship.
b. Saying "thank you," offering food, and making a date.
c. Directness, invitations, and silence.

3. Why is the example of the Americans' use of "thank you" used in the
introduction of the reading? [A]
a. Americans are insincere when they say "thank you."
b. Certain words and phrases are used differently in various cultures.
c. "Thank you" is expressed only after compliments are extended.

4. The authors imply throughout the reading that:

a. "Rules of speaking" in the American culture are the only correct
rules.
b. Direct criticism is more effective than indirect criticism.
c. One should learn the tacit and unwritten rules of speaking in a
culture in order to understand the people.

5. The brief interaction between the student and her professor is used to
illustrate: [E]
a. Directness in seeking information.
b. The teacher-student relationship.
c. Time limitations of professors.
6. Generally hosts do not offer food more than once or twice because
they: [F]
a. Do not expect you to be hungry.
b. Expect you to say immediately what you really want.
c. Expect you to refuse politely.

7. The difference between the two types of invitations in paragraph H is

that:

*The capital letter in brackets refers to the corresponding paragraph in the reading.
 Verbal Patterns 25

a. Invitation I is a false promise, invitation II is not.

b. Invitation I is simply a polite way of approaching the end of a
conversation; invitation II is a genuine invitation.
c. Invitation I demonstrates a closer relationship between Katie and
Darlene than does invitation II.
8. The authors imply that silence in conversations: [J]
a. Always means disapproval and disagreement in the American
culture.
b. Often makes Americans feel uncomfortable during conversations.
c. Means unsuccessful communication in all cultures.
9. The final paragraph states that people from various cultures: [K]
a. Share common needs but express them differently.
b. Share common needs and therefore express them similarly.
c. Do not share common needs and therefore do not have similar
expressions.

Vocabulary List

Paragraph A Paragraph B Paragraph C Paragraph D

hands manner tacit interaction
favor significantly indicate
* extended * sensitivity (to) *hesitates
* automatic
Paragraph E Paragraph F Paragraph G Paragraph H

(no new assume * embarrassed actual

words) tone definite
* commitments
genuine

Paragraph I Paragraph J Pa r ag r aph K

unconsciously interpret praise
modes disapproval reflects
disagreement unique
dominates
explicitly

*See vocabulary exercise D.

26 Verbal Patterns

Phrases and Expressions

Don't beat around the bush. [D] Go right ahead [E]
Let's get down to business. [D] to drop by [H]
Get to the point. [D] How about Friday? [H]
Out with it! [D] That sounds good. [H]
Speak up! [D] on the other hand [J]

Vocabulary Exercises

A. Choose the appropriate synonym (or the word closest in meaning) from
Synonyms the list and rewrite each sentence, replacing the italicized word. Change
tense, singular and plural, and part of speech when necessary.
conclude voice unspoken
give way show
considerable conversation courtesy

1. When a professor hands the students their exam scores, he doesn't

expect them to argue. [A]

2. He did me the favor of lending me his car for two weeks. [A]

3. Some doctors have a quiet manner with their patients. [B]

4. The two friends had a tacit agreement not to share their secrets with
other people. [C]

5. Do you think $10,000 is a significantly large amount of

money? [C]

6. Often interaction between two people who don't speak the same
language is difficult. [D]

7. He tried to indicate to the teacher that he didn't understand what she

was saying. [D]

8. When we see the police, we assume there is trouble. [F]

9. A person's tone can convey more than her words. [G]

*The capital letter in brackets indicates the paragraph from the reading.
 Verbal Patterns 27

B. Choose the correct word form for each sentence. Make verb tense changes, Word
Forms make nouns singular or plural, and use active or passive voice as
applicable.

1. actual, actually [H]

a. " ______________," said the student, "I prefer having a job to being
a student."

b. The patient did not want to discuss the ______________ problem

with the doctor; instead he talked around the problem.

2. definitely, definite [H]

a. The young man said that he would_______________ come to the

party.

b. Are your plans_______________ yet?

3. genuine, genuinely, genuineness [H]

a. The gift was a _____________ expression of his appreciation.

b. I sensed a lack of_______________in the car salesman.

c. The artist was ______________ trying to be creative.

4. unconsciously, unconscious, unconsciousness [I]

a. After being hit by the car, the child was ______________ for three
days.

b. He _______________ turned off the alarm clock when he woke up in

the morning.

c. He was in a state of ______________ that lasted for three weeks.

C. First choose the correct word for the definitions. Then fill in the blanks in
Definitions the sentences following the definitions. Note: You may have to change the
grammatical form of the word used in the sentence.
modes [I] disagreement [J] praise [K]
interpret [J] dominates [J] reflects [K]
disapproval [J] explicitly [J] unique [K]

1. one of a kind, having no equal _________________

Hand-made jewelry is expensive because each piece is

28 Verbal Patterns

2. refusal to approve, rejection ________________

My father gave me a_________________ look when he saw my exam

ination scores.
3. to explain the meaning of _________________

His _________________ of the book was very different from the

author's.

4. styles, manners, forms ________________

Each writer has her own _________________of expression.

5. expression of approval ________________

The child smiled after he was ________________ by his father.

6. shows _________________

Her poor response in class ________________ her lack of knowledge

on the subject.

7. in a clearly stated or distinctly expressed manner__________________

The instructions on the package were so _________________ that it

was impossible to make a mistake.

8. difference of opinion _________________

Parents and children often _________________ about what is right

and wrong.

9. rules or controls_________________

The executive president ________________ the meeting by not

allowing the others to speak.

D. Match the words on the left with their definitions on the right. Place the
Matching letter of the definition in the space next to the word.

extended a. pauses or stops often because of indecision

automatic b. understanding of
c. specific promises
sensitivity (to)
d. done without conscious thought as if from
hesitates habit
embarrassed e. offered; presented for acceptance
f. uncomfortable; flustered
commitments
 Verbal Patterns 29

E. Which statement best conveys the meaning of the italicized words?

Phrases 1. If a person beats around the bush when asking a favor, it means
and
that: [D]
Expressions
a. He asks directly.
b. He asks indirectly
c. He doesn't ask at all.

2. When the professor told the student to go right ahead with her ques
tion, he meant that: [E]
a. The student should go away from the room.
b. The student should wait for her turn before asking the question.
c. The student should ask the question immediately.

3. When you are asked to go out and the person who invites you says,
"How about Friday?" he means to say: [H]
a. "Can you go out on Friday? It's a good day forme."
b. "Any day is OK for me. What about you?"
c. "If Friday isn't good for you, then we can't go."

4. When the girl said that having lunch together "Sounds good," she
meant that: [H]
a. Those words are nice to listen to.
b. Having lunch together is a good idea.
c. There are good sounds at lunches.

Conversational Activities

A. In English, as in other languages, the types of vocabulary, structure, and

Language tone used in conversation vary with the situation. Compare the ways
Style that a request may be made; look at the vocabulary used and the length of the
sentence in each of the following examples:

I'm sorry to trouble you, but could you please tell me where the
library is? (formal)
Would you be so kind as to tell me where the library is? (formal)
Where is the library, please? (semiformal)
Where's the library? (informal)

Learning different styles in a second language is not always easy. It is

necessary to know how to vary speech according to situations. Read the
following situations and respond to each one appropriately.
 Nonverbal Communication

Teacher:
I've been a teacher for ten years and I can always tell when students don't
know an answer in class discussion. They either look down at their
notes, stare out the window, or fix their shoelaces — but they never look

me in the eye.

