6/24/2021

CHAPTER 10
MOTIVATION, PERSONALITY,
AND EMOTION
THU NGUYEN

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Define motivation and summarize the motivation sets put forth by

Maslow and McGuire
2. Articulate motivation’s role in consumer behavior and marketing strategy
3. Define personality and the various theories of personality
4. Discuss how brand personality can be used in developing marketing
strategies
5. Define emotions and list the major emotional dimensions
6. Discuss how emotions can be used in developing marketing strategies

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THE NATURE OF MOTIVATION

• Motivation is the reason for behavior.
• A motive is a construct representing an unobservable inner force
that stimulates and compels a behavioral response and provides
specific direction to that response.
• A motive is why an individual does something.
• Need and motivation are often used interchangeably
• Needs and motives influence what consumers perceive as relevant
and also influence their feelings and emotion
• There are numerous theories of motivation, and many of them offer useful
insights for the marketing manager.

THE NATURE OF MOTIVATION (CONT.)

• Two useful motivation theories:
1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: a macro theory designed to account for most
human behavior in general terms.
Is based on four premises:
1. All humans acquire a similar set of motives through genetic endowment
and social interaction.
3. The more basic motives must be satisfied to a minimum level before other
motives are
activated.
2. Some motives are more basic or critical than others.
4. As the basic motives become satisfied, more advanced motives come into
play.

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THE NATURE OF MOTIVATION (CONT.)

2. McGuire’s Psychological Motives: a fairly detailed set of motives used to
account for specific aspects of consumer behavior.
• McGuire first divides motivation into four main categories using two criteria:
1. Is the mode of motivation cognitive or affective?
2. Is the motive focused on preservation of the status quo or on growth?
• Cognitive motives focus on the person’s need for being adaptively oriented toward
the environment and achieving a sense of meaning.
• Affective motives deal with the need to reach satisfying feeling states and to
obtain personal goals.
• Preservation oriented motives emphasize the individual as striving to
maintain equilibrium
• Growth motives emphasize development.

THE NATURE OF MOTIVATION (CONT.)

2. McGuire’s Psychological Motives (cont.):
• Four main categories are then further subdivided on the bases of source
and objective of the motive:
3. Is this behavior actively initiated or in response to the environment?
4. Does this behavior help the individual achieve a new internal or a
new external relationship to the environment?

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THE NATURE OF MOTIVATION (CONT.)

McGuire’s Psychological Motives

1. Cognitive Preservation Motives

A basic desire is to have all facets of

Need for Consistency (active, internal)
oneself consistent with each other

This set of motives deals with our need to determine who or

Need for Attribution (active, external) what causes the things that happen to us and relates to an area
Attribution Theory of research
People have a need to categorize and organize the vast
array of information and experiences they encounter in a
Need to Categorize (passive, internal) meaningful yet manageable way, so they establish
categories or mental partitions to help them do so.

These motives reflect needs for observable cues or

Need for Objectification (passive, external) symbols that enable people to infer what they feel and
know

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THE NATURE OF MOTIVATION (CONT.)

McGuire’s Psychological Motives

2. Cognitive Growth Motives

Need for Autonomy (active, internal) The need for independence and individuality

People often seek variety and difference out of a

Need for Stimulation (active, external) need for stimulation

Consumers are pattern matchers who have images of

Teleological Need (passive, internal) desired outcomes or end states with which they compare
their current situation

The consumer as a problem solver who approaches situations as

Utilitarian Need (passive, external) opportunities to acquire useful information or new skills

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THE NATURE OF MOTIVATION (CONT.)

McGuire’s Psychological Motives

3. Affective Preservation Motives

In order to effectively manage tension and stress,

Need for Tension Reduction (active, internal)
people are motivated to seek ways to reduce arousal

This motive deals with the need to express one’s

Need for Expression (active, external)
identity to others

When one’s identity is threatened, the person is

Need for Ego Defense (passive, internal) motivated to protect his or her self-concept and
utilize defensive behaviors and attitudes
People are often motivated to act in certain ways
Need for Reinforcement (passive, external) because they were rewarded for behaving that way
in similar situations in the past.

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THE NATURE OF MOTIVATION (CONT.)

