THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA

MINISTRY OF HEALTH, COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT, GENDER, ELDERLY AND

CHILDREN

DIRECTORATE OF HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

FACILITATOR’S GUIDE FOR ORDINARY DIPLOMA

IN NURSING AND MIDWIFERY
NTA LEVEL 6

NMT 06106: FUNDAMENTALS OF RESEARCH

 DECEMBER, 2018

© Ministry of Health, Community Development, Gender, Elderly and Children, Department of Human Resources
Development Nursing Training Section 2018, Dodoma, Tanzania

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 Table of Contents

Acronyms....................................................................................................................................................iv
preamble.....................................................................................................................................................v
acknowledgement......................................................................................................................................vi
1.0. Background...................................................................................................................................vii
2.0. Rationale.......................................................................................................................................vii
3.0. Goals and objectives of the training manual................................................................................viii
3.1. Overall goal for training manual...............................................................................................viii
3.2. Objectives for training manual..................................................................................................viii
4.0. Introduction...................................................................................................................................viii
4.1. Module overview.......................................................................................................................viii
4.2. Who is the module for?............................................................................................................viii
4.3. How is the module organized?.................................................................................................viii
4.4. How should the module be used?.............................................................................................ix
session one: basic concepts of research..................................................................................................10
session two: writing an introduction of a research proposal.....................................................................17
session three: formulating research questions and objectives.................................................................25
session four: conducting a literature review.............................................................................................32
session five: research designs..................................................................................................................39
session six: sampling techniques and sample size..................................................................................48
session seven: data collection methods and tools...................................................................................58
session eight: developing data analysis plan...........................................................................................65
session nine: developing research work plan and budget.......................................................................73
session ten: research ethics.....................................................................................................................82
session eleven: developing and using data colletion tools.......................................................................89
session twelve: analysis of collected research data.................................................................................97
session thirteen: writing a research report..............................................................................................102

NMT 06106: Fundamentals of Research iii

Acronyms
AGYW Adolescents Girl and Young Women
AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
AIHA American International Health Alliance
ARV Antiretroviral
VMMC Voluntary Medical Male Circumcision
WHO World Health Organization

NMT 06106: Fundamentals of Research iv

Preamble
The Ministry of Health Community Development Gender Elderly and Children among other roles
ensures that Tanzanians receive quality health care and service. This can be achieved through
production of competent nurses and midwives amongst other health cadres. The training of competent
nurses and midwives can be achieved through various teaching and learning materials; one of them being
facilitator’s guides and student’s manual .

Dr. Loishook Saitori

Director for Human Resource Development
Ministry of Health, Community Development, Gender, Elderly and Children

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Acknowledgement
Ministry of Health, Community Development, Gender, Elderly and Children through the Directorate of
Human Resource Development, Nursing training section has reviewed Facilitator’s guide for Nursing
and Midwifery training program. The review was informed by revised curriculum of the same. The
successfully completion of this facilitator’s guide has been made possible by the commitment of the
technical team through a series of writers’ workshops. Understanding the crucial role of the team, the
Ministry would like to express sincere appreciation to all those who involved in the completion of this
task.

Special gratitude goes to coordinators of Nursing and Midwifery training, technical expert from NACTE
and other facilitators who tirelessly supported the development of this guide whose names are listed
with appreciation:-

SN FULL NAME INSTITUON/ORGANIZATION

1. Nassania Shango CDNT -MOHCDGEC-Dodoma
2. Professor Eliezer Tumbwene Lecturer -Aga Khan University
3. Ramadhani Samainda NACTE-Dodoma
4. Dr. Patrick Mwidunda Program Manager-Amref Health Africa
5. Lupyana Kahemela Program Officer-Amref Health Africa
6. Joseph Pilot Program Officer- Amref Hhealth Africa
7. Mary Kipaya Principal- Kahama School of Nursing
8. Paul Magesa Ag. Principal –Newala School of Nursing
9. Dominic Daudi Tutor –Newala School of Nursing
10. Dr. Beatrice Mwilike Lecturer-MUHAS
11. Lilian Wilfred Tutor KCMC School of Nursing
12. Upendo Mamchony Tutor KCMC School of Nursing
13. Tito William Nurse Officer Muhimbili National Hospital
14. Sixtus Ruyumbu Nurse Officer- Mbeya Refferal
Dr Lenatus Kalolo Medical Specialist-Mbeya Regional Refferal
15.
Hospital
16. Emmanuel Mwakapasa Principal Mbeya -OTM
17. Salma Karim Tutor- Mirembe School of Nursing
18. Athanas Paul Principal- Mirembe School of Nursing
19. Dr. Mwandu Kini Jiyenze Tutor -CEDHA
20. Joseph Mayunga Tutor- Kisare College of Health Sciences
21. Elizabeth Kijugu Principal-Kairuki School of Nursing
22. Charles Magwaza Principal Njombe School of Nursing
23. Meshack Makojijo Tutor Bugando School of Nursing
24. Stella Kiwale Tutor- PHN Morogoro
25. Evance Anderson Tutor Geita School of Nursing
26. Juliana Malingumu Tutor Mchukwi School of Nursing
27. Rehema Mtonga Tutor -
28. Masunga Iseselo Assistant Lecturer -MUHAS
29. Mbaruku Luga Driver-Mirembe School of Nursing

Lastly would like to thank the collaboration and financial support from Amref Health Africa who made
this task successfully completed.

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Ndementria Arthur Vermand
Assistant Director Nursing Training Section, Ministry of Health, Community Development, Gender,
Elderly and Children

1.0. Background
In 2015 the Ministry of Health, Community Development, Gender, Elderly and Children through the
Directorate of Human Resource Development, Nursing training section started the process of reviewing
the nursing curricula NTA level 4-6. The process completed in the year 2017 and its implementation
started in the same year. The rationale for review was to comply with the National Council for Technical
award (NACTE) Qualification framework which offers a climbing ladder for higher skills opportunity.
Amongst other rationale was to meet the demand of the current health care service delivery. The
demand is also aligned with human resource for health strategic plan and human resource for health
production plan which aims at increasing number of qualified human resource for health.

The process of producing qualified human resource for health especially nurses and midwives requires
the plentiful investment of resources in teaching at the classroom and practical setting and the
achievement of clinical competence is acquired in step wise starting from classroom teaching to skills
laboratory teaching. In addition, WHO advocates for skilled and motivated health workers in producing
good health services and increase performance of health systems (WHO World Health Report, 2006).
Moreover, Primary Health Care Development Program (PHCDP) (2007-15) needs the nation to
strengthen and expand health services at all levels. This can only be achieved when the Nation has
adequate, appropriately trained and competent work force who can be deployed in the health facilities
to facilitate the provisions of quality health care services.

In line with the revised curricula, the MOHCDGEC in collaboration with developing partners and team of
technical staff developed quality standardized training materials to support the implementation of
curricula. These training materials address the foreseen discrepancies in the implementation of the
curricula by training institutions.

This facilitator’s guide has been developed through a series of writers’ workshop (WW) approach. The
goals of Writer’s Workshop were to develop high-quality, standardized teaching materials and to build
the capacity of tutors to develop these materials. The new training package for NTA Level 4-6 includes
a Facilitator Guide and Student Manual. There are 33 modules with approximately 520 content
sessions

2.0. Rationale
The vision and mission of the National Health Policy in Tanzania focuses on establishing a health
system that is responsive to the needs of the people, and leads to improved health status for all.
Skilled and motivated health workers are crucially important for producing good health through
increasing the performance of health systems (WHO, 2006). With limited resources (human and non-
human resources), the MOHSW supported tutors by developing standardized training materials to
accompany the implementation of the developed CBET curricula. These training manuals address the
foreseen discrepancies in the implementation of the new curricula.

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vii
Therefore, this training manual for Certificate and Diploma program in Nursing (NTA Levels 4-6) aims at
providing a room for Nurses to continue achieving skills which will enable them to perform competently.
These manuals will establish conducive and sustainable training environment that will allow students
and graduates to perform efficiently at their relevant levels. Moreover, this will enable them to aspire for
attainment of higher knowledge, skills and attitudes in promoting excellence in nursing practice.

3.0. Goals and Objectives of the Training Manual

3.1. Overall Goal for Training Manual
The overall goal of these training manuals is to provide high quality, standardized and competence-
based training materials for Diploma in nursing (NTA level 4 to 6) program.

3.2. Objectives for Training Manual

• To provide high quality, standardized and competence-based training materials.
• To provide a guide for tutors to deliver high quality training materials.
• To enable students to learn more effectively.

4.0. Introduction
4.1. Module Overview
This module content has been prepared as a guide for tutors of NTA Level 6 for training students. The
session contents are based on the sub-enabling outcomes of the curriculum of NTA Level 6 Ordinary
diploma in Nursing and Midwifery.

The module sub-enabling outcome as follows:

3.3.2. Describe basic concepts of action research in nursing and midwifery practice
3.3.2. Develop research proposal by applying knowledge of research
3.3.3. Collect data for a research study by using knowledge of research
3.3.4 .Process research data by using statistical package
3.3.5. Produce research report by using knowledge of research

4.2. Who is the Module For?

This module is intended for use primarily by tutors of NTA Level 4 certificate and diploma in nursing
schools.
The module’ sessions give guidance on the time and activities of the session and provide information
on how to teach the session to students. The sessions include different activities which focus on
increasing students’ knowledge, skills and attitudes.

4.3. How is the Module Organized?

The module is divided into 13 sessions; each session is divided into sections. The following are the
sections of each session:
 Session Title: The name of the session.
 Learning Tasks – Statements which indicate what the student is expected to learn at the end of the
session.
 Session Content – All the session contents are divided into steps. Each step has a heading and an
estimated time to teach that step. Also, this section includes instructions for the tutor and activities
with their instructions to be done during teaching of the contents.

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 Key Points – Each session has a step which concludes the session contents near the end of a
session. This step summarizes the main points and ideas from the session.
 Evaluation – The last section of the session consists of short questions based on the learning
objectives to check the understanding of students.
 Handouts are additional information which can be used in the classroom while teaching or later for
students’ further learning. Handouts are used to provide extra information related to the session
topic that cannot fit into the session time. Handouts can be used by the participants to study
material on their own and to reference after the session. Sometimes, a handout will have questions
or an exercise for the participants. The answers to the questions are in the Facilitator Guide
Handout, and not in the Student Manual Handout.

4.4. How Should the Module be Used?

Students are expected to use the module in the classroom and clinical settings and during self-study.
The contents of the modules are the basis for learning Fundamentals of Research .Students are
therefore advised to learn each session and the relevant handouts and worksheets during class hours,
clinical hours and self-study time. Tutors are there to provide guidance and to respond to all difficulty
encountered by students.

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 SESSION 1: BASIC CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH

Total Session Time: 90 minutes + 30 minutes for group assignment

Pre-requisite: none

Learning Tasks
At the end of this session a learner is expected to be able to:
Define research and action research
Explain the importance of action research
Explain types of research
Identify sources of research problems
Outline criteria used to prioritize research problems

Resources Needed:
 Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape
 Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers
 LCD Projector and computer
 Note Book and Pen

Session Overview

Step Time (min) Activity/ Content

Method
1 05 Presentation Introduction and learning tasks

2 15 Presentation/buzzing Definition of research and action research

3 10 Presentation/ Importance of action research

brainstorming
4 15 Presentation Types of research
5 10 presentation Sources of research problems

6 20 Presentation/buzzing Criteria for prioritizing research problems

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10
 7 05
Presentation Key Points
8 10
Presentation Session Evaluation/assignment

SESSION CONTENTS
STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning tasks (5 minutes)
READ or ASK participants to read the learning tasks
ASK participants if they have any questions before continuing

STEP 2: Definitions of Research and Action Research (15 Minutes)

Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes)

 ASK a pair of students to define the term “research”.
 ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
 WRITE their responses on the board/flipchart
 CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below

Research
 Research is defined in many ways by experts(.e.g Grove, Burns & Gray, 2012) :
o Research is a the diligent, systematic inquiry or investigation to validate and refine existing
knowledge and generate new knowledge
o Research is a systematic inquiry that uses disciplined methods to answer questions or
solve problems.
o Research is a rigorous and systematic process for collecting, analyzing, and interpreting
data (information) to answer questions about a phenomenon or solve a problem.

Action research
 Action research is a form of research that is conducted by a practitioner for the purposes of
understanding and improving practices of a given profession . 
o Other terms for action research are practice-based research and practitioner research.

STEP 3: Importance of Action Research (10 Minutes)

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Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes)
ASK each student to “state importance of action research”.
ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
WRITE their responses on the board/flipchart
CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below

 The importance of conducting action research to any profession are:

o Helps to understand practice of a given profession (e.g. nursing profession): what
challenges do nursing professional encounter in their practice of services delivery?
o Helps to identify what actions should be taken to improve practice of given profession:
evidence generated by research are used to improve the practice of a profession

STEP 4: Types of Research (10 Minutes)

 According to research experts, types of research fall under :

o Quantitative Research
 Quantitative research involves the systematic collection of numerical data, often under
conditions of considerable control, and the analysis of that information using statistical
procedures.
 Also referred to as hard research (generating numeric findings, hard data) tends to
emphasize deductive reasoning, the rules of logic, and the measurable attributes of human
experiences.
o Qualitative Research
 Involves systematic collection and analysis of more subjective narrative materials, using
procedures in which there tends to be a minimum of researcher-imposed control.
 Also referred to as soft research, generating finding in words ( soft data)
 Tends to emphasize the dynamic, holistic, and individual aspects of the human experience
 Attempts to capture those aspects in their entity, within the context of those who are
experiencing them.