College Student:
Mary says she likes me, but I don't know how she really feels about me.
We've gone out three times and she rarely laughs at my jokes or smiles at
me. She always looks bored when I talk to her.

Customer:
Jane was at the store trying to decide which television set to buy. A loud,
overeager salesman approached her, waved his hands in her face, and
nearly stood on her feet. She became so uncomfortable that she left the
shop.

[A] Language studies traditionally have emphasized verbal and written

language, but recently have begun to consider communication that takes
place without words. In some types of communication people express
more nonverbally than verbally. If you ask an obviously depressed
5 person, "What's wrong?", and he answers, "Nothing, I'm fine," you
probably won't believe him. When an angry person says, "Let's forget
this subject, I don't want to talk about it any more!" you know that he
hasn't stopped communicating. His silence and withdrawal continue to
convey emotional meaning.

[B] One study done in the

United States showed that in the communica-
tion of attitudes, 93 percent of the message was transmitted by the tone of
the voice and by facial expressions, whereas only 7 percent of the
speaker's attitude was transmitted by words.1 Apparently, we express 5
our emotions and attitudes more nonverbally than verbally.

43
44 Nonverbal Communication

Cultural Differences in Nonverbal Communication

[C] Nonverbal communication expresses meaning or feeling without

words. Universal emotions, such as happiness, fear, and sadness, are
expressed in a similar nonverbal way throughout the world. There are,
however, nonverbal differences across cultures that may be a source of
5 confusion for foreigners. For example, feelings of friendship exist every-,
where but their expression varies. It may be acceptable in some countries
for men to embrace each other and for women to hold hands; in other
countries these displays of affection may be shocking.

[D] What is acceptable in one culture may be completely unacceptable in

another. One culture may determine that snapping fingers to call a waiter
is appropriate; another may consider this gesture rude. We are often not
aware of how gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, and the use of 5
space affect communication. In order to correctly interpret another cul-
ture's style of communication, it is necessary to study the "silent lan-
guage" of that culture.

Gestures

[E] Gestures refer to specific body movements that carry meaning. Hands
can form shapes that convey many meanings: "That's expensive," "Come
here," "Go away," and "It's OK" can be expressed nonverbally using only
hands. The gestures for these phrases may differ among languages. 5 As
children we imitate and learn these nonverbal movements and often use
them to accompany or replace words. When traveling to another country,
foreign visitors soon learn that not all gestures are universal.
 The "OK" gesture in the American culture is a symbol for money in
J a pa n . T h e s a m e g e s tu r e i s o bscen e i n s o m e L a t in A m e ri c a n c o u n t ri e s.
10 ( Th is is wh y th e edito rs of a Latin Am er ican n ewspap er enjo yed
pu blishing a picture of former President Nixon giving the OK symbol
with both hands!)

Facial Expressions

[F] Facial expressions carry meaning determined by contexts and rela-

tionships. For instance, the smile, which is typically an expression of
pleasure, has many functions. A woman's smile at a policeman who is
about to give her a ticket does not carry the same meaning as the smile 5
she gives to a young child. A smile may show affection, convey polite-
ness, or disguise true feelings. Pain is conveyed by a grimace, which also
signifies disgu st or disapproval Surprise, shock, or disbelief can be shown
by raising the eyebrows. A wink given to a friend may mean "You and I have
a secret" or "I'm just kidding." Between a man and a woman, a 10 wink can
be flirtatious. Our faces easily reveal emotions and attitudes.
[G] The degree of facial expressiveness also varies among individuals
and cultures. The fact that members of one culture do not express their
.
4 5
46 Nonverbal Communication

emotions as openly as members of another does not mean they do not

experience emotions. Rather, there are cultural restraints on the amount
of nonverbal expressiveness permitted. Given individual differences,it
is difficult to make generalizations about a cultural style of communica-
tion. Americans express themselves facially in varying degrees. People
from certain ethnic backgrounds in the United States may use their hands,
bodies, and faces more than other Americans. There are no fixed rules,
10 although it is considered negative or suspicious to have a "deadpan"
expression or a "poker face." Some people can be "read like a book";
others are difficult to read.

Eye Contact

[H] Eye contact is important because insufficient or excessive eye contact

may create communication barriers. It is important in relationships because
it serves to show intimacy, attention, and influence. As with facial
expressions, there are no specific rules governing eye behavior except 5
that it is considered rude to stare, especially at strangers. It is, however,
common for two strangers to walk toward each other, make eye contact,
smile and perhaps even say "Hi." The strangers may immediately look
away and forget that they even had any contact. This type of glance does not
mean much; it is simply a way of acknowledging another person's 10
presence. In a conversation too little eye contact may be seen negatively
because it conveys lack of interest, inattention, or even mistrust. The
relationship between mistrust and lack of eye contact is stated directly in the
expression, "Never trust a person who can't look you in the eyes."

Space

[I] Unconsciously, we all carry with us what have been called "body
bubbles." These bubbles are like inv i sible walls which define our personal
space. The amount of space changes depending on the interpersonal
relationship. For example, we are usually more comfortable 5 standing
closer to family members than to strangers. Personality also determines
the size of this space. Introve rts often prefer to interact with others at a
greater distance than extroverts. Cultural styles are important too. A
Japanese employer and employee usually stand farther apart while talking
than their American counterparts. Latin Americans and Arabs
10 tend to stand closer together than Americans when talking.
 [J] For Americans, distance in social conversation is about an arm's
length to four feet. Less space in the American culture may be associated with
greater intimacy or aggressive behavior. The common practice of saying
"Excuse me," or "Pardon me" for the slightest accidental touching 5 of
another person reveals an American attitude about personal space. Thus
when a person's "space" is intruded upon by someone, he or she may feel
threatened and react defensively. In cultures where close physical contact is
acceptable and desirable, Americans may be perceived as cold and distant.

* * * * *

[K] Culture does not always determine the messages that our body
movements convey. Contexts, personalities, and relationships also in-
fluence them. Therefore, no two people in any one society have the same
nonverbal behavior. However, like verbal language, nonverbal 5
communication cannot be completely separated from culture. Whether we
emphasize differences or similarities, the "silent language" is much louder
than it first appears.

47
48 Nonverbal Communication

Comprehension Questions*

Choose the best answer for the following questions. You will find the
answer stated either directly or indirectly in the reading passage.

1. The introductory examples (Teacher, College Student, and Customer)

are meant to show:
a. How words don't mean anything at all.
b. How students, shy college students, and eager salesmen are poor
communicators.
c. How people interpret nonverbal communication.

2. What would be a good alternative title for this reading?

a. The Speaking Hands b.
The Silent Language
c. Body Bubbles

3. Four categories of nonverbal communication mentioned are:

a. The face, the eyes, the body, and the fingers.
b. Behavior, intimacy, aggression, and attention.
c. Gestures, facial expression, eye contact, and space.

4. In paragraph E, it is stated that:

a. American nonverbal communication is superior to nonverbal
comunication in other cultures.
b. We cannot communicate with oral language.
c. Some gestures are not universal.

5. The picture of Nixon's "OK" gesture was published in a Latin Amer

ican newspaper because: [E]
a. Nixon is obscene.
b. It humorously showed cultural differences in nonverbal com-
munication.
c. Political leaders use nonverbal communication frequently.