McGuire’s Psychological Motives

4. Affective Growth Motives

Many people are competitive achievers who seek success,

Need for Assertion (active, internal) admiration, and dominance. Important to them are power,
accomplishment, and esteem
• Refers to the need to develop mutually helpful and
satisfying relationships with others.
Need for Affiliation (active, external)
• Relates to altruism and seeking acceptance and affection
in interpersonal relations

Need for Identification (passive, internal) The need for identification results in the consumer’s playing various
roles

a tendency to base
Need for Modeling (passive, external)
behavior on that of others

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MOTIVATION THEORY AND MARKETING STRATEGY

• Consumers do not buy products; instead, they buy motive satisfaction
or problem solutions
• Demand is the willingness to buy a particular product or service.
• Marketers do create demand.
• It is caused by a need or motive

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MOTIVATION THEORY AND MARKETING STRATEGY

Discovering Purchase Motives

Direct Motivation
questions (Why
research,
do you
projective
purchase J.
techniques, or
Crew
laddering
clothing?):
(means-
produce
end/benefit
assessments of
chain): identify
manifest
latent motives
motives

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MOTIVATION THEORY AND MARKETING STRATEGY (CONT.)

Marketing Strategies Based on Multiple Motives:

• Once a manager has isolated the combination of motives influencing the target
market, the next task is to design the marketing strategy around the appropriate
set of motives. This involves everything from product design to marketing
communications.

• Communications strategy the manager use:

o One consideration is the extent to which more than one motive is important.
If multiple motives are important, the product and ads must provide and
communicate them, respectively.
o A second consideration is whether the motive is manifest or
latent. Communicating manifest benefits is relatively easy.
marketing communications.

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MOTIVATION THEORY AND MARKETING STRATEGY (CONT.)

• Marketing Strategies Based on Motivation Conflict:
o Involvement is a motivational state caused by consumer
perceptions that a product, brand, or advertisement is relevant or
interesting. Needs play a strong role in determining what is relevant
or interesting to consumers.
o The situation itself may influence involvement.
o Consumer involvement increases attention, analytical
processing, information search, and word-of-mouth
o Involvement is also important to marketers because it
affects marketing strategies.

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MOTIVATION THEORY AND MARKETING STRATEGY (CONT.)

• Marketing Strategies Based on Motivation Conflict:
o The three key types of motivation conflict:
✓
Approach–Approach Motivational Conflict: a
consumer who must choose between two attractive alternatives.
The more equal the attractions, the greater the conflict.
✓
Approach–Avoidance Motivational Conflict: A consumer facing
a purchase choice with both positive and negative consequences
✓
Avoidance–Avoidance Motivational Conflict: choice involving
only undesirable outcomes

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MOTIVATION THEORY AND MARKETING STRATEGY (CONT.)

• Marketing Strategies Based on Regulatory Focus:
o The salience of particular sets of motives triggers consumers to
regulate their behavior in different ways in order to achieve desired
outcomes.
o Two prominent sets of motives are termed promotion and prevention:
✓
Promotion-focused motives: revolve
around a desire for growth and development and are related to
consumers’ hopes and aspirations
✓
Prevention-focused motives revolve
around a desire for safety and security and are related to consumers’
sense of duties and obligations

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MOTIVATION THEORY AND MARKETING STRATEGY (CONT.)

• Marketing Strategies Based on Regulatory Focus (cont.):
o Regulatory focus theory suggests that consumers will react
differently depending on which broad set of motives is most salient
✓
When promotion-focused motives are more salient, consumers seek
to
gain positive outcomes, think in more abstract terms, make decisions
based more on affect and emotion, and prefer speed versus accuracy in
their decision making
✓
When prevention-focused motives are more
salient, consumers seek to avoid negative outcomes, think
in more concrete terms, make decisions based more on factual substantive
information, and prefer accuracy over speed in their decision making

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MOTIVATION THEORY AND MARKETING STRATEGY (CONT.)

• Marketing Strategies Based on Regulatory Focus
(cont.): o Regulatory focus theory

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PERSONALITY
• Personality is an individual’s characteristic response tendencies across
similar situations
• While motivations are the energizing and directing force that makes consumer
behavior purposeful and goal directed, the personality of the consumer guides
and directs the behavior chosen to accomplish goals in different situations.

• Trait theories examine personality as an individual difference and thus allow

marketers to segment consumers as a function of their personality
differences
✓
All individuals have internal characteristics or
traits related to action tendencies
✓
There are consistent and measurable differences
between individuals on those characteristics

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PERSONALITY (CONT.)
1. Multitrait Approach

• Multitrait personality theory identifies several traits that in combination

capture a substantial portion of the personality of the individual.