STEP 5: Sources of Research Problems (15 Minutes)

 There are different sources of research problems or issues, which include the following:
o Nursing practice: through practising nursing, problems that need research can be identified
o Researcher and peer Interaction: through researcher interactions and discussion research
problems can be identified
o Literature review: literature review facilitate in identifying research problems

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 o Theories: through reviewing theories, research problems can be identified
o Research priorities or research agenda: professional and research authorities can identifies
problems or issues that need research.
 Three conditions must exist for a situation or problem to warrant research efforts:
o There should be a perceived difference or discrepancy between what exists and what is ideal
or the planned situation.
o The reasons for this difference should be unclear, so that it makes sense to develop a research
question.
o There should be more than one possible answer to the question or solution to the problem.

STEP 6: Criteria for prioritizing research problems (20 Minutes)

Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes)

ASK a pair of students to mention two criteria that can be used to prioritize problems or issues for
research.
ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
WRITE their responses on the board/flipchart
CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below

 To selected problems or issues, researchers use a number of criteria, which include the following:
o Relevance: is the problem or issues related to practice or policy?
o Avoidance of duplication.
o Feasibility: can the research be conducted on this problem or issue?
o Political acceptability: is the issue or problem acceptable to policy makers, implementers or
community members?
o Applicability: can the finding be used to improve practice or policy?
o Urgency on data needed: the findings urgently needed to guide decision-making or
practice?
o Ethical acceptability: is it ethical to conduct research on selected issue or problem?

STEP 7: Key Points (5 minutes)

 The term research has been defined different by research experts
 Research is important to any profession as it help to understand the practices and research
findings be used to improve practice
 Researchers can identify research problems in many ways, including practices, literature
review
 Finally, researchers use a number of criteria to select a research problem or issues, including
relevance, acceptability, feasibility and others

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STEP 8: Session Evaluation (5 minutes)
 Ask learners to answer the following questions:
o Define the term research and action research
o Outline the importance of research
o List four sources research problems
o State two criteria for prioritizing research problems or issues

 Ask learners to do the assignment given in hand-out 1.1

Reference
Grove, S. K., Burns, N., & Gray, J. (2012). The practice of nursing research: Appraisal, synthesis, and
generation of evidence.Missouri: Elsevier Health Sciences

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McNiff, J. (2015). Writing up your action research project . London: Routledge
Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2008). Nursing research: Generating and assessing evidence for nursing
practice.London: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Hand-out 1.1.Assignment

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 Group assignment (30 minutes)

In group of 3- 5, request learners go to the library, read at least two research books and be able to:

o Write at least two definitions given in the research books

o Describe why people conduct research (importance of research)

SESSION 2: INTRODUCTION TO A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Total Session Time: 90 minutes + 90 minutes for group assignment

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Pre-requisite: none

Learning tasks
At the end of this session a learner is expected to be able to:
Define research proposal
Explain the importance of research proposal
Outline elements of a research proposal
Explain the research process
Explain the steps in developing research proposal
Write an introduction of a research proposal

Resources Needed
 Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape
 Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers
 LCD Projector and computer
 Note Book and Pen

Session Overview

Step Time (min) Activity/ Content

Method
1 05 Presentation Introduction and learning tasks

2 15 Presentation/buzzing Definition of research proposal

3 10 Presentation/ Importance of research proposal

brainstorming
4 15 Presentation Elements of a research proposal
5 30 presentation The research process
6 10 presentation Steps in developing research proposal

7 20 Presentation/buzzing Writing an introduction of research proposal

8 5
Presentation Key Points
9 10
Presentation Session Evaluation

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SESSION CONTENTS
STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning tasks (5 minutes)
READ or ASK participants to read the learning tasks
ASK participants if they have any questions before continuing

STEP 2: Definition of research proposal (15 Minutes)

Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes)

 ASK learners to define the term “research proposal”
 ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
 WRITE their responses on the board/flipchart
 CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below

Research proposal
 The term research proposal refers to:
o A plan developed by researchers to guide how the research will be conducted
o A written plan identifying the major elements of a study, such as the problem, purpose, and
framework, and outlining the methods to conduct the study; a formal way to communicate
ideas about a proposed study to receive approval to conduct the study and to seek funding  
o A document communicating a research problem, its significance, proposed procedures for
solving the problem, and, when funding is sought, how much the study will cost.

STEP 3: Importance of a Research proposal (15 Minutes)

Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes)

ASK each student to “ state the importance of a research proposal” in two minutes.
ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
WRITE their responses on the board/flipchart
CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below

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 The importance preparing a research proposal are as follows:
o The proposal helps researcher to plan his research in advance
o The proposal helps researchers to communicate the research intention to other people
o The research proposal helps to mobilize findings from different people and organization

STEP 4: Elements of a research proposal (10 Minutes)

A research proposal document has the following main elements (parts):
o Abstract/summary, which summarizes the following: background to research, research
objectives/questions, research methods, work plan and budget
o Introduction/background: this part explain topic of research, summary of research done,
research problem, objectives, and rationale/justification
o Literature review:
o Research methods: covering the following issues: research design/study type, research setting,
study population and sampling, data collection methods and tools, data analysis, research
ethics, and limitations
o Work plan and budget: these elements indicate research activities and their time frame of the
and research costs.

STEP 5: The Research Process (30 Minutes)

 The process of research is conceptual described in terms of phases and steps as follows:

Phase 1: The conceptual phase

 This involve activities with a strong conceptual or intellectual element such as thinking, reading,
rethinking, theorizing, and reviewing ideas with colleagues or advisers.
 The researcher uses such skills as creativity, deductive reasoning, insightfulness and a firm
grounding in knowledge on a topic of interest.
 Key steps of this phase are:
1) Formulating and delimiting the problem or statement of the problem
2) Reviewing the related literature
3) Developing a theoretical framework
4) Formulating a hypothesis or research questions.

Phase 2: The Design and Planning Phase

 The researcher or investigator makes a number of decisions about the research methods
 The steps of this phase are
1) Methods to be used to address the research questions and test the hypothesis.
2) Selecting the research design
3) Identifying the population to be studied.
4) Designing the sampling plan.

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 5) Specifying the methods to collect the research data.
6) Carefully plan for the data collection.
7) Finalizing and reviewing the research plan.
8) Conducting the pilot study and making revisions.

Phase 3: The Empirical Phase

 This involves the actual collection of research data and preparation of those data for analysis.
 This is the most time consuming part of the investigation. It may require several weeks or months of
work depending on the method used.
 The steps at this phase are:
1) Collecting the data.
2) Preparing the data for analysis.

Phase 4: The Analytic Phase

 This phase is about analysis data and interpretation of findings

 Key steps of this phase are:
1) Analysing the data.
2) Interpreting the results.

Phase 5: The Disseminations Phase

 This phase is about communicating and using research findings
 There are two steps in this phase, which are:
1) Communicating the findings.
2) Utilizing the research findings.

STEP 6: Steps in Developing Research Proposal (20 Minutes)

Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes)

ASK a pair of students to “mention two steps of developing a research proposal”
ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
WRITE their responses on the board/flipchart
CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below

 A research proposal is developed by going through the following specific steps:

1) Writing an introduction: indication research topic and its importance, statement of the
problem/research gaps, justification/benefits of research
2) Reviewing the related literature
3) Developing a theoretical framework
4) Formulating a hypothesis or research questions.
5) Selecting the research design and setting
6) Identifying the population and sample size to be studied.

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 7) Designing the sampling plan: specifying sampling techniques
8) Specifying methods and tools for collecting data.
9) Specifying data analysis methods/techniques
10) Developing research work plan and budget
11) Considering ethical implications of the research: stating how a research will be done
ethically
12) Finalizing and reviewing the research proposal.

Step 7. Writing an Introduction of Research Proposal (50 minutes)

 An introduction is the second part of a research proposal.
 The introduction of research proposal normally is written to answer the following key research
questions:
o What is the core problem or phenomenon you have studied?
o What have other researchers and scholars learned about this issue?
o What is not known about your problem or phenomenon and why is it important to fill
this gap in our knowledge?
 In writing the introduction of the research proposal, follow the following guidelines:
o Cleary indicate the research broad research area ( e.g. reproductive health), the specific
topic (e.g. factors maternal deaths) or phenomenon you want to study
o Clearly state importance of the research topic to the research field of study: two examples
of stating the importance of research topic: 1) maternal deaths is one of recognized health
problems developing countries….; 2) Malarial is a public health problem in Tanzania. Last
year malaria was responsible for…deaths among under-five children in X hospitals
o Summarise briefly what others researchers have learnt or found about the research topic
you want to study.
o State clearly research gap: what is not known about your problem or phenomenon
o State the rationale: 1) why is it important to fill the gap knowledge you have identifies in
your research topic; 2) state how your research will address the gaps; and 3) state how the
findings will be used to improve knowledge, professional practices, policy or research
practices.

Individual assignment (40 minutes)

 In group of 3-5 members and using previous proposals or research articles, ask learners to:
o Identify the elements of introduction of a proposal covered by the researchers
o Identified the how the elements are sequenced
 Allow learners to do the work for 20 minutes
 Request learners to present their answers
 Provide feedback to learners’ work based good features of a research questions and
objectives

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STEP 7: Key Points (5 minutes)
 Research proposal is an important research document; its used for documenting plan for
conducting research, communicating with other people and for mobilizing resources for
conducting research
 Research proposal is developed by going through specific steps, which are part of the overall
research process
 Researchers normally write an introduction of the research proposal: to indicate what topic is to
be studies; what is known and not known about the research topic ; what needs to be studies;
and to justify why a research need to be done on the topic

STEP 8: Session Evaluation (5 minutes)

 Ask learners to answer the following questions:
o Define the term research proposal
o List main parts or elements of a research proposal
o List phases of research process
o List the steps of developing the research proposal

 Request learners to do the assignment in hand-out 2.1

Reference
McNiff, J. (2015). Writing up your action research project . London: Routledge
Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2008). Nursing research: Generating and assessing evidence for nursing
practice. London: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Grove, S. K., Burns, N., & Gray, J. (2012). The practice of nursing research: Appraisal, synthesis, and
generation of evidence. Missouri: Elsevier Health Sciences.

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Fallon, Marianne. (2016). Writing up quantitative research in the social and behavioral sciences .
Rotterdam: Springer.

Hand-out 2.1.Assignment

Group assignment (90 minutes)

Request each learner to write an introduction of his or her research proposal by stating:

o Clearly the research broad research area, the specific topic or phenomenon you want to
study
o Clearly importance of the research topic to the research field of study
NMT 06106: Fundamentals of Research
o Briefly what others researchers have learnt or found about the research topic you23want
to study
o Clearly the research gap: what is not known about your problem or phenomenon 23
o State the rationale/justification
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SESSION 3: FORMULATING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND OBJECTIVES

Total Session Time: 120 minutes + 90 minutes for individual assignment

Pre-requisite: none

Learning Tasks
At the end of this session a learner is expected to be able to:
Define research questions, objectives and hypothesis
Classify types of research questions, objectives and hypothesis
Explain features of good research questions and objectives
Write research objectives and research questions

Resources Needed
 Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape
 Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers
 LCD Projector and computer
 Note Book and Pen

Session Overview

Step Time (min) Activity/ Content

Method
1 5 Presentation Introduction and learning tasks

2 10 Presentation/buzzing Definitions of research questions, objectives

and hypothesis
3 20 Presentation/ Classification of research questions,
brainstorming objectives and hypotheses
4 20 Presentation/buzzing Features of research questions and
objectives
5 55 Presentation/group work Formulating research questions and
objectives

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 6 10
Presentation Session Evaluation
7 10
Presentation Key Points/Assignment

SESSION CONTENTS
STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning tasks (5 minutes)
READ or ASK participants to read the learning tasks
ASK participants if they have any questions before continuing

STEP 2: Definitions of Research Questons, Objectives and Hypothesis (10 Minutes)

Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes)

 ASK each student to brainstorm and answer the following question in two minutes: your
using your words, define the term “research objective”.
 ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
 WRITE their responses on the board/flipchart
 CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below

Research question
 Research question is an interrogative statement that identifies the phenomenon, situation or certain
characteristics to be studied
 Research question may be defined as a question(s) that a researcher intends to answer through
doing a research.
Research objectives

 A research objective is statement that indicates what a research intend to achieve

Research hypothesis

 Research hypothesis is a formal statement formulated by a researcher to predict a relation between

two or more variables in a selected population.

STEP 3: Classification of Research Question, Objectives and Hypotheses (20 Minutes)

Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes)

 ASK each student to “mention two types of research objectives”
 ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
 WRITE their responses on the board/flipchart
 CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below
NMT 06106: Fundamentals of Research 26

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Classification of research questions
 Research questions can be classified into two types:
 Broad research questions: one or two broad or general research questions are usually
developed in a research, e.g. what is the use of family planning methods in X region in
Tanzania
 Specific research questions: these are clear and specific research questions that a research
intends to answer in a research. For the above broad questions, specific questions may be:
o What is the % of women aged 15-49 who use traditional planning methods in x region?
o What is the % of women aged 15-49 who use modern planning methods in x region?
o Does educational level of women influence use of modern planning methods?

Classification of research objectives

 As for research questions, research objectives can be classified into two types:
 Broad research objectives: E.g.: To assess the use of family planning methods in X region
in Tanzania
 Specific research questions: E.g.:
o To determine the % of women aged 15-49 years who use traditional planning methods
in x region
o To determine the % of women aged 15-49 years who use modern planning methods in
x region?
o To assess association( relationship) between educational level of women and use of
modern planning methods in x region

Classification of research hypothesis

 Research hypotheses can be classified into two groups:

o Null hypotheses: e.g. there is no relationship between educational level and use of modern
family planning methods among women aged 15-49 years in x region.
o Alternative hypotheses: there is relationship between educational level and use of modern
planning methods among women aged 15-49 years in X region

STEP 4: Features of Good Research Questions and Objectives (20 Minutes)

Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes)

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 ASK students to “mention one feature of good research questions or objectives of a research
proposal” in two minutes.
 ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
 WRITE their responses on the board/flipchart
 CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below

 Good specific research questions and objectives have to show (demonstrate) the following
features:
o Clear: they can be easily understood
o Specific: they are specific to a variable or an aspect of research topic
o Answerable (researchable): the show what data are needed and data can be collected
using available time and other resources
o Relevant: they are related to the research topic and them important to knowledge, policy
and practice of a give field.
o Related to theory/literature/research gap: they are useful in filling a research gap identified
in the literature/theory

STEP 5: Formulating Research Questions and Objectives (55 Minutes)

 In formulating research questions or objectives, adhere to the following guidelines:

o The formulated question should be clear: easily understood
o The formulated question or objective should specific to an aspect of research topic or
variable
o Proposed research question or objective should be answerable, given time and other
resources available.
o The formulated research question or objective should be relevant: related to topic and
importance to the field of study
o The formulated question or research should be related to an identified research gap.
o In formulating research question, start with one the following words: what, when, which,
where, who, and how.
o In writing research objectives may use the following word: to determine, to assess, to
describe, to measure, to explore, to find out….