6. A smile between a boyfriend and a girlfriend differs from a smile

between an angry employee and his boss. This example, like the one in
paragraph F, illustrates:
a. Multiple functions of facial expressions.
b. The universality of the smile.
c. Disharmony at work.

*The capital letter in brackets refers to the corresponding paragraph in the reading.
 Nonverbal Communication 49

7. The expression, "You can read her face like a book," means: [G]
a. She is a difficult person to understand.
b. She speaks with words.
c. She shows her feelings and emotions.
8. Why might it be inappropriate to stare at strangers? [H]
a. Staring can be an invasion of psychological privacy.
b. Staring is rude in any situation all over the world.
c. Staring can give one person too much power over another.

9. Body bubbles: [I]

a. Are permanent.
b. Vary with personalities, relationships, and situations, c.
Are influenced only by culture.
10. When an American accidentally touches or bumps into another
person, he or she may say: [J]
a. "Pardon me" or "Excuse me."
b. "Excuse me for popping your body bubble."
c. "I'm sorry I did not see the invisible wall around you."
11. The authors imply throughout the reading that the "silent
language":
a. Cannot be learned.
b. Is less important than the verbal language.
c. Should be a part of language training.

Vocabulary List

Paragraph A Paragraph B Paragraph C Paragraph D

emphasized transmitted universal snapping

withdrawal-
confusion gesture
embrace
affection
*shocking

Paragraph E Paragraph E ParagraphG Paragraph H

imitate disguise restraints insufficient
accompany

*grimace
*ethnic
exc e s si v e
obscene

*acknowledging

disgust
mistrust

* background
barriers
*wink
intimacy
*flirtatious

*See vocabulary exercise D.

50 Nonverbal Communication

Paragraph I Paragraph J Paragraph K

invisible associated (no new words)

introverts accidental
extroverts intruded
counterparts
threatened
defensively

Phrases and Expressions

I'm just kidding. [F]
to have a deadpan expression [G]
to have a poker face [G]
to read someone's face like a book [G]
Never trust a person who can't look you in the eye. [H]

Vocabulary Exercises*

A. Choose the appropriate synonym (or the word closest in meaning) from
Synonyms the list and rewrite each sentence, replacing the italicized word. Change
tense, singular and plural, and part of speech when necessary.
hug love backing away
went with stressed click
indecent copied global
• send

1. The student emphasized his ideas by speaking more loudly. [A]

2. His withdrawal from the group showed his dislike of the members in
it. [A]

3. The message was transmitted by radio. [B]

4. Handshaking is not a universal gesture in introductions. [C]
5. The two cousins embraced each other when they met at the air
port. [C]

6. Affection can be shown emotionally and physically. [C]

7. The dancer was snapping her fingers while she swirled in the air. [D]

8. Children learn gestures when they imitate their parents' move

ments. [E]
9. Did you accompany your younger brother to the movies last
night? [E]

10. The young boy was punished for collecting obscene pictures. [E]

*The capital letter in brackets refers to the corresponding paragraph in the reading.
 Nonverbal Communication 51

B. Choose the word that best defines the italicized word.

Multiple 1. The sad clown tried to disguise his feelings by wearing a big
Choice smile. [F]
a. discover c. hide
b. expose d. resist
2. He showed his disgust for the movie by leaving in the
middle. [F]
a. enchantment c. dislike
b. approval d. appreciation
3. The majority of citizens disagreed with the political restraints that the
government placed on them. [G]
a. rights c. elections
b. limitations d. freedom
4. Insufficient knowledge in his work caused him many problems on the
job. [H]
a. not enough c. inappropriate
b. incorrect d. too much
5. Excessive spending may result in a bank's closing your
account. [H]
a. thrifty c. careful
b. exclusive d. extravagant
6. When there are barriers between two people, it is difficult for them to
communicate. [H]
a. fights c. obstacles
b. points d. words
7. It takes time to build emotional intimacy. [H]
a. privacy c. expression
b. closeness d. sanity
8. She showed her mistrust of doctors by ignoring her physician's
advice. [H]
a. love c. loyalty
b. disease d. distrust

C. First choose the correct word for the definitions. Then fill in the blanks in
Definitions the sentences following the definitions. Note: You may have to change the
g r ammatical form of the word used in the sentence.
invisible [I] counterparts [I] intruded [J]
introvers [I] associated [J] . threatened [J]
extroverts [I] accidental [] defensively [J]
52 Nonverbal Communication

1. expressed an intention of hurting or punishing _________________

The teacher's_______________ didn't mean anything; he never
did anything about them.

2. shy, inward people _______________

The_______________ young woman was not hired by the public
relations firm.

3. connected _______________
The retired professor was _______________ with the university
for twenty years.

4. forced oneself on others without being asked or welcome

__________
The_______________ sensed that he was not wanted at the party.

5. happening by chance ______________

The car _______________ hit the tree.

6. active and expressive people _______________

Do you have to be an ______________ to be a comedian?

7. unable to be seen ______________

In some religious schools children are taught that God is

8. people or things that correspond to others in form and function;

equivalents _______________
The dean of the sociology department felt that his
_______________ on other campuses were not doing their jobs
well.

9. in a manner of feeling attacked and justifying quickly ____________

It is difficult to communicate with people who have
_______________ attitudes.
 Nonverbal Communication 53

D. Match the words on the left with their definitions on the right. Place the
Matching letter of the definition in the space next to the word.
confusion _ __ a. scowl; look of disgust
shocking ____ b. movement of the body or part of the body,
especially the hands
gesture_______ c. showing awareness or recognition of
grimace d. showing sexual or romantic interest
wink e. pertaining to a minority or national group
that is part of a larger community (e.g.,
flirtatious ____ Blacks or Chinese Americans in the U. S.)
ethnic ____ f. disorder; chaos
backgrounds _ g. appalling; very surprising
h. closing and opening of one eye
acknowledging_ i. environments; surroundings; origins

Conversational Activities
A. The following are some of the more common gestures in American
Gestures English. These are specific movements that are made with hands, arms,
and shoulders; each movement has a specific meaning. Demonstrate and practice
them in class.

Form Common Possible Meaning

OK
54 Nonverbal Communication

Form Common Possible Meaning

Good luck; I hope it works out.

Don't ask me; I don't know.

I didn't hear you; I can't hear you

Cut; that's enough; stop or it's all

over for me
 Nonverbal Communication 55

Form Common Possible Meaning

Oh, I forgot!;
Don't tell me (surprised)

Wait a second;
Slow down;
Relax

Come here

Note: Ask your teacher to demonstrate gestures that convey boredom, excessive
talking and money.

Follow-up: Which, if any, of these gestures are different from gestures in

your language? In what situations do you use gestures? Are there some
gestures you shouldn't use with certain people?
56 Nonverbal Communication

Activity: Act out the following situations, practicing the gestures listed
above and those demonstrated by your teacher.

You can't hear your friend's voice.

You want a child to come to your side.
Your friend has just walked into the class to take an important
examination. Wish him or her good luck.
Somebody has asked you a question and you don't know the answer.
You want to tell your friend that the lecture is boring.
You signal to your friend that the person on the phone is talking too
much.
You are ready to enter the restaurant when you notice that a simple
dinner costs almost $25.00.