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PERSONALITY (CONT.)
2. Single Trait Approach: emphasize one personality trait as being
particularly relevant to understanding a particular set of behaviors

• Consumer Ethnocentrism: reflects an individual difference in

consumers’ propensity to be biased against the purchase of
foreign products
• Need for Cognition: reflects an individual difference in
consumers’ propensity to engage in and enjoy thinking.
• Consumers’ Need for Uniqueness: reflects an individual difference
in consumers’ propensity to pursue differentness relative to others
through the acquisition, utilization, and disposition of consumer
goods

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THE USE OF PERSONALITY IN MARKETING PRACTICE

• Brand image is what people think of and feel when they hear
or see a brand name.
• Brand personality is a set of human characteristics that
become associated with a brand
✓
Consumers readily assign human characteristics to brands.
✓
Brand personalities create expectations about key brand
characteristics.
✓
Brand personalities are often the
basis for a long-term relationship with the brand.

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THE USE OF PERSONALITY IN

MARKETING PRACTICE (CONT.)
• Dimension of brand personality

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THE USE OF PERSONALITY IN

MARKETING PRACTICE (CONT.)
Three important advertising tactics to communicate brand personality:

1. Celebrity Endorsers: the characteristics and meanings of the celebrity can

be transferred to the brand

2. User Imagery: involves showing a typical user along with images of the types
of activities they engage in while using the brand

3. Executional Factors: Executional factors go beyond the core message

to include “how” it is communicated

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EMOTION
• Emotion is the identifiable specific feeling, and affect to refer to the
liking/disliking aspect of the specific feeling.

• Emotions are strong, relatively uncontrolled feelings that affect

behavior.
✓
They are strongly linked to needs, motivation, and personality.
✓
Unmet needs create motivation which is
related to the arousal component of emotion.
✓
Personality also plays a role,
e.g., some people are more emotional
than others, a consumer trait referred to as affect intensity.

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EMOTION (CONT.)
• Nature of emotions

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EMOTION (CONT.)
• Emotions are often triggered by environmental events

• Emotions are accompanied by physiological changes such as (1) eye

pupil dilation, (2) increased perspiration, (3) more rapid breathing, (4)
increased heart rate and blood pressure, and (5) enhanced blood
sugar level

• Emotions generally, though not necessarily, are accompanied

by cognitive thought

• Emotions have associated behaviors

• Emotions involve subjective feelings

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EMOTION (CONT.)
• Types of emotion:

✓
Pleasure
✓
Arousal
✓
Dominance

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EMOTIONS AND MARKETING STRATEGY

• Emotion Arousal as a Product Benefit
o Consumers actively seek products whose primary or
secondary benefit is emotion arousal.
o Gratitude or the emotional appreciation for benefits received is a
desirable consumer outcome that can lead to increased consumer
trust and purchases.
• Emotion Reduction as a Product Benefit
o Marketers design or position many products to prevent or reduce the
arousal of unpleasant emotions.

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EMOTIONS AND MARKETING STRATEGY (CONT.)

• Consumer Coping in Product and Service Encounters

o Active coping: thinking of ways to solve the problem, engaging in

restraint to avoid rash behavior, and making the best of the situation.

o Expressive support seeking: venting emotions and seeking

emotional and problem focused assistance from others.

o Avoidance: avoiding the retailer mentally or physically or engaging

in complete selfdenial of the event.

• Consumer Emotional Intelligence is an important determinant of

effective consumer coping

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EMOTIONS AND MARKETING STRATEGY (CONT.)

• Emotion in Advertising

o Emotional content in ads can enhance attention, attraction,

and maintenance capabilities.

o Emotional messages may be processed more thoroughly due to

their enhanced level of arousal.
o Emotional ads may enhance liking of the ad itself.

o Repeated exposure to positive-emotion-eliciting ads may

increase brand preference through classical conditioning.

o Emotion may operate via high-involvement processes especially if

emotion is decision relevant.

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SUMMARY
LO1: Define motivation and summarize the motivation sets put
forth by Maslow and McGuire
• Maslow’s need hierarchy states that basic motives must be
minimally satisfied before more advanced motives are activated. It
proposes five levels of motivation: physiological, safety,
belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization.
• McGuire developed a more detailed set of motives—the needs
for consistency, attribution, categorization, objectification,
autonomy, stimulation, desired outcomes (teleological), utility,
tension reduction, expression, ego defense, reinforcement,
assertion, affiliation, identification, and modeling.