Small group work: formulating research questions and objectives (30 minutes)

 In group of 3-5 members and based of the example given in step 3 of this session, ask learners to
formulate one specific research question and one research objective that meet the feature of a good
research question/objective:
o Malaria
o Breastfeeding
STEP 6: Session Evaluation (10 minutes)
o Latrines/toilets
 Ask learners to answer the following questions:
 Allow learners to do the work for 20 minutes
 Request learners to present their answers
 06106:
NMT Provide feedbackoftoResearch
Fundamentals learners’ work based good features of a research questions and objectives
28

28
 o Define the term research objective
o List two features of a good research objective
o Mention two guidelines for writing a good research question and objective

STEP 7: Key Points (10 minutes)

 Research questions and objective are important elements of any research and researchers are
required to formulate them
 Good research question and objectives are required to meet certain features set by
researchers; the key features are explained in this session
 To do research, researchers are required to formulate research questions and objectives that
meet these features.

 Request learners to do the assignment shown in hand-out 3.1

Reference
Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches .
London: Sage publications.

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29
Grove, S. K., Burns, N., & Gray, J. (2012). The practice of nursing research: Appraisal, synthesis, and
generation of evidence. Missouri: Elsevier Health Sciences.
Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2012). Nursing research: Generating and assessing evidence for nursing
practice. London: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Punch, K. F. (2009). Introduction to research methods in education . London: Sage.
Wood, M.J & Ross-kerr, J.C.(2010). Basic steps in planning nursing research: From question to
proposal. Seventh edition. London: Jones and Bartlett Publishers

Hand-out 3.1

Take individual assignment (60 minutes)

 Individually and using guidelines explained in this section, formulate at least three research
questions and at least three research objectives that will be part of your research proposal .
NMT 06106: Fundamentals of Researchwill be presented in the next session or submitted to facilitators 30
 Note: this assignment for
comments and suggestions.
30
NMT 06106: Fundamentals of Research 31

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 SESSION 4: CONDUCTING A LITERATURE REVIEW

Total Session Time: 120 minutes + 120 minutes for individual

assignment

Pre-requisite: none

Learning Tasks
At the end of this session a learner is expected to be able to:
Define term literature and literature review
Classify literature
Describe the process of conducting a literature review
Explain features of good literature review
Write a literature review

Resources Needed
 Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape
 Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers
 LCD Projector and computer
 Note Book and Pen

Session Overview

Step Time (min) Activity/ Content

Method
1 05 Presentation Introduction and learning tasks

2 15 Presentation/buzzing Definitions of literature and literature review

3 15 Presentation/ Classification of classification of literature

brainstorming
4 15 Presentation/buzzing The process of conducting literature review

NMT 06106: Fundamentals of Research 32

32
 5 35 Presentation/group work Feature of good literature review

6 20 presentation Writing a literature review

7 05
Presentation Session Evaluation
8 10
Presentation Key Points/Assignment

SESSION CONTENTS
STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning tasks (5 minutes)
READ or ASK participants to read the learning tasks
ASK participants if they have any questions before continuing

STEP 2: Definitions of Literature and Literature Review (15 Minutes)

Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes)

 ASK each student to define terms “literature” and “literature review”.
 ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
 WRITE their responses on the board/flipchart
 CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below

Literature
 The literature refers to all written sources relevant to the topic you have selected
o Literature are essential components to any scholarly work and disciplined research
o Literature include the following written sources: scientific journals, conference papers, theses,
dissertations, professional books, textbooks, encyclopaedias, dictionaries, websites and reports
developed by government agencies and professional organizations, and newspapers

Literature review

 Literature review is an organized written presentation or account of literature surveyed/read the

researcher or reviewer

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 Also, the term literature review refers to the process reviewing—to “looking again” at (re + viewing)—
what others have done in the selected topic or areas the similar, though not necessarily identical to,
one’s own topic of investigation.
 There benefits to engaging in literature review; these benefits are as follows:
o It can help researcher to ascertain whether other researchers have already addressed and
answered the research problem or at least some of its sub-problems.
o It can offer new ideas, perspectives, and approaches that may not have occurred to
researcher.
o It can inform researcher about other individuals who conduct work in this area—individuals
whom may be contact for advice or feedback.
o It can alert research to controversial issues and gaps in understanding that have not yet been
resolved—issues and gaps the researcher may decide to work.
o It can show researcher how others have handled methodological and design issues in studies
similar to researcher’s study
o It can reveal sources of data you may not have known existed.
o It can introduce researcher to measurement tools that other researchers have developed and
effectively used.
o It can help you interpret and make sense of researcher’ findings and, ultimately, help
researcher tie results to the work of those who have preceded the researcher.
o It can bolster researcher’s confidence to research topic is researcher studying, because
researcher will find that others have invested considerable time, effort, and resources in
studying it.

STEP 3: Classification of Literature (15 Minutes)

Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes)

 ASK each learner to “list two example of primary literature”
 ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
 WRITE their responses on the board/flipchart
 CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below

Classification of literature
 Literature may be classified into three classes or types:
a) Primary literature: these are research-based literature containing primary findings of the
research; examples of primary literature are research articles, dissertations, these and books
containing primary findings of research.
b) Secondary literature: these literature summarizing the findings from research articles; examples
of secondary literature are professional books and textbooks for a given field (e.g. community
nursing).
c) Tertiary literature: These literatures that are used a reference; examples of tertiary literature are
dictionaries and encyclopaedias.

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 Alternatively, literature can be classified into the following types:
a) Theoretical literature (secondary sources): professional non-research literature ( e.g. text book
or professional book)
b) Empirical literature (primary sources): research-based literature (e.g. research articles,
research report, dissertation/thesis)

STEP 4: The Process of Conducting a Literature Review (15 Minutes)

Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes)

 ASK students to “mention any two steps of conducting a literature review”
 ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
 WRITE their responses on the board/flipchart
 CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below

 The process of conducting a literature can be summarising into the following eight steps:
1) Select a topic for literature review;
2) Develop or use proposed research questions and objectives as guides;
3) Develop a literature search strategy consisting of key words or search terms;
4) Search the literature from electronic databases and library
5) Appraise or screen the literature for inclusion or exclusion;
6) Sample the identified literature: select key literature to use
7) Extract data required from the literature and summarize the extracted data; and
8) Write up and present a literature review in structured and logical way

STEP 5: Features of Good Literature Review (35 Minutes)

 A well written literature review demonstrates the following features:
o Address or related to research questions
o Structured: organized into three main sections, which are introduction, body and conclusion
o Organized: logical flow of information
o Critical: critically evaluate written sources indicating their strengths and weaknesses
o Informative: Indicate status of the topic( show what is known and unknown), e.g. key concepts ,
research methods, and findings
o Include key and current literature
o Comprehensive: include key concepts , research methods, and findings related to research
topic
o Written by using an appropriate referencing style: e.g. APA style, Harvard style

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 Small group work (30 minutes)

 Divide students into groups of 3-6

 Using a sample of literature section from previous proposals or research articles, ask learners to do
the following tasks using twenty minutes:
o Identify how the writers structured the literature review section
o Assess how the literature is guided by research questions or objectives
o Identify concepts that writers have defined
o Identify research findings that the research have reported in their literature review
o State which referencing style was used to write literature review

 Allow learners to do the work for 20 minutes

 Request learners to present their answers
 Provide feedback to learners’ work based on content presented.

STEP 6: Writing a Literature Review (20 minutes)

 To write a good literature review as part of the research proposal, the following guidelines should be
adhered to:
o Before writing, prepare an outline of the literature review covering the following: an introduction,
discussion of theoretical literature, discussion of empirical literature, and summary
o The introduction of the literature review should:
o Indicate focus of the literature review: e.g. this literature focus on the use of modern family
planning methods in developing countries
o Identify the purpose of the literature review: e.g. the purpose of this review to present
theoretical concepts and empirical findings on use of modern family planning methods among
women aged 15-49 years
o presents the organizational structure of the review: e.g. the review is organized into three main
sections: discussion of theoretical literature; discussion of empirical findings and summary of
literature review
o Theoretical literature section should cover issues such as concept analyses, models, theories, and
conceptual frameworks that support the research purpose.
o Empirical literature section should present and discuss issues such as types of research
conducted, research findings, strengths and weaknesses of previous research, strengths of
findings(evidence), and gaps and areas needing more research
o Summary section should: 1) presentation of the current knowledge base for the research problem;
2) the gaps in the knowledge base are identified, with a discussion of how the proposed study will
contribute to the development of knowledge in the defined field of research; 3) statement of how
the proposed study will contribute to the body of knowledge in this field of research.

NMT 06106: Fundamentals of Research 36

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 o The literature should use appropriate academic language acceptable professionals
o The literature should contain key literature and current literature
o The literature should be written using appropriate referencing styles such as American
Psychological Association (APA), Harvard, and Vancouver style

STEP 7: Session Evaluation (5 minutes)

Ask learners to answer the following questions:
o What is literature?
o List two features of a well-written literature review
o Mention two guidelines for writing a good literature review

STEP 8: Key Points (10 minutes)

 Conducting a literature review is an important process and skills for conducting research
 In writing literature review, writer have follow some guidelines, which are suggested in this session
 Researchers use a combination of literature to write their literature review section or chapter of their
research proposal or research such as theoretical literature and empirical literature.

References
Aveyard, H. (2014). Doing a literature review in health and social care: A practical guide . Maidenhead:
Open University Press.
Creswell, J. W.(2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches .
London: Sage publications.

NMT 06106: Fundamentals of Research 37

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Fink, A. (2014). Conducting research literature reviews: From the Internet to paper . Fourth edition.
London: Sage.
Grove, S. K., Burns, N., & Gray, J. (2012). The practice of nursing research: Appraisal, synthesis, and
generation of evidence. Missouri: Elsevier Health Sciences.
Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2012). Nursing research: Generating and assessing evidence for nursing
practice. London: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Punch, K. F. (2009). Introduction to research methods in education . London: Sage.
Wood, M.J & Ross-kerr, J.C.(2010). Basic steps in planning nursing research: From question to
proposal. Seventh edition. London: Jones and Bartlett Publishers

Hand-out 4.1

Take individual assignment (120 minutes)

 Ask each learner to write literature review section of his or her proposal using the guidelines
explained in this section.
 Note: This assignment will be presented in the next session or submitted to facilitators for
NMT 06106: Fundamentals of Research 38
comments and suggestions.
38
NMT 06106: Fundamentals of Research 39

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 SESSION 5: RESEARCH DESIGNS

Total Session Time: 120 minutes + 60 minutes for individual assignment

Pre-requisite: None

Learning Tasks
At the end of this session a learner is expected to be able to:
Define terms research design and research setting
Describe common research designs
Select a research design and research setting for a research project

Resources Needed
 Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape
 Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers
 LCD Projector and computer
 Note Book and Pen

Session Overview

Step Time (min) Activity/ Content

Method
1 05 Presentation Introduction and learning tasks

2 15 Presentation/buzzing Definitions of research design and

research setting
3 30 Lecture-discussion common research designs

4 50 Presentation/brainstorming/group Select a research design and setting

work
5 10
Presentation Session Evaluation
6 10
Presentation Key Points/Assignment

SESSION CONTENTS

NMT 06106: Fundamentals of Research 40

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 STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning tasks (5 minutes)
READ or ASK participants to read the learning tasks
ASK participants if they have any questions before continuing

STEP 2: Definitions of Research Designs and settings (15 Minutes)

Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes)

ASK students to define the term “research design” and “research setting”.
ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
WRITE their responses on the board/flipchart
CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below

Research design

 Research design is the strategy, the plan, and the structure of conducting a research project.
 The research design is a comprehensive master plan of the research study to be undertaken, giving a
general statement of the methods to be used. The function of a research design is to ensure that
requisite data in accordance with the problem at hand is collected accurately and economically
 A design or a structure before data collection or analysis can commence when designing research we
need to ask: given this research question (or theory), what type of evidence is needed to answer the
question (or test the theory) in a convincing way?

Research setting (place of study)

 The research setting area is the location where a study is conducted.

 This is denotes a place where study participants are located or where data are collected by researchers
 Research settings are of three types:
o Natural research settings (field settings): an uncontrolled, real-life situation or
environment( e.g. village)
o partially controlled research settings: environments that the researcher manipulates or
modifies in some way
o Highly controlled research setting: artificially constructed environment developed for the
sole purpose of conducting research (e.g. laboratory) .