B. Pantomine ideas and emotions to the rest of the class. Think of sentences
Charades or phrases to illustrate nonverbally. For example:

I'm mad! This is delicious!

Your baby is beautiful!
Please leave.

Write down your ideas, feelings, and expressions and give them to other
class members to act out, or act them out yourself. Do not use any words.
See if the other class members can guess the meanings.

C. Nonverbal cues or behavior can carry negative meaning in certain Nonverbal

situations and in others, positive meaning. For instance, when a father Cues stares at
his son who has just received an F (fail) on an exam, the father's stare conveys something
negative. However, when a painter stares at a model who is about to be painted, the
painter's stare does not have a negative meaning. In this exercise, indicate whether
you feel the nonverbal cues listed are negative or positive. There are four possible
relationships given for each one.

Directions: Place a (+) in the blanks in which the nonverbal cue is

positive and a (—) in the blanks in which the cue is negative. Place a (+)
 Nonverbal Communication 57

and a (—) if you feel the cue can be either. Leave empty if you have no
reaction or feel that the cue is neutral.

+ = positive — = negative At a party (first

In the classroom meeting)
student teacher man woman
teacher
Example: yawning
student
4 4
no eye contact hands on hips woman man
prolonged silence nodding
leaning forward impassive fare
leaning away crossing arms

sitting close smiling

Discuss: Compare your responses with those of the other class members.
Were any cues positive in one situation and negative in another? Were
any neutral? Did you disagree with the other class members? If so, why?

D. In pairs (if possible, with two people from the same culture*) write a Role-
Plays dialogue in your own language and in English using the following situation.
First perform the dialogue in front of the class in your own language. Then
perform the same scene in English. The class members will comment on the
nonverbal behavior they observe in both scenes.

*Note: If class members are from one culture, role-play different situations (e.g.,
meeting a friend at a party, making a date, returning a bad product to a store
manager).
58 Nonverbal Communication

In an office:
student desk two
teacher chairs

The student is entering his or her professor's office to discuss a problem.

After a short conversation, the student leaves the office.

Discuss: Did you feel or observe any nonverbal differences when lan-
guages were changed? Were you more comfortable in one language than
in another? Do your body movements change when you are speaking a
foreign language? If so, how?

E. The purpose of this activity is to develop observational skills and to

Observation discuss nonverbal communication.
Task Directions: Work in pairs or in groups of three or four. Observe people's
gestures, touching, eye contact, and their use of space. Record your
observations in the spaces provided. After the observation, meet with
class members and discuss the follow-up questions.

Some recommended areas where you can make observations are:

school cafeteria coffee shops
outdoor seating areas book store
bus stops classrooms
library elevators

Space:

during greetings and farewells:

between men and women (sitting and standing):

 Nonverbal Communication 59

between men and women (sitting and standing):

between members of the same sex (sitting and standing):

between friends; between strangers:

Eye Contact and Touching:

during greetings and farewells:

between men and women engaged in conversations:

between members of the same sex:

60 Nonverbal Communication

between strangers approaching each other (specifically eye contact):

Gestures: (hand and facial)

during greetings and farewells:

between men and women:

between members of the same sex:

between strangers:

Follow-up:

1. How close to each other do people stand or sit?

2. How much touching takes place?
3. What do you notice about eye behavior?
4. What gestures do people use?
 Nonverbal Communication 61

5. Can you tell when a conversation is going to end? How?

6. What are the feelings between two people talking? How does each
show interest in the other person?
7. Can you interpret the social relationships between two people
talking (e.g., close friends, students, teacher-student, boyfriend-
girlfriend)?

F. There are several ways of making observations. One way is simply to

Nonverbal describe what you see. Another way is to give an opinion
Communi- or make a judgment about your observation. For example:
cation:
Description Men do not maintain frequent eye contact with each other.
and Opinion (Description)
Men do not seem to feel close to each other. (Opinion)

After each one of the following statements, check either description or

opinion depending on the type of observation made.

Description Opinion

1. The woman was aggressive because

she stood close to the man.

2. The two men embraced each other two

times before leaving.

3. The woman stood three feet from

the man.

4. They are superficial because they

smile at each other even though they
are strangers.

5. Their farewell was cold because

they didn't touch each other.

6. The two women walked arm-in-arm

for an hour.

7. Because fathers and sons do not

hug, they do not love each other.

8. The teacher did not stand near the

children.
62 Nonverbal Communication

Questions to think about:

In the Observation Task activity (E), what kind of observations did you
make: descriptive or judgmental (i.e. based on opinion)? What, if any,
might be the problem with opinionated or judgmental observations in a
foreign culture? Is it possible to make purely descriptive observations?

G. The following questions are intended to stimulate cross-cultural discus-

Multiple sion and to help you become familiar with American customs and re-
Choice sponses. On the multiple choice questions try to guess what an American
Questionnaire would do. More than one answer may be correct.

1. Signaling a waiter is done by:

In your country: _________________________________________________

In the United States:
a. Snapping the fingers.
b. Whistling.
c. Raising one hand briefly.
d. Saying, "Waiter" and signaling to him.

2. How do people politely end conversations nonverbally?

In your country: _____________________________________

In the United States:
a. They look at their watches.
b. They look away from the speaker.
c. They backup slowly.
d. They stop talking abruptly.

3. The best way to get a teacher's attention is to:

In your country: ___________________________

In the United States:
a. Snap your fingers.
b. Raise your hand until the teacher calls on you.
c. Raise a hand and lower it when the teacher notices that you have a
question.
d. Call out the teacher's name.
 Nonverbal Communication 63

4. Nonverbally, how would you get the attention of a busy secretary in

an office?

In your country: _________________________________________________

In the United States:
a. Stand by the door and wait until the secretary looks at you.
b. Stand close to the secretary until you are noticed.
c. Sit down near the secretary and remain silent until you are
noticed.
d. Tap the secretary on the shoulder.

5. If a student does not understand a point that a teacher makes in class,

it is best to:

In your country: _________________________________________________

In the United States:
a. Raise a hand and ask for clarification.
b. Look confused.
c. Remain silent and ask the teacher after class.
d. Leave the class.

6. How do you motion to a person nonverbally to come to you?

In your country: _________________________________________________

In the United States:
a. Extend both arms in front of you and wave the person over with
your palms up.
b. Roll your eyes in the direction you want the person to come.
c. Extend one arm in front of you and wave the person over with
your palm up.
d. Extend one arm in front of you and wave the person over with
your palm down.

H. Answer the following questions about your own culture and then dis-
Cross- cuss intercultural similarities and differences. Cultural
Questions 1. Do you recall from your childhood how you learned aspects of non-
verbal language (space, gestures, etc.)?
64 Nonverbal Communication

2. Are there any expressions or proverbs in your language that say

something about nonverbal communication?

3. What kind of impressions do people form of one another based on

nonverbal behavior (e.g., "I don't trust him because he stares at
people.")?

4. What should a foreigner learn about nonverbal communication in

your country before going there?

Cultural Notes

1. Because the United States is a nation of many minority groups (Blacks,

Mexicans, Chinese, Italians, Jews, Japanese, Koreans, Arabs, Viet
namese, etc.), it is difficult to make generalizations about American
nonverbal communication. For example, touching behavior among
Mexican-Americans differs from that of Anglo-Americans. For the
Anglo-American, touching is more restricted. The Anglo-American male
rarely touches or embraces other males. Distance is usually greater
between men in the Anglo-American culture than between men in the
Mexican-American culture.