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appeal
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Indirect
appeal

SUMMARY
LO2: Articulate motivation’s role in consumer behavior and marketing strategy
• Purchase motives
o Manifest motives: consumers are often aware of and will admit to the motives
causing their behavior. They are discovered by standard marketing research
techniques such as direct questioning
o Latent motives: consumers are unable or unwilling to admit to the motives that are
influencing them. They are determined by word association, sentence
completion, and picture response.

Means-end chain (Peter and Olson, 2010, p.86)

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EXAMPLE OF MEANS-END CHAIN

 Peter and Olson (2010, p.78)

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EXAMPLE OF LADDERING INTERVIEW

Peter and Olson (2010, p.81

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SUMMARY
LO2: Articulate motivation’s role in consumer behavior and marketing strategy (cont.)
• Involvement is a motivational state caused by consumer perceptions that a product,
brand, or advertisement is relevant or interesting
o Consumer needs play a strong role in shaping involvement, and marketers must
adapt their strategies depending on the level (high versus low) and type (enduring
versus situational) of involvement exhibited by their target audience.
• Motivational conflicts:
o In an approach–approach conflict, the consumer faces a choice between
two attractive alternatives.
o In an approach–avoidance conflict, the consumer faces both positive and negative
consequences in the purchase of a particular product
o In an avoidance–avoidance conflict, the consumer faces two undesirable alternatives

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SUMMARY
LO2: Articulate motivation’s role in consumer behavior and marketing
strategy (cont.)
• Regulatory focus theory suggests that consumers react differently depending on
whether promotion focused or prevention-focused motives are most salient.
o When promotion-focused motives are more salient, consumers seek to gain
positive outcomes, think in more abstract terms, make decisions based more on
affect and emotion, and prefer speed versus accuracy in their decision making.
o When prevention focused motives are more salient, consumers seek to avoid
negative outcomes, think in more concrete terms, make decisions based more on
factual substantive information, and prefer accuracy over speed in their decision
making.
o Which motive set is more salient can depend on individual and situational
factors and has numerous marketing implications.

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SUMMARY
LO3: Define personality and the various theories of personality
• Personality is an individual’s characteristic response tendencies across
similar situations
• The personality of a consumer guides and directs the behavior chosen to
accomplish goals in different situations

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SUMMARY
LO3: Define personality and the various theories of personality (cont.)
• Trait theories of personality assume that (1) all individuals have internal
characteristics or traits related to action tendencies and (2) there are consistent
and measurable differences between individuals on those characteristics.
• Multitrait theories attempt to capture a significant portion of a consumer’s total
personality using a set of personality attributes
o The Five-Factor Model (Extroversion, Instability, Agreeableness,
Openness to experience, Conscientiousness)
• Single-trait theories focus on one aspect of personality in an attempt to
understand a limited part of consumer behavior.
o Consumer Ethnocentrism
o Need for Cognition
o Consumers’ Need for Uniqueness

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SUMMARY
LO4: Discuss how brand personality can be used in
developing marketing strategies
• Brands have personalities and consumers tend to prefer products with brand
personalities that are pleasing to them
• Consumers also prefer advertising messages that portray their own or a
desired personality
• Brand personality can be communicated in a number of ways, including
celebrity endorsers, user imagery, and executional ad elements such as
tone and pace.

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SUMMARY
LO5: Define emotions and list the major emotional dimensions
• Emotions are strong, relatively uncontrollable feeling that affect our behavior
• Emotions occur when environmental events or our mental processes
trigger physiological changes such as increased heart rate.
• The major dimensions of emotion are pleasure, arousal, and dominance.
Each of these major dimensions has specific emotions and feelings
associated with it.

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SUMMARY
LO6: Discuss how emotions can be used in developing marketing strategies
• Marketers design and position products to both arouse and reduce emotions
• Advertisements include emotion-arousing material to increase attention,
degree of processing, remembering, and brand preference through classical
conditioning or direct evaluation.

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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• Interview people you know about their motivations to participate in
social media. Ask them to provide a list of the platforms they access
most. Then, for each, probe their reasons for visiting these. What needs
do these sites appear to satisfy? How might these insights help you to
devise ideas for new social media products?
• Construct a “consumption biography” of a friend. Make a list of or
photograph his or her favorite possessions, and see if you or others can
describe this person’s personality just from the information provided by
this catalog.
`

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