NMT 06106: Fundamentals of Research 41

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 STEP 3: Types of research designs (30 Minutes)

Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes)

 ASK each learner to “mention two examples of research designs”
 ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
 WRITE their responses on the board/flipchart
 CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below

 The common research design fall under two broad categories: quantitative designs and qualitative
designs

Quantitative Research Designs

 Common research designs that fall under quantitative designs are:
o Exploratory design: The exploratory research design involves getting a feel of the situation and
emphasizes a discovery of ideas and possible insights that may help in identifying areas of further
rigorous study

o Descriptive design
 This type of designs is employed to facilitate description and inference building about
population parameters and the relationship among two or more variables.
 Description or inference could be quantitative or qualitative in nature.
 Descriptive design only describes the phenomenon under study attempting to establish a
relationship between factors.
 It is the most commonly design used category of research design
o Explanatory design
 Explanatory design is a very structured in nature and sometime referred to as analytical
design
 It aimed at identifying any causal links between the factors or variables that pertain to the
research problem
o Experimental designs
 Experimental design is concerned with causal- and- effect relationships
 Causal- and effect relationship occurs when one thing or event makes some other thing or
event to happen
 Experimental designs involves manipulation or control of the independent variable (cause)
and measurement of the dependent variables (effect)
o Non-experimental designs
 Non-experimental designs do not involve manipulation of various variables
 Examples are cross-sectional descriptive studies, cross-sectional analytical studies, and
longitudinal studies

Qualitative Research Designs

 The following are common qualitative research designs:

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 a) Phenomenological design: focuses on the lived experiences. It usually describe the meaning
that experiences hold for each participant,
b) Ethnographic design: involve studies of analysis of data about the life ways or particular pattern
of a culture (or sub-culture)
c) Grounded theory: design that focuses on theory construction/theory development
d) Historical study designs: Studies geared at analysing the data from the past. Seeks to discover
the events of the past and relate them to what is happening to the present and to the future.
e) Case study: Designs focusing into looking at in-depth examination of people or groups of
people, institutions, or organizations.

STEP 4: Selecting a Research Design (60 Minutes)

Activity: brainstorming (5 minutes)

 ASK students to mention “factors influence selection of research design?”
 ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
 WRITE their responses on the board/flipchart
 CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below

 To select an appropriate research design to use in a research, researchers consider many factors,
including the following:
o Research questions or objectives: quantitative research questions or objectives are better
addressed by quantitative research designs ; whereas qualitative research questions are better
addressed by qualitative research designs ( e.g. case study)
o Available resources: when resources are limited, descriptive studies or explanatory research
are suitable research designs
o Skills of the researcher: researchers with quantitative skills tend to prefer quantitative research
designs to qualitative designs.

Small group work: group work (30 minutes)

 Divide students into groups of 3-6 members

 Using a sample of literature section from previous proposals or research articles, ask learners
to do the following tasks using twenty minutes:
o Identify research design used by researchers in their study.
o Identify a justification or reason given by researchers for using the selected research
design
o Identify research setting where the researchers did their research
o Classify the research settings into natural, partially controlled, or highly controlled
research ofsettings
NMT 06106: Fundamentals Research 43
 Allow learners to do the work for 20 minutes 43
 Request learners to present their answers
 Provide feedback to learner
 STEP 5: Session Evaluation (10 minutes)
 Ask learners to answer the following questions:
o Define the term research design and research setting
o Mention two criteria commonly used for selecting a research design
o Mention two types of research settings

STEP 6: Key Points (10 minutes)

 Research designs and setting are important elements of research proposal and research report
 Research can be conducting in a number of settings
 Selection of research design can be influenced by many factors, commonest being research
questions/objectives, available resources and skills of the researchers.

 Request learners to do the assignment shown in hand-out 5.1.

References
Creswell, J. W.(2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches .
London: Sage publications.

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44
Grove, S. K., Burns, N., & Gray, J. (2012). The practice of nursing research: Appraisal, synthesis, and
generation of evidence. Missouri: Elsevier Health Sciences.
Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2012). Nursing research: Generating and assessing evidence for nursing
practice. London: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Wood, M.J & Ross-kerr, J.C.(2010). Basic steps in planning nursing research: From question to
proposal. Seventh edition. London: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.

Hand-out 5.1

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 Take individual assignment (60 minutes)

 Ask each learner to select their appropriate research design and research setting where
they plan to conduct their research.
 Note: This assignment will be presented in the next session or submitted to facilitators for
comments and suggestions.

SESSION SIX: SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND SAMPLE SIZE

Total Session Time: 120 minutes + 60 minutes for individual assignment

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 Pre-requisite: none

Learning Tasks
At the end of this session a learner is expected to be able to:
Define the terms related to sampling
Explain the importance of sampling in research
Explain sampling techniques
Select sampling techniques
Determine the sample size for a research
Resources Needed
 Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape
 Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers
 LCD Projector and computer
 Note Book and Pen

Session Overview

Step Time (min) Activity/Method Content

1 05 Presentation Introduction and learning tasks

2 20 Presentation/brainstorming Definitions of sampling terms

3 10 Presentation/ buzzing Importance of sampling in research

4 55 Presentation/buzzing/group work Sampling techniques
5 10 Lecture-discussion Selecting a sampling techniques
6 15 Lecture-discussion Approaches for sample determination
7 05 Presentation Session Evaluation
8 10
Presentation Key Points/Assignment

SESSION CONTENTS
STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning tasks (5 minutes)
READ or ASK participants to read the learning tasks
ASK participants if they have any questions before continuing

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 STEP 2: Definitions of Terms Related Sampling (20 Minutes)

Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes)

 ASK each learner to define the term “population” and “sample”.
 ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
 WRITE their responses on the board/flipchart
 CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below

Population
 The population is a particular group of people, organizations, events behaviours or other elements that
are the focus of a research

Target population
 The target population is the entire set of individuals or elements who meet the sampling criteria

Accessible population
 An accessible population is the portion of the target population to which the researchers have
reasonable access

Sampling
 Sampling is a process of selecting a limited number of units( e.g. organizations, people, cases, events,
behaviour) from a larger set for a study
 It is also defined a process that involves selecting a group of people, events, behaviours, or other
elements with which to conduct a research

Elements (sampling units)

 Elements are individual units of the population and sample.
 An element can be a person, an organization, event, behaviour, or any other single unit of study.
 When elements are persons, they are usually referred to as subjects or research participants or
informants( see figure 6.1 below)

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 Figure6.1. Population, target population, accessible population, sample and subject for a research
(Adopted from Grove et al, 2014).

Sampling frame
 Sampling frame usually denote a complete list of all the elements in a population who meet the
sampling criteria.

Census
 The term census refers to the entire population of interest.

Sample
 The term sample denotes a segment of population or a selected group of people or elements for
inclusion in a study
 There are two types of samples:
a) Probability sample: a sample that has been selected using random selection so that each unit in
the population has a known chance of being selected. It is generally assumed to be a
representative sample for the population
b) Non-probability sample: a sample that has not been selected using a random selection method.
Essentially this implies that some units in the population are more likely to be selected than others.

Sampling criteria
 Sampling criteria (eligibility criteria) include a list of characteristics essential for membership or
eligibility in the target population
 The sampling criteria determine the target population, and the sample is selected from the accessible
population within the target population
 A research may have both inclusion and exclusion sampling criteria:
o Inclusion sampling criteria: are characteristics that a subject or element must possess to be
part of the target population. Example inclusion sampling criteria may be the ability to
read, to write responses
o Exclusion sampling criteria: are characteristics that can cause a person or element to be
excluded from the target population. Example exclusion criteria inability to read or write.

Sampling plan

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 A sampling plan is a plan that describes the process and sampling techniques (methods) for selecting a
sample from sampling frame.

STEP 3: Importance of Sampling in Research (10 Minutes)

Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes)

 ASK learners to “state one reason using a sample in research”
 ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
 WRITE their responses on the board/flipchart
 CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below

 Sampling process is important to researcher and research process for the following two major
reasons:

o It help to obtain sample from large population when the entire population members cannot be
included in the research

o It helps to use the limited research resources effectively to obtain adequate information by
using sample rather than entire population

STEP 4: Sampling Techniques (60 Minutes)

Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes)

 ASK learners to “mention two sampling techniques used by researchers to obtain a sample”.
 ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
 WRITE their responses on the board/flipchart
 CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below

Sampling techniques

 Sampling techniques refers to the specific method, design, approach, or strategy that a researcher
decides to use to select a sample from the larger population.
 Sampling techniques can be broadly into two main categories:
o Probability sampling techniques: refers to sampling techniques that ensure that every
member (element) of the population has a probability (chance) being selected to form
sample (probability is being included in the study is higher than zero
o Nonprobability sampling techniques: denote sampling techniques that do not ensure that
every element of the population has an opportunity to be included in the sample.
Probability sampling techniques

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 The following is list of sampling techniques which fall under probability sampling techniques:
o Simple random sampling technique
 Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
 It used when the population is small and all of its members are known.
o Systematic random sampling technique
 The process involves selecting every kth individual on the list, using a starting point
selected randomly. Example selecting every 4 th nursing student in an alphabetical
list of third year nursing student
 Used when an ordered list of all members of the population is available
o Stratified sampling technique
 In this technique, the population is categorised into strata or layers
 Used when the researcher knows some of the variables in the population are critical to
achieving representativeness.
 Variables commonly used for stratification are age, gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic
status, diagnosis, geographical region, type of institution, type of care, care provider,
and site of care
o Cluster sampling technique
 The technique use natural cluster such as village, street, council, and region; cluster
are selected by simple random sampling technique
 The techniques is used under two conditions:
 When a simple random sample would be prohibitive in terms of travel time and
cost
 When the individual elements making up the population are unknown,
preventing the development of a sampling frame
o Multi-stage cluster sampling technique
 Here several stages of cluster sampling technique is done to obtain research sample:
in first stage, three councils are selected for inclusion; in sector stage, three villages
are selected for each council; in third stage, two streets are selected from each village
and lastly, each household is selected for inclusion in the study of assessing use of
toilet

Nonprobability sampling techniques

 Some of the common nonprobability sampling techniques are:
o Purposive sampling technique: use to for selecting information-rich people or organization on a
select research topic
o Snowball sampling techniques: use to get people are difficult to reach, difficult to identify or
impossible to obtain in other ways; example people who are difficulty to locate are alcoholics, child
abusers, sex offenders, drug addicts, and criminals.

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 Small group work (30 minutes)

 Divide students into groups of 3-6

 Using a sample of sampling paragraph or sampling section from previous proposals or research
articles, ask learners to do the following tasks using twenty minutes:
o Identify the population use by the researchers
o Identify sampling techniques used by researchers
o Explain why the population and sampling techniques were used the research

 Allow learners to do the work for 20 minutes

 Request learners to present their answers
 Provide feedback to learners

STEP 5: Selecting Sample for Research (10 Minutes)

 Selection of sampling techniques is determined by the following issues:

o Nature of the research topic: in sensitive topics like commercial sex and drug addicts, snowballing
sampling may be appropriate
o Research questions and objectives: research questions or objectives that seek to understand
complex issues will need purposeful sampling techniques; research questions or objectives that
look for association or relationship will need probability sampling techniques such stratified or
cluster sampling techniques.
o Accessibility of the research participants: participants who are difficulty to locate may require use of
probability sampling techniques such as commercial sex workers.

 In selecting a sampling techniques, the following guidelines should be adhered to:

o Select a sampling techniques that will enable get sample that will provide the required data
o Select sampling technique or techniques that will adequately help in answering research
question
o Select a sampling techniques that will enable you access adequate number of research
participant

STEP 6: Approaches for Sample Size Determination (20 minutes)

 Sample size in in study varies depending on a number of factors, which include the following:

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 o Nature of the study: qualitative studies tend to have small sample size (on average 32 people) than
quantitative research, which require a large sample. Sample size in qualitative research is
determining saturation point, where no new information is generated.
o Number of variables: the more variables the large the sample
o Analysis techniques: quantitative analysis require large sample size than qualitative analysis
o Nature topic: If the topic of your study is clear and the participants can easily discuss it, fewer
individuals are needed to obtain the essential data. If the topic is difficult to define and awkward for
people to discuss, you will probably need a larger number of participants or informants to saturate
the data
o Quality of data: The higher the quality and richness of the data, the fewer the research participants
needed to saturate data in the area of study. Quality data are best obtained from articulate, well-
informed, and communicative participants.
o Scope of the study: If the scope of a study is broad, researchers need extensive data to address
the study purpose, and it takes longer to reach data saturation. A study with a purpose that has a
broad scope requires more sampling of participants, events, or documents than a study with a
narrow scope
o Data collection methods: Interview require less small sample size than administration of
questionnaire
 sample determine size determination in quantitative studies can be done by the following common
approaches:
o Using a census for small populations: use the entire population as the sample.
o Using a sample size of a similar study: use the same sample size as those of studies similar to
the one a researcher plan to do.
o Using published tables: rely on published tables which provide the sample size for a given set
of criteria; sample of these table are available on the internet
o Using formulas to calculate a sample size: use formula to calculate sample size.

 There a number of formula that can be used to calculate the sample size
 A common formula for calculating a sample size based on single proportion as follow:

where e=0.05; Z=1.96; P=0.5; q=1-P; No=sample size

STEP 7: Session Evaluation (5 minutes)

 Ask learners to answer the following questions:

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 o Define the term sample, sampling frame
o List four common sampling techniques for research
o Mention three factors that may influence the sample size of study

STEP 8: Key Points (10 minutes)

 Sampling and sample are important elements of research
 In planning their research, researchers need to consider sampling techniques and determine which one
is appropriate for research
 Sample size determination is a key skill for any person engaged in research; sample size determination
is done by considering a number of factors and by using four common approaches.

 Request learners to do the assignment in handout-6.1.

References

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54
Creswell, J. W.(2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches .
London: Sage publications.
Grove, S. K., Burns, N., & Gray, J. (2012). The practice of nursing research: Appraisal, synthesis, and
generation of evidence. Missouri: Elsevier Health Sciences.
Israel, G.D(1992) sample determination. Florida: University of Florida
Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2012). Nursing research: Generating and assessing evidence for nursing
practice. London: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Wood, M.J & Ross-kerr, J.C.(2010). Basic steps in planning nursing research: From question to
proposal. Seventh edition. London: Jones and Bartlett Publishers
Zedeck, S. (2014). APA dictionary of statistics and research methods. Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.