2. Edward Hall, in his book The Hidden Dimension, discusses four cate
gories of informal use of space among white professional-class Amer
icans:2
For intimate friends From actual physical contact
to 18 inches
For friends and personal conversation 18 inches to 4 feet
For impersonal conversation 4 feet to 12 feet
For public speaking 12 feet or more

3. During the "farewell" stage of a conversation Americans will often

move gradually away from each other and decrease eye contact. This, of
course, is not a rule but it does happen.

For example:
"It was nice meeting you." (at 1 foot apart) "Hope to
see you again sometime." (at 6 feet apart) "Take
care." (at 15 feet apart)
 Cultural Conflict

"Suppose that you're planning to visit a part of the world about

which you know very little—except that it is quite different from your
own country. You are sophisticated enough to expect that the spoken
language and probably some gestures will be different. You know, too,
that customs will be different, but you are not sure exactly what this will
mean. At least there will be interesting things to take pictures of or write
home about. The climate and foods will be different, of course, but these
differences are attractions and are not really problems. Such is the
would-be tourist's view of a foreign culture.

. . . From the moment you arrive, your [cultural and personal] back-
ground . . . will influence everything you expect [and] a great deal of
what you do and do not do. . . . Most of the people you meet will be
similarly influenced by their own backgrounds, culturally, socially, and
personally. If some of the people you meet think you act a little strangely,
they may never know whether you are peculiar, or whether most people
from your country are strange, or whether all "foreigners" are strange. . . .

Most of what you do [in a foreign country] will be "what comes

naturally" —which means what you have always done or seen others do
back home. Most of our behavior is outside of our awareness so that
"normal behavior" means behavior according to the norms of our cul-
ture and not what is done everywhere or done "naturally." Still, to the
extent that you are aware of the possibilities of different behavior in the
land you are visiting, you may be unusually self-conscious of some of
this "normal behavior." '

Communication and Culture

[A] "Intercultural Communication" is communication between mem-

bers of different cultures. This definition is simple, but the process is
complex. Intercultural communication involves differing perceptions,
attitudes, and interpretations. We know that even two people from the 5
same culture can have communication problems. People can uninten-
tionally hurt each other by something they say or do. Isn't it logical, then,
that communication problems can be compounded among people who do

177
 EGG-ROLL
ICECREAM
COLD
DRINKS
COFFEE
CANDIES
HOT

not have the benefit of shared experiences (i.e., language and culture)?
[B] Cultures do not communicate; individuals do. Everyone has a
unique style of communication, but cultures determine a general style
for their members. The relationship of the individual to his culture is
analogous to an actor and his director. The actor puts his own personality
5 into his acting but is nevertheless influenced by the director. We are not
always aware of the subtle influences of our culture. Likewise, we may
not perceive that others are influenced by their cultures as well.

Misinterpretations

[C] Problems and misinterpretations do not result every time members

from two cultures communicate. However, when cultural conflicts do
arise, they may be perceived as personal rather than cultural. In the
following example it is a cultural misunderstanding that creates negative
5 feelings and confusion:

178
 Cultural Conflict 179

A young woman from one culture is looking out of the window and sees
a male acquaintance from another culture. He signals to her by puckering
his lips. She quickly looks away from the window. Later she ignores
him. He is confused and she is angry.

The misunderstanding was due to the woman's failure to understand the

man's nonverbal signal. In her culture, his gesture conveys a sexual
advance. According to his culture, he was only saying (nonverbally), "Oh,
there you are. I've been looking for you." The woman's misinter-10
pretation resulted in her angry reaction and his confusion. If the two had
180 Cultural Conflict

known more about each other's nonverbal cues, they could have avoided
the cultural conflict.
[D] Some misunderstandings are insignificant and can be easily ignored
or remedied. Other conflicts are more serious in that they can cause
misinterpretations and create persistent negative attitudes toward
foreigners.

Ethnocentrism

[E] Difficulties in intercultural communication arise when there is little

or no awareness of divergent cultural values and beliefs. In cross-cultural
interaction, speakers sometimes assume that what they believe is right,
because they have grown up thinking their way is the best. This ethno-
5 centric assumption can result in negative judgments about other cul-
tures. Another manifestation of ethnocentric attitudes is that people
become critical of individuals from different cultures.
[F] In the following example, Rosamine and Merita demonstrate that
they cannot understand each other's points of view. Rosamine and
Merita are talking to each other about relationships between children
and parents. In Rosamine's culture children live with their parents until
5 marriage because dependence on parents is considered positive. In
Merita's culture children leave home when they are eighteen because
independence and_self-reliance are considered positive.

ROSAMINE. I think it's terrible that in your country children leave their parents
when they're so young. Something that shocks me even more is that many
parents want their children to leave home. I can't understand why children
and parents don't like each other in your country.
MERITA. In your country parents don't allow their children to become indepen-
dent. Parents keep their children protected until the children get married.
How are young people in your country supposed to learn about life that way?

Both women are insensitive to each other's values concerning family life. They
have been raised and conditioned according to cultural norms. 10
Therefore, each has a different view of what is right.

Stereotypes and Prejudice

[G] Sometimes negative reactions do not result from actual interaction

but rather from the fixed, preconceived beliefs we have about other
people. These overgeneralized beliefs or "stereotypes" frequently shape
people's perceptions of each other.
[H] Stereotypes originate and develop from numerous sources such as
 jokes, textbooks, movies, and television. Movies about cowboys and
Indians portray cowboys as "civilized" and Indians as wild and "primi-
tive." A child who knows about the American Indian only through
watching these movies will have a distorted and false image of this group
of people. Stereotypes perpetuate inaccuracies about religious, racial and
cultural groups.
[I] Stereotypical beliefs prevent us from seeing people as individuals
with unique characteristics. Negative stereotypes lead to prejudice: sus
picion, intolerance, or hatred of other cultural groups. The close relation-
ship between prejudice and stereotypes is illustrated in the following
example:

Mr. Bias is a director of a small private company. He is interviewing

candidates for the position of assistant manager. He selects a bright and

181
182 Cultural Conflict

ambitious applicant. Later, he discovers that this applicant is from the

country of Levadel (a fictitious nation). Since he thinks that all Levadelians
are stupid and lazy, he decides to select someone else for the position.

[J] Unfortunately there was nothing that this applicant could have done
to prove that he was indeed qualified for the job. Rejected on the basis of
his nationality, the applicant was a victim of an irrational belief.
[K] Stereotypical remarks can be made casually in daily conversations
and may or may not have serious consequences. Nevertheless, people's
initial impulse is to become angry rather than to clarify the distortion.
Educating others is one way to try to correct misperceptions. At the same 5
time, individuals need to become fully aware of their own preconcep-
tions. Establishing personal relationships with individuals from different
religions, cultures, or races may be the best way to break down stereo-
types and prejudice.

[L] Cultural conflicts occur as a result of misinterpretations, ethnocen-

trism, stereotypes, and prejudice. Preventing these conflicts is possible
with increased awareness of our own attitudes as well as sensitivity to
cross-cultural differences. Developing intercultural sensitivity does not 5
mean that we need to lose our cultural identities—but rather that we
recognize cultural influences within ourselves and within others.
 Cultural Conflict 183

Comprehension Questions'

Choose the best answer for the following questions. You will find the
answer either stated directly or indirectly in the reading passage.