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 Hand-out 6.1

Take individual assignment (60 minutes)

 Ask each learner to write sampling method section of his or her proposal to cover the
following:
o Population to be included in the study
o State inclusion and exclusion sampling criteria
o The sample size
o Sampling techniques that will be used to select the sample
o Justification for the selected sampling technique
 Note: This assignment will be presented in the next session or submitted to facilitators for
comments and suggestions.

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SESSION SEVEN: DATA COLLECTION METHODS AND TOOLS

Total Session Time: 120 minutes + 60 minutes for individual assignment

Pre-requisite: none

Learning Tasks
At the end of this session a learner is expected to be able to:
Define terms data and information
Explain common data collection methods
Outline common data collection tools
Select data collection methods and tools

Resources Needed
 Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape
 Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers
 LCD Projector and computer
 Note Book and Pen

Session Overview

Step Time (min) Activity/Method Content

1 05 Presentation Introduction and learning tasks

2 10 Presentation/brainstorming Definitions of Data And Information
3 30 Presentation/ buzzing Common Data Collection Methods
4 20 Presentation/brainstorming Common Data Collection Tools
5 40 Lecture-discussion/ group work Selecting Data Collection Methods And
Tools
6 05 Presentation Session Evaluation
7 10
Presentation Key Points/Assignment

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SESSION CONTENTS
STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning tasks (5 minutes)
READ or ASK participants to read the learning tasks
ASK participants if they have any questions before continuing

STEP 2: Definitions of Data and Information (10 Minutes)

Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes)

 ASK each learner to define the term “data” and “information”.
 ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
 WRITE their responses on the board/flipchart
 CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below

Data
 Data are raw, unanalyzed number and facts about events, people, organizations, behaviours or
other elements that are the focus of a research

Information
 Information is meaningfully analyzed and organized collection of facts or data about events , people,
organizations, behaviours or other elements that are the focus of a research.

STEP 3: Common Data Collection Methods (30 Minutes)

Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes)

 ASK learners to “mention two data collection methods”
 ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
 WRITE their responses on the board/flipchart
 CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below

 In research, data collection is defined as a systematic method or technique of gathering or

generation of data to answer and meet research questions or objectives.

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 Data collection tools refer to instruments that researchers use to collect or generate research tools.

 Data collection methods fall under two broad categories:

o Direct data collection methods: data are collected directly from primary sources, which may be
a person, organization, or thing. Common methods under this categorist are:
 Administering a questionnaire: This a method in which a questionnaire is administered to
capture required data. For example, a questionnaire can be administered to patient to
collect data on age, education, health care-seeking behaviours (practices).
 Interviewing: This is a direct conversation between an interviewer and individual
(interviewee) aimed at obtaining data to answer research questions and meet research
objectives; it can be done to a group of people. For example, this method can be used to
capture data on related to opinion, feeling or behaviors of clients after a treatment.
 Observation: This method of data collection where researchers collect data by watching an
individual, event, behavior, practice or object. For example, this method is used to
generate data for a skill, procedure, practices. This methods can be used capture
pathophysiological data on temperature, height, weight

o Indirect data collection method : data are gathered from the secondary sources, which is
commonly documents or database.
 Documents reviewing: this is a way of collecting or generating data from secondary
sources, usually from written documents, database, website or picture. For example,
this method can be used to obtain data for immunization coverage in given community
using immunization documents maintained by a health facilities or local health
department authorities.
 Data collection methods can also be classified broadly into two broad categories:

o Quantitative data collection methods, which include the following methods

 Administration of questionnaire: a questionnaire is administered to research participants
 Structured interviewing: face to face interviewing using interview schedule containing
mainly closed questions
 Document reviewing: capturing quantitative data from written sources or database
 Structured observation, where observer observes pre-determined behaviours, actions, and
events using structure data collection tools such a checklist or rating scale
o Qualitative data collection methods, which include the following methods:
 Semi-structured or unstructured interviewing: using interview guide containing a list of
areas or questions to be covered with each participant
 Unstructured observation, a researcher observe un-predetermine behaviours, actions, and
events.
 Focused group discussion (interviewing), where a group of people are interviewed
 Document reviewing, mainly to capture qualitative data in form of words, text or picture
using compilation sheet

o Data collection techniques can complement each other and more than one data collection methods
can be used in single study

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 o A skilful use of a combination of different techniques can reduce the chance of bias and give a
more comprehensive understanding of the topic under study.
o Researchers often use a combination of flexible and less flexible research techniques.
o Flexible techniques, such as:
o loosely structured interviews using open-ended questions,
o Focus group discussions and observations are also called qualitative research techniques.

STEP 4: Common data collection tools (20 Minutes)

Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes)

 ASK students to “mention any two common data collection tools used by researchers”.
 ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
 CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below

 The following are commonly used data collection used by researchers:

o Questionnaires: used when administering a questionnaire is chosen a data collection methods
o Interview guides/interviews schedules: used when the method of data collection is
Interviewing:
o Checklists/rating scales/forms: these are relevant for observation
o Compilation-sheets/data extraction forms: Used to collect data through documents reviewing

STEP 5: Selection Data Collection Methods and Tools for Research (40 Minutes)

 In planning and conducting research, researchers may select and use one or combination of data
collection methods and their related data collection tools.
 In selecting data collection methods and data collection tools, the following guidelines should be
adhered to:
o Select a data collection methods which is appropriate to data required to answer the
research question and meet research objectives
o Select a that data collection tool which is appropriate to data collection method
o Select a data collection tool that will adequately capture the required data
o Select a data collection tool which you can easily use during data collection time
Small group work (30 minutes)

 Divide students into groups of 3-6

 Using a sample of previous proposals or research articles, ask learners to do the following:
o Identify the data collection tools used or selected by the researcher
o Identify data collection methods used or selected by the researcher
o Identify, if stated, the justification for each methods

 Allow learners to do the work for 20 minutes

 Request learners to present their answers
 Provide feedback to learners’ work based on contents and guideline describe in this session
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 STEP 6: Session Evaluation (5 minutes)
 Ask learners to answer the following questions:
o Define the data collection methods and data collection tool
o List four common data collection methods used by researchers
o Mention three data collection used by researchers

STEP 7: Key Points (10 minutes)

 Data collection methods are important elements of research methods
 There are four common data collection common used by researchers
 There are four common data collection methods that researcher use to collect data

 Request learners to do assignment in Hand-out 7.1

References
Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches .
London: Sage publications.

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61
Grove, S. K., Burns, N., & Gray, J. (2012). The practice of nursing research: Appraisal, synthesis, and
generation of evidence. Missouri: Elsevier Health Sciences.
Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2012). Nursing research: Generating and assessing evidence for nursing
practice. London: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Wood, M.J & Ross-kerr, J.C. (2010). Basic steps in planning nursing research: From question to
proposal. Seventh edition. London: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.
Zedeck, S. (2014). APA dictionary of statistics and research methods . Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.

Hand-out 7.1

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 Individual assignment (60 minutes)

 Ask each learner to write a data collection methods and tools his or her proposal to cover
the following:
o Data collection methods
o Data collection tools
o If needed, state the justification for the selected method
 Note: This assignment will be presented in the next session or submitted to facilitators for
comments and suggestions.

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SESSION EIGHT: DEVELOPING A DATA ANALYSIS PLAN

Total Session Time: 120 minutes + 60 minutes for individual assignment

Prerequisite: none

Learning Tasks
At the end of this session a learner is expected to be able to:
Define data analysis and data analysis plan
Explain data analysis methods/techniques
Outline elements of data analysis plan
Develop data analysis plan

Resources Needed
 Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape
 Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers
 LCD Projector and computer
 Note Book and Pen

Session Overview

Step Time (min) Activity/Method Content

1 05 Presentation Introduction and learning tasks

2 10 Presentation/brainstorming Definitions of concepts

3 30 Presentation/ buzzing Common Data Analysis Methods

4 30 Presentation/buzzing/group work Elements of Data Analysis Plan
5 30 Lecture-discussion Developing a Data Analysis Plan
6 05 Presentation Session Evaluation
7 10
Presentation Key Points/Assignment

SESSION CONTENTS

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 STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning tasks (5 minutes)
READ or ASK participants to read the learning tasks
ASK participants if they have any questions before continuing

STEP 2: Definitions of Concepts (10 Minutes)

Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes)

 ASK each student to define the terms “data analysis” and “data analysis plan”.
 ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
 WRITE their responses on the board/flipchart
 CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below

Concepts of data analysis

 Data analysis is a method or process of applying graphical, statistical, quantitative or qualitative
techniques to a set of observations or data in order to summarize it or to find general patterns (Zedeck,
2014).
 Data analysis plan is a plan for analysing a set of collected data

STEP 3: Common Data Analysis methods (30 Minutes)

Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes)

 ASK learners to “list two data analysis methods”
 ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
 WRITE their responses on the board/flipchart
 CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below

 Once data are collected using acceptable methods and tools, they need to be analyzed using
suitable analysis methods to generate meaningful information
 The main objective of analyzing data is to provide answers that will help in answering research
questions and meet research objectives.
 There are two broad categories of data analysis methods commonly used in research:
o Quantitative data analyses
o Qualitative data analyses

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 Quantitative data analyses
 Before quantitative data are analysed, the data need to be:
o Checked for completeness and missing values/data
o Checked for accuracy and errors
o Coded for analysis
 Within the major category of quantitative data analyses, there are two methods that are commonly used
to analyse data:
o Descriptive data analyses
o Inferential data analyses.
 Quantitative analysis can be done using two approaches(modes):
o computer software- assisted analyses
o manual analysis, not using a computer or software
 Descriptive data analyses are data analyses that focus on analysing a set of collected data in order to
obtain descriptive statistics such as frequencies, mean, median, mode, and standard deviation.
 Inferential data analyses (statistical significance tests) are group of statistical techniques that help
researchers to determine associations, correlations or causal relationships among two or more
variables in a research.

Qualitative data analyses

 There are many ways of analysing qualitative data, but the commonly used method is thematic
analysis framework (Gale et al., 2013; Pope, Ziebland, & Mays, 2000).
 Thematic analysis has the following steps:
o Preparing and organizing data for analysis;
o Determining how data analysis will be done;
o Familiarizing with the general sense of the data;
o developing code and coding the data; using code to develop description and themes;
o Relating and developing second layer themes which are broader;
o Summarizing and reporting findings
 Qualitative analysis can also be manually and by using computer software such as N-Vivo software

STEP 4: Elements of Data Analysis Plan (30 Minutes)

Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes)

 ASK learners to “mention two elements of data analysis plan”.

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  ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
 WRITE their responses on the board/flipchart
 CLARIFY and summarize by using the content belowd

 Data analysis plan is an important section of a proposal

 Data analysis plan provide guidance on planned data analysis
 The data analysis plan has the following elements:
o Research questions or objectives: this element typically indicate the research question or
objectives that the research need to answer or meet
o Variables: this element indicates all types that are needed to describe the sample, answer
research questions and meet research objectives
o Proposed data analysis: this element of the plan show type of data analysis and specific tests
that will be performed to generate findings to answer research questions or meet research
objectives
o Methods of presentation findings: this element states how the findings will be presented in
order to answer the research questions or meet research objectives; the presentation can be
done in numerically, textually, diagrammatically using tables, figure or graphs.

Small group work: group work (30 minutes)

 Divide students into groups of 3-6
 Using a sample of previous proposals or research articles, ask learners to do the following tasks
using twenty minutes:
o Identify the essentials elements of data analysis plan proposed or used by the researcher

 Allow learners to do the work for 20 minutes

 Request learners to present their answers
 Provide feedback to learners’ work based contents presented above

STEP 5: Developing a Data Analysis Plan (30 Minutes)

 The data analysis plan can be in three forms:

o Narrative form: described using words/texts
o Table form: presented in acceptable table
o Both in narrative and tabular in form: described in text and presented in a table.

 The steps for developing a data analysis plan as follows:

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 1) Identify and write the research question to be answered or research objective to be address by
the research: e.g. to determine the proportion of women of reproductive age using modern
planning methods in Village.
2) Identify and write the needed variable/data to answer each research question or meet the
research objective; for example the number of women in reproductive age using modern family
planning methods and total number of women in reproductive age included in a research
3) Identify and write methods of data analysis that will be performed to answer each research
question or meet the research objective. Example descriptive analysis
4) State how the findings will be presented in the research report. Example for data related to the
above variable above may presented numerically (%) and textually.

 Table 7.1 below is filled for demonstration purpose

Table 7.1. Format for developing a data analysis plan

Research question or Variables Proposed data Methods of

objective analysis presentation findings
To determine the  Number of women Descriptive analysis Numerically (%) and
proportion of women in reproductive age (% of women of in text
of reproductive age using modern reproductive age
using modern family family planning using modern
planning methods in methods family planning
Village (numerator) methods
 Total number of
women in
reproductive age
( denominator)

STEP 6: Session Evaluation (5 minutes)

Ask learners to answer the following questions:
o Define the data analysis and data analysis plan
o List three elements of data analysis plan
o Mention two main categories of data analysis methods

STEP 7: Key Points (10 minutes)

 Data analysis is a basic element of research methods
 There are two main categories of data analyses used by researchers
 It is important include essential elements of data analysis plan in a data analysis section of a proposal

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  Request learners to do the assignment hand-out 8.1.

References
Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches .
London: Sage publications.

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69
Grove, S. K., Burns, N., & Gray, J. (2012). The practice of nursing research: Appraisal, synthesis, and
generation of evidence. Missouri: Elsevier Health Sciences.
Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2012). Nursing research: Generating and assessing evidence for nursing
practice. London: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Saunders, M. N., Lewis,P.,Thornhill, A (2012). Research methods for business students .6th
edition.Harlow : Pearson Education
Gale, N. K., Heath, G., Cameron, E., Rashid, S., & Redwood, S. (2013). Using the framework method
for the analysis of qualitative data in multi-disciplinary health research. BMC medical research
methodology, 13(1), 117.
Pope, C., Ziebland, S., & Mays, N. (2000). Qualitative research in health care: analysing qualitative
data. BMJ: British Medical Journal, 320(7227), 114
Wood, M.J & Ross-kerr, J.C.(2010). Basic steps in planning nursing research: From question to
proposal. Seventh edition. London: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.
Zedeck, S. (2014). APA dictionary of statistics and research methods . Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.