1. In the introduction it is stated that people in foreign countries "may

be unusually self-conscious" of their "normal behavior." This means:
a. What is "normal" in one country is always abnormal in another.
b. What is "normal" in one culture is unnatural in all other cultures.
c. What is "normal" in one culture may not be normal in another.
2. What is the main topic of this reading?
a. Communication styles.
b. Cross-cultural problems.
c. Language learning problems.
3. The authors state that: [A]
a. Intercultural communication always results in conflict.
b. Successful intercultural communication is impossible.
c. Intercultural communication can be complex.

4. "Cultures do not communicate" because: [B]

a. Cultures are made up of individuals; individuals within cultures
communicate with each other.
b. Governments restrict communication between countries.
c. Citizens of one country do not speak the same language as citizens
of another country.

5. The analogy of the actor and his director is used to

illustrate: [B]
a. How cultures are influenced by individuals.
b. The relationship between cultures and actors.
c. How individuals are influenced by their cultures.

6. The misunderstanding between the young woman and her male

acquaintance illustrates: [C]
a. Rejection of aggressive sexual behavior.
b. Cultural differences in nonverbal communication.
c. Avoidance of conflicts and nonverbal differences.

7. The conversation between Rosamine and Merita demonstrates

their: [F]
a. Cultural conditioning.
b. Tolerance for cultural differences.

*The capital letter in brackets refers to the corresponding paragraph in the reading.
184 Cultural Conflict

c. Acceptance of different values.

8. Stereotypes are: [G] and [H]
a. Accurate and complimentary descriptions of groups of people.
b. Overgeneralized and sometimes distorted descriptions of groups
of people.
c. Harmful descriptions because they always lead to hatred and
prejudice.
9. Reread the passage about Mr. Bias and the Levadelian. ". . . he thinks
that all Levadelians are stupid and lazy . . ." is an example of: [I]
a. A stereotype.
b. Ethnocentrism.
c. A misunderstanding.
10. The authors believe that in order to be sensitive to other cultures
people should: [L]
a. Change their cultural beliefs and assimilate into the new culture.
b. Change other people's cultural beliefs.
c. Recognize how they have been influenced by their own cultures.

Vocabulary List
Pargraph A Paragraph B Paragraph C Paragraph D
complex analogous *puckering remedied
unintentionally subtle advance persistent
compounded

Paragraph E Paragraph F Paragraph G

Paragraph H
divergent (no new words) preconceived
*ethnocentric *overgeneralized portray
*stereotypes *civilized
*primitive
distorted-
*image
perpetuate
inaccuracies.

Paragraph I Paragraph J Paragraph K Paragraph L (no

*prejudice *indeed impulse new words)
suspicion rejected clarify
intolerance victim
hatred irrational
*bright
ambitious

*See vocabulary exercise D.

 Cultural Conflict 185

Vocabulary Exercises'

A. Choose the word that best defines the italicized word:

Multiple
1. The student's explanation for his tardiness was so complex that the
Choice
teacher stopped listening. [A]
a. logical c. rational
b. simple d. involved

2. At the department store, the shopper unintentionally put some mer

chandise in her purse. [A]
a. willingly c. consciously
b. accidentally d. deliberately

3. Language problems are compounded by cultural misunder

standings. [A]
a. decreased , c. increased
b. solved d. ignored

4. A child leaving home before he is ready is analogous to a bird trying to

leave the nest before it can fly. [B]
a. contrary c. reluctant
b. comparable d. related

5. The politician's message was so subtle that no one understood it. [B]
a. wise c. creative
b. unintelligent d. inapparent

6. The young woman rejected the man's flirtatious advances. [C]

a. fires c. moves
b. winks d. plans

7. How could we have remedied the problem when we didn't know that it
existed? [D]
a. ignored c. corrected
b. avoided d. understood

8. Persistent efforts are needed in order to finish unpleasant

tasks. [D]
a. continuing c. organized
b. minimal d. divided

9. Parents and children often have divergent beliefs. [E]

a. realistic c. untruthful
b. dissimilar d. similar

* The capital letter in brackets refers to the corresponding paragraph in the reading.
186 Cultural Conflict

B. Decide what part of speech is needed in the blanks. Change the original
Word Forms word to the appropriate form.

1. preconceived [G]

a. The foreigner held the _____________________ notion that all

Americans were rich.

b. His _____________________ that all houses in Los Angeles had

swimming pools was based on what he had seen in the movies.

2. portray [H]

a. The artist _____________________ the model as a younger woman.

b. Newspapers are sometimes responsible for the negative

____________________ of certain groups of people.

3. distorted [H]

a. What you said is a _______ '________of the truth.

b. The photograph ______________ the woman's beauty.

c. The story was a _____________________version of what really hap

pened.

4. perpetuate [H]

a. The schoolchild was ____________________ in trouble with the

authorities.

b. In the past many people _____________________ the myth that the

world was flat.

c. She has _____________________problems at work because of her

emotional conflicts.

5. inaccuracies [H]

a. The job applicant's ____________________ spelling made a nega

tive impression on the employer.

b. Be careful not to speak _____________________ .

c. There were so many _____________________in the report that the

committee threw it out.
6. suspicion [I]

a. The nervous girl called the police because of the _________________

man in front of her house.
b. The woman looked _____________________at the police officer as
she left the store.
 Cultural Conflict 187

c. "I ____________________ that not one of you students did the

homework for today," said the teacher angrily.

7. intolerance [I]

a. Sometimes _____________________ of a particular group of people

indicates a fear of them.

b. Several workers quit their jobs because of the __________________

attitude of their boss.

c. The three-year-old treated his new baby brother _______________.

8. hatred [I]

a. We wondered why the doctor was a _____________________ of

women.

b. The child's _____________________of other children disturbed her

mother a great deal.

c. How can you _____________________ a person before meeting him

or her?

9. ambitious [I]

a. The young woman's _____________________ was to become a

lawyer.

b. The authors were _____________________ but didn't want to work

on the book all day and all night.

c. He _____________________ pursued his medical career for seven

years.

C. Try to guess the meaning of the italicized word by looking at the context
Definitions of the sentence. Write a definition in the space provided. Check your
in Context dictionary only after you try to determine the meaning yourself.

1. The high school graduate was hoping to be accepted by the univer

sity, but, unfortunately, he was rejected. [J]

2. The victim, an innocent young boy, was shot three times. [J]
188 Cultural Conflict

3. In a highly emotional state of mind, the irrational man made several

inappropriate and stupid remarks. [J]

4. When the woman saw her former husband after a ten-year separation,
her first impulse was to hug him, but she decided not to. [K]

5. "I don't understand the problem," said the student to her instructor.
"Can you clarify it for me?" [K]

D. Match the words on the left with their definitions on the right. Place the
Matching letter of the definition in the space next to the word.

puckering _ a. judgment or opinion formed before facts are

known
ethnocentric
b. characteristic or imitative of the earliest
overgeneralized
ages; not "civilized"
_ stereotypes c. mentally quick; smart
civilized d. having the emotional attitude that one's
ethnic or religious group is superior to all
primitive
others
image e. fixed notions about groups and ideas, often
prejudice allowing for no individuality
f. visual or mental impression
bright
g. wrinkling; folding (especially of the lips)
indeed
h. not "primitive" or savage; "refined"
i. truly; certainly
j, overstated; exaggerated

Conversational Activities

A. The purpose of this exercise is to enable you to identify shared areas of

Intercultural culture with fellow class members. When cultures come in contact, the
Communi- degree of shared background varies. For example, the United States and
cation England share more areas of culture than do the United States and India.
This can be illustrated as follows:2

long
 The black area (the overlapping circles) represents what the United States
and England have in common (language, certain foods, dress, certain
values, art, religion, partly shared history). The white areas represent
what the United States and England do not share (certain customs, styles
of communication, the Royal Family).
The United States and India have less in common than the United
"States and England. This can be illustrated as follows:

The black area (the overlapping circles) represent what the United States
and India have in common (colonial heritage, political elections). The
white areas represent what the United States and India do not have in
common (religion, communication styles, family structure, dress, foods,
art).

Discuss: How would two circles representing the United States and
Canada look? How would two circles representing the United States and
the U.S.S.R. look?

189
190 Cultural Conflict

Activity: In pairs (with someone from a different country) make two lists
showing cultural areas that you have in common and areas that contrast.*
Be specific. For example:

Japan—United States
Areas in Common Areas of Contrast

Government—democracy Religion—primarily Buddhist versus

primarily Christian

After you compile your lists, draw a set of circles showing the relation-
ship between your culture and the culture you just discussed.

Follow-up: In pairs or in small groups write a role-play or dialogue

between two people from different countries encountering an "area of
contrast." The dialogues or role-plays can be humorous or serious.
Perform your dialogue/role-play in front of the class. Have the class
members identify the specific "area of contrast."

B. Most of us react negatively when someone expresses the attitude that his
Ethnocentrism or her race, nationality, religion, or culture is superior. Sometimes we do
not recognize that we may appear ethnocentric to others. For example, someone can
innocently say, "In my country children are much happier than in your country." How
do you think the other person will respond or feel? The purpose of the following
activity is to show how ethnocen-trism is communicated in language.

Activity A: Read the following statements and underline the words

which convey ethnocentric attitudes.3 Then compare your answers with
those of the rest of the class.

1. Levadelians have been very generous in teaching other people

how to do things the right way.
2. Non-Levadelians do many things backwards.
3. Since the only "true" God is the one in the Levadelian culture, all
other people's gods and religions are false.
4. Levadel has produced the best technology in the world—there
fore, it is a superior country.
5. My language is the best language for petry.
6. "Underdeveloped" countries must develop themselves.

*If class members are from the same country, lists can be made comparing their
country with the United States.
 Cultural Conflict 191

7. Minorities and foreigners in a society have to change their ways

so they become like the majority.
8. When world leaders learn to do things the way we do, the world
will be a better place.

Activity B: In groups of three choose two or three of the above statements

and revise the wording so that the sentences are no longer ethnocentric.
All group members should agree on the wording. Share your revised
sentences with the rest of the class.

Example: Ethnocentric statement

Levadel has produced the finest works of art in the world.

Revised wording
Levadel has several superb artists who have produced well-
known works of art.

c. Complete the following statement with the first idea that comes to your
Generaliza- mind. Write your answers in the spaces provided.
tions and
Generalizations
Stereotypes

Most politicians are _______________________________________________ .

Most rich people are ______________________________________________ .
Most women are __________________________________________________ .
Most men are ____________________________________________________ .
Most successful business people are _______________________________ .

Discuss: In your opinion, which of the above statements are true and
which are false? How did you form these general impressions?

Stereotypes
The difference between a generalization and a stereotype is not always
easy to understand. If generalizations are rigid—allowing for no indi-
viduality and often encouraging critical or negative judgment—then
they become stereotypes.
In this exercise specific stereotypes will be examined.4

a. In the left-hand column list stereotypes you have heard about

people of a specific country (or countries).
b. In the middle column answer the question: "Do you personally
believe this stereotype is true? Why?"
c. In the right-hand column write the response of a person from the
country stereotyped.
192 Cultural Conflict

STEREOTYPE WORKSHEET

Do you personally believe Comments of people from

Stereotype it's true? Why? the country stereotyped

Example:
All people from I don't know, I've only been This stereotype is false. Six
the United States in the United States for one percent of the population is
are rich. week. I haven't seen any poor and a large percentage of
poor people yet. Movies Americans are in the middle
show Americans with big class.
cars and pools.
 Cultural Conflict 193

Follow-up: Foreign students sometimes complain that they are asked

questions that are based on stereotypical ideas. (E.g., "Do you have
schools for children in your country?") People react differently when
they or people from their country are stereotyped. Following are some of
the ways that people respond to stereotypical questions or statements.
They:
a. deny them.
b. joke about them.
c. indicate their stereotypical nature.
d. ask why the statement was made.
e. become angry.
f. ignore the statement.
g. try to defend the statement.

Can you think of other ways?

In pairs or in small groups decide which are the most effective ways
of responding to a stereotypical remark. From the stereotype worksheet
choose a stereotype and role-play a short dialogue which includes an
effective response to the stereotype. For example:

ERNIE. Is it true that women in your country never work?

SHELLY. Where did you learn that?
ERNIE. My friend told me. He was in your country for two weeks.
SHELLY. Perhaps your friend only visited tourist places. It's true that not
many women work in these places because few women are bilingual.
However, many women work in companies, factories, and shops. In
fact, my older sister is an assistant manager in a department store.

D. Answer the following questions about your own culture and then dis-
Cross- cuss intercultural similarities and differences.
Cultural
Questions 1. In your opinion, what areas of culture create the most serious
problems in intercultural communication? Explain.
2. What kinds of cultural conflicts exist in a heterogeneous society?
How are they similar to cultural conflicts between people from
different countries?
3. What is the difference between having pride in one's identity and
being ethnocentric? Why do groups of people become ethno
centric?
4. Can you think of cases where stereotypes have turned into pre
judice or hatred?
5. How can harmful stereotypes be combatted?
10
 Cultural Adjustment

[A] Living in a second culture can be like riding on a roller coaster.

Sometimes foreign visitors are elated; sometimes they are depressed.
First there is the combination of enthusiasm and excitement that is felt
while traveling. New foods and aromas, different faces, foreign lan-
5 guages, and interesting customs all fascinate the traveler. A foreign
visitor usually has high expectations and is eager to become familiar with
a new culture.
[B] Of course, not everything is easy during a long stay in a second
culture. International travelers may have difficulties understanding the
adjustment problems that beset them. Many people do not recognize that
the problems, feelings, and mood changes that are related to living in a
5 second culture are not unique. It is common for international visitors or
immigrants to vacillate between loving and hating a new country. The
newness and strangeness of a foreign culture are bound to affect a
traveler's emotions.

Culture Shock

[C] "Culture shock" occurs as a result of total immersion in a new culture.

It happens to "people who have been suddenly transplanted abroad." 1
Newcomers may be anxious because they do not speak the language,
know the customs, or understand people's behavior in daily life. The 5
visitor finds that "yes" may not always mean "yes," that friendliness
does not necessarily mean friendship, or that statements that appear to be
serious are really intended as jokes. The foreigner may be unsure as to when
to shake hands or embrace, when to initiate conversations, or how to
approach a stranger. The notion of "culture shock" helps explain
10 feelings o f bewilderment and disorientation. Language problems do not
account for all the frustrations that people feel. When one is deprived of
everything that was once familiar, such as understanding a transporta-
tion system, knowing how to register for university classes, or knowing
195
 how to make friends, difficulties in coping with the new society may
15 arise.