Hand-out
Take individual 8.1 (60 minutes)
assignment

 Ask each learner to write a data analysis plan or section of his or her proposal to cover the
following:
o Variables for the research
o Specific data analysis methods
o Presentation of findings
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 Note: This assignment will be presented in the next session or submitted to facilitators for
comments and suggestions.
SESSION NINE: DEVELOPING RESEARCH WORK PLAN AND BUDGET

Total Session Time: 120 minutes + 60 minutes for individual assignment

Pre-requisite: none

Learning tasks
At the end of this session a learner is expected to be able to:
Define research work plan and budget
Explain importance of research work plan and budget
Outline elements of a research work plan and budget
Prepare a research work plan and budget
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Resources Needed
 Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape
 Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers
 LCD Projector and computer
 Note Book and Pen

Session Overview

Step Time (min) Activity/Method Content

1 05 Presentation Introduction and learning tasks

2 10 Presentation/brainstorming Definitions of Research Work Plan and
Budget
3 10 Presentation/ buzzing Importance of Research Work Plan and
Budget
4 35 Presentation/buzzing/group work Elements of a Research Work Plan and
Budget
5 45 Lecture-discussion Preparing a Research Work Plan and
Budget
6 05 Presentation Session Evaluation
7 10
Presentation Key Points/Assignment

SESSION CONTENTS
STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning tasks (5 minutes)
READ or ASK participants to read the learning tasks
ASK participants if they have any questions before continuing

STEP 2: Concepts of Research Work Plan and Budget (10 Minutes)

Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes)

 ASK each learner to define the term “Research work plan” and “research budget”.
 ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
 WRITE their responses on the board/flipchart
 CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below
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 Research work plan (action plan) is a plan (timetable or schedule) that describes time and the activities
that will be done to answer research questions and achieve research objectives.
 Research budget is a financial plan indicating the amount of financial resources needed to conduct a
research; it answers the following questions: How much will it cost to conduct a planned research?”

STEP 3: Importance of Research Work Plan and Research Budget (10 Minutes)

Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes)

 ASK student to give reasons “Why do researchers need a research work plan and budget?”
 ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
 WRITE their responses on the board/flipchart
 CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below

 The purposes of developing a research work plan are to:

o Communicate to research staff and other stakeholders the activities that need to be done and
when
o Serve as a tool for coordination and monitoring of research activities and related outputs
(deliverables)
o Assists in evaluating research activities in an organization
 The purposes of developing a research budget are to:
o Identify the resources needed to do activities to achieve stated research objectives
o Coordinate various research activities
o Monitor use of financial resources against expenditure
o Evaluate value of a research in an organization

STEP 4: Elements of a Research Work Plan and Budget (35 Minutes)

Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes)

 ASK learners to “mention two elements of data analysis plan”.
 ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
 WRITE their responses on the board/flipchart
 CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below

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 A research plan work is a document that have the following elements:
a) Research activities that will be done to complete a research process for a give topic
b) Resources for doing the research activities
c) Time frame/duration for doing each research activity
d) Responsible person for doing the research activities
e) Output of each research activity

 Research work plan can be in two forms: table form or Gantt chart
 Samples of research work plan and its elements are shown in Gantt chart (table 8.1) and in table form
table 8.1) respectively.

Table 8. Sample of research work plan in form Gantt chart.

Source: Biggam (2015)

Table 8.2. Sample of research work plan.

Task Responsible person Timeframe(Number of Expected output
days)
Prepare proposal Principal investigator 2 months Proposal prepared
according to acceptable
format/guideline
Submit proposal to the Principal investigator 1 week Proposal submitted to
college college
Prepare data collection Principal investigator 3 days Data collection prepared
tools
Travel to data collection Principal investigator 2 days Data collected travelled to
sites data collection site
Pre-test and improve Principal investigator 1 day Data collection tools pre-
data collection tools tested

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 Seek permission to Principal investigator 1 day Permission to conducted
conduct study at X research is granted
Hospital
Collect Data Principal investigator 9 days Data collected
Travel back to college Principal 2 days Data collectors travel back
investigator/data to college
collectors
Process and analysis Principal investigator 2 weeks Data analysis processed
data and analysed
Write dissertation/report Principal investigator 4 weeks Research report is written
Bind and submit the Principal investigator 1 day Research report is
dissertation submitted

 A research budget is a document that have the following elements:

o Research activities will be done to complete a research process for a give topic
o Resources for doing the research activities
o Unit of resources
o Number of units of resources
o Unit cost of each resources
o Estimate cost for each resource
o Total budget for a resource and activity

 A sample of a research budget is shown in table 8.3.

Table 8.3. A research budget

Activity Resource Unit Number Cost Total cost

unity
Prepare a proposal A4 papers ream 2 12000 24,000
Pen Pc 1 300 300
Notebook Pc 2 1500 3000
Activity total 23,300
Submit proposal to the Binding fee proposal 2 4000 8000
college. Activity total 8,000
Prepare data collection tools Compilation form copy 1 300 300
Questionnaire copy 1 300 300
Interview guide copy 1 300 300
Checklist copy 1 100 100

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 Activity total 1,000
Travel to data collection site Bus ticket One way 1 60,000 60,000
On transit Day 2 10,000 10,000
accommodation Day 1 30,000 30,000
Activity total 100,000
Pre-test data collection tools Questionnaire copy 5 300 1500
Interview guide copy 5 300 1500
Checklist copy 5 300 1500
Compilation form copy 2 100 200
Activity total 4,700
Collect data Questionnaire copy 45 300 135000
Interview guide copy 50 300 15000
Checklist copy 2 300 600
Compilation form copy 2 100 200
Pen Pc 2 300 600
pencil Pc 2 200 400
eraser Pc 2 200 400
Clear bag Pc 1 1500 1500
Activity total 153,700
Travel back to …. College Bus ticket One way 1 60000 60,000
On transit Day 2 10,000 10,000
accommodation Day 1 30,000 30,000
Activity total 100,000
Process analysis data Data analysis fee Day 2 30000 60,000
Flip chart bundle 0.5 12000 60,000
Activity total 120,000
Write dissertation A4 papers ream 1 12000 12000
Activity total 12000
Bind and submit the Binding fee copy 4 4000 16000
dissertation Printing fee copy 2 30,000 60000
Photocopy fee copy 2 6,000 12000
Activity total 112000
Grand total 622,400

STEP 5: Preparing Research Work plan and Budget (45 Minutes)

 To develop a research work plan, researcher need to follow some steps

 The steps for developing a data analysis plan can be as follows:
1) Formulate appropriate research activities: e.g. collect research data; prepare data collection
tools
2) Allocate a person who will be responsible for each research activities: for the above activities,
responsible persons could be data collectors and principal researcher; and principal researcher
respectively.

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 3) State the timeframe or duration of each research activity: For the above activities, duration can
be two weeks and one week respectively
4) State or propose research output for each activity: The key outputs for the above research
activities as follow: data collected and data collection tools developed respectively.

 The steps for developing a research budget are as follow:

1) State research activities to achieve research objectives: e.g. collect data
2) Identify resources needed to do each research objective: questionnaires
3) Select appropriate unit of each resource needed to do research activity: e.g. copy, day,
litre, km, each and other
4) State the number of unit of each resource needed to do research activities: 100
5) State the unit cost/price for each resource needed to do activities: e.g. 500/=
6) Calculate total cost for each research by multiplying the number of units and unit cost/price
7) Calculate the value of all resources needed to do each activity: e.g. 100X 500=50,000,
which is the amount of money needed to get 100 copies of questionnaires at 500 per copy.

 The sample of a budget shown in table 8.2 was developed by going through the steps stated
above.

STEP 6: Session Evaluation (5 minutes)

Ask learners to answer the following questions:
o Define the research work plan and research budget
o List three elements of a research work plan and budget
o Mention three steps of preparing a research work plan
o Mention three purposes of developing a research budget

STEP 7: Key Points (10 minutes)

 Research work plan and budget are important documents that assists in management, coordination
and evaluation of research activities
 Researcher and students of research need to develop competencies of developing research work plan
and budget using acceptable formats

 Request learners to do the assignment in hand-out 9.1.

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References
Biggam, J. (2015). Succeeding with your master's dissertation: a step-by-step handbook . 3rd edition.
Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Creswell, J. W.(2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches .
London: Sage publications.
Grove, S. K., Burns, N., & Gray, J. (2012). The practice of nursing research: Appraisal, synthesis, and
generation of evidence. Missouri: Elsevier Health Sciences.
Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2012). Nursing research: Generating and assessing evidence for nursing
practice. London: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Saunders, M. N., Lewis,P.,Thornhill, A (2012). Research methods for business students .6th
edition.Harlow : Pearson Education
Wood, M.J & Ross-kerr, J.C.(2010). Basic steps in planning nursing research: From question to
proposal. Seventh edition. London: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.

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 Hand-out 9.1

Take individual assignment (60 minutes)

 Ask each learner to prepare a research work plan and budget section of his or her proposal

 Note: This assignment will be presented in the next session or submitted to facilitators for
comments and suggestions.

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SESSION TEN: RESEARCH ETHICS

Total Session Time: 120 minutes + 60 minutes for individual assignment

Pre-requisite: none

Learning Tasks
At the end of this session a learner is expected to be able to:
Define ethics and research ethics
Explain importance of adhering to research ethics
Outline element of research ethics
Explain the process of obtaining ethical approval and permission

Resources Needed
 Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape
 Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers
 LCD Projector and computer
 Note Book and Pen

Session Overview

Step Time (min) Activity/Method Content

1 05 Presentation Introduction and Learning Tasks

2 10 Lecture-discussion Concepts of Research Ethics
/brainstorming
3 10 Lecture-discussion / buzzing Importance of Research Ethics

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 4 40 Lecture-discussion /buzzing Elements of Research Ethics
5 40 Lecture-discussion/work group Process of Obtaining Ethical Approval and
Permission
6 05 Presentation Session Evaluation
7 10
Presentation Key Points/Assignment

SESSION CONTENTS
STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning tasks (5 minutes)

READ or ASK participants to read the learning tasks

ASK participants if they have any questions before continuing

STEP 2: Concepts of Ethics (10 Minutes)

Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes)

ASK each learner to define the term “ethics” and “research ethics”.
ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
WRITE their responses on the board/flipchart
CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below

 Researchers are increasingly urged to conduct research that adheres to good or acceptable research
principles and practices stipulated in research ethics in any country.
 Ethics are the norms, rules or standards of behaviours that guide moral choice and about behaviours
and our relationship with others.
 Research ethics are norms or standards that provide guidelines on how researchers should design,
collect data, analyse data and report findings in a moral and responsible way.
 It is about conforming to a code or set of research principles.

STEP 3: Importance of Research Ethics (10 Minutes)

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 Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes)
ASK student to give reasons “why researchers need to adhere to research ethics”
ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
WRITE their responses on the board/flipchart
CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below

 Research ethics help and guide researchers to prevent conducting research that an unethically treat
subjects and prevent research misconduct in the development, implementation, and reporting of
research.
 The research ethics are developed to prevent the minimize or prevent occurrence of following specific
ethical concerns related to research:
o Physical, psychological, socio-economic, and legal harm to participants,
o Lack of informed consent,
o Invasion of privacy,
o Deception,
o Fraud

STEP 4: Elements of Research Ethics (40 Minutes)

Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes)

 ASK learners to “mention two elements of research ethics principles which can guide research in
nursing”.
 ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
 WRITE their responses on the board/flipchart
 CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below

 Elements of research ethics are defined as general guidelines that guide decision-making and
behaviours of researchers and they are shown in the table below.

Table. Key elements of research ethics

No. Ethical principle Explanation
1 Harm to The potential to cause harm through the research process and the need to ensure
participants physical, psychological, legal well-being either of research participants, the
researcher, or others.
2 Dignity The requirement to respect the dignity of research participants, researchers or
others and avoid causing discomfort or anxiety.
3 Informed consent The need to ensure the fully informed consent of research participants.
4 Privacy The need to protect privacy of research subjects or avoid invasions of privacy.
5 Confidentiality. The requirement to ensure confidentiality of research data whether relating to

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 individuals, groups or organizations
6 Anonymity The protection of anonymity of individuals or organizations.
7 Deception The potential for deception through the research process, either through lies or
behaviour that is misleading.
8 Affiliation The need to declare any professional or personal affiliations that may have
influenced the research, including conflicts of interest and sponsorship, including
information about where funding for the research has come from.
9 Honesty and The need for openness and honesty in communicating information about the
transparency research to all interested parties, including the need for trust.
10 Reciprocity The idea that the research should be of mutual benefit to researcher and
participants or that some form of collaboration or active participation should be
involved.
11 Misrepresentation The need to avoid misleading, misunderstanding, misrepresenting or false reporting
of research findings.
Source: Extracted from Bell & Bryman (2007).

 To meet the ethical principles in the table above, researcher need to do or meet the following:
a) Follow stipulated ethical approval processes: The researcher should seek ethical approval from
the relevant authorities
b) Get informed consent: The researcher should seek informed consent to each research
participant orally or using a participant’ information sheet and consent form
c) Ensure confidentiality and anonymity: The researcher should inform each research participant
that information they give will be confidential to other people, that data will be used only for
research purpose, and that participant’s identities will be ensured by assigning a unique
participant identification number to each participant.
d) Protect research participants and researcher from harm: The researcher should inform
research participants to terminate data collection process at any time when they feel
uncomfortable to continue with data collection process and researcher and data collectors will
collect in safe and conducive environment and without un-necessary stress to data collector.
e) Reciprocity and dissemination: The researchers need to ensure that research findings reflect
what was observed and are disseminated to research participants and organizations for use.