The Adjustment Process

[D] " . . . when an individual enters a strange culture, . . . he or she is

like fish out of water."2 Newcomers feel at times that they do not belong
and consequently may feel alienated from the native members of the
culture. When this happens, visitors may want to reject everything about
5 the new environment and may glorify and exaggerate the positive aspects
of their own culture. Conversely, visitors may scorn their native country

196
 Cultural Adjustment 197

by rejecting its values and instead choosing to identify with (if only
temporarily) the values of the new country. This may occur as an attempt
to overidentify with the new culture in order to be accepted by the people
in it.
[E] Reactions to a new culture vary, but experience and research have
shown that there are distinct stages in the adjustment process of foreign
visitors. When leaving the comfortably secure environment of home, a
person will naturally experience some stress and anxiety. The severity of
5 culture shock depends on visitors' personalities, language ability, emo-
tional support, and duration of stay. It is also influenced by the extent of
differences, either actual or perceived, between the two cultures.
[F] Visitors coming for short periods of time do not always experience
the same intense emotions as visitors who live in foreign countries for
longer terms. The adjustment stages during prolonged stays may last
198 Cultural Adjustment

several months to several years. The following "W" shaped diagram

illustrates periods of adjustment in a second culture and might apply to a
one-year stay (approximately) in a foreign culture. Although the stages
in the cycle do not always occur in the same order and some stages may
be skipped, the following pattern is a common one:

Each stage in the process is characterized by "symptoms" or outward signs

10 typifying certain kinds of behavior:4

(1) Honeymoon period. Initially many people are fascinated and

excited by everything new. The visitor is elated to be in a new
culture.
(2) Culture shock. The individual is immersed in new problems:
housing, transportation, shopping, and language. Mental fatigue
results from continuously straining to comprehend the foreign
language.
(3) Initial adjustment. Everyday activities such as housing and
shopping are no longer major problems. Although the visitor
may not yet be fluent in the language spoken, basic ideas and
feelings in the second language can be expressed.
(4) Mental isolation. Individuals have been away from their family
and good friends for a long period of time and may feel lonely.
Many still feel they cannot express themselves as well as they can
in their native language. Frustration and sometimes a loss of
self -confidence result. Some individuals remain at this stage.
 Cultural Adjustment 199

(5) Acceptance and integration. A routine (e.g., work, business, or

school) has been established. The visitor has accepted the habits,
customs, foods, and characteristics of the people in the new
culture. The visitor feels comfortable with friends, associates, and
the language of the country.

The Re-entry Process

[G] A similar process occurs when visitors return to their native coun-
tries, although the stages are usually shorter and less intense. The following
"W" shaped diagram illustrates reactions and emotions experienced when
a person leaves a foreign country and returns to his or her own 5
country.

The "Re-entry" Adjustment Process5

As in the first diagram, each stage in the "reentry" process is character-

ized by symptoms and feelings.6

(1) Acceptance and integration. See description given for the pre
ceding diagram.
(2) Return anxiety. There may be confusion and emotional pain
about leaving because friendships will have to be disrupted.
Many people realize how much they have changed because of
their experiences and may be nervous about going home.
(3) Return honeymoon. Immediately upon arrival in one's own
200 Cultural Adjustment

country, there is generally a great deal of excitement. There are

parties to welcome back the visitor and renewed friendships to
look forward to.
(4) Re-entry shock. Family and friends may not understand or
appreciate what the traveler has experienced. The native country
or city may have changed in the eyes of the former traveler.
(5) Re-integration. The former traveler becomes fully involved with
friends, family, and activities and feels once again integrated in
the society. Many people at this stage realize the positive and
negative aspects of both countries and have a more balanced
perspective about their experiences.

Individual Reactions

[H] Individuals experience the stages of adjustment and re-entry in

different ways. When visitors have close relatives in the new culture or
speak the foreign language fluently, they may not experience all the
effects of culture shock or mental isolation. An exile or refugee would 5
adjust differently from someone who voluntari l y traveled to a new coun-
try. Certain individuals have difficulties adapting to a new environment
and perhaps never do; others seem to adjust well from the very beginning
of their stay.
[I] Day-to-day living in another culture is undoubtedly an educational
experience. While traveling, and living abroad people learn second
languages, observe different customs, and encounter new values. Many
people who have lived in other countries feel that exposure to foreign 5
cultures enables them to gain insight into their own society. When facing
different values, beliefs, and behavior, they develop a deeper under-
standing of themselves and of the society that helped to shape their
characters. The striking contrasts of a second culture provide a mirror in
which one's own culture is reflected.
 Cultural Adjustment 201

Comprehension Questions"

Choose the best answer for the following questions. You will find the
answer either stated directly or indirectly in the reading passage.

1. The reading passage could be titled:

a. Elation and Depression
b. Experiencing a Second Culture
c. Culture Shock

2. "Living in a second culture is like riding on a roller coaster." The

analogy is used because: [A]
a; People experience "highs" and "lows" during their stay in foreign
countries. b. Living in a second culture is as exciting and risky
as riding on a
roller coaster. c. Living in a foreign country is all fun
and no work.
3. What does the statement "'yes' may not always mean 'yes'" sug-
gest? [C]
a. When people say "yes" they sometimes mean "no." b. Ways of
expressing "yes" (both verbally and nonverbally) may
differ from culture to culture. c. Nodding of the head only
means "yes" in the United States.

4. In the context of this reading, the phrase, " . . . when an individual

enters a strange culture . . . he or she is like fish out of water,"
means: [D]
a. It is impossible for people away from their cultures to survive in a
new culture.
b. A fish can survive only in water.
c. People away from their cultures have difficulties adapting to the
new environment.

5. If individuals in a foreign culture never learned the language of that

culture, which stages in the adjustment process might they never experi
ence? [F]
a. Culture shock, mental isolation.
b. Initial adjustment, acceptance and integration.
c. Honeymoon period.
6. If individuals have very good friends and close relatives in a second
culture, which stage might they never experience? [F]

*The capital letter in brackets refers to the corresponding paragraph in the reading.
202 Cultural Adjustment

a. Honeymoon period.
b. Initial adjustment.
c. Mental isolation.

7. If individuals never experience the "acceptance and integration"

stage in a foreign culture, which stage in the "re-entry" process might
they never experience? [G]
a. Return anxiety.
b. Return honeymoon.
c. Re-integration.

8. What stages do the adjustment cycle and the re-entry cycle have in
common? [F] and [G]
a. Return anxiety.
b. Initial elation.
c. Mental isolation.

9. Why might exiles or refugees adjust to a new culture differently from

those who voluntarily live in a foreign country? [H]
a. Exiles or refugees would be concerned only with politics and
would thus not experience the emotional "ups" and "downs" of
living in a second culture.
b. Exiles or refugees would have additional psychological problems
because they were forced to leave the native country.
c. Exiles or refugees would have more language difficulties because
of political problems.

10. In your opinion, what kind of person experiences the effects of

"culture shock" the least?
a. An exile or refugee.
b. Someone with a two-month job in a new culture.
c. One-year foreign exchange students.

Vocabulary List

Pargraph A Paragraph B Paragraph C

elated beset immersion
enthusiasm vacillate . transplanted
aromas abroad
bewilderment
deprived