STEP 5: Process of Obtaining Ethical Approval (40 Minutes)

 Before are research is conducted, researchers and students need to seek and obtain ethical
clearance, approval, and permission from relevant authorities and people:
o University/college Ethics and Research Committee,
o The National Institute for Medical Research (NIMR),
o Commission of Science and Technology (COSTECH),
o Heads of institutions or health facilities, and
o Research participants
 To obtain the research ethical approval and permission, the following steps should be followed:
a) Seek approval for research from relevant authorities such university/college Ethics and
Research Committee by submitting the research proposal

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 b) Seek permission to conduct study from relevant authorities like local government director,
village leader, and head of health facilities
c) Seek informed consent from each research participant orally or using acceptable research
tools such as information sheet and consent form.

Small Group Work: Group Work (30 minutes)

 Divide students into groups of 3-6
 Using a sample of previous proposals or research articles, ask learners to do the following
tasks using twenty minutes:
 Identify the essentials elements of research ethics proposed or used by the researcher
 Outline how the researcher planned or went through to obtain approval of research.

 Allow learners to do the work for 20 minutes

 Request learners to present their answers
 Provide feedback to learners’ work based contents presented above

STEP 6: Session Evaluation (5 minutes)

Ask learners to answer the following questions:
o Define ethics and research ethics
o List three elements of research ethics
o List the steps that an researcher or student research is expected to go through to obtain research
approval and permission

STEP 7: Key Points (10 minutes)

 Research is ethics are important element of research methods
 Researchers and students of research are expected to follow acceptable principles of research
 It is important to outline in the research proposal and research report how research principles will be or
were followed during the designing, conducting, and reporting research findings.

 Request learners to do the assignment below.

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 Hand-out 10.1.

Take individual assignment (60 minutes)

 Ask each learner to write a research ethics section of his or her proposal to cover the
following:
a) Approval of research
b) Permission of conducting research
c) Informed consent from research participants

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Reference
Bell, E., & Bryman, A. (2007). The ethics of management research: an exploratory content
analysis. British Journal of Management, 18(1), 63-77.
Biggam, J. (2015). Succeeding with your master's dissertation: a step-by-step handbook . 3rd edition.
Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Creswell, J. W.(2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches .
London: Sage publications.
Grove, S. K., Burns, N., & Gray, J. (2012). The practice of nursing research: Appraisal, synthesis, and
generation of evidence. Missouri: Elsevier Health Sciences.
Mashalla, Y.J.S., Shija, J.K., Kitua, A.Y., Mwaikambo, E., Kohi, Y.M., Ndossi, G.D., Malecela, M.,
Mboera, L.E.G. (2009) Guidelines of Ethics for Health Research in Tanzania . Dar es Salaam: Tanzania
Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2012). Nursing research: Generating and assessing evidence for nursing
practice. London: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Robson, C., & McCartan, K. (2016). Real world research. Sussex: John Wiley & Sons.
Saunders, M. N., Lewis,P.,Thornhill, A (2012). Research methods for business students . 6th edition.
Harlow : Pearson Education
Saunders, M. N., Lewis,P.,Thornhill, A (2012). Research methods for business students .6th
edition.Harlow : Pearson Education
Wood, M.J & Ross-kerr, J.C.(2010). Basic steps in planning nursing research: From question to
proposal. Seventh edition. London: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.

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SESSION ELEVEN: DEVELOPING AND USING DATA COLLETION TOOLS
Total Session Time: 120 minutes + 120 minutes for individual
assignment

Pre-requisites: none

Learning Tasks
At the end of this session a learner is expected to be able to:
Outline qualities of a data collection tools
Develop data collection tools
Pre-test data collection tools
Use data collection tools to collect data

Resources Needed
 Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape
 Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers
 LCD Projector and computer
 Note Book and Pen

Session Overview

Step Time (min) Activity/Method Content

1 05 Presentation Introduction and Learning Tasks

2 20 Lecture-discussion Qualities of a Data Collection Tools
/brainstorming
3 45 Lecture-discussion/buzzing/ Developing Data Collection Tools
group work
4 25 Lecture-discussion /buzzing Pre-Testing Data Collection Tools

5 10 Lecture-discussion Using Data Collection Tools

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 6 05 Presentation Session Evaluation
7 10
Presentation Key Points/Assignment

SESSION CONTENTS
STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning tasks (5 minutes)
READ or ASK participants to read the learning tasks
ASK participants if they have any questions before continuing

STEP 2: Qualities of Data Collection Tools (20 Minutes)

Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes)

 ASK each learner to define the term “Validity” and “ reliability”.
 ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
 WRITE their responses on the board/flipchart
 CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below

Validity of a data collection tool

 Two concepts are used to describe qualities of a data collection tools: validity and reliability
 Validity of a data collection tool refers to the extent to which data collection to accurately measure
what they were intended to measure
 A valid data collection tool is tool that accurately measures or captures what they were intended to
measure or denotes tool that actually reflects or is able to measure the construct being examined.
 Valid data collection instrument contain questions or statements relevant to the construct or
variable being measured
 On contrary, invalid data collection tool does not accurately measures or captures what they were
intended to measure.
 Validity in concern with the appropriateness, meaningfulness, and usefulness of the specific data
collection tools and inferences made from instrument scores
 Validity of data collection varies from one sample to another and from one situation to another

 Generally, researchers develop and use valid data collection tool for each data collection methods

Reliability of data collection tool

 Reliability of data collection tool is refers to the extent to which data collection tool can produce
consistent data and findings if the tool is repeated used to collect the same data from the same
source of data. It also denotes the consistency of the measures obtained of an attribute, item, or
situation in a study or clinical practice.

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 The greater the reliability or consistency of the measures of a particular instrument, the less
random error in the measurement method
 In general, researchers need instruments that are reliable and provide values with only a small
amount of error for each data collection method
 Qualities of data collection tools (Validity of the data collection tools) can be enhanced by using the
following strategies
o Developing data collection tools which are clear, understandable, and appropriate for each data
collection method,
o Request independent professionals to review developed data collection tools,
o Pilot-test and improve developed data collection tools before collecting data

STEP 3: Developing Data Collection tools (45 Minutes)

Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes)

 ASK learners to “list two data collection tools”
 ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
 WRITE their responses on the board/flipchart
 CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below

 A number of data collection tools can be developed and used to collect data for research
 Common developed and used data tools are
o Questionnaire/interview schedule
o Interview guide
o Checklist
o Compilation sheet/data extraction form

 The process of developing data collection tools has the following steps:
1) Review or formulate research questions or research objectives: To determine type of
treatment given to under-five children in public primary health facilities
2) Identify the variables that are related to research questions or objectives: e.g. under-five
treatment
3) Identify data required for each of the research variable: e.g. treatment given to under-five
4) Determine sources of data for each variable: who or what will provide data for each
variable. e.g. under-five treatment medical record
5) Formulate specific and understandable data collection questions or statements for each
variable and other background data; data collection questions (or statement) are questions
that are used by researchers to obtain data from data sources. Example of data collection
question: “What treatments were given to under-five children in public primary health
facilities?”
6) Compile the formulated data collection question to form one or more than one data
collection tools: e.g. questionnaire or interview guide
7) Edit the data collection tools
8) Request other professionals to review the edited version of the data collection tool

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 Data collection questions or item statement should have the following features:
o They are relevant to the research question of objective
o They are general short
o They are specific to variable
o Understandable to majority of people, especially research participants and data collect
o They have one idea: not double barrelled

 A table 11.1 can be used as formalize systematize the process of developing data collection tool
 For demonstration purpose, the first raw has been filled.

Table 11.1. A matrix for assist in developing data collection tools

Research question or variable Source of Data collection Data collection question

objective data method
To determine type of under-five under-five Document What treatments were
treatment given to treatment treatment review given to under-five
under-five children in medical children in public primary
public primary health record health facilities?
facilities

Small Group Work (30 minutes)

 Divide students into groups of 3-6
 Using table 11.1, ask learners to develop data collection tool (questionnaire) using twenty
minutes for the following two research objectives:
o To determine the use of modern family planning among women of reproductive age in
council X
o To explore factors that influence use of use of modern family planning among women of
reproductive age in council X.

 Allow learners to do the work for 20 minutes

 Request learners to present their answers
 Provide feedback to learners on how they have done the work of developing data collection
tool

STEP 4: Pre-testing of Data Collection Tools (25 Minutes)

Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes)

 ASK each learner define “pre-testing data collection tool?”

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 ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
 CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below

 Generally, pre-testing or conducting pilot is a research technique that allows researcher to identify
potential problems in the proposed study such as:
o Reactions of participants to research procedures
o Sampling techniques
o Data collection methods and tools
o Training of data collectors
o Data analysis
o Budget and work plan

 Pre-testing of data collection tools is done before the actual data collection and is done to
determine (Varkevisser et al,2003):
o Whether the tools you use allow you to collect the information you need and whether those
tools are reliable
o How much time is needed to administer the interview guide/questionnaire, to conduct
observations or group interviews, and/or to make measurement?
o Whether there is any need to revise the format or presentation of interview guides/
questionnaires, including whether:
 The sequence of questions is logical.
 The wording of the questions is clear.
 Translations are accurate.
 Space for answers is sufficient.
 There is a need to pre-categorise some answers or to change closed questions into
open-ended questions.
 There is a need for additional instructions for interviewers (e.g., guidelines for probing).

5: Using Data Collection Tools to Collect Data (10 Minutes)

 Once tools are pre-tested and improved, they can be used to collect research data
 Data collection tools can be effectively used by adhering to the following guidelines:
o Prepared adequate number of data collection tools
o Identify the study population
o Select the required sample using acceptable methods shown in the proposal
o Select appropriate data collection method for each data collection tool as described in the
proposal
o Request informed consent as described in proposal
o Administer or use the data collection tool as described in the proposal
o Keep and store filled data collection tools and unfilled data collection tools

STEP 6: Session Evaluation (5 minutes)

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  Ask learners to answer the following questions:
 State the meaning of a valid data collection tool and reliable data collection tool
 State three reasons for pre-testing of data collection tools
 List steps of developing data collection
 Mention four features of a good data collection question

STEP 7: Key Points (10 minutes)

 Researcher need to understand the qualities of good data collection tool
 Researchers are required to develop valid and reliable data collection tools
 Data collection should be tested before data collection process
 Data collection should be used collect data required to answer research questions and meet research
objectives

 Request learners to do the assignment hand-out 11.1

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Reference
Creswell, J. W.(2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches .
London: Sage publications.
DeVellis, R. F. (2003). Scale development: Theory and application. Second edition. Thousand Oaks:
Sage.
Grove, S. K., Burns, N., & Gray, J. (2012). The practice of nursing research: Appraisal, synthesis, and
generation of evidence. Missouri: Elsevier Health Sciences.
Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2012). Nursing research: Generating and assessing evidence for nursing
practice. London: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Saunders, M. N., Lewis,P.,Thornhill, A (2012). Research methods for business students .6th
edition.Harlow : Pearson Education
Varkevisser, C. M., Pathmanathan, I., Brownlee, A. (2003). Designing and conducting health systems
research projects: Volume 1: Proposal development and fieldwork  . Amsterdam: KIT Publishers
Wood, M.J & Ross-kerr, J.C.(2010). Basic steps in planning nursing research: From question to
proposal. Seventh edition. London: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.

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 Hand-out 11.1.

Take individual assignment (120 minutes)

 Ask each learner to develop data collection tools for his or her proposal

 Note: This assignment will be presented in the next session or submitted to

facilitators for comments and suggestions.

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SESSION TWELVE: ANALYSIS OF COLLECTED RESEARCH DATA

Total Session Time: 120 minutes

Pre-requisite: none

Learning Tasks
At the end of this session a learner is expected to be able to:
Explain methods of data analysis
Prepare data for analysis
Enter data using appropriate tools
Analyse research data
Interprete data

Resources Needed
 Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape
 Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers
 LCD Projector and computer
 Note Book and Pen

Session Overview

Step Time (min) Activity/Method Content

1 05 Presentation Introduction and Learning Tasks

2 10 Presentation/brainstorming Methods of Data Analyses

3 40 Presentation/ buzzing Data Analysis Processes

4 50 Lecture-discussion/group work Interpretation of Research Findings
5 05 Presentation Session Evaluation
6 10
Presentation Key Points/Assignment
SESSION CONTENTS

STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning tasks (5 minutes)

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 READ or ASK participants to read the learning tasks
ASK participants if they have any questions before continuing

STEP 2: Main Methods of Data Analysis (10 Minutes)

Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes)

 ASK each learner to define the term “validity” and “reliability”.
 ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
 WRITE their responses on the board/flipchart
 CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below

 Data analysis is a method or process of applying graphical, statistical, quantitative or qualitative

techniques to a set of observations or data in order to summarize it or to find general patterns (Zedeck,
2014).
 It may also be defined as a process or technique of turning raw research data into meaningful and
useful information or evidence to answer research questions or meet research objectives (Saunders et
al., 2012).
 Data analysis can done by using two broad methods or techniques:
o Quantitative analysis, process of summarizing and turning data into numeric findings using
statistical techniques
o Qualitative analysis, which lead to generation of textual findings in forms of meanings, summary
statements, themes (categories), patterns, relationship, explanations and theories

STEP 3: Data Analysis Processes (40 Minutes)

Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes)

 ASK learners to “list three steps of data analysis”
 ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
 WRITE their responses on the board/flipchart
 CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below

 The analysis quantitative data process involves the following steps:

1) Prepare and organize data for analysis: this stage involves assessing the completeness,
accuracy, errors, and omission including (their reasons). Then develops codes and code
each response in data collection tools.

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 2) Determine how data analysis will be done: This involves determining and selecting specific
approach of analysing data whether using a statistical computer programme or using
manual approach.
3) Enter data into programme or other tools: transfer from data collection tools or input research
data into programme or other tools (e.g. master-sheets) for data analysis.
4) Clean and account for missing data: This is about checking for data entry errors and data
outside the accepted range and take appropriate actions to correct them.
5) Compute/calculate descriptive statistics in line the requirement of the research questions:
This steps involves determining the trends in the data to a single variable or question on
data collection instrument using descriptive statistics
6) Compute/calculate inferential statistics to answer research questions: This is about
determining the relationship or associations, correlation among two or more variables using
inferential statistics

 Qualitative data analysis process involves the following steps:

1) Prepare and organize data for analysis: Arrange or organize data into folders and transcribe
data from audiotapes and field-notes.
2) Determine how data analysis will be done: This involves determining and selecting specific
approach of analysing data whether using a statistical computer programme or using
manual approach.
3) Explore the general sense of the data: to obtain a general sense of the data, memoing ideas,
thinking about the organization of the data, and considering whether you need more data.
4) Develop code and start coding the data: Coding is the process of segmenting and labelling
text to form descriptions and broad themes in the data.
5) Use code to describe themes: use code to develop descriptions and themes
6) Related and develop second layer themes which are broader

 After analysis of data, the researchers should (Fallon,,2016):

o Present the characteristics of study participants
o State the key findings for each objective or theme, variable
o Support each finding using appropriate statistics (descriptive or inferential),figure, table, or
quote from sources

STEP 4: Interpreting Research findings (50 Minutes)

 Interpretation refers to the process of searching for meaning, making inferences and relations
pertinent to the research questions, drawing conclusions and implications of findings within a
research and beyond the research conducted (Kerlinger, 1973).
 Kerlinger rightly states that the interpretation process involves answering the following questions
for each statistics or findings:
o What is its meaning? Specifically, what is its meaning within the study?
o What is its meaning broad meaning in light of previous related research findings and
interpretation?
o What is its meaning in light of available theoretical prediction

 Generally, interpretation of findings (done in discussion section of research report) should:

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 o State the key finding for each objective, theme, or variable
o Compares or contrasts each finding with appropriate previous studies, theory, professional
literature, practice, policy
o Explains the findings or state the implication of findings to policy or practices
o Offers alternative explanations (justify inconsistency)
o States any limitation and their implication to findings
o Suggesting future research on the topic.

Small Group Work (30 minutes)

 Divide students into groups of 3-6

 Using a sample of previous research report or research articles, ask learners to do the following
tasks using twenty minutes:
o Identify how the researcher interpreted his or her findings
o Assess to what extent has the researcher followed or deviated from the general flow or pattern of
interpretation describe above.

 Allow learners to do the work for 20 minutes

 Request learners to present their answers
 Provide feedback to learners’ work based good features of interpretation describe above

STEP 6: Session Evaluation (5 minutes)

 Ask learners to answer the following questions:
o Mention two main types of data analysis
o What are the steps of quantitative data analysis
o State how qualitative research findings are presented
o State how interpretation of findings is done by researchers

STEP 7: Key Points (10 minutes)

 Researcher need to analyse data using acceptable data analysis
 Researchers are required to follow data analysis steps in analysing the research data
 Research findings need to be interpreted appropriately by researchers.

Reference
Creswell, J. W.(2014). Research design: A qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method approaches .
London: Sage publications.
Creswell, J. (2012). Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research . London:
Pearson Education

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DeVellis, R. F. (2003). Scale development: Theory and application( second edition). Thousand Oaks:
Sage
Fallon, M.(2016). Writing up quantitative research in the social and behavioral sciences . Rotterdam:
Springer.
Grove, S. K., Burns, N., & Gray, J. (2012). The practice of nursing research: Appraisal, synthesis, and
generation of evidence. Missouri: Elsevier Health Sciences.
Kerlinger,R.N.(1973). Foundations of behavioural research (2nd edition).London:Holt-saunders.
Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2012). Nursing research: Generating and assessing evidence for nursing
practice. London: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Saunders, M. N., Lewis,P.,Thornhill, A (2012). Research methods for business students (6th
edition).Harlow : Pearson Education
Varkevisser, C. M., Pathmanathan, I., Brownlee, A. (2003). Designing and conducting health systems
research projects ( Volume 1: Proposal development and fieldwork)  . Amsterdam: KIT Publishers
Wood, M.J & Ross-kerr, J.C.(2010). Basic steps in planning nursing research: From question to
proposal. (seventh edition). London: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.

SESSION THIRTEEN: WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT

Total Session Time: 120 minutes + 360 individual assignment

Pre-requisite: none

Learning Tasks
At the end of this session a learner is expected to be able to:
Define a research report
Outline parts
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Write a research report
Explain how to disseminate research findings 99
Resources Needed
 Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape
 Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers
 LCD Projector and computer
 Note Book and Pen

Session Overview

Step Time (min) Activity/Method Content

1 05 Presentation Introduction and Learning Tasks

2 10 Presentation/brainstorming Definition of Research Report

3 15 Presentation/ buzzing Parts of Research Report

4 60 Lecture-discussion/group work Writing a Research Report
5 15 Presentation/ buzzing Disseminating Research Findings
6 05 Lecture-discussion Session Evaluation
7 10
Presentation Key Points/Assignment

SESSION CONTENTS
STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning tasks (5 minutes)

READ or ASK participants to read the learning tasks

ASK participants if they have any questions before continuing

STEP 2: Definition a Research Report (10 Minutes)

Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes)

 ASK each student to define “research report”.
 06106:
NMT ALLOW 2 to 3 students
Fundamentals to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
of Research
 WRITE their responses on the board/flipchart 100
 CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below 100
A report is defined as is a written statement of the facts of a situation, project, study or test, how these
facts were ascertained, their significance, the conclusions that have been drawn from them, and the
recommendations being made.

Research report (or research article) is a report that describe the process and findings of a research

It is written once a research is completed

There are different forms of research reports, including the following:

o Detailed research report, covering all issues related to a research

o Research articles
o

STEP 3: Parts of a Research Report (15 Minutes)

Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes)

 ASK student to pair and answer the following question in 2 minutes: “list the main parts of a research
report”
 ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
 WRITE their responses on the board/flipchart
 CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below

• A research report usually has the following parts or sections:

o Summary: structured summarising introduction, research methods, findings/results,
and discussion
o Introduction: covering background, summary of literature, and
rationale/significance/value of the study, research question and objectives.
o Literature review: this section presents theoretical literature and empirical (research)
literature; it indicates what is known and not known a about the research topic.
o Research methods: This part present research methods used by researchers study
design, place/setting, variables, sampling technique, source of data, data collection
methods, tools, data analysis, and ethical considerations
o Findings/results: this part findings should be presented based on specific research
objectives as follows:

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 o Discussion: this section discusses the findings of the research and its implication
o Conclusions and recommendations: this sections include conclusions and
recommendations
o Reference: this section contains literature that informed the reported research
o Appendices/attachments: this sections can have data collection tools

STEP 4: Writing a Research Report (60 Minutes)

Activity: Brain storming (5 minutes)

 ASK student to pair and answer the following question in 2 minutes: “list the steps of
writing process”
 ALLOW 2 to 3 students to provide responses and let others provide additional responses
 CLARIFY and summarize by using the content below

Writing process
 Writing a research report follow normal report writing process, which has the following steps:

o Planning for writing, which involves:

 Identifying your purpose
 Determining the scope of your writing
 Defining your reader( target audience)
 Specifying your content
 Developing an outline of a report
 Specifying the approach of writing
 Developing a timetable for writing

o Drafting: writing the first draft of your report into sentences and paragraphs and using
acceptable outline or format
o Revising: evaluating your draft and then rewriting it by adding, deleting, rewording, and
rearranging the content.
o Editing and prof-reading: correcting grammar and punctuations, eliminating typing or
handwriting errors, and structuring the document

 A well-written research report has the following features:

o Logical : contents are structured logically
o Clear : understandable by target audience
o Concise: has adequate length
o Complete: has all required contents
o Relevant: focuses on required content

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 o Structured: Based on agreed format

General guidelines for writing the main parts of a research report

 As shown in step 3,the research report has introduction and the introduction should be written to
cover the following essential research issues:
o Background/introduction to research area and topic,
o Summary of the literature indicating what is known and research gap/gap in knowledge (what is
not known)
o Research question, objectives, or hypotheses
o Scope of the research: what is researched and what is not researched
o Rationale/significance/value of the study

 The literature chapter or section should be written to include the following issues:
o Theoretical perspectives: theoretical literature should indicate what is known theoretically about
concepts, theory, process, practices, event or behaviours researched
o Empirical evidence/findings: empirical literature should report on previous findings, research
methods used, setting of the research, sampling issues, strengths and limitations of previous
study on the topic

 The research methods section should be written using past tense to cover the following minimum
methodological elements:
o Study design,
o Place/ research setting,
o Study population and sample size
o Sampling technique
o Data collection elements such as variables, source of data, data collection methods and tools,
o Data analysis methods
o Elements of research ethics

 Findings/results chapter or section contains findings which are answers to research questions or
findings related to research objectives. The chapter or section on findings should be written to
ensure that it answer the research questions and meet research objectives.
 In writing the findings/results section, the writer of the report should:
o Describe first the characteristics of study the research participants
o State the key findings for each objective, theme, or variable
o Support each key finding for each objective using appropriate statistics (descriptive or
inferential), figure, table, or quote from data sources

 Discussion chapter or section is a section that discusses and interprets findings or results of a
study and it may contain the following elements:
o Summary of findings for each research question or objective
o Interpretation of research findings
o Limitations of a research
o Conclusions

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 o Recommendations and future research

 In writing the discussion chapter or section of research report, the write should:
o State key finding for each objective, theme, or variable
o Compare or contrast each finding with appropriate previous studies, theory, professional
literature, practice, policy
o Explain the findings or state the implication of findings to policy or practices
o Offer alternative explanations (justify inconsistency)
o State any limitation and their implication to findings
o State major conclusions for the entire research
o Give recommendations, which may include recommendations for practice, policy and future
research

 Summary (abstract) section is the first section of the report, but it written last and does not contain
new information. The writers of the research report should:
o State summary of the introduction/background
o State research the main objective of the research or state specific objectives or questions
o Summarize research methods
o State main findings/results of the research
o State the main conclusion and recommendation

 Reference section should be prepared and arranged using acceptable referencing style like
Harvard Style, American Psychological Association (APA) Style or Vancouver Style. The reference
section should include all literature cited in the main body of the research report.

 Appendices/attachments should be prepared well and it may include collection tools, research
approval letter and other supplementary materials such figure or table.

 Learners of research and research writing should note, learn, be guided by the following quotes,
which are drawn from experienced academic writers :
o “Writing clearly and succinctly is even more difficult” task need more practice.
o “Good writing is typically a process of drafting and redrafting”.
o “Reading and revising are essential to good writing”.
o “Rewriting is a very important factor in the writing process”.
o “…writers know that they create meaning through the messy business of writing and rewriting”.

Small Group Work: Group Work (25 minutes)

Divide students into groups of 3-6

Using a sample of previous research report or research articles, ask learners to do the following task:
o Identify what elements of research information are in included in selected summary or abstract of
research reports
o State
NMT 06106: how elements
Fundamentals of research information are arranged sequentially.
of Research 104
 Allow learners to do the work for 15 minutes
 Request learners to present their answers 104
 Provide feedback to learners’ work based good features of interpretation describe above
STEP 6: Disseminating Research Findings (15 minutes)
• Study findings or reports need to be disseminated to stakeholders for further actions
• Dissemination of research findings is an active process of communicating research findings to
stakeholders, which can be researcher, the nursing practitioners, nursing managers and policy
makers and the consumer of nursing services
• Failure to communicate research findings is considered a violation of ethics and a form of
scientific misconduct and lead to wasting, subject time and data, and knowledge for nursing
practice is not advanced.
• Dissemination plan need to be developed and should include the following contents:
o What information to disseminate
o How the information should be disseminated
o When information needs to be disseminate
o Where information should be disseminate
o Who should disseminate the information

• Dissemination can be done using four modes/ ways:

o Written mode
o Oral mode
o Visual mode
o Electronic mode

• Written materials for dissemination can be in different formats such as:

o Journal articles
o Newspaper and magazine articles
o Text speeches or conference paper
o Brochures
o Newsletter
o Documents posted on website

STEP 7: Session Evaluation (5 minutes)

 Ask learners to answer the following questions:
1) List the main parts of research report

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 2) Mention four contents of a research methods
3) Mention four elements of research that are included in summary of research report
4) List four categories of people who may be target during dissemination of research findings

STEP 7: Key Points (10 minutes)

 Writing a research report is a critical skill and task for nurses
 Nurses and researchers are expected write a good research report containing all essential
parts
 It is important to disseminate effectively research findings to all key stakeholders

 Request learners to do the assignment in Hand-out 13.1.

References
Creswell, J. W.(2014). Research design: A qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method approaches .
London: Sage publications.
Creswell, J. (2012). Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research . London:
Pearson Education
DeVellis, R. F. (2003). Scale development: Theory and application ( second edition). Thousand Oaks:
Sage
Fallon, M.(2016). Writing up quantitative research in the social and behavioral sciences . Rotterdam:
Springer.
Grove, S. K., Burns, N., & Gray, J. (2012). The practice of nursing research: Appraisal, synthesis, and
generation of evidence. Missouri: Elsevier Health Sciences.

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106
Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2012). Nursing research: Generating and assessing evidence for nursing
practice. London: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Wood, M.J & Ross-kerr, J.C.(2010). Basic steps in planning nursing research: From question to
proposal. (seventh edition). London: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.

Hand-out 13.1
 individual assignment (360 minutes)
Take

 Ask each learner to write report his or her research adhering to writing guidelines suggested
 to cover the following chapters or sections:
o Introduction/background
o Research methods
o Research findings
o Discussion
o Summary/abstract
o References
o Appendices or attachment